Central Mindanao University

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Department of Chemistry

Course Content for Senior High School

GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
SPECIALIZED SUBJECT | ACADEMIC - STEM
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
Chapter Content
CHAPTER 1 Lesson 1 Periodic Table and Periodic Trends

CHEMICAL BONDING Lesson 2 Ionic Compounds

Lesson 3 Covalent Compounds

Lesson 4 Lewis Structure and Molecular

Geometry
Lesson 5 Polarity
 the general principles of chemical bonding and
the requisites for bonding
 arrangement of elements in 3D-space and the
consequences of their structure References:
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
Effective Nuclear Charge
PERIODIC TRENDS Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
Ionization Energy
Lattice Energy

Atomic radius
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
TOTAL ELECTRONS, VALENCE ELECTRONS, LEWIS DOT SYMBOLS, AND ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

S 16 6 e- ••
• S••
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 •
•
Ca 20 2 e- Ca •
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
••
Kr 36 8 e- •
•Kr ••
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 ••

Li 3 1 e-
1s2 2s1 Li •

1 22 33 43 45 456 4567 567

ss psps dps dps fdps
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
ION FORMATION
Electron Affinity Ionization Energy
Neutral atom + e- Anion Neutral atom Cation + e-
Cl + e- → Cl-
Li → Li+ + e-
IONIC BOND FORMATION
•• 2- •• 2-
Mg •
•
••
• O ••
•
Mg2+ [ ] ••O ••
••
Mg2+ [ ]
••O ••
••
Mg2O2 MgO

••
• • S ••
Al • • •• 2- •• 2-
•
•
••
• S ••
•
Al3+ [ ] ••S ••
••
Al3+ [ ]
••S ••
•• Al2S3

Al • ••
• • S ••
•
Formula writing for ionic compounds:
(1) spot the cation and anion (2) apply criss-cross rule (3) simplify
Example: Write the formula of aluminum fluoride.
(1) Spot the cation and anion: How did I know Al has 3+ and
cations are written first in a Al3+ F- F has 1-?
name, anions last 3+ 1-
(2) Criss-cross rule: Al1F3
superscripts are exchanged,
become subscripts, and lost
their signs AlF3
(3) Simplify: subscript 1 is
omitted (written element
alone implies it has 1 as
subscript)
Example: Write the formula of calcium oxide.
(1) Spot the cation and anion: cations
Ca2+ O2-
are written first in a name, anions last How did I know Ca has 2+
and O has 2-?
(2) Criss-cross rule: superscripts are Ca2O2 2+ 2-
exchanged, become subscripts, and lost
their signs CaO

(3) Simplify: subscripts are rewritten in their lowest

whole number ratio (2:2 becomes 1:1, and 1’s are
implied not written
Example: Write the formula of ferric chloride.
(1) Spot the cation and anion: cations
Fe3+ Cl-
are written first in a name, anions last How did I know Fe has 3+ and
Cl has 1-?
(2) Criss-cross rule: superscripts are Fe1Cl3 Iron forms two ions – the one
exchanged, become subscripts, and lost with highest magnitude of
their signs FeCl charge is given –ic suffix,
3
ferric thus has 3+ and not 2+.
(3) Simplify: subscript 1 is omitted (written element
alone implies it has 1 as subscript) 1-
Example: Write the formula of chromium (VI) phosphide.
(1) Spot the cation and anion: cations 6+
are written first in a name, anions last
Cr P3- How did I know Cr has 6+ and
P has 3-?
(2) Criss-cross rule: superscripts are Chromium forms more than
exchanged, become subscripts, and lost
Cr3P6
two ions – the Roman numeral
their signs VI implies a specific ion whose
CrP2
charge is 6+.
(3) Simplify: subscripts are rewritten in their lowest 3-
whole number ratio (3:6 becomes 1:2, and 1’s are
implied not written
 Example: Write the formula of ammonium nitride?

(1) Spot the cation and anion: cations NH + N3- How did I know ammonium
4
are written first in a name, anions last is NH4+ and N has 3-?
(2) Criss-cross rule: superscripts are Ammonium is always NH4+.
exchanged, become subscripts, and lost (NH4)3N1
their signs. Polyatomic ions should be fully 3-
enclosed by a subscript, thus, parenthesis is
(NH4)3N
used
(3) Simplify: subscript 1 is omitted (written element
alone implies it has 1 as subscript)
 Example: Write the formula of cupric sulfate.

(1) Spot the cation and anion: cations How did I know Cu has 2+
Cu 2+ SO42-
are written first in a name, anions last and sulfate has 2-?
(2) Criss-cross rule: superscripts are Copper forms two ions – the
exchanged, become subscripts, and lost Cu2(SO4)2 suffix –ic implies a specific ion
their signs. Polyatomic ions should be fully with greater magnitude of
enclosed by a subscript, thus, parenthesis is charge which is 2+ and not 1+.
used CuSO4 Sulfate is SO42- and sulfite is
(3) Simplify: subscripts are rewritten in their lowest SO32-, sulfate has more O atoms
whole number ratio (2:2 becomes 1:1), and 1’s are than sulfite. Note the
implied not written incoherence to the per…-ate
rule.
Naming ionic compounds: name the cation and then the anion
Example: What is the name of the compound with the formula KI?
Cation is surely from element K (cations are written first in a formula)
Anion is surely from element I (anions are written last in a formula)
Name the cation: element K forms ion K+ with a name ‘potassium ion’
Name the anion: element I forms ion I- which has a name ‘iodide’
Compound name is thus potassium iodide not potassium ion iodide
Example: What is the name of the compound with the formula MgBr2?
Cation is Mg2+ and has a name ‘magnesium ion’
Anion is Br- and has a name ‘bromide’
Compound name is therefore magnesium bromide and not
magnesium bromide two, despite the subscript 2 being there.
Example: What is the name of the compound with the formula NH4NO3?
Cation is NH4+ (it is not necessary that the cation is only the first element in the
formula, remember that we have polyatomic ions) and is named ‘ammonium’.
Anion is NO3- (similarly, it is not necessary that the anion is the second element or
even the last element in the formula, anions could be polyatomic) and is named
‘nitrate’.
Compound name is ammonium nitrate, the cause of the Beirut explosion.

Example: What is the name of the compound with the formula PbSO4?
Cation is either Pb2+ or Pb4+ while anion is sure to be SO42- which is named
‘sulfate’.
Since the 2- of sulfate is nowhere to be seen in the formula PbSO4, it is safe to
assume that it was omitted after simplifying a supposedly Pb2(SO4)2 formula to
PbSO4. As such, cation is sure to be Pb2+ which is named ‘plumbous ion’.
Thus, compound name is plumbous sulfate or lead (II) sulfate.
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
 Ionic compounds do not exist as molecules, they form crystalline solids.

 Ionic compounds as crystals are poor conductors of heat and electricity,

but are excellent conductors when dissolved in water.

 Their stability is measured by lattice energy – energy

required to separate the ions of an ionic compound
into gaseous ions.

Which of LiF and NaF has higher melting point?

Which of MgO and NaCl has higher melting point?

 Ionic compounds are hard and brittle.

Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
COVALENT COMPOUND
 Compounds made out of sharing of electrons to gain stability.
 Composed of nonmetals
 Exists as molecules

NAMING AND FORMULA WRITING OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS Number Prefix

You use prefixes to convey number of atoms and you don’t
one mono-
simplify to smallest whole number ratio.
two di-
Example: What is the name of the compound with a formula CO?
Acknowledge that C and O are nonmetals so you don’t spot the cation and anion. three tri-
1 C means carbon four tetra-
1 O means mono-oxygen → monoxide five penta-
Thus, compound name is carbon monoxide,
not monocarbon monoxide, not carbon monoxygen, not carbon monooxide six hexa-
seven hepta-
Example: What is the name of the compound with a formula N2O3?
eight octa-
N and O are nonmetals.
2 N means dinitrogen, 3 O means tri-oxygen → trioxide nine nona-
Thus, compound name is dinitrogen trioxide. ten deca-
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
LEWIS STRUCTURE, FORMAL CHARGE, AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletal structure:
NF3 val e- = 5 + 3(7) = 26
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
4 ED’s w/ 0 lone pair:
tetrahedral
Electron domains w/ 1 lone pair:
4 trigonal pyramidal
w/ 2 lone pairs: bent Trigonal pyramidal
w/ 3 lone pairs: linear
Formal Charge = val e- - no. of lines – no. of dots
FC of N = 5 – 3 – 2 = 0
FC of F1 = 7 – 1 – 6 = 0
FC of F2 = 7 – 1 – 6 = 0
FC of F3 = 7 – 1 – 6 = 0
Total =0
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
LEWIS STRUCTURE, FORMAL CHARGE, AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletal structure:
CO32- val e- = 4 + 3(6) + 2 = 24
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
3 ED’s w/ 0 lone pair:
trigonal planar
Electron domains w/ 1 lone pair:
3 bent
w/ 2 lone pairs: linear Trigonal planar
Formal Charge
= val e- - no. of lines – no. of dots
FC of C = 4 – 4 – 0 = 0
FC of O1 = 6 – 2 – 4 = 0
FC of O2 = 6 – 1 – 6 = -1
FC of O3 = 6 – 1 – 6 = -1
Total = -2
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
LEWIS STRUCTURE, FORMAL CHARGE, AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletal structure:
N2 val e- = 2(5) = 10
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom

Linear

Formal Charge
= val e- - no. of lines – no. of dots
FC of N1 = 5 – 3 – 2 = 0
FC of N2 = 5 – 3 – 2 = 0

Total =0
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
LEWIS STRUCTURE, FORMAL CHARGE, AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletal structure:
PCl5 val e- = 5 + 5(7) = 40
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
5 ED’s w/ 0 lone pair:
trigonal bipyramidal
Electron domains
w/ 1 lone pair: See-saw
5
w/ 2 lone pairs: T-shaped
w/ 3 lone pairs: Linear
Formal Charge
= val e- - no. of lines – no. of dots
FC of P = 5 – 5 – 0 = 0
FC of C1-5 = 7 – 1 – 6 = 0

Total =0
Trigonal bipyramidal
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
LEWIS STRUCTURE, FORMAL CHARGE, AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletal structure:
ClF3 val e- = 7 + 3(7) = 28
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
5 ED’s w/ 0 lone pair:
trigonal bipyramidal
Electron domains
w/ 1 lone pair: See-saw
5
w/ 2 lone pairs: T-shaped
w/ 3 lone pairs: Linear T-shaped
Formal Charge
= val e- - no. of lines – no. of dots
FC of Cl = 7 – 3 – 4 = 0
FC of F1-3 = 7 – 1 – 6 = 0

Total =0
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
LEWIS STRUCTURE, FORMAL CHARGE, AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletal structure:
XeF4 val e- = 8 + 4(7) = 36
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
6 ED’s w/ 0 lone pair:
Octahedral
Electron domains
w/ 1 lone pair:
6
Square pyramidal
w/ 2 lone pairs: Square planar
Formal Charge w/ 3 lone pairs: T-shaped
= val e- - no. of lines – no. of dots w/ 4 lone pairs: Bent
FC of Xe = 8 – 4 – 4 = 0 Square planar
FC of F1-4 = 7 – 1 – 6 = 0

Total =0
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
SUMMARY OF THE VSEPR THEORY

2 ED’s

3 ED’s

4 ED’s
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
SUMMARY OF THE VSEPR THEORY

5 ED’s

6 ED’s
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
RESONANCE STRUCTURES
Skeletal structure:
O3 val e- = 3(6) = 18
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
RESONANCE STRUCTURES
Skeletal structure:
SO3 val e- = 6 + 3(6) = 24
Choosing the central atom:
 Never H and F
 The one with least number of atoms
 The least electronegative atom
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY

δ+ δ-
No net dipole
Nonpolar

Net dipole
Polar
Chemistry 2 – Chp.1 Chemical Bonding
POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY

δ+ δ- Net dipole
δ- Polar
No net dipole
Nonpolar
δ- Net dipole
Polar

Net dipole No net dipole

Polar Nonpolar