MODULE

2
OF
HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
Prepared By:

EDDIE M. FABILA
Instructor
INTRODUCTION
Module 2 will cover Traffic Engineering Studies, Highway
Safety, Fundamentals Principles of Traffic Flow, Intersection Design,
Intersection Control, Capacity and Level of Service for Highway
Segments, Capacity and Level of Service at Signalized Intersection
and The Transportation Planning Process.
These topics will give and develop student’s knowledge and
will give valid information on Highway Principles for Design and
Planning, including Traffic Issues.

CHAPTER 4: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES

4.1 SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of

speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a
highway.

7 IMPORTATNT FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SPOT SPPEED

STUDIES:
1. Locations for Spot Speed Studies.
2. Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies.
3.Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies.
Described by:
a. Average Speed d. ith- percentile Spot Speed
b. Median Speed e. Pace Speed
c. Modal Speed f. Standard Deviation of Speeds
4.Methods for conducting Spot Speed Studies
5. Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data.
6. Other Forms of Presentation and Analysis of Speed Data.
7. Comparison of Mean Speed.

4.2 VOLUME STUDIES

Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain volume
characteristics are needed, some of which are as follows:
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
4. Vehicle Classification (VC)
5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)

4.3 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

A travel time study determines the amount of time required to
travel from one point to another on a given route. The following are
the requirements to improve overall flow of traffic on the route.
1. Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data.
2. Definition of Terms related to Time and Delay Studies.
3. Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies.

4.4 PARKING STUDIES

Any vehicle travelling on a highway will at one time or another be
parked foe either a relatively short time or a much longer time,
depending on the reason for parking.

4.4.1 TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES

 On- Street Parking Facilities  this is known as curb facilities.
 Off- Street Parking Facilities  this facility is privately owned;
they include surface lots and garages.

4.4.2 METHODOLOGYOF PARKING STUDIES

A comprehensive parking study usually involves:
 1. Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities.
2. Collection of Data on Parking Accumulation, Parking
Turnover, and Parking Durations.
3. Collection of Information on Parking Demand.
4. Identification of Parking Generators.
CHAPTER 5: HIGHWAY SAFETY

Traffic and highway engineers are continually engaged in working

to ensure that street and highway system is designed and operated
such that highway crash rates can be reduced.

5.1 ISSUES INVOLVED IN TRANSPORTATION SAFETY

Issue and Concerns on Transportation Safety:
1. Crashes or Accidents
2. What Causes Transportation Crashes?
3. Factors Involved in Transportation Crashes
The following are the factors in Transportation Crashes:
a. Driver or Operator Action
b. The Vehicle Condition
c. The Rodway Condition
d. Environment

5.2 STRATEGIC HIGHWAY SAFETY PLANS

The Safe Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act:
A legacy for users (SAFETEA- LU) Legislation of 2005, that
authorized the 5-year state surface transportation program for
highways, highway safety and transit, requires, that each state
develop a “Strategic Highway Safety Plan?”.
Suggested activities that could be included in this plan are:
 Gain Leadership Support and Initiative
 Identify a Champion
 Initiate the Development Process
 Gather Data
 Establish Working Group
  Bring Safety Partners Together
 Adopt a Strategic Goal
 Identify Key Emphasis Areas
 Form Task Group
 Identify Priorities for Implementations
5.2.1 COLLECTING AND MAINTAINING DATA
Crash data are usually obtained from state and local transportation
and police agencies. All relevant information is usually recorded by
the police on an accident report form.
 The Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) is
compiled by the State Highway Administration.

5.2.2 ANALYSIS OF CRASH DATA

The reasons for analyzing traffic data are to:
1. Identify patterns that may exist.
2. Determine probable causes with respect to drivers,
highways and vehicles.
3. Develop countermeasures that will reduce the rate and
severity of future crashes.
SAFETY PROCEDURES BEING USED:
 Direct Comparison of numbers of crashes
 Direct Comparison of Crash rates
 Crash Patterns
 Statistical Comparison
The Direct Comparison of Crash Rates is determined by:
The Rate per Million of Entering Vehicles (RMEV’s)
A ×1,000,000
RMEV =
V

Where: A  is the number of crashes, total or by type occuring

in a single year at the location
V  average daily traffic (ADT) x 365
 Note: This rate is often used as a measure of crash rates at
intersections
Sample Problems:
The numbers of all crashes recorded at an intersection in
a year was 25 and the average 24-h volume entering from all
approaches was 7,500. Determine the crash rate per million
entering vehicles (RMEV).
Solution:
RMEV = 25 x 1,000,000 = 25,000,000 = 9.13 crashes
/million entering vehicles
7,500 x 365 2,737,500

5.2.3 INDENTIFYING AND PRIORITIZING HAZARDOUS

LOCATIONS AND ELEMENTS
Hazardous Locations are sites where crash frequencies, calculated
on the basis of the same exposure data, are higher than the expected
value for other similar, locations or conditions. A technique that is
used to identify possible hazardous locations is known as the critical
CRF method.
0.5 AVR
CR= AVR+
TB
+TF
√ TB

Where: CR  is the critical crash rate, per 100 million vehicle-

km or per million enttering vehicles
AVR  average crash rate
TF is the test factor, the number of standard deviation
TB  traffic base, per 100 million or per million entering
vehicles

Sample Problem:
An urban arterial street segment 0.25 km long has an
average annual daily traffic of 15,750 vehicle/day. In a 3-year
period, there have been 9-crashes resulting in death and /or injuries
and 16 involving property damage only. The statewide average
crash experience for similar types of roadway is 400 per MVkm for a
3-year period of which 125 involved death and /or injury and 300
caused property damage only. Is the 0.25 km long street segment
hazardous? In identifying hazardous locations, consider that a single
death/ injury crash is equivalent to 3-property damage crashes. Use
a 95% confidence level.

Solution:
 Step 1 Calculate the Traffic Base, TB:
Years × AADT × segment length ×365 days / year
TB=
100 million
3 ×15,750 ×0.25 × 365
TB=
100× 106
0.0431
TB= MV km
100

 Step 2 Calculate the 3-year average crush rate for

this type of facility
AVR = 3 x 125 + 300 = 675 crashes per 100
MVkm per year

 Step 3 Select a test factor based on confidence

level.
Hence; 95% is the confidence level, z – 1.96
(constant)
TF = 1.96

 Step 4 Compute the critical rate:

0.5 AVR
CR= AVR+
TB
+TF
√ TB

0.5 675

CR=
CR=675+
0.0431 √
+1.96
0.0431
  Step 5 Determine the ratio of actual crash
occurrence

3 ×9+16 3 × 9+16
Segment Crash History= = =997.68
TB 0.0431
Segment Crash History 997.68
Crash Ratio= = 2.66
Statewide Crash History 375

5.3 EFFECTIVENESS OF SAFETY DESIGH FEATURES

   
   
   
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 CHAPTER 6: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF TRAFFIC
FLOW
Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical
relationship among the primary elements of a traffic stream: flow,
density, and speed. Traffic flow theory is used in design to
determine adequate lane lengths for storing left-turn vehicles on
separate left-turn lanes.

6.1 TRAFFIC FLOW ELEMENTS

6.1.1 TIME- SPACE DIAGRAM
The Time -Space Diagram is a graph that describes the
relationship between the location of vehicles in a traffic stream and
the time as the vehicle progress along the highway.

6.1.2 PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF TRAFFIC FLOW

The Primary Elements of Traffic Flow are: Flow, Density and
Speed.
Flow (q)  is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass
a point on a highway.
n ×3600
q= vehicle /hr
T
Where: n  is the number of vehicles passing a point
q  the equivalent hourly flow.
Density (k)  is referred to as concentration, is the number of
vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway at an instant in time.
Speed (u)  is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit
of time.

6.2 FLOW- DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS

The general equation relating flow, density and space mean speed is
given as:

Flow = Density x Space Mean Speed

 Where:
Space Mean Speed = (Flow) x (Speed Headway)

( 1k )average space headway

U s=qd , d=

6.3 SHOCK WAVES IN TRAFFIC STREAMS

The fundamental diagram of traffic flow for 2-adjascent sections of a
highway with different capacities is the maximum flows of vehicles.

 TYPES OF SHOCK WAVES

1. Frontal Stationary Shock Waves are formed when the
capacity suddenly reduces to zero.
2. Backward Forming Shock Waves  are formed when the
capacity is reduced below to demand flow rate resulting in the
formation of a queue upstream.
3. Rear Stationary and Forward Recovery Shock Waves 
are formed when demand rate upstream of a bottleneck is first
higher than the capacity of the bottleneck.

6.4 GAP AND GAP ACCEPTANCE

Following are the important measures that involve the concept of
Gap Acceptance:
1. MERGING  is the process by which a vehicle is one traffic
stream joins together traffic stream moving in the same direction.
2. DEVERGING  is the process by which a vehicle in a traffic
stream leaves that traffic stream, such a vehicle leaving the outside
lane of an expressway.
3. WEAVING  is the process by which a vehicle first merges
into a stream of traffic, obliquely crosses that stream.
4. GAP  is the headway in a major stream, which is evaluated
by a vehicle driver.
 5. TIME LAG  is the difference between the time a vehicle
that merges into a main traffic stream.
6. SPACE LAG  is the difference, at an instant of time
between the distance a merging vehicle is away from a reference
point.

CHAPTER 7: INTERSECTION DESIGN

An intersection is an area, shared by two or more roads, whose main

function is to provide for the change of route directions.
Intersections vary in complexity from a simple intersection, which
has only two roads crossing at a right angle to each other, to a more
complex intersection, at which 3- or more roads cross within the
same area.

 TYPES OF AT- GRADE INTERSECTIONS

 T or 3- Leg Intersections  consist of 3- approaches.

 4- Leg Intersections  is a type of design common in sub-

urban areas where pedestrians are present.
 Multi-Leg Intersection  have 5 or more approaches.

DESIGN OF RAILROAD GRADE CROSSING

Railroad Crossing are similar to 4-Leg Intersections and
can also be either at -grade or grade separated. This involves
both the proper selection of the traffic control system, the
appropriate design of the horizontal and vertical alignments of
the highway approaches.

 SELECTION OF TRAFFIC C- CONTROL DEVICES

The selection of the appropriate traffic- control systems used
at the railroad crossing should be made at the same time as the
design of the vertical and horizontal alignment. These include
both passive and active warning devices.

PASSIVE DEVICES  include signs, pavement markings, and

grade-crossing illumination which ward an approaching driver
of the crossing location.
 ACTIVE WARNING DEVICES  include flashing light signals
and automatic gates that give the driver a positive indication of
an approaching train at the intersections.

 DESIGN OF THE HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Guidelines similar to those for the design of intersections
formed by 2-Highways are used in the design of a railroad
crossing. In order to enhance the sight distance railroad grade
crossing should not be placed at curves.

 DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

The basic requirements for the vertical alignment at a railway
grade crossing are the provision of suitable grades and
adequate sight distances. Grades at the approaches should be
as flat as possible to enhance the view across the crossing.
When vertical curves are used, their lengths should be
adequate to ensure that the driver on the highway clearly sees
the crossing.

CHAPTER 8: INTERSECTION CONTROL

The flow of traffic on any street or highway is greatly affected by the

flow of traffic through the intersection points on that street or
highway because the intersection usually performs at a level below
that of any other section of the road.

8.1 GENERAL CONCEPT OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to drivers
and thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring, the orderly and
predictable movement of all traffic on highways. Control may be
achieved by using traffic signals, or markings that regulate, guide,
war and/or channel traffic. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices (MUTCD) recommends that Engineers should consider the
following 5- Factors:
 1. Design
2. Placement
3. Operation
4. Maintenance
5. Uniformity
8.2 CONFLICTS POINTS AT INTERSECTIONS
Conflicts occur when traffic stream moving in different directions
interfere with each other. The 3-types of conflicts are:
1. Merging
2. Diverging
3. Crossing
The primary objective in the design of a traffic- control system at an
intersection is to reduce the number of significant conflict points.

8.3 TYPES OF INTERSECTION CONTROL

The different Types of Intersection Control are:
1. Yield Signs
2. Stop Signs
3. Multiway Stop Signs
4. Intersection Channelization
5. Traffic Signals

8.4 FREEWAY RAMPS

Ramps are usually part of grade-separated intersections where they
serve as inter-connecting roadways for traffic stream at different
levels. Freeway ramps ca be divided into 2 groups.
1. ENTRANCE RAMPS  allows the merging of vehicles into
the freeway stream.
2. EXIT RAMPS  allow vehicles to leave the freeway stream.

CHAPTER 9: CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE FOR

HIGHWAY SEGMENTS AND CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF
SERVICE AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
As the intersection among vehicles increases, motorists are
increasingly influenced by the actions of others. Individual drivers
find it more difficult to achieve their desire speeds and perceive, a
deterioration in the quality of flow as the density (veh/mi)
increases.
9.1 TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS
The procedures developed for 2-lane highway segments provide the
basis to evaluate level of service and capacity. For highway
segments there are 2- levels of analysis: 1.) Operational and 2.
Planning Application.

CLASSIFICATION OF 2-LANE HIGHWAYS:

1. Class I: Two lane highways that function as primary
arterials, daily commuter routes.
2. Class II: Two-lane Highways where the expectations of
motorists is the travel speed will be lower than for that of
Class I roads.

9.2 FREEWAYS
A freeway is a divided highway with full access control and two or
more lanes in each direction for the exclusive use of moving traffic.
Signalized or stop-controlled, at -grade intersections or direct access
to adjacent land use are not permitted in order to ensure the
uninterrupted flow of vehicles.

The speed-flow- density relationship existing on a basic freeway

section depends on the prevailing traffic and roadway conditions.
Base free-flow conditions include the following freeway
characteristics:
 Lanes are 3.6m wide
 Lateral clearance between the edge of a right lane and cm
obstacle is 1.8m or greater.
 There are no trucks, buses, or RVs in the traffic stream.
  Urban freeways are 5-lanes in each direction.
 Interchanges are speed at least 3.2km apart.
 Grades do not exceed 2%.
 Drivers are familiar with the freeway.

9.3 MULTILANE HIGHWAY

The procedures developed are used to analyze the capacity and level
of service (LOS) for multilane highways. The results can be used in
the planning and design phase to determine lane requirements
necessary to achieve a given LO’s and to consider the impacts of
traffic and design features in rural and sub-urban environments.

9.3.1 LEVELS OF SERVICES FOR MULTILANE

HIGHWAYS
Any 2 of the following 3 performance characteristics can describe
the Level of Service (LOS) for a multilane highway.
Vp  Flow rate (pc/h/ln)
S Average passenger car speed (km/h)
D  Density defined as number of cars per mi
(pc/km/ln).

Vp
D=
S

Note: Speed Limits in Multilane Highways are usually

between 60-100 km/hr.

 CAPACITY AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

The capacity at a signalized intersection is given for each lane group
and is defined as the minimum rate of flow for the subject lane
group that can go through the intersection under prevailing traffic,
roadway and signalized conditions.
  LEVEL OF SERVICE AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
The procedure dealing with the computation of the level of service
at the intersection approaches and the level of service at the
intersection as a whole. Control delay is used to define the level of
service at signalized intersections since delay not only indicates the
amount of lost travel time and fuel consumption but it is also a
measure of frustration and discomfort of motorists.

 METHODOLOGY OF OPERATIONS ANALYSIS

PROCEDURE
The task involved in an operational analysis are presented in the
flow chart below. The task has been divided into 5- module:
1. Input Parameters
2. Lane grouping and demand flow rate.
3. Saturation Flow Rate
4. Capacity Analysis
5. Performance Measure

FLOW CHART
INPUT PARAMATERS
 Geometric
 Traffic
 Signal

Lane Grouping and Saturation Flow Rate

Demand Flow Rate
 Basic Equation
 Lane Grouping  Adjustment
 PHF Factor
 RTOR

Capacity and V/C

 Capacity
 V/C
 Performance Measure

 Delay
 Progression Adjustment
 LOS
 Back of queue

 METHODOLOGY OF PLANNING ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

The planning level of analysis presented here can be used to
determine the required geometries of an intersection for a given
demand flow or to estimate its operational status during the
planning stage. The methodology uses the sum of the critical lane
volume (Xcm) to determine whether the intersection will operate at
“under capacity”, “near capacity” or “over capacity”.

CHAPTER 10-12: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS

AND FORECASTING TRAVEL DEMAND

The process of Transportation Planning includes the elements of

situation and problem definition search for solutions and
performance analysis, as well as evaluation and choice of project.
The process is useful for describing the effects of a proposed
transportation alternative and for explaining the benefits to the
traveler of a new transportation system and its impacts on the
community.

 THE TRANSPORTATION PLANNING PROCESS

 BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

The Transportation Planning process comprises 7-Basic Elements,
which are interrelated and not necessarily carryout out sequentially.
The elements in the process are:
 1. Situation Definition
2. Problem Definition
3. Search for Solution
4. Analysis of Performance
5. Evaluation of Alternatives
6. Choice of Project
7. Specification and Construction

 CHOICE OF PROJECT
Project selection is made after considering all the factors involved.
In a simple situation in the design phase, a single criterion (such as
cost) might be used and the chosen project would be the one with
the lowest cost. If the project involves the community, it may be
necessary to hold additional public hearings.

Before deciding whether or not to build the proposed bridge,

decision-makers look carefully at the revenue-cost forecast and
would likely consider projects that appear to be financially sound.
The site location is selected based on a careful study of the factors
involved.

 SPECIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION

Once the transportation project has been selected the project moves
into a detailed design phase in which each of the components of the
facility is specified. For a transportation facility, this involves its
physical location, geometric dimensions and structural
configuration. Design plans are produced that can by contractors to
estimate the cost of building the project.

 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING ORGANIZATION

In carrying out the urban transportation planning process, several
committees represent various community interest and viewpoints.
These committees are:
1. POLICY COMMITTEE  is composed of elected or
appointed officials, such as the major and director of public
works.
2. TECHNICAL COMMITTEE  is composed of the
engineering and planning staffs that are responsible for
carrying out the work or evaluating the technical aspect of
the project prepared by consultants.
3. CITIZENS ADVISORY COMMITTEE  is composed of a
cross-section of the community and may include
representatives from labor, business, interested citizen, and
members of community interest group.
4. METROPOLITAN PLANNING ORGANIZATION (MPO) is
a transportation policy- making organization made up of
representatives from local government and transportation
authorities.

 URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

Urban Transportation Planning involves the evaluation and
selection of highway or transit facilities to serve present and future
land uses. For examples, the construction of a new shopping center,
airport or convention center will require additional transportation
services. Urban transportation planning is concerned with 2-
separate time horizons. These are:
1. SHORT -TERM PROJECTS  which involve programs such
as traffic signal timing to improve flow, car and van pooling
to reduce congestion, increase transit ridership and transit
improvements.
2. LONG- TERM PROJECTS  which involves programs such
as adding new highway elements, additional bus lines or
freeway lanes, rapid transit systems and extensions, or
access roads to airports or shopping malls.
  FORECASTING TRAVEL
To accomplish the objectives and task of the urban transportation
planning process, a technical effort referred to as the “URBAN
TRANSPORTATION FORECASTING PROCESS” is carried out to
analyze the performance of various alternatives.
 4- BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS
1. Data Collection (or Interventions)
2. Analysis of existing conditions and calibration of forecasting
techniques
3. Forecast of future travel demand
4. Analysis of results