Focus Smart Plus Science Textbook M1 NP

BCB031048
Focus Smart Plus Science Textbook

covers the entire range of topics included in the Basic
Education Curriculum B.E. 2551 (Revised Edition B.E. 2560).
Notes and plenty of exercises are given to help students
understand and apply the concepts in daily life.
BCB031048 978-616-541-305-3
,!7IG1G5-ebdafd! Based on the Basic Education Curriculum B.E. 2551

(Revised Edition B.E. 2560)
Cover Textbook Science M1.indd 1 3/19/18 1:42 PM

© Pelangi Publishing (Thailand) Co., Ltd. 2018 ISBN 978-616-541-305-3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, First Published 2561
stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
without permission of Pelangi Publishing (Thailand) Co., Ltd. 2018
TPage Textbook Science M1.indd 1 3/19/18 11:12 AM

Contents
Introduction to Science 1
1
Chapter
1.1 What is Science? 2

1.2 Science Laboratory 5
1.3 Steps in Scientific Investigations 9
1.4 Physical Quantities and Their Units 13
1.5 The Concept of Mass 16
1.6 Measuring Tools 18
1.7 The Importance of Standard Units 25
Conceptual Map 26
Basic Recall 27
Mastery Practice 28
Cells as the Unit of Life 30
2
Chapter
2.1 Understanding Cells 31

2.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms 40
2.3 Diffusion and Osmosis in Cells 42
Conceptual Map 45
Basic Recall 46
Mastery Practice 47
Plants 48
3
Chapter
3.1 Photosynthesis 49
3.2 Transport System in Plants 55
3.3 Sexual Reproductive System of Flowering Plants 63
3.4 Pollination 65
3.5 Development of Fruits and Seeds in Plants 69
3.6 Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits 71
3.7 Germination of Seeds 73
3.8 Mineral Requirements in Plants 77
3.9 Asexual Reproduction of Plants 78
Conceptual Map 81
Basic Recall 82
STEM Activity 83
Mastery Practice 85
States of Matter 87
4
Chapter
4.1 States of Matter 88

4.2 Changes of States of Matter 95
Conceptual Map 96
Basic Recall 97
STEM Activity 98
Mastery Practice 100
Atoms, Elements and Compounds 101
5
Chapter
5.1 Atoms 102

5.2 Elements 103
5.3 Compounds and Mixtures 110
5.4 Effects of Impurities 112
Conceptual Map 116
Basic Recall 117
Heat 119
6
Chapter
6.1 Heat as a Form of Energy 120

6.2 Effects of Heat on Matter 124
6.3 Thermal Equilibrium and Heat Flow 141
Conceptual Map 153
Basic Recall 154
STEM Activity 155
Atmosphere and Weather 160
7
Chapter
7.1 Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere 161

7.2 Weather 163
7.3 Thunderstorms and Tropical Cyclones 169
7.4 Changes in Global Climate 173
Conceptual Map 176
Basic Recall 177
STEM Activity 178
Special
s
Featureok Evaluates the
o
in This B
understanding
Includes the latest development of the students for
and / or extra information on every subtopic.
science and technology.
Learning Outcomes
States the learning objectives of
each chapter.
Provides information on the

potential developments of
Points out the important tips for science and technology. Explains the scope of career
students to take note. which requires the relevant
knowledge of scientific concepts.
Provides direct access to useful Provides extra information

websites by scanning the QR and / or statistical information
codes given. that are relevant to the concept
learned.
Points out the common mistakes
that students make and the correct
ways of answering questions.
Helps students to recall the Provides subjective questions

concepts and definitions covering the entire learning
learned in the chapter. outcomes of each chapter.
Provides direct access to

the interactive exercises by
scanning the QR codes given.
Explains how scientific concepts Guides students to test a

are applied in our daily life. hypothesis in order to make
a discovery.
The 4C’s of the 21st Century
Skills are:
Communication
Sharing thoughts, questions,
ideas and solutions.
Assists students in reviewing Collaboration

the entire chapter. Working together to reach a
Guides students to find an answer
through observations using goal. Putting talent, expertise
scientific methods. and smarts to work.
Focus Smart + AR Critical Thinking

Download the free Looking at problems in a new
“PelangiThai” app. way and linking learning
across subjects and disciplines.
Provides an activity that engages Creativity

in the application of knowledge Trying new approaches to get
of scientists, mathematicians things done equals innovation
and engineers. and invention.
ience?
What is sc
1
Chapter
Introduction to
Science
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to
• understand what science is.
• name the common laboratory apparatus and their uses.
• explain the hazard warning symbols.
• observe the steps in a scientific investigation.
• understand the physical quantities and their units.
• understand the concepts of mass.
• know how to use measuring tools.
1.1 What is Science?
How do these phenomena happen?
We see various natural phenomena in our daily life. Natural

phenomena are things that happen in nature.
Lightning, rainbows, the melting of ice, the growth of a baby into an

adult and the fall of a ball to the ground are a few examples of natural
phenomena. We want to know why and how all these things happen.
We search for answers. The study of science gives us the answers.
Science is the systematic study of nature and how it affects

us and our environment. The information produced from the study of
science is known as scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge
develops as new scientific discoveries are discovered every day.
Using scientific knowledge, we invent many useful devices such as

light bulbs, telephones and computers. The application of scientific
knowledge for the use of mankind is called technology. We use
technology in almost every aspect of life thus, making science part
of our everyday life.
Importance of science
Science plays important roles in our daily life. Here are some
examples:
(a) Science helps us to understand ourselves. Knowing how our
body works, helps us to take better care of our health.
(b) Science also helps us to understand our environment This helps
us to improve the quality of our environment and conserve it for
our future generation.
(c) Science makes our life more comfortable. We invent various
machines to help us to work faster and more efficiently.
2 Science
Focus Smart MATHAYOM 1
The figure below briefly describes how science benefits us in various fields.
In homes
• Facilities such as electricity and tap water make life
easier and more comfortable.
• Various appliances such as washing machines,
microwave ovens and vacuum cleaners help us to do
our housework faster.
Communication
• Communication is easier and faster with the use of
televisions, telephones, mobile phones, facsimiles and
computers.
• Global communication is now possible with the use of
communication satellites, e-mail and the lnternet.
Transportation
• Transportation is easier, faster and more comfortable.
• Modern public transport such as commuter trains and
light rail transit reduce congestion in cities.
• The design of better roads and highways increases the
safety of users.
Construction
• Buildings and structures are now built with strong
materials such as steel, concrete and reinforced glass.
• Powerful machinery such as cranes, tractors and
bulldozers are usually used in construction work.
Agriculture
• Machines are used to carry out heavy and difficult
tasks such as ploughing and harvesting.
• Plant breeding, new agricultural techniques, fertilisers
and insecticides contribute greatly in increasing the
world’s agricultural products.
Medicine
• More diseases can now be cured with the discoveries
of new drugs, vaccines, antibiotics and the invention of
better surgery techniques and equipment.
• Diseases can be diagnosed and detected earlier with
various tests and devices such as the X-ray machines
and ultrasound scanning devices.
Chapter 1 3
Introduction to Science
01 Focus TB (Thai) 2018 Sc M1.indd 3 26/11/2019 4:28 PM

Careers in science
Science offers various career opportunities according to one’s area

of interest. Listed below are a few examples:
(a) Doctor – A person who has been trained in and practises
medical science.
(b) Veterinarian – An animal doctor.
(c) Pharmacist – A person who dispenses medicinal drugs and
advises on their uses.
(d) Engineer – A skilled person who designs, builds or maintains
engines, buildings, bridges or roads.
(e) Architect – A person who designs buildings and advises on
their construction.
(f) Chemist – A person trained in chemistry.
Science is divided into a number of areas of study, namely

(a) Biology – The study of life.
(b) Physics – The study of matter, energy, force and motion.
(c) Chemistry – The study of the composition and chemical
properties of substances.
(d) Astronomy – The study of planets and stars in the universe.
(e) Geology – The study of rocks, minerals and the structure
of the Earth.
(f) Meteorology – The study of weather and climate.
(g) Biochemistry – The study of chemical processes in living
organisms.
Q1. What is the difference between science and

technology?
Q2. Give one benefit of science in the following areas.

(a) Medicine (b) Transportation
Q3. State the field of science related to the following.

1.1 (a) Discovering a cure for cancer
(b) Studying the behaviour of animals
(c) Forecasting natural disasters such as floods
and tornadoes
(d) Discovering new comets
Q4. List three careers that deal with human health.
4 Science
1.2 Science Laboratory
The place where a scientist works is called a laboratory. Students carry out scientific
investigations or experiments during science lessons in science laboratories.
We need to use apparatus to carry out experiments. The figure shows some common
laboratory apparatus and their uses in three-dimensional and two-dimensional diagrams.
For containing, collecting and transferring chemicals

A boiling tube is a scaled-
A test tube is used for up test tube with larger
containing small amount size. It is made from glass
of chemicals or for mixing that can withstand high
solutions. temperature as it is used
for heating chemicals.
A beaker is used for

containing, mixing and A conical flask is also used
heating large amount of for collecting filtrates.
chemicals and liquids.
A round-bottomed flask A flat-bottomed flask

is used for containing is used for containing
chemicals used in chemicals used in
preparing gases when preparing gases when no
heating is required. heating is required.
A bell jar is used for

A glass jar is used for enclosing samples and for
collecting gas. separating samples from
the surroundings.
For measuring the volume of liquids
ml
100 A pipette is used
A measuring
90
A burette is used for measuring
80 cylinder is used
for measuring the a fixed volume
for measuring the
70
volume of liquids of liquid and

100 100
60
50 volume of liquids
to an accuracy placing it
to an accuracy
40
30
of 0.1 cm3. into another
20 of 1 cm3.
10 container.
0
For filtering and evaporating
An evaporating dish is
A filter funnel is used for
used for evaporating
separating insoluble solids
excess solvents to produce
from liquids.
concentrated solutions.
Chapter 1 5

For heating
Wire
A bunsen burner is used to
gauze
supply flame for heating.
A wire gauze is used to
allow even distribution of
heat.
A crucible is used for Tripod
heating solids to extremely stand
high temperature.
A test tube holder is used A tripod stand is used

for holding a test tube for supporting apparatus
when it is hot. during heating.
For holding and supporting apparatus

Retort
stand
Retort stand and A test tube rack is
clamp are used for used for holding
Clamp holding apparatus test tubes in a
during experiments. vertical position.
Uses of some common laboratory apparatus
There are rules and safety precautions that must be followed by students in order to avoid
accidents. Listed below are some rules and safety precautions in the laboratory:
(a) Never enter the laboratory unless a teacher is present.

(b) Do not eat, drink or taste any chemicals.
(c) Always follow the teacher’s instructions.
(d) Never touch chemicals with your bare hands. Use a spatula.
(e) Read the label on a reagent bottle before using its content.
(f) Turn off the Bunsen burner after use.
(g) Do not pour back any unused chemical into its bottle.
(h) Do not throw solid wastes into the sink.
(i) Wash and keep all apparatus after use.
(j) Do not run or play in the laboratory.
(k) Do not test anything without the teacher’s permission.
(l) Report any breakages to the teacher.
(m) Keep the bench clean and tidy.
6 Science
Bunsen burner
The Bunsen burner is used in the laboratory to heat

substances. It has an air-hole. The air-hole can be
Barrel
opened or closed by turning the collar.
When the air-hole is opened, the Bunsen burner gives Collar

a blue flame. This is called a non-luminous flame. The
flame is very hot because the gas is burned completely. Air-hole Gas inlet
When the air-hole is closed, the burner gives a yellow

flame. This flame is easier to see and it is called a Base
luminous flame. This flame is less hot and produces
a lot of black soot because the gas is not burned
The parts of a Bunsen burner
completely.
The correct way to light up a Bunsen burner is as follows:

(a) Close the air-hole by turning the collar.
(b) Hold a lighted match or a lighter at the top of the barrel.
(c) Turn on the gas slowly. A yellow or luminous flame will be obtained.
(d) Open the air-hole to obtain a blue or non-luminous flame.
To avoid accidents when using a Bunsen burner, the following precautions should be taken.
(a) Use a lighter or a match to light up a Bunsen burner instead of a burning paper.
(b) We must light up the match before turning on the gas.
(c) When heating a test tube, hold the test tube at an angle of 45°. Use a test-tube holder
and do not point the mouth of the test tube to yourself or your friends.
Test tube
Liquid holder
Bunsen Burner
The correct way to hold a test tube during heating
(d) Do not heat flammable substances like alcohol directly.

(e) When not using the Bunsen burner temporarily, close the air-hole to obtain the yellow flame
because this flame is easily seen. Remember to turn off the gas after using the burner.
Chapter 1 7
Hazard warning symbols
Some substances in the laboratory are hazardous or dangerous. Hazard warning symbols
are placed on labels of bottles or containers of hazardous substances to show the danger
of the substances. As young scientists, you must be able to recognise the symbols and
know how to handle the substances properly.
Symbol Danger of substances Examples Handling techniques
• Easily explodes when • Sodium, potassium • Keep in paraffin.

mixed with other • Avoid contact with
substances. water.
• Concentrated acids • Keep away from
and alkalis other substances
Explosive including water.
• Easily catches fire • Organic solvents • Keep away from fire
and burns. such as ethanol, or heat sources.
petrol and kerosene
Flammable or
inflammable
• Causes death or • Mercury, chloroform, • Do not inhale,
harm to the body if lead, benzene, touch or taste the
absorbed through bromine, sodium substances.
the skin, swallowed cyanide, hydrogen • Keep in a locked
or inhaled. sulphide cupboard.
Toxic / poisonous
• Causes damage to • Concentrated acids • Avoid contact with
the skin or eyes upon and alkalis, bromine, skin or eyes.
contact. hydrogen peroxide • Spills on body parts
should be washed
away quickly under
running water.
Corrosive
• Irritates (causes • Ammonia solution, • Spills on body parts
itchiness and rashes) chloroform, dilute should be washed
skin, eyes and acids and alkalis with a lot of water.
respiratory system.
Irritant / harmful
• Gives out radiation • Uranium, plutonium, • Keep in special lead
that can cause radium containers.
cancer or destroy
bodily tissues.
Radioactive
Hazard warning symbols
8 Science
Q1. Name the apparatus that can be used to do the
following.
(a) Measure 20 cm3 of dilute acid
(b) Evaporate a little salt solution
(c) Separate a mixture of chalk powder and
water
1.2 (d) Heat 2 cm3 of water in a test tube
(e) Hold a beaker of water during heating
Q2. Explain why you should not pour any unused

chemical into its bottle.
Q3. Briefly describe the correct way to light up a

Bunsen burner.
Q4. A bottle of hydrochloric acid

has the following symbol on it.
(a) What does the symbol mean?
(b) What will happen if the acid
spills on your hand?
(c) What should you do if the acid spills on your
hand?
1.3 Steps in Scientific

Investigations
We obtain scientific knowledge by carrying out scientific investigations.
A scientific investigation is a series of steps done systematically to
study a problem or an event.
Each step involves the use of one or more science process skills.
These refer to the twelve types of skills, which are needed for scientific
investigation.
Chapter 1 9
Science process Explanation
skill
Observing Using the five senses to gather information

on things or phenomena.
Classifying From observations, grouping things

or phenomena based on their similar
characteristics.
Measuring and using Making quantitative observations using

numbers numbers or tools with standard units.
Making inference Making initial conclusions that are

reasonable which may be true or false to
explain an observation.
Predicting Forecasting events based on observations

or previous experience or from existing
data.
Communicating Presenting information or ideas in the

forms of writing, verbal, tables, graphs or
models.
Using space-time Describing changes in parameters such

relationship as location, direction, shape, size, volume,
weight and mass with time.
Interpreting data Giving rational explanation based on

collected data.
Defining operationally Defining concepts by describing what is

observed.
Controlling variables Identifying manipulated variables,

responding variables and constant
variables. In an investigation, a variable
is manipulated to observe its relationship
with the responding variable. At the same
time, the other variables are kept constant.
Making hypothesis Making a general statement about the

relationship between the manipulated
variables and the responding variable
to explain an event or observation. This
statement can be tested to determine its
validity.
Experimenting Planning and conducting an investigation

to test a hypothesis, collecting data,
interpreting data until a conclusion is
made.
10 Science
Identifying the problem
• First, we determine what we want to find out.
• In order to do so, we need to observe things or happenings
carefully to obtain information. Based on our observation, we then
ask questions about the things or happenings.
Forming a hypothesis
• To make a smart guess to explain the problem.
• The hypothesis has to be tested based on the evidence collected.
Planning an experiment
This section involves:
• Identifying the variables involved. A variable is a condition that
influences the results of the experiment.
• Determining the materials and apparatus required.
• Determining the procedure to carry out the experiment and
methods of collecting and analysing data.
Carrying out the experiment

This section involves:
• Controlling the variables as planned so that the experiment is a
fair test.
• Collecting data through observations and measurements. All
these must be done systematically, accurately, objectively and
honestly.
Analysing and interpreting data

• Explaining the collected data in an objective and logical manner.
• Giving an explanation about the pattern or relationship based on
the data collected.
Making a conclusion
• State whether the hypothesis is true.
• A conclusion should be made based on the data and not
influenced by any unfair opinion.
Writing a report on the experiment

• Present the aim, materials, apparatus and procedures, any table
or graph and conclusion clearly in the report.
• It is important as a means of communication among scientists.
Chapter 1 11
An example of a science report is given below.
Investigating the relationship between the length

of a pendulum and the period of oscillation
Problem How does the length of the pendulum affect the period of oscillation?
Hypothesis The longer the length of the pendulum, the longer the period of oscillation.
Constant variable Mass of the pendulum
Manipulated variable Length of the pendulum
Responding variable Period of oscillation
Materials/Apparatus String, cork, wooden block, retort stand with clamp, stopwatch and
metre rule.
Procedure
1. A simple pendulum of 20 cm in length
is made as shown in the figure on the String Length of
right. Retort pendulum
stand = 20 cm
2. The time taken for the pendulum to
make 20 oscillations is recorded. P Q
3. The experiment is repeated using the Wooden block

pendulum with lengths of 40 cm, 60
cm, 80 cm and 100 cm. A simple pendulum
4. Results are recorded in a table and a
graph of the time taken to complete Reminder
one oscillation against the length of
the pendulum is plotted.
Results
Time taken to complete
Length of Time taken for Time taken for

one oscillation (s)
pendulum (cm) 20 oscillations (s) one oscillation (s)
20 16 0.8
40 25 1.3
60 31 1.6
Length of pendulum
(cm)
80 36 1.8
Graph of time taken to complete one oscillation
100 40 2.0 against the length of the pendulum
Discussion From the graph in the above figure, the time taken for one oscillation
increases as the length of pendulum is increased.
Conclusion The longer the length of the pendulum, the longer the period of
oscillation. The hypothesis is accepted.
12 Science
Q1. State the main steps in a scientific investigation.
Q2. The following are steps required while writing a

report of an experiment.
Conclusion Procedure
1.3 Aim Hypothesis
Analysing data Materials/Apparatus
Arrange the steps in the correct order.
Q3. If you are to investigate what affects the number

of times a loaded spring will oscillate during a
given time, what variable should you
(a) change during the investigation,
(b) measure during the investigation and
(c) keep the same throughout the investigation?
1.4 Physical Quantities and

Their Units
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. Length is an
example of a physical quantity. It can be measured with an instrument
such as a metre rule. Other examples of physical quantities are time,
mass, temperature and electric current.
Physical quantities are not only important in scientific investigation but

also in our daily life, especially in buying and selling.
Physical quantities are measured in SI units. SI units is the

abbreviation of the French term ‘Le Systéme International d’Unités’
which means International System of Units. They are used as the
standard units all over the world.
Chapter 1 13
The following table gives the physical quantities, their SI units and
the instruments used to measure them.
Physical quantity SI unit Measuring

(symbol) (symbol) instrument
Length ( l) metre (m) Metre rule
Mass (m) kilogram (kg) Lever/ beam balance
Time (t) second (s) Stopwatch
Temperature (T) Kelvin (K) Thermometer
Electric current ( l) Ampere (A) Ammeter
The SI units and measuring instruments for specific physical quantities
A prefix is added to a unit to change the value of the unit. Prefixes

are used in the SI unit to state a very small or a very big value.
Giga, mega and kilo are used for big quantities. Deci, centi, milli,
micro and nano are used for small quantities.
Prefix Symbol Numerical value Standard form
Giga G 1,000,000,000 × 109
Mega M 1,000,000 × 106
Kilo k 1,000 × 103
Deci d 0.1 × 10-1
Centi c 0.01 × 10-2
Milli m 0.001 × 10-3
Micro µ 0.000 001 × 10-6
Nano n 0.000 000 001 × 10-9
Symbols and values of prefixes
We can write a quantity in the standard form or scientific notation. In

the standard form, a quantity is written as a × 10n, where 1 a 10
and n is an integer.
14 Science
Quantity In other prefix Standard form
0.3 m 0.3 m = 3 × 0.1 m 0.3 m = 3 × 0.1 m

= 3 dm = 3 × 10–1 m
(deci has the value of 0.1)
45,000 g 45,000 g = 45 × 1,000 g 45,000 g = 4.5 × 10,000 g

= 45 kg = 4.5 × 104 g
(kilo has the value of 1,000)
0.0025 A 0.0025 A = 2.5 × 0.001 A 0.0025 A = 2.5 × 0.001 A

= 2.5 mA = 2.5 × 10–3 A
(milli has the value of 0.001)
Examples of writing basic quantities
There are many physical quantities. Length, mass, time, temperature

and electric current are only five out of the seven basic quantities.
All other quantities such as area, volume, density and velocity are
obtained by multiplying or dividing two or more basic quantities.
For examples: Area = length × width

Volume = length × width × height
mass
Density =
volume
Q1. State five basic quantities with their SI units.
Q2. State the value of the following prefixes:
micro- milli- mega- deci-
1.4 Q3. Convert the following values into the stated units.
(a) 5,300 m into km
(b) 450 g into kg
(c) 32,000,000 B (bytes) into MB (Mega bytes)
(d) 0.0035 s into ms (millisecond)
(e) 0.000087 g into µg (microgram)
Q4. Convert the following into the standard form.

(a) 1,500 cm (b) 56.7 s
(c) 7,800 µg (d) 0.42 km
(e) 53,000 kg
Chapter 1 15
1.5 The Concept of Mass
Weight
The Earth pulls all objects to its centre. This pull is called the force
of gravity or gravitational force.
The weight of an object is the pull of the Earth on the object.

The weight of an object can change. It depends on the gravitational
force that acts on the object at that place. Because of this, the weight
of an object differs from place to place.
The weight of an object becomes less when the object is further away
from the centre of the Earth. Thus, it is less on top of a high mountain
than at sea level.
The weight of an object is measured using a spring balance or

a compression balance. The SI unit for weight is Newton (N).
Disc
J
S
BA PR
LA IN
N G
0 C
Scale
1 E
2
3 0
4 10
5 20 0
6 30 0
7 40 0
8 50 0
9 60 0
70 0
Scale
10 0
80
90 0
10 0
00
Hook
A spring balance A compression balance
Weighing devices
Mass
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter contained in the

object. Unlike weight, the mass of an object is constant everywhere.
This is because the quantity of matter in an object is the same
wherever the object is.
The mass of an object is measured using a lever balance, a beam

balance or an electronic balance. The SI unit for mass is
the kilogram (kg).
16 Science
Scale
Scale
Indicator
A beam balance A lever balance
Balances for measuring mass
The weight of an object having a mass of 1 kg is 10 N.
Weight and mass are two different quantities. The table summarises
their differences.
Weight Mass
• The pull of the Earth’s • The amount of matter contained

gravitational force on an object in an object Prefixed form
• Changes according to places • Remains the same at all places
• SI unit is Newton (N) • S I unit is kilogram (kg)
• Measured with a spring • Measured with a lever

balance or a compression balance, a beam balance or
balance an electronic balance
Differences between weight and mass
Q1. (a) What is meant by weight ?

(b) What is the S I unit used in measuring weight?
Q2. The weight of an object on the Moon is less than

its weight on the Earth. Why?
1.5 Q3. The mass of a packet of sugar is 1 kilogram.

(a) Explain the meaning of the above statement.
(b) Does the mass of the packet remain the
same at the equator and at the poles? Why?
(c) Name a measuring tool to measure the mass
of the sugar.
Chapter 1 17
1.6 Measuring Tools
Measuring length
Length is the distance between two points. The SI unit for length is
metre (m).
Short lengths are measured in centimetres (cm) or millimetres (mm).

Long distances are measured in kilometres (km).
The relation between the units of length:
1 cm = 10 mm
1m = 100 cm
1 km = 1,000 m
Measuring the length of straight lines or objects

(a) A ruler such as the metre rule can be used to measure the
length of short straight lines or objects. The metre rule gives
an accuracy of 0.1 cm.
(b) The correct reading is obtained only when the eyes are
vertically above the mark on the ruler.
Correct
Wrong Wrong
One end of the object
is at the ‘0’ mark.
cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
The correct eye position when taking a reading
(c) Parallax error occurs if the position of the eye is wrong when
taking the reading.
(d) A measuring tape can be used to measure the length of long

straight lines.
18 Science
Measuring the length of curved lines
(a) The instruments that can be used to

measure the length of a curve are
a piece of thread and a ruler.
A piece of thread
(b) First, the thread is placed along The thread is measured.

the curved line. The end of the curve
is marked on the thread. Curved
Line
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
cm
Ruler
(c) Then, the length of the thread is
measured using a ruler. Measuring the length of a curved line
(d) The length of a curved line can also be

Indicator
measured using an opisometer and
a ruler.
Wheel
An opisometer
Measuring the diameter of objects
(a) The diameter of objects can be

measured using a pair of calipers External calipers
and a ruler. Beaker
External diameter
of beaker = 4.0 cm
(b) There are two types of calipers,
namely external calipers and the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
internal calipers.
cm
Measuring the external diameter of a beaker

(c) The external calipers are used to
measure the external diameter of
an object.
Internal
Beaker calipers
Internal diameter
of beaker = 3.9 cm
(d) The internal calipers are used to
measure the internal diameter of an 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
object.
cm
Measuring the internal diameter of a beaker
Chapter 1 19
Measuring area
An area is the extent of a surface or a plane figure. The SI unit for area
is square metre (m2). Square kilometre (km2) can be used to measure
large areas. Other units for smaller areas are square centimetre (cm2)
and square millimetre (mm2).
The relation between the units of the area:
1 cm2 = 100 mm2

1 m2 = 10,000 cm2
1 km2 = 1,000,000 m2
The area of objects with regular shapes such as a rectangle, a triangle

or a circle can be calculated using mathematical formulae.
Measuring the estimated area of an irregular shape
(a) First, the shape of the object is traced on the graph paper.
(b) Then, every square that is fully covered, half-covered and
more than half-covered is ticked.
(c) The total number of ticks is counted. This gives you the
estimated area in cm2.
(d) The figure below shows an example of estimating the area of
a leaf.
11cm
cm
1 cm
1 cm
Estimating the area of a leaf
• Mark ‘P’ on each square that is fully covered, half

covered or more than half covered.
• Number of ‘P’ marks = 9
• Area of each square = 1 cm2
• Therefore, the estimated area of the leaf = 9 × 1 cm2
= 9 cm2
20 Science
Measuring volume
A volume is the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional

object. The SI unit for volume is cubic metre (m3). Other units of volume
are cubic centimetre (cm3) and cubic millimetre (mm3).
The volume of solids is usually measured in cm3 and m3 units. We

usually measure the volume of liquids in metric units such as millilitre
(ml) and litre (l ).
The relation between the units of volume:
1 cm3 = 1 ml
1l = 1,000 ml = 1,000 cm3
1 m3 = 1,000,000 ml = 1,000,000 cm3
Measuring the volumes of liquids
(a) The volume of a liquid can be measured using a measuring

cylinder.
(b) A more accurate volume of a liquid can be measured using
either a pipette or a burette.
(c) The level of the liquid in any measuring tool is curved. This
curve is known as the meniscus.
40
Wrong reading : 28 ml
30
Correct reading : 27 ml
Meniscus
20
Wrong reading : 26 ml
The correct eye position when taking a reading
(d) When taking a reading, ensure that the position of the eye is
at the same level as the bottom of the meniscus of the liquid
to prevent errors. This must be done for all liquids except
mercury.
(e) The meniscus of water is concave while the meniscus of
mercury is convex.
Take the reading

Take the reading
at the top of
at the bottom of
the meniscus
the meniscus
Other liquids Mercury
The menisci of other liquids and mercury
Chapter 1 21
(f) When a measuring cylinder is used, make sure that it is placed
on a flat surface when taking a reading.
(g) When a pipette is used, the liquid is sucked into the pipette until
the bottom of the meniscus reaches the mark on the pipette.
This can be done using a pipette pump.
(h) Then, the accurately measured liquid is released from the

pipette into an empty container.
Pipette
pump
Graduated mark
25 ml
Pipette
Beaker
Measuring the volume of a liquid using a pipette
(i) To use a burette, you must first clamp it vertically to a retort

stand. Then, the liquid is poured into it through a filter funnel.
The clip is turned slowly to release the liquid into an empty
container until the level of the liquid inside the burette reaches
the zero mark.
Filter funnel
Retort stand
Burette
Clip
Beaker
Measuring the volume of a liquid using a burette
22 Science
Measuring the volumes of solids
(a) The volumes of regularly and irregularly shaped solids can be

measured by using the water displacement method.
(b) First, a measuring cylinder is half-filled with water. The initial
volume of the water is recorded.
(c) A solid object is slowly lowered into the measuring cylinder.
The final volume is recorded.
(d) The difference between the two readings is the volume of the
solid object.
(e) The figure below shows the volume of a stone measured using
the water displacement method.
Thread
Final
Initial volume
volume (57 cm3 ) Volume of stone
(50 cm3 ) Water = (57 – 50) cm3
Stone = 7 cm3
Measuring the volume of a stone
(f) For solids less dense than water (like a cork), a weight is tied
to it before being immersed in water.
Thread
Final
Initial volume
volume Cork
(22 cm3)
(20 cm3 )
Volume of cork
= (22 – 20) cm3
Stone
= 2 cm3
Measuring the volume of a cork
(g) A Eureka can can also be used to measure the volume of

regular and irregular shaped solids.
Eureka can
Stone
Water Volume of stone

= Volume of water
Volume
of stone
Wooden block
Measuring the volume of a stone using a Eureka can
Chapter 1 23

Measuring Skill
Measuring is an important skill in scientific investigations. We say that

a measurement is accurate if it is very close to the actual value.
Inaccurate measurements may lead a scientist to make a wrong

conclusion to an experiment.
All measurements cannot be 100% accurate. However, we can

increase the accuracy of measurements by
(a) using suitable measuring tools.
For example, to measure 1 ml of water, we should use a burette
instead of a measuring cylinder. The divisions on the scale of a
burette are smaller.
(b) using the right techniques.

For example, employing the correct eye position when taking a
reading.
(c) taking several readings.

Then, the average of the readings is determined and taken as the
measurement. The table below shows an example.
Reading
1st 2nd 3rd
Quantity
Length of pencil (cm) 7.1 7.2 7.0
7.1 + 7.2 + 7.0

Average of readings = cm
3
= 7.1 cm
Therefore, the length of the pencil is 7.1 cm.
Q1. State the suitable measuring tool for measuring

each of the following.
(a) 100 ml of water
(b) The height of a chair
(c) The length of a river drawn on a map
1.6 (d) 25 ml of hydrochloric acid

(e) The distance of a javelin being thrown
Q2. State two precautions that you should take to

ensure accurate measurement when using a
measuring cylinder.
24 Science
Q3. The table below shows some measurements made by a
student.
Reading 1st 2nd 3rd
Internal diameter of beaker (cm) 4.8 4.9 4.8
External diameter of beaker (cm) 5.1 5.0 5.2
(a) Identify three measuring tools needed by the student.

(b) Why are the external and internal diameters measured
three times each?
(c) Calculate the average external and internal diameters
of the beaker.
Q4. A marble has a very small volume. Explain how you can find
the volume of the marble in the laboratory.
1.7 The Importance of

Standard Units
The earlier systems of measurement were based on our body parts.
These included the palm or the breadth of the hand and the foot.
This system gave rise to many problems because different people
have different sizes of body parts.
More sophisticated systems of measurement were then introduced.

However, different countries used different systems of measurement.
For example, in England, they used units such as inch, foot, yard,
chain and mile in measuring length. Units such as pound and ounce
were used in measuring mass.
With the increase in global trade and travelling, it was necessary

to adopt a standard system of measurement.
In 1960, the SI units or the International System of Units were taken

as the standard units of measurement for the world over. The use
of standard units has made international trading, travelling and
communication among scientists easier and smoother.
Chapter 1 25
Q1. State two problems of having different standard units for a physical
quantity.
Q2. Other measurement units are still being used in certain parts of the world.
These units can be converted to the SI units and vice versa. Solve the
following problems.
(a) You have bought 5 yards of cloth in another country. What is the
1.7 length of this cloth in metres?
[Hint : 1 yard = 0.91 m]
(b) You need two kilograms of sugar. How much is it in pounds?

[Hint : 1 pound = 0.45 kg]
Natural phenomena Uses & benefits Careers

Mass
What is science? Differences
Weight
Steps in scientific
investigations
Introduction Concept of mass
• Identifying the problem to Science and weight
• Forming a hypothesis
• Planning an experiment Physical quantity SI unit
• Carrying out the experiment Physical Length Metre (m)
• Analysing/Interpreting data quantities & units Current Ampere (A)
• Making a conclusion Time Second (s)
• Writing a report Temperature Kelvin (K)
Measuring tools Mass Kilogram (kg)
Lever Spring Measuring

Metre rule Ammeter Stopwatch Thermometer
balance balance cylinder
Length Current Time Temperature Mass Weight Volume
26 Science
Fill in the blanks with the given words.
metre (m) time (t) spring balance same technology

physical mass (m) safety precautions Kelvin (K) Newtons
Ampere (A) metre (m) forming a hypotesis science rules
gravity making conclusion
1. is the systematic study of nature and how it affects us and our

environment.
2. is the application of scientific knowledge for the use of

mankind.
3. Students must follow the and to

avoid accidents in the laboratory.
4. The sequence of steps involved in a scientific investigation are identifying the problem;
; planning an experiment; carrying out the experiment; analysing
and interpreting data; ; and writing a report on the experiment.
5. A quantity is a quantity that can be measured. It is measured in

S I unit.
6. The basic physical quantities are:

Physical quantity (symbol) SI unit (symbol)
-
(a) Length ( l) -
(b) kilogram (kg)

(c) second (s)
(d) Temperature (T)
(e) Electric current ( l)
7. The differences between mass and weight:

Mass Weight
The amount of matter contained in The force of

(a)
an object. acting on an object.
Remains the
(b) Changes according to places.
at all places.
(c) Measured in kilograms. Measured in .
Measured with a lever balance Measured with or

(d)
or a beam balance. a compression balance.
Chapter 1 27
1. Figure 1 shows a bob being dropped onto a piece of plasticine. The depth of the hole
made in the plasticine is then measured with a ruler.
Bob
Plasticine
Figure 1
Height of bob (cm) 20 40 60 80
Depth of hole (cm) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Table 1
The investigation is repeated by releasing the bob at different heights. Table 1 shows the
results obtained.
(a) Identify the variables below.
(i) Manipulated variable
(ii) Responding variable
(b) Give one variable that should be made constant in this investigation.
(c) Suggest a hypothesis tested in this investigation.
(d) (i) Predict the depth of the hole made in the plasticine if the bob is dropped from
the height of one meter.
(ii) Convert the unit of your answer in (d)(i) from centimetres to millimetres.
2. Figure 2 shows six measuring tools used in a laboratory.
10
100
7
20 17
16
5
21 15
14
13
4
3
26
2
9
1
8
6 7
0
3 4 5
2
1
S T
P Q R U
Figure 2
(a) Classify P to U into the following groups.

(i) For measuring of length (ii) For measuring of volume
(b) State the SI units of length and volume.
28 Science
(c) Figure 3 shows the changes in the level of water in R when 10 drops of water flow
out from it.
10 drops of
8 8
water flow out
from R.
9 9
10 10
Figure 3
Based on Figure 3, complete the table below.
Initial reading
(m l)
Final reading
(m l)
Volume of 10 drops
of water (m l)
Volume of a drop
of water (m l)
3. The following describes the properties of objects.
Every object has a mass and a volume. The mass of an object remains the same
in all places, unlike its weight.
(a) State the meaning of mass.
(b) (i) Give the S I unit of mass.

(ii) What is the symbol for the S I unit of mass?
(c) Based on the statements given above, what is the difference between mass and
weight?
(d) Does the mass of an astronaut change when he lands on the Moon? Give your
reasons.
Chapter 1 29
t a re we made of?
Wh a
2
Chapter
Cells as the Unit

of Life
• compare forms and structures of plant and animal cells.
• describe the structures in plant and animal cells.
• use microscopes to study plant and animal cells.
• explain the relationship between forms and functions of

cells.
• explain the organization of cells in multicellular

organisms.
• explain the process of diffusion and osmosis using

empirical evidence.
• give examples of diffusion and osmosis in everyday life.

2.1 Understanding Cells
Cells
Living organisms are made up of one or more cells. Cells are the most
basic unit of organisms which can function on their own. Cells carry
out life processes such as respiration, division, excretion and growth.
Megakaryocytes are the
biggest cells in our body
(a kind of blood cell),
Cells are the building blocks of an organism. They work together to
which have a diameter of keep an organism alive. Cells of living things exist in many sizes and
0.2 mm. They are found shapes. They can be round, oval, long, short, with tail and so on.
in the bone marrow and
help to prevent bleeding.
On the other hand, brain
Robert Hooke, a British scientist, was the first person to study
cells are the smallest and cells. The figure below shows some cork cells observed through
longest living cells in our a microscope by him.
body.
Cork cells as seen by Robert Hooke
Using a microscope
Cells are very tiny and cannot be seen with the naked eye. Cells of
living organisms can be observed using a microscope.
The figure below shows a compound light microscope which is

commonly used in schools.
Eye piece
Body tube
Clip
Objective lens
Stage Arm
Condenser
Coarse focus knob
Diaphragm
Here has more Fine focus knob
information on how to
Base
handle a microscope. Mirror
A compound light microscope
Chapter 2 31
Cells as the Unit of Life
Functions of the different parts of a compound light microscope:
Parts Functions
Eye piece • To magnify the image of the specimen
Objective lens • To magnify the specimen
Body tube • To hold the eye piece at a fixed distance away from the objective lens
Coarse focus knob • To raise or lower the body tube or the stage quickly for focusing
Fine focus knob • To raise or lower the body tube or the stage gently for sharp focusing
Arm and base • For holding and supporting the microscope
Clip • To hold the slide on the stage in position
Stage • To put the slide on
Diaphragm • To control the amount of light entering the lens
Mirror • To direct reflected light towards the diaphragm
Condenser • To focus light from the mirror onto the specimen
Functions of the different parts of a microscope
The correct way to use a compound light microscope:
32 Science
General structure of a cell
A typical cell is made up of cell membrane which contains a living substance called
protoplasm.
(a) Protoplasm consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm.
(b) The nucleus is spherical in shape and covered by a nucleus membrane.
(c) Cytoplasm is a colorless jelly-like material surrounded by cell membrane.
(d) The cell membrane is a thin film which is partially permeable to the surrounding
substances.
(e) The mitochondrion is a structure in the cytoplasm that produces energy for the cell.
(singular - mitochondrion, plural - mitochondria)
Preparing a slide of human cheek cells

Materials /Apparatus: Clean toothpick, methylene blue solution, filter paper, glass slide,
cover slip, mounting pin and microscope
Procedure:
Toothpick Methylene Mounting pin Cover slip

blue solution
Glass slide
Preparation of a slide of cheek cells
Do not scrape too hard or you will injure your cheek.

Caution Do not use dirty toothpicks.
1. The blunt end of a toothpick is used to scrape the inside of your cheek.
2. The scraping is placed onto the glass slide and a drop of methylene blue solution and
water are dripped onto it.
3. The cover slip is gently lowered onto the glass slide using a mounting pin.
4. A filter paper is used to remove any excess methylene blue solution and water.
5. The cheek cells are observed through the microscope with a low-power lens followed
by a high-power lens.
6. A labeled drawing of a few cheek cells is made.
Chapter 2 33
Observation:
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Human cheek cells
Discussion: 1. The methylene blue solution colors the cheek cells so that cell structures
can be seen clearly.
2. The shapes of cheek cells are irregular. They contain a nucleus, cell
membrane and cytoplasm.
Conclusion: 1. Animal cells do not have fixed shapes.

2. Animal cells contain a nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm.
Preparing a slide of onion cells

Materials /Apparatus: Onion, iodine solution, scalpel, glass slide, cover slip, filter paper,
mounting pin, forceps and microscope
Procedure:
Scalpel Onion epidermis
Forceps
Onion
epidermis
Scale of an
onion leaf
Mounting pin
Filter paper
Iodine solution Cover slip
Preparation of a slide of onion cells
Caution Be careful when using scalpel and forceps to avoid getting hurt.
1. An onion bulb is cut vertically and one of the inner scale leaves is removed.
2. Then, the inner epidermal layer is removed from the scale leaf using a pair of forceps.
3. The epidermal layer is spread out on a drop of water in the middle of a slide.
4. The specimen is covered with a cover slip using a mounting pin.
34 Science
5. A drop of iodine solution is added to it.
6. Any excess iodine solution is removed using a filter paper.
7. The onion cells are observed through the microscope with a low-power lens followed
by a high-power lens.
8. A labeled drawing of a few onion cells is made.
Observation:
Cytoplasm
Cell wall Nucleus
Vacuole
Onion cells
Discussion: 1. The iodine solution colors the nucleus reddish-brown and the chloroplasts
dark blue so that their structures can be seen clearly.
2. The shape of onion cells is regular. The cells contain nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, cell wall and big vacuoles.
Conclusion: 1. Plant cells have fixed shapes.

2. Plant cells have big vacuoles.
Structure of animal cells
Generally, each animal cell is made up of cell membrane and

protoplasm (which consists of cytoplasm and nucleus). Animal cells
do not have cell walls or chloroplasts. In the cytoplasm, there are
mitochondria.
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
This website shows Nucleus

the structures of
the animal cell and
Cell membrane
plant cell, and their
functions.
An animal cell
Chapter 2 35
Structure of plant cells
The figure below shows the general structure of a plant cell.

Animal cells do not
contain vacuoles.
Nucleus
Cell wall
Mitochondrion
Cell membrane Cytoplasm
Chloroplast There are vacuoles in

Vacuole animal cells. However,
they are small and exist
temporarily.
A plant cell
The basic structure of plant cells is similar to that of animal cells in
having a cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria and a nucleus.
All plant cells have a cell wall which gives them an almost fixed
shape.
All cells have cell walls.
Plant cells often have one large vacuole, whereas animal cells usually
have many small ones. Most plant cells contain chloroplasts which
are green in color.
Only plant cells have cell

walls.
Functions of cell structures
The functions of cell structures are as follows:
Structure Present in Function

Cell membrane All cells • Encloses the cytoplasm.
• Controls the movement
of materials in and out of
cells.
Cell wall Plant cells only • Supports and gives shape
(a non-living layer to the cells.
of cellulose)
Cytoplasm All cells • This is where chemical

(jelly-like reactions take place inside
substance)
the cell.
• Stores dissolved material.
Nucleus Almost all cells • Controls all cellular
(mature red activities.
blood cells do
not have nuclei.)
36 Science
Structure Present in Function
Chloroplast Most plant cells • Chlorophyll absorbs light
(contains green that are under for photosynthesis to
pigments called
chlorophyll.)
the light produce food and oxygen.
Vacuole Most plant • Holds useful substances,

(cell sap) cells and some water and wastes.
animal cells • Supports the plant when it
is full of water.
Mitochondrion All cells • Produces energy from
digested food for the cell
Functions of cell structures
Comparison between animal cells and

plant cells
The chart below shows the similarities and differences between

animal cells and plant cells.
Animal cells Plant cells
Similarities
• Have cell membrane, nucleus,
cytoplasm and mitochondria.
• Able to carry out activities of life.
Differences
Aspects
• Generally smaller Size • Generally bigger
• Usually irregular and • Fixed by the cell wall
Shape
may vary during life.
Animal cells are round
and plant cells are
• No cell wall • Have a cell wall.
rectangular in shape. • No chloroplasts • Many plant cells
• With small or no under the light have
Contents
vacuoles chloroplasts.
• Often have a large
vacuole.
• Usually at the centre Position of • May be to one side of
Both animal cells and of the cells nucleus the cells.
plant cells can vary in
size, shape and structure. • Glycogen granules Food • Starch granules
storage
Chapter 2 37
Types and functions of different cells
Humans, animals and plants have many different types of cells.

These cells have different shapes and structures to carry out different
functions. They are known as specialized cells.
Here are some specialized cells in humans with their unique features
and functions.
Nerve cells
• Have long, thin fibers
• Carry information in the form of nerve impulses to different parts of
the body
Red blood cells

• Have no nucleus
• Have biconcave disc shapes
• Contain hemoglobin (red pigment) which carry oxygen
• Transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body
• Transport carbon dioxide from all parts of the body to the lungs
Muscle cells
• Contract and relax to produce movements
Visit this website
Reproductive cells to know other
specialized cells in
• Sperms (male reproductive cells) have a long tail that allow them to our body
swim to ova (female reproductive cells)
• Carry genetic materials
Nerve cell Red blood Muscle cell Reproductive cell

cell
Here are some specialized cells in plants with their unique features
and functions.
Epithelial cells
• Flat and have a large vacuole
• Transparent to allow light to enter
38 Science
Palisade cells
• Contain lots of chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis
Guard cells
• Shape like kidneys
• Help to regulate gas exchange by controlling the opening and
closing of stoma (the small pore between the two guard cells)
Root hair cells

• Have a long thin extension
• Absorb water and minerals from the soil
Epithelial cell Palisade cells Guard cells Root hair cell
Q1. Below are some structures of cells.
cell wall cell membrane nucleus

vacuole cytoplasm chloroplast
mitochondrion
2.1 (a) Which structures are present in animal cells?

(b) Which structures are present in plant cells?
(c) Which structures are present in both animal
cells and plant cells?
Q2. Which component of a cell controls its overall

activities?
Q3. Describe the functions of each of the following:

(a) Cell membrane
(b) Cell wall
(c) Chloroplast
(d) Mitochondrion
Q4. State the functions of these specialized cells.

(a) Nerve cell
(b) Red blood cell
(c) Guard cell
(d) Palisade cell
Chapter 2 39
2.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Organisms are living things. There are many kinds of organisms in nature. They can be
divided into two groups, namely unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms.
Unicellular organisms
Unicellular organisms are organisms that consist of one cell only (‘uni’ means one). They
are also known as microorganisms.
Microorganisms are very tiny organisms and can only be seen under the microscope. These
organisms usually live in the seas, rivers and lakes.
Unicellular organisms carry out all the life processes such as movement, response, respiration,
digestion, excretion, reproduction and growth.
Chlamydomonas Paramecium Euglena Yeast Amoeba

Examples of unicellular organisms
Multicellular organisms
Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of many cells (‘multi’ means many). Like
unicellular organisms, multicellular organisms carry out all the processes of life.
Multicellular organisms are made up of many types of cells. Each type of cells has a different
structure and carries out only specific functions. Man is the most complex multicellular
organism.
Hydra Earthworm Spirogyra Mucor Grass

Examples of multicellular organisms
Organization of cells in multicellular organisms
Cells in a multicellular organism are organized to form tissues, organs and systems which work
together to form the organism. This organization of cells allows the organism to coordinate all
the activities in it.
Cell Tissue Organ System Organism
40 Science
Cell
Basic unit of life
Most cells have specific functions
Epithelial cell Epithelial cell
Tissue
A group of specialized cells with a
Epithelial tissue similar function Epithelial tissue
Organ
A group of tissues working together
Stomach to perform a specific function Leaf
System
A group of organs working together
to perform a major function
Digestive system Transportation system
Organism
All the systems work together to
form a multicellular organism
Organism Organism
Q1. What are

(a) unicellular organisms? (b) multicellular organisms?
Q2. Yeast Spirogyra Amoeba Euglena

Hydra bacteria butterfly virus
dog Paramecium
2.2 Which of the above organisms are
(a) unicellular organisms? (b) multicellular organisms?
Q3. Cells in a multicellular organism are organized into a few levels. Name
the levels accordingly.
Chapter 2 41
2.3 Diffusion and Osmosis in Cells
Cells take in useful substances and remove unwanted waste materials in many ways. Two
examples are by diffusion and osmosis.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of the molecules

from the region of a higher concentration to the
region of a lower concentration.
When there is no difference in concentration,

molecules diffuse in all directions at the same
rate. The rate of net diffusion depends on the
difference in concentration. The greater the
difference between the concentrations, the more
molecules will move from the high concentration High concentration Low concentration
to the low concentration per unit time. Diffusion
Diffusion happens when we soak a teabag into a cup of hot water

and when we smell perfume and cigarette smoke. In our small
intestine, some digested food products or nutrients diffuse out from
our intestine into the blood vessels.
In our lungs, oxygen diffuses out from our lungs into the blood vessels
whereas carbon dioxide diffuses out from the blood vessels into the
lungs. In leaves, diffusion allows gas exchange to take place.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water Semipermeable membrane

molecules across a semipermeable membrane
from a region of a higher water potential to a Water
region of a lower water potential. molecule
Sucrose
Osmosis is important for the entry and exit molecule
of water to or from cells of all organisms. For
example, water moves into the cells of roots
by osmosis. Besides that, osmosis can also
Net movement of water molecules
transport water across living tissues.
Osmosis
Water enters unicellular organisms by osmosis. In our kidneys water is re-absorbed by

osmosis too. When we preserve our food with salt or sugar, the water is removed from the
food preventing growth of bacteria. This process involves osmosis.
42 Science
Osmosis in living animal
tissues
Materials /Apparatus: Thistle funnels, swim bladder of fish,
distilled water, concentrated sucrose
solution, beakers, clamps and marker pen
Procedure:
Set-up A Set-up B
Initial level Initial level

marked marked
Distilled
Concentrated water
sucrose solution
Swim
Swim bladder bladder
of fish of fish
1. Two pieces of swim bladder of fish are tied to the mouths of

two thistle funnels with a strong piece of thread.
2. The apparatus is set up as shown in the figure. The water/
solution fills up the bulb completely.
3. The liquid levels are observed after 30 minutes.
Observation:
1. In set-up A, the liquid level rises.
2. In set-up B, the liquid level gradually falls until it reaches that
of the water in the beaker.
Discussion:
1. In set-up A, the liquid level rises due to an increase in the
volume of sucrose solution in the funnel. There is a net
movement (osmosis) of water molecules across the animal
tissue membrane into the sucrose solution.
2. Set-up B serves as a control. No net movement of water takes
place as the concentrations of solution outside and inside the
funnel are the same.
3. An isotonic solution is a solution that has the same total
concentration relative to another solution.
Chapter 2 43
4. A hypotonic solution is a solution that has a lower total
5. A hypertonic solution is a solution that has a higher total

6. When a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, water molecules

move in and out of the cell at the same rate. Therefore, the cell
retains its shape.
In an isotonic solution:
Plant cell Animal cell
7. If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water molecules

enter the cell by osmosis, causing the cell to swell. Animal
cells like red blood cells may continue to swell until they burst.
Plant cells swell beyond their normal size.
In a hypotonic solution:
8. If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water molecules

leave the cell, causing the cell to shrink. Plant cells lose
pressure and the cell membrane shrinks from the cell wall.
Animal cells like red blood cells shrivel up as they lose water.
In a hypertonic solution:
Information of the
effects of a cell in
different solutions are
shown here.
44 Science
Q1. Name two processes that take place in the human body through
diffusion.
Q2. Define the following terms:

(a) Isotonic
(b) Hypotonic
2.3 (c) Hypertonic
Mitochondrion Nucleus Cytoplasm Similarities & differences
Cell membrane Protoplasm Animal cell Plant cell
Structure Types of cells
Basic unit of
living things
Functions Cell Type of organisms
Perform life
processes
Unicellular Multicellular
Movement through cell
organisms organisms
Simple life Complex life

Diffusion Osmosis
processes processes
Chapter 2 45
tiny multicellular diffusion cell

microscope unicellular different osmosis
animal plant
1. The is the basic unit of all living things.
2. A is used to observe tiny things like cells.
3. An cell is made up of cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria

and nucleus.
4. A cell is made up of cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus,

mitochondria, vacuole, cell wall and chloroplast.
5. organisms are made up of only one cell such as Euglena,

Amoeba and yeast.
6. Unicellular organisms are very and can be seen under a

microscope only. They usually live in water.
7. organisms are made up of two or more cells such as Hydra,

earthworm and grass.
8. Multicellular organisms are made up of many specialized cells that have

structures and functions.
9. is the movement of molecules from a high concentration region

to a low concentration region.
10. is the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane

to a higher concentration of solutes. Water easily moves through cell membranes by this
movement.
46 Science
1. Figure 1 shows a leaf cell of a plant viewed under a microscope during an experiment.
P R
Q S
Figure 1
(a) What are the following labeled structures?
(i) P (ii) Q (iii) R (iv) S
(b) Using the letters in Figure 1, indicate two structures that are not found in an animal
cell.
(c) Name the structure in the plant cell that is responsible for the nutrition of a green
plant.
(d) Name the structure in the plant cell that is responsible for the energy production.
2. Figure 2 shows the photographs of cells.

(i) (iii)
Figure 3
(a) Name the type of cells shown in Figure 2 (i) and 2 (ii).
(b) Identify the nucleus in each photograph and label it.
(c) What is the function of the nucleus?
(d) List out three differences between a plant cell and an animal cell.
3. Figure 3 shows examples of microorganisms.
Paramecium Hydra Yeast Euglena
Mucor Spirogyra Amoeba
Figure 3
(a) Group them into unicellular and multicellular organisms.

(b) Give the meaning of the following terms:
(i) Unicellular organism (ii) Multicellular organism
Chapter 2 47
w m u c h do you
H o
ow a b o u t plants?
kn
3
Chapter
Plants
• experiment to find and explain the essential factors for

photosynthesis of plants.
• explain the importance of the photosynthesis process of

plants on living things and the environment.
• experiment and explain groups of cells involved in

transportation of water and nutrients in plants.
• experiment and explain floral structures involved in plant

reproduction.
• explain sexual reproduction processes of angiosperms

and plant asexual reproduction processes.
• explain the importance of some nutrients that affect

plants’ life and growth.
• explain the importance of plant tissue culture techology

and its applications.
• realise the benefits of plant propagation.

3.1 Photosynthesis
Green plants are producers. Only green plants possess the amazing ability of trapping solar
energy to produce food. Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants absorb solar
energy to make food from carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is released as a by-product.
Carbon dioxide
• Enters the leaves
through the stomata.
Light
• From
the sun
Chlorophyll
• Traps light energy.
Water
• Absorbed Products
by roots.
Glucose Oxygen
• Converted to starch • Released into

and stored in other the air.
parts of the plant.
Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll is the green pigment present in leaves that can absorb sunlight. The glucose
(food) produced during photosynthesis is then converted into starch. Starch is stored in the
stems, fruits or roots of plants.
Photosynthesis can be represented by the following equation:
Sunlight
Water + Carbon dioxide Glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
1. Photosynthesis can be represented by the following equation:

Sunlight
Water + Carbon dioxide Glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
2. The necessary factors for photosynthesis:
(a) Sunlight (b) Chlorophyll (c) Water (d) Carbon dioxide
Chapter 3 49
Plants
Requirements of photosynthesis
The necessary factors for photosynthesis:

(a) Sunlight (c) Water Currently, there are
(b) Chlorophyll (d) Carbon dioxide some experiments being
carried out to harness
Photosynthesis will not take place if any one of these factors is absent. electricity directly
from plants during
We should test for the presence of starch in leaves to determine photosynthesis.
If this is successful, the
whether photosynthesis has taken place in a plant. result is a renewable,
pollution-free method
of producing energy.
Testing for the presence of starch in leaves
Below are the steps to test for the presence of starch in a leaf:
(a)
Leaf
Boiling water Immerse a leaf in boiling
water for a minute to soften
and break the cells.
(b)
Transfer the boiled leaf into
Alcohol a boiling tube containing
alcohol.
Hot water
Place the boiling tube in a
water bath for a few minutes
to discolor the leaf.
Bunsen burner
(turned off)
(c)
Remove the leaf and put it
Hot water back into the hot water for
a few seconds to soften the
leaf.
(d)
Iodine Spread the leaf onto a white
solution tile. Add a few drops of
iodine solution to test for the
presence of starch.
More information
White tile on photosynthesis
is availablein this
website.
The presence of starch can be tested using iodine solution after the
chlorophyll of the leaf is removed. The areas containing starch will be
stained blue-black when iodine solution is added.
50 Science
Investigating the factors required for
photosynthesis
A The presence of carbon dioxide
Hypothesis: Plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

Constant variables Presence of light, chlorophyll and amount of water
Manipulated variable Presence of carbon dioxide
Responding variable Presence of starch
Materials/Apparatus Potted green plant, iodine solution, alcohol, potassium hydroxide

pellets, beaker, Bunsen burner, test tube, dropper, white tile, tripod
stand, wire gauze, forceps, conical flasks, retort stands with clamps
and split corks
Procedure
Conical Conical
flask A flask B
1. A potted plant is destarched by keeping
it in the dark for two days.
Leaf A Leaf B
2. The apparatus as shown on the right is
set up and the potted plant is exposed to
Potassium
the sunlight for about 2 hours. hydroxide Split cork
pellets
3. Both leaf A and leaf B are tested for the
Retort stand
presence of starch.
Set-up of the apparatus
Observation
Leaf Change in color Inference
A Leaf A remains discolored. Photosynthesis did not take place in leaf A.

B Leaf B turned blue-black. Photosynthesis took place in leaf B.
Discussion
1. Starch is absent from leaf A but present in leaf B.
2. The potassium hydroxide pellets in conical flask A absorbed the carbon dioxide inside
the conical flask.
3. Therefore, leaf A is exposed to the air without carbon dioxide.
Conclusion Carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis. The hypothesis is

accepted.
Chapter 3 51
Plants
B The presence of sunlight
Hypothesis Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis.

Constant variables Presence of carbon dioxide, water and chlorophyll
Manipulated variable Presence of sunlight
Materials/Apparatus Potted green plant, iodine solution, alcohol, Bunsen burner, test
tube, beaker, dropper, white tile, tripod stand, wire gauze, forceps,
black paper and paper clips
Procedure
Sunlight
1. A potted plant is destarched by keeping it in the dark for two days.
2. The apparatus as shown in the figure on the right is set up.
3. The potted plant is exposed to the sunlight for 2 hours.
Black paper
4. The leaf is tested for the presence of starch.
Observation
Change in color Inference
Only the exposed portion of Photosynthesis did not take place Set-up of the apparatus
the leaf turned blue-black. in the area of the leaf covered with
The shaded portion remains black paper.
discolored.
Discussion
1. Starch is present only in the exposed area but not the shaded area.
2. The shaded area did not receive any sunlight. Therefore, photosynthesis did not take
place there.
Conclusion Light is required for photosynthesis. The hypothesis is accepted.
C The presence of chlorophyll
Hypothesis Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

Constant variables Presence of carbon dioxide, water and sunlight
Manipulated variable Presence of chlorophyll
Materials/Apparatus Potted plant with variegated leaves, iodine solution, alcohol, beaker,
Bunsen burner, test tube, dropper, white tile, tripod stand, wire
gauze and forceps
52 Science
Procedure
1. A potted plant with variegated leaves is exposed to the sunlight
for about 2 hours.
The first product of Variegated leaves

photosynthesis
is starch.
2. One leaf is plucked and its outline is traced. The green and non-
green areas are indicated.
3. The leaf is tested for the presence of starch.
4. The leaf is compared with the drawing done earlier.
The first product of Observation

photosynthesis
is glucose. Blue-black
Green part (presence of starch)
White part Brown

(no starch)
Discussion
1. Starch is present only in the green areas which contain
Chlorophyll is the chlorophyll.
main pigment for
2. There is no starch in the non-green areas where chlorophyll is
photosynthesis. However,
there are other pigments absent.
in plants which absorb
light. Carotenoids which Conclusion Chlorophyll is required for photosynthesis.
are yellow, orange, red The hypothesis is accepted.
and brown can also
absorb light and pass the
energy to the chlorophyll
molecules.
Chapter 3 53
Plants
Importance of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is an important process. This process manufactures food in the form of

organic compounds for almost all organisms on Earth.
All organisms need food but only green plants are capable of trapping solar energy to
manufacture food from simple substances. Almost all other organisms, animals or non-green
plants, are directly or indirectly dependent on green plants for food.
Green plants start the food chain and they are the producers in most ecosystems. Therefore,
photosynthesis is an important process that provides food for almost all organisms on Earth.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Photosynthesis
Carbon by plants
cycle Respiration by humans,
animals and plants
Factories Vehicles Humans Animals Plants
Oxygen Combustion
cycle Respiration Food
Decomposition OXYGEN Photosynthesis
Importance of photosynthesis in oxygen and carbon cycles
Photosynthesis replaces the oxygen that is used up in the following processes.

(a) Respiration of living things
(b) Combustion of fuels
(c) Decomposition of dead plant and animal materials
On the other hand, photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that is given
out during respiration, combustion and decomposition. The concentration of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are maintained by the oxygen and carbon cycles.
Therefore, photosynthesis and respiration are important in maintaining a balanced level of

oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These processes will lead to a balanced
ecosystem.
54 Science
What will happen if all the plants on the Earth die? Without plants,
animals and human would die too. There would be no oxygen to
breathe and food to eat.
Therefore, we should take care of plants by watering them. We also

should give them fertilizers to ensure they grow healthily.
Besides that, we should not simply cut down trees in the forests. Only
mature trees can be cut down for sales to ensure the sustainability of
the forests. In addition, we should plant every tree that is cut. By this
way, our forests will survive for many generations.
Q1. What is photosynthesis?
Q2. What are the necessary requirements for

photosynthesis?
Q3. What is destarching?

3.1 Q4. What is the importance of photosynthesis?
3.2 Transport System in

Plants
Wilting
Non-woody plants depend on the water stored in the cells of the

stems for support. Wilting occurs in non-woody plants when water
loss through the aerial parts of the plant exceeds water absorption
by the roots. Cells in the plants lose their turgidity (stiffness) and the
plant droops.
Wilting can be important to the plants because the leaf surfaces are
protected from the direct rays of the Sun and the stomata close.
Water loss from the plants will be reduced.
Normally, a plant which has wilted will remain in this condition until
evening. In the evening, water absorption exceeds water loss and the
cells become turgid again.
Chapter 3 55
Plants
Transpiration
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the aerial parts of

Transpiration is
plants. 90% of the water absorbed by the roots is lost by evaporation
demonstrated easily by
from the surfaces of cells in the leaves and subsequent diffusion of placing a transparent
water vapor through the stomata. 9% is lost through the cuticle. The plastic bag over a potted
remaining 1% is used for photosynthesis. plant which has its soil
covered by a plastic
sheet. Water droplets
(identified using blue
cobalt chloride paper
which turns pink) quickly
appears inside the bag.
Stomata
Stomata are pores in the epidermis of the leaves and stems. A pair
of bean-shaped guard cells bound each stoma.
Guard cell
Vacuole
Stoma
Chloroplast
Nucleus
Surface view of a stoma
In most dicotyledons, stomata appear only in the epidermis of the

underside of the leaf. In monocotyledons, stomata are found on both
sides of the leaf. Most stomata open during the day and close at
night. The main function of the stomata is to allow gases to diffuse
in and out of the leaf.
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere

into the leaf and oxygen diffuses out of the leaf into the atmosphere.
When the stomata open, water vapor is released to the surroundings

through the stomata by transpiration. However, the stomata will close
when transpiration exceeds water absorption.
56 Science
Factors that affect the rate of transpiration
• Light
Light stimulates the opening of stomata and consequently increases
transpiration.
• Temperature
Water molecules move faster in warm air, hence, the rate of
transpiration is increased.
• Relative humidity
The rate of water loss depends on the difference in the concentrations
of water molecules in the leaf and in the atmosphere. High relative
humidity reduces water loss.
• Wind speed
An increase in wind speed increases the rate of transpiration
because the movement of air carries away the water vapor from
the stomata.
• Water availability
Short supply of water causes the plant to wilt and the stomata to
close. This reduces the rate of transpiration.
• Altitude
In the mountains, the atmospheric pressure decreases sufficiently
to cause an increase in the rate of transpiration.
The roles of transpiration
The pulling force developed by transpiration provides the pathway

through which water and minerals are transported in the plant.
Evaporation from the leaf surface has a cooling effect which helps to
prevent the heat of direct sunlight from damaging the delicate cells.
Vascular tissues of a plant
The vascular tissues are concerned with transport and are functionally
equivalent to the circulatory system of mammals. The two types of
vascular tissues are called xylem and phloem.
Chapter 3 57
Plants
• Xylem
The main function of the xylem is to transport water and
mineral salts from the roots to the stem and leaves. It
forms wood in shrubs and trees. Therefore, xylem provides
support to the plants.
Xylem consists mainly of vessels, which are elongated tubes

with thick walls. The walls are strengthened with a substance
called lignin. Xylem vessels are dead structures without
protoplasmic contents and transverse walls.
Polygonal shape
Thick cellulose cell wall

with lignin
Continuous tube
Xylem vessels
• Phloem
Phloem transports synthesized food substances from
one part of the plant to another.
Phloem consists mainly of sieve tubes. Sieve tubes are living

cells without nucleus. The walls of sieve tubes are composed
largely of cellulose. The transverse walls of sieve tubes are
perforated by pores and are called sieve plates. Each sieve
tube cell has a companion cell beside it.
Thin cell wall

Sieve plate with no lignin
Cytoplasm Companion cell
Sieve tube Nucleus
In this website, you will

find more information
on the vascular tissues
of a plant.
Phloem cells
58 Science
Studying the pathway of
water in a plant
Materials/Apparatus: Balsam plant, red ink, conical flask, blade
and magnifying glass
Procedure:
1. The roots of the balsam plant are washed to remove the soil.
2. The roots are immersed in a solution of red ink as shown.
3. The plant is placed by an open window to speed up the rate
of transpiration.
4. The plant is removed from the flask
when the red ink has penetrated into Balsam
plant
the veins of the leaves.
5. A blade is used to make cross Conical
flask
sections of the root, stem and
leaves. Red ink
6. The cross sections are examined
To show the pathway of
with a magnifying glass. water in a plant
Results:
Phloem
Phloem
Xylem
Xylem Xylem
Phloem
Root Stem Leaf
Key:
Area stained red
Cross sections of the root, stem and leaf of the balsam plant
Discussion:
1. In the root, the red solution passes through a central cylinder
consisting of xylem.
2. In the stem, the red solution passes through bundles of xylem
arranged in a ring.
3. In the leaf, the red solution passes through xylem vessels in
the midrib and smaller veins.
Conclusion:
Water travels along a definite pathway in plants.
Chapter 3 59
Plants
Studying the transport of
synthesized food substances
via the phloem
Materials/Apparatus: Hibiscus plant, petroleum jelly and scalpel
Procedure:
Xylem
Girdling experiment
1. A hibiscus plant growing in the school garden is chosen for

this experiment.
2. A complete ring of bark including the phloem and cambium is
cut off from the stem just above ground level. The xylem tissue
is left intact. The technique used is called girdling.
3. The ringed part of the stem is covered with a layer of petroleum
jelly and the plant is observed daily for a month.
Result:
Swelling
Ring of bark
cut away
Start of activity A month later
Result of the girdling experiment
Discussion:
1. The petroleum jelly prevents the exposed part of the stem
from drying up.
2. After a month, the tissue above the ring has swollen due to the
accumulated food brought down by the phloem.
3. Food cannot get to the tissue below the ring.
4. The plant will eventually die because its roots cannot get food
from the leaves.
Conclusion:
Synthesized food travels through the phloem.
60 Science
Identifying the locations of
xylem and phloem
Materials/Apparatus: Prepared slides of cross sections of
root, stem and leaf of a dicotyledonous
plant and a monocotyledonous plant and
microscope
Procedure:
1. The slides are examined under a microscope.
2. The locations of xylem and phloem in each specimen are
identified.
3. The cross section of each specimen is drawn and labeled.
Results:
Phloem
Phloem
Xylem
Xylem
Xylem
Phloem
Root Stem Leaf
(a) Dicotyledonous plant
Xylem
Phloem Phloem
Xylem Xylem
Phloem
Root Stem Leaf
(b) Monocotyledonous plant
Locations of xylem and phloem
Conclusion:
1. Xylem consists of non-living woody cells which join together to
form vessels with thick walls. Water and minerals are carried
from the roots to the leaves through xylem.
2. Phloem consists of living cells which form vessels with thin
walls. Products of photosynthesis and other substances made
by plants are transported through phloem.
Chapter 3 61
Plants
Directions of flows in plants
Water
Food
Water
Phloem
Xylem
Food
Water and Phloem

minerals Xylem
Water and food travel

to all parts of the plant.
Water enters the plant

Flow of food through the roots.
Water Water
Flow of water and minerals and minerals and minerals
Directions of flows in plants
In short, xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to other parts of the plant whereas
phloem transports food (mainly glucose) from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Q1. (a) What is meant by transpiration?

(b) Describe two factors that can reduce the rate of transpiration.
Q2. State the tissue and the direction in which you would expect
(a) sugar and
3.2 (b) minerals to move in a flowering plant.
Q3. State the functions of a stoma in transpiration.
Q4. Give one difference between the xylem and phloem tissues of plants.
62 Science
3.3 Sexual Reproductive System
of Flowering Plants
All flowering plants can reproduce sexually whereby gametes or
reproductive cells are involved.
Structure of a flower
Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs of plants. The flower

sits on the expanded end of a flower stalk called the receptacle.
The outermost parts of the flower are the sepals. The sepals are
usually small, green and leaf-like. The petals may be colored,
scented and sometimes fused into a tube.
The male part of the flower is called the stamen. Each stamen
You may learn more
about the parts of a
consists of an anther at the end of a stalk-like filament. The anther
flower here. contains pollen grains.
The female part of the flower is called the pistil or carpel. The pistil
consists of the stigma, style, ovary and ovules.
Petal
Stigma
Anther
Stamen
Pistil Style Filament
Ovary
Ovule
Sepal
Receptacle
Structure of a generalized flower
There are two types of flowers.
(a) Unisexual flowers

contain either the stamens (male flowers) or the pistils (female
flowers).
Stigma
Style
Pistil
Anther Ovary
Stamen
Filament Petal Ovule
Sepal
Male flower Female flower

Example of unisexual flowers
Chapter 3 63
Plants
(b) Bisexual flowers
contain both the stamens and the pistils.
Stigma
Style
Filament
Stamen
Anther
Pistil
Petal
Sepal
Ovary
Ovule
Example of a bisexual flower
The table below shows the parts of a flower and their functions.
Parts of a flower Function

Receptacle • Supports the flower.
Sepals • Protect the young flower when it is in the
budding stage.
Petals • Attract animal pollinators through their color
and scent.
Stigma • Receives pollen grains.
Style • Connects the stigma to the ovary.
Ovary • Protects the ovules. After fertilization, the
ovary develops into a fruit to protect the
seeds.
Ovule • Contains the female gamete (egg cell). After
fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed.
Anther • Produces male gametes (in pollen grains).
Filament • Supports the anther.
Parts of a flower and their functions
Q1. Which structures make up

(a) the male part and
(b) the female part of a flower?
Q2. (a) What is the function of a flower?

(b) Name the parts of a flower that are attached
3.3 to the receptacle in concentric rings or
whorls.
64 Science
3.4 Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas.
Pollen grains cannot move independently and their main means of
transport is by agents of pollination.
The chief agents of pollination are wind and insects but birds, bats,
snails and even water may carry pollen grains from one flower to
another. The chief insect pollinators are bees and butterflies.
Pollinators are important. They are vital to the production of healthy

crops for food, fibers, cooking oil, medicines and other raw materials.
More than half of the world’s diet of fats and oils come from animal-
pollinated plants such as oil palm, canola and sunflower. Therefore
we should not kill them when we see them in the future.
The structure of an insect-pollinated flower is different from that of a

wind-pollinated flower.
Large brightly
colored petal
Sticky stigma
Anther
Nectary gland
secretes sweet
nectar
Structure of an insect-pollinated flower
Feathery stigma
Small sepal
Anther
Long filament
Structure of a wind-pollinated flower
Some examples of insect-pollinated plants are okra, papaya, sunflower,

coconut and durian. Some examples of wind-pollinated plants are
wheat, rice, barley, corn and pine.
Chapter 3 65
Plants
The following shows the differences between insect-pollinated and
wind-pollinated flowers.
Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
flowers flowers
Differences
Large and Size Small and

conspicuous inconspicuous
Greenish or dull
Brightly colored Petals
colored
Present Nectaries Absent
Scented Scent Absent
Inside flower, where

Dangle outside flower,
insects have to brush Anthers where they catch the
past them to reach the
wind.
nectaries.
Small, sticky and Large, feathery and
remain inside the Stigmas hang outside the
flower. flower.
Quite large quantities,
Pollen Very large quantities,
larger, heavier and
grains small, light and smooth
rough-surfaced
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the

stigma of the same flower, or from the anther to the stigma of other
flower in the same plant.
Pollen
Pollen grains
grains
Pollen
grains
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of

one plant to the stigma of another plant of the same species.
66 Science
A summary of the similarity and differences between cross-pollination
and self-pollination is given below.
Similarity
• Both involve the transfer of
pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma.
Differences
Involves pollen grains and Involves pollen grains and

stigmas from the same flowers, stigmas from flowers of different
or from other flowers of the plants of the same species.
same plant.
Offspring have the genetic Offspring have the genetic

materials of only one parent. materials of two parents. This
It is a form of inbreeding results in increased variability
and results in a less varied in the offspring and greater
offspring. adaptability to new environments.
Can occur even before the Depends on agents of pollination.

flower opens fully.
Less common form of More common form of pollination.

pollination.
Advantages of cross-pollination
Cross-pollination has the distinct advantage of providing more genetic

variations to the offspring. More variations will help the offspring to
survive in a changing environment.
Use of cross-pollination in agriculture
For centuries, farmers have been trying to cultivate new varieties of

crops through cross breeding of closely related plants. The main aim of
cross breeding is to produce offspring with desirable characteristics
of each parent.
Chapter 3 67
Plants
Cross breeding can be achieved through cross-pollination. For
example, the pollen grains of a high yielding variety of rice are artificially
placed on the stigmas of another variety of rice that has resistance
to diseases. Cross-pollination might produce offspring that are both
disease resistant and high yielding.
The tenera variety of oil palm is produced by cross-pollination of the

dura variety with the pisifera variety.
Narrow mesocarp Thick mesocarp
Thick endocarp Thin endocarp

Large kernel Small kernel
Pisifera variety
• Thick mesocarp yielding
Dura variety
high quantities of oil
• Narrow mesocarp yielding
• Thin endocarp making
little oil
oil extraction easy
• Thick endocarp making oil
• Small kernel producing
extraction difficult
little oil
• Large kernel producing
more oil
Thick mesocarp
Thin endocarp
Large kernel
Tenera variety
• Thick mesocarp yielding high quantities of oil
• Thin endocarp making oil extraction easy
• Large kernel producing more oil
Cross-pollinating the dura variety with the pisifera variety yields the tenera variety
Q1. Distinguish self-pollination from cross-pollination.
Q2. (a) Complete the table below to show the

differences between wind-pollinated and
insect-pollinated flowers.
3.4 Aspect
Wind-pollinated
flower
Insect-pollinated
flower
Petals
Anthers
Stigmas
Pollen grains
(b) Give two examples of wind-pollinated and

insect-pollinated plants.
68 Science
3.5 Development of Fruits
and Seeds in Plants
Fertilization in plants
After pollination, the male gamete inside the pollen grain on the stigma
still has not reached the female gamete because the female gamete
is inside the ovule and the ovule is inside the ovary.
Sugary secretion on the stigma causes the pollen grain to germinate

and produce a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows down through the
style and enters the ovule through a tiny hole called the micropyle.
The male gamete in the pollen tube fuses with the female gamete (egg)
to form a zygote. This process is called fertilization.
1. Pollen grains land on the

stigma of the same species.
2. Sugary solution at the tip of the

stigma stimulates the pollen
Stigma grain to develop a pollen tube.
Style
Male gamete 3. Pollen tube grows down by

secreting enzymes to digest
tissues of the style. The male
gametes move towards the
Ovary ovule.
Ovule
Female gamete 4. The tube grows through

(ovum) the micropyle and the
tip of the tube bursts to
release the male gamete.
5. The male gamete enters the

ovule and fuses with the female
gamete to form a zygote.
Fertilization in plants
One pollen grain can fertilize one ovule only. If there are many ovules
in the ovary, then many pollen grains will be needed to fertilize them all.
Chapter 3 69
Plants
Formation of fruits and seeds
Once the ovules have been fertilized, the sepals, petals and stamens
wither and fall off. The fertilized ovule develops into a seed and the
ovary as a whole develops into the fruit.
The number of seeds in a fruit depends on the number of ovules in

the ovary and the number of ovules were fertilized. The wall of the fruit
called the pericarp develops from the wall of the ovary.
As the fruit matures, the pericarp may become hard and dry (such
as sweet pea and castor oil), or juicy and fleshy (such as mango and
tomato). Juicy fruits are called succulent fruits.
Remains of stigma
Ovary wall
Epicarp
Seed Mesocarp
Endocarp
Seed
Remains of flower
Fruit of sweet pea plant Fruit of mango plant
Q1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
The stigma produces a (a) fluid, which

stimulates the (b) to germinate and
develop a long tube, called the (c) .
3.5 The tube grows down the (d) until it
reaches the ovule. The tube enters the ovule by
a tiny hole, called the (e) . Fertilization
is brought about by the fusion of the (f)
with the (g) .
The resulting cell is called a (h) . After

fertilization, the (i) , (j) and
(k) shrivel up and drop off. The ovule
develops into a (l) and the ovary
becomes the (m) .
70 Science
3.6 Dispersal of Seeds and
Fruits
Seeds and fruits with enclosed seeds must be dispersed a certain
distance from the parent plants. This is to reduce overcrowding and
avoid competition for the same needs such as water, light and space.
In addition, the young plants may able to colonize new and favorable
habitats. A seed growing near an adult plant may not grow healthily.
Dispersal of seeds and fruits is usually aided by external agents such
as wind, animals and water. Many plants have modified structures
enabling the fruits and seeds to disperse properly.
Dispersal by wind
Fruits and seeds that depend on wind for dispersal usually are light
and small so that they can float in the air easily. Some have wing-liked
structures or hairs that act like a parachute.
Angsana Shorea Dandelion
Dispersal by animals
Fruits and seeds that are a source of food for animals are dispersed
most likely by the animals. Some fruits are brightly colored, sweet,
juicy and fleshy. Some have a strong smell.
Mangosteens Rambutans Papaya Durian
They attract the animals to eat them. Their seeds have thick seed coats
that protect them from the action of the digestive enzymes. Later the
seeds are passed out in the feces. Some seeds are thrown far away
from the parent plants.
Chapter 3 71
Plants
Some fruits have hooks such as burdock, lovegrass and mimosa. They
can catch on the fur or hair of animals or on human’s clothes. They are
then carried to other places when the animals move.
Burdock Lovegrass Mimosa
Dispersal by water
Generally, fruits and seeds that are dispersed by water have adaptations
that allow them to float. Pong pong fruits and coconuts have a waterproof
skin and a fibrous husk that traps air. The seed pods of lotus are spongy.
These fruits are able to float on water and drift far away.
Pong pong fruit Coconut Lotus fruit
Explosive mechanism
Some fruits, when upon dying up, burst open suddenly with a great
force to throw away the seeds. This scatters the seeds far away from
the parent plants in all directions. Examples are red sandalwood fruits,
balsam fruits and rubber fruits.
Red sandalwood Balsam Rubber
72 Science
Q1. What is seed dispersal? Give two reasons for its
importance to the survival of plants.
Q2. How are the seeds of the following plants

dispersed? Give one adaptation of each plant
that aids their dispersal.
3.6 (a) Angsana
(b) Burdock
(c) Coconut
3.7 Germination of Seeds

Structure of a seed
Seeds have a protective covering called the testa. It protects the seeds
from drying up. The zygote develops into an embryo which consists of
(a) a young root called the radicle,
(b) a young shoot called the plumule, and
(c) one or two seed leaves called cotyledons.
Seeds with two cotyledons are called dicotyledonous seeds

(such as soya bean and broad bean) and seeds with one
cotyledon are called monocotyledonous seeds (such as paddy
and wheat). Food for the embryo is deposited either inside the
This website cotyledons or in the endosperm.
explains further on
germination of seeds. On the testa is a scar called the hilum, which is the point where the
seed is attached to the ovary wall. The micropyle lies above the hilum.
The fruit wall called the pericarp protects the seeds.
Testa
Testa
Plumule
Micropyle
Radicle Embryo
Hilum
Cotyledon
(a) External view (b) Longitudinal section

(testa removed)
The mung bean seeds
Chapter 3 73
Plants
Fused pericarp and testa
Endosperm
Endosperm
Cotyledon
Plumule Plumule Embryo
Radicle
Radicle
(a) External view (b) Longitudinal section
The maize grain
Germination
Germination is the growth of the seed into a seedling.
Determining the conditions

necessary for the germination
of green beans
Materials /Apparatus: Green beans, pyrogallol in sodium
hydroxide solution, water, cotton wool,
cotton thread, boiling tubes and stopper
Procedure:
Pyrogallol in sodium
Stopper hydroxide solution
(oxygen absorber)
Boiling tube
Green bean
Wet cotton wool Dry cotton wool Wet cotton wool Wet cotton wool
P Q R S
Apparatus for determining the conditions necessary for germination
1. Four boiling tubes are labeled as P, Q, R and S.

2. Cotton wool is placed in each boiling tube.
74 Science
3. Water is added to the boiling tubes, P, R and S.
4. Four green beans are put in each boiling tube.
5. A small tube containing pyrogallol in sodium hydroxide solution
is suspended in tube R by means of a cotton thread. Tube R is
capped with a stopper.
6. Tubes P, Q and R are placed in a warm, dark cupboard.
7. Tube S is placed in a refrigerator.
8. After five days, the tubes are observed and the data are
recorded.
Results:
Condition
Ube Seed germination
Oxygen Water Warmth
P Present Present Present Yes

Q Present Absent Present No
R Absent Present Present No
S Present Present Absent No
Conclusion:
Oxygen, water and warmth (suitable temperature) are required for
germination to occur.
Conditions required for germination of

seeds
• Water
The seed absorbs water through the micropyle. The cotyledons
swell and rupture the testa. When there is water, the enzymes in
the cotyledons become active. Amylase breaks down the stored
starch to maltose and proteases break down the protein molecules
to amino acids. Maltose and amino acids diffuse to the embryo.
They are used to form new cells.
• Oxygen
Once the testa ruptures, more oxygen reaches the embryo. Energy
is released when oxygen reacts with glucose during cellular
respiration. Energy is necessary for the growth of the embryo.
• Warmth
A temperature range of 10 - 40°C is necessary for enzymes in the
seed to work.
Chapter 3 75
Plants
Physical changes of seedlings during
germination
There are two types of germination, namely epigeal and hypogeal

germination.
In epigeal germination, the cotyledons rise above the ground (such

as mung bean and sunflower).
First
Plumule
Cotyledon foliage
Cotyledon
Radicle falls off
Root
when food
Testa
is used.
Stages in germination of the mung bean seed (epigeal germination)
In hypogeal germination, the cotyledons remain below the ground

(such as broad bean and maize).
First
foliage
Plumule
Radicle Root
Stages in germination of the maize grain (hypogeal germination)
When the testa ruptures, the radicle grows downwards into the soil. The
young root develops root hairs to absorb water and minerals from the
soil. The plumule grows upwards and develops the first foliage leaves.
The cotyledons shrink as their food reserve is used up and the leaves
take over the role of food production.
Q1. State the necessary conditions for germination of

seeds.
Q2. Distinguish the following pairs of terms.

(a) Plumule and radicle
(b) Seed and fruit
3.7 (c) Epigeal germination and hypogeal
germination
76 Science
3.8 Mineral Requirements in
Plants
During photosynthesis, plants synthesize glucose from water and
carbon dioxide. To synthesize other substances such as proteins and
fats, plants need a variety of minerals which are absorbed from the soil.
Soilless culture is the
method of planting
without soil. In this
Generally, plants need mineral elements such as carbon, hydrogen,
method, crops are grown oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and
in the nutrient solution. sulphur in larger quantities. These are known as macronutrients. They
In hydroponics, the roots can get carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements easily from carbon
are immersed in the
flowing nutrient solution
dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil. The remaining
whereas in aeroponics, elements are obtained in the form of salts from the soil.
the nutrient solution is
continuously sprayed to
the roots. Soilless culture
If any of these elements is insufficient, the plant will suffer from mineral
gives us more control of deficiencies. Here are some effects of deficiencies in macronutrients.
the environment, thus
producing a high crop
yield. Macronutrient Effects of deficiency
Stunted growth
Nitrogen
Leaves turn yellow and drop
Poor root growth.

Phosphorus
Leaves turn dark green with red or purple spots
Premature death of plants

Potassium
Leaves turn yellow at the edges
Stunted growth
Calcium
Leaves become distorted and cupped
There are three main Areas between veins in leaves turn yellow
mineral elements found Magnesium
in fertilizers, namely
Leaves become cupped
nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium. Their Sulphur Young leaves turn yellow and drop
proportions are stated
as a ratio (nitrogen :
phosphorus : potassium) Besides that, plants also need other elements known as trace minerals
on the packaging. A
fertilizer labelled 20:20:20
such as boron, ferum and zinc in much smaller quantities. These
means each element elements are known as micronutrients.
contributes 20% by
weight with the remaining
In the natural environment, plants get these elements from the soil.
40% is other elements.
Fertilizers with different However in agriculture, these elements are quickly used up if the crops
proportions of these three are planted close together or planted over a long period. Therefore,
elements suit different farmers can supply additional minerals by adding fertilizers to the
purposes. For example, to
soil. Fertilizers replace the nutrients taken from the soil, enhancing the
boost flower production,
fertilizers labelled growth and productiveness of plants.
15:30:15 are used while
fertilizers labelled 25:6:4
are used to green lawn.
Chapter 3 77
Plants
Q1. Name all the macronutrients needed by plants.
Q2. What should farmers do to ensure their soil is

always rich with the minerals needed by the
plants?
3.8
3.9 Asexual Reproduction of

Plants
Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants. As we
have learned, plant propagation can be done with seeds. This sexual
propagation creates offspring that are genetically different from the
parents. This genetic variation enables the young generations to adapt
and cope with the changing environment and to colonize new places.
Sexual reproduction of plants
However, seeds take longer time to mature. For example, lilies that
grow from seeds take four to seven years to flower. The offspring
may not have the same desired characteristics as their parents. The
quantity and quality of flowers, fruits or seeds can only be determined
after the plants have matured. When reproduce vegetatively, lilies take
only two years to flower.
Aside from sexual propagation, many flowering plants can reproduce

vegetatively or asexually. In vegetative reproduction, a new plant
grows from a part of its parent plant. In this process, the offspring have
the exact genetic make-up as the parents, retaining the useful and
desired characteristics. The quality and quantity of flowers, fruits or
seeds that will be produced are known in advance as each generation
will be the same as the preceding one. However, this causes a loss in
the diversity of plants and the offspring are less likely to resist pests
and diseases.
Some plants propagate vegetatively naturally. Some grow from

bulbs such as onions, garlics, lilies and tulips. Some grow from the
underground stems such as potatoes, yams and gingers.
78 Science
Onion bulb Potato Grass
Most grasses and strawberries use special stems known as runners

to reproduce. Bryophyllum plants use leaves to propagate.
Bryophyllum leaf
Some plants can reproduce by artificial vegetative reproduction

involving human intervention. This process can be carried out by stem
cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture. Different methods
of propagation of plants are suitable for different plants.
Stem cutting – a stem is cut off and planted in the soil.
A mature branch of The branch is then placed With the right conditions,
bougainvillea is cut. in the soil. the branch grows into a
new plant.
Grafting – joining of two plants, one selected for its roots and the other
for its flowers, fruits or leaves.
Scion
Stock
A bud together with The bud is placed inside the cut of The bud will grow into a new
a piece of its bark the stock and wrapped, leaving plant. When it is growing
(scion) is cut. the bud exposed. healthily, the top part of the
stock is cut off.
Chapter 3 79
Plants
Layering – involves development of roots on a stem while the stem is
still attached to its parent plant.
Part of a lower branch is slit, bent and Later, when the roots are growing well
buried in the soil. from the slit, the branch is cut off from the
parent plant.
Plant tissue culture refers to the practice of growing plant cells,

tissues or organs on artificial medium in test tubes under controlled
conditions. Micropropagation which is a form of plant tissue culture,
use extremely small piece of plant tissues from a chosen mother plant
and grow them under laboratory conditions to produce new plants.
Micropropagation
The cells or tissues from a desired plant are taken and placed in a
flask or test tube containing sterile nutrients and plant hormones. The
hormones stimulate the cells to divide and grow into new plants. The
young plants are then transferred and grown in pots.
The advantages of micropropagation are

• rapid multiplication of plants in very short period of time and in
small space
• the characteristics of the new plants are known as they are similar
to their parent plant
• less likely to get diseases as they are bred under sterile conditions
• it can be carried out throughout the year regardless the seasons
However, plant tissue culture requires high cost for nutrients,

environment conditions, equipment and skilled staff. This method has
been used to increase crop plants, regenerate sapling for plantation
and regenerate forests and some endangered plants. It also helps
in the production of pharmaceutical, medicinal and other industrially
important compounds, besides in the conservation of plant genetics.
Know more about

plant tissue culture
here.
80 Science
Q1. What is plant propagation?
Q2. Name the parts of plants that can reproduce vegetatively naturally. Give
an example of such plant each.
Q3. List the methods of how we can reproduce plants asexually.

3.9 Q4. What is plant tissue culture? List its advantages.
Roles
Transpiration
Equation Requirements Factors
Xylem
Photosynthesis Vascular
tissues
Phloem
Plants Transport system
Mineral
Sexual Pollination
requirements
Reproduction
Asexual Dispersal of fruits

and seeds
Micronutrients Macronutrients
Germination
Natural Artificial
Bulbs
Underground stems Stem cutting Layering
Leaves
Grafting Plant tissue
culture
Runners
Advantages Micropropagation
Chapter 3 81
Plants

germination fertilization pistil culture self

transpiration pollination phloem cross vegetative
photosynthesis ovule iodine xylem stamen
ovary dispersal macronutrients
1. is the process in which green plants absorb sunlight to make

food from carbon dioxide and water.
2. We can determine whether photosynthesis has taken place or not by detecting the
presence of starch in the leaves by using .
3. is the loss of water in the form of water vapor in plants.
4. The transport system in plants is made up of vascular tissues known as
(a) , that transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots
to other parts of the plants.
(b) , that transports food substances from the leaves to other
parts of the plants.
5. The male part of the flower is known as the . It consists of anther
and
- filament.
-
6. The female part of the flower is known as the . It consists of the
stigma, style, ovary and ovules.
7. is the transfer of the pollen grains from
- the anthers to stigmas.
-
8. In -pollination, pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the
same flower or other flowers of the same plant.
9. In -pollination, pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of other
plants of the same species.
10. is the fusion process of the male gamete and female gamete in
the ovary to form a zygote.
11. The develops into a seed and the
develops into a fruit.
12. Fruit and seed is the movement of fruits and seeds away from
the parent plants.
13. is the growth of a seed into a seedling.
14. are the minerals needed by plants in relatively huge quantities.
15. In reproduction, new plants grow from parts of the parent plants.
16. We can produce new plants in a very short time using plant tissue
method.
82 Science
Miniature garden
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from
aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small
amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining
97–99% is lost by transpiration (evaporation from plants). Can we return this amount of water
to the plant that grows in a closed system?
Guidelines
1. Search data of relation between transpiration and growing plant in a closed system.
2. Follow the steps to design and create your miniature garden within a classroom.
3. Do not forget that your garden should need a small amount of water only every
2-3 weeks.
4. If you start with seeds, record the number of seedlings which germinate successfully
or the height of the seedlings - either individual heights or the average height.
What is your need?

Define/describe the problem to be solved and set your goal.
What do you have to know?

Research and cite sources of information your group used to gather.
What are your possible solutions?

Brainstorm for various solutions and choose the best one.
Chapter 3 83
Plants
What is your plan?
Draw a detailed sketch of the prototype to be used including materials.
Build your prototype.

Follow your plan and build a prototype to make your ideas real!
How does it work?

Record observations related to the testing and evaluation.
Prepare your presentation.

Reflect on your design solutions.
84 Science
1. Figure 1 shows the apparatus used in an experiment to investigate the factors required
for photosynthesis.
Leaf P Leaf Q
Potassium hydroxide
solution

Figure 1
(a) State the hypothesis for this experiment.

(b)
What is the

(i) manipulated variable?

(ii) responding variable?

(iii) constant variable?
(c) Fill in the following table for the expected results.

Leaf Change in the color of iodine solution
P
Q
(d) Why is it important to keep the potted plant in the dark for two days?

(e) Why do we place potassium hydroxide solution in the conical flask?

2. Figure 2 shows a section of a dicotyledonous stem.
M
N

Figure 2
(a) Name the structures, M and N.

(b) What is the main function of (i) M, and (ii) N ?

(c) State one difference in the arrangement of vascular tissues between the

dicotyledonous stem and root.
Chapter 3 85
Plants

3. Figure 3 shows the structure of the mung bean seed.
P
Q
Figure 3
(a) Name the structures Q, R and S.
(b) State one function of P.
(c) Which letters represent the embryo?
(d) (i) Which is the storage structure of the seed?

(ii) What kind of food is stored in it?
4. (a) What is plant tissue culture?
(b) What are added to the medium to encourage the cells or tissues to grow into new
plants?
(c) In order for this method to be successful, the condition must be aseptic. Why?
(d) List two benefits of using this method to propagate plants.
86 Science
s
w a re s o lids, liquid
Ho differ?
and gases
4
Chapter
States of Matter
• explain and compare the arrangement, binding force and movement

of particles of a matter in the solid, liquid and gaseous states by
using a model.
4.1 States of Matter
What is matter made up of?
According to the kinetic theory of matter, matter is made up of very

small particles. These particles are so small that they cannot be seen
even with a microscope.
Matter is made up of tiny
and discrete particles.
These tiny particles are discrete. This means that the particles are
completely separated from one another and there are spaces between
them. The particles of matter can also move.
Particles
of copper
Copper Wire
Matter is made up of discrete particles.
Showing that matter is made

up of small particles
A material scientist is
Materials/Apparatus: A few crystals of copper(II) sulfate, water a person who studies
and beakers the composition and
characteristics of
Procedure: matter that is used in
agricultural, industrial
1. 100 ml of water is poured into a beaker. and medical fields.
2. A few crystals of copper(II) sulfate are put into the water and
the mixture is stirred. The color of the solution is observed.
3. 50 ml of water is added into the beaker. The solution is stirred.
The observation of the color of the solution is recorded.
4. Step 3 is repeated. The observations are recorded.
Observations:
More water More water

is added. is added.
Water
Copper(ll) sulfate
crystals
To show that matter is made up of small particles.
88 Science
1. When copper(II) sulfate crystals dissolve in water, a blue solution
is produced.
2. When more water is added, the blue color becomes lighter.
Discussion:
1. Both copper(II) sulfate and water consist of tiny and discrete
particles.
2. When copper(II) sulfate crystals are dissolved in water and
stirred, their particles are distributed evenly among the water
particles. The copper(II) sulfate particles in the water make the
water appear blue.
3. When more water is added, the copper(II) sulfate particles move
further apart. This causes the blue color of the solution to become
lighter.
Conclusion:
Copper(II) sulfate and water are made up of tiny and discrete particles.
Three states of matter
Matter can exist in three states which depend on how the particles
are arranged. The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
Water is an example of a common matter that exists in all the three

states.
(a) Water is a liquid at room temperature.
You can find more
information about (b) Ice is water in the solid state.
matter in this website. (c) Steam and water vapor are water in the gaseous state.
The table below shows the physical properties of each state of matter.
State Physical property

Solid • A solid has a definite shape
Examples: and volume.
Rice, table, paper, sand, iron
Stone
Brick
Chapter 4 89
States of Matter
State Physical property
Liquid • A liquid has no definite
Examples: shape. It takes the shape
of its container. However, a
Alcohol, kerosene, diesel,
liquid has a definite volume.
cooking oil
Water
Gas • A gas has no definite shape

Examples: or volume. A gas fills up its
container completely.
Air, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
helium
Oxygen
Air
The physical properties of three states of matter
The differences in physical properties are due to the different

arrangements and movements of the particles.
Arrangement and movement of particles

in matter
Particles in a solid are arranged very closely in a fixed regular pattern.

The binding forces between the particles are strong. The particles
cannot move freely. They can only vibrate about their fixed positions.
Arrangement and movement of particles in a solid
90 Science
Particles in a liquid are close to one another but not as close as
those in a solid. The binding forces between the particles are
weak. They are not arranged in a regular pattern. The particles
move randomly and can glide freely over one another. They also
collide into each other frequently.
When 100 ml of water
is added to 100 ml of
alcohol, the total volume
is less than 200 ml. Do
you know why? There
are spaces between the
particles of water and
alcohol. When they are
mixed together, the water
and alcohol particles move
into these spaces. This Arrangement and movement of particles in a liquid
causes the final volume to
be less than 200 ml. Particles in a gas are very far apart from one another. The binding
forces between the particles are very weak. They move randomly at
high speeds. Collisions between particles take place frequently.
Arrangement and movement of particles in a gas
The table below summarizes the differences in the arrangement,

movement, and the binding forces of particles in the three states.
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement • Very close • Close • Very far apart
of particles together together • Not arranged
• In a fixed • Not arranged at all
regular in a regular
pattern pattern
Spaces • Very small • Small • Very big
between
particles
Movement of • Vibrate about • Can move • Can move
particles their fixed freely freely
positions • Move • Move
(cannot move randomly, randomly,
freely) collide into collide into
each other each other at
high speeds
Binding forces • Strong • Weak • Very weak
between
particles
Chapter 4 91
States of Matter
Showing the arrangement of
particles in the three states of
matter
A The arrangement of particles in a solid
Materials/Apparatus: Copper(II) sulfate crystal, one test tube

filled with colorless gel, test tube rack and
rubber stoppers
Procedure:
1. A crystal of copper(II) sulfate is placed in a test tube which
had been filled with colorless gel as shown in the figure below.
2. The test tube is inverted and the observations are made after
a few days.
Gel (colorless) Gel turns blue.
Copper(II) sulfate
crystal (blue)
To study the arrangement of particles in a solid
Observations:
1. The blue color of copper(II) sulfate slowly spreads upwards
until the entire gel turns blue after a few days.
2. The copper(II) sulfate crystal has disappeared.
Discussion:
1. The spreading of copper(II) sulfate into the gel is known as
diffusion.
2. The diffusion of copper(II) sulfate in the gel shows that there
are spaces between the particles in the gel (solid).
3. Since it takes a few days for the gel to turn entirely blue, we say
that the diffusion is very slow. This shows that the particles in a
solid are arranged very close together. The spaces between
the particles are very small.
B The arrangement of particles in a liquid
Materials/Apparatus: Copper(II) sulfate crystal, water, test tube

and test tube rack
Procedure:
1. A small crystal of copper(II) sulfate is placed at the base of a
test tube filled with distilled water.
2. The test tube is then left aside for a few hours.
92 Science
Water Water turns blue.
Copper(II) sulfate
crystal (blue) Before After
To study the arrangement of particles in a liquid
Observation:
The water turns blue. The copper(II) sulfate crystal can no longer
be seen.
Discussion:
1. The diffusion of copper(II) sulfate in water shows that there are
spaces between the particles in water (liquid).
2. The diffusion of copper(II) sulfate is faster in water than in
the gel. This shows that the particles in a liquid are arranged
further apart compared with the particles in a solid.
C The arrangement of particles in a gas
Materials/Apparatus: Smoke and gas jars
Procedure:
1. A gas jar is filled with smoke.
2. Another gas jar filled with air is inverted over it.
3. The changes are observed.
Gas jar
Air
Gas jar cover Smoke
Smoke
Before After
To study the arrangement of particles in the air
Observation:
The smoke quickly spreads into the inverted gas jar.
Discussion:
1. The diffusion of smoke in the air shows that there are spaces
between the particles in the air (gas).
2. The diffusion takes place very quickly. This shows that the
particles in a gas are very far apart.
Conclusion:
The particles in a solid are very close together. The particles of a
liquid are further apart than those in a solid. The particles in a gas
are very far apart.
Chapter 4 93
States of Matter
Q1. Classify the following substances as solids,
liquids or gases at room temperature.
(a) Petroleum (b) Steel
(c) Alcohol (d) Mercury
(e) Oxygen (f) Paper
4.1
Q2. What is matter made up of?
Q3. A balloon is filled with air and left aside for a day.
The figure below shows what happens to the
balloon.
Retort After a day

stand
Balloon
What can you infer from this observation?
Q4. The figure below shows the arrangement of

particles in two states of matter.
1. Particles in a solid are

closely packed in an
Model X Model Y orderly manner. They
can only vibrate about
(a) Name the state of matter represented by
their fixed positions.
each model.
2. Particles in a liquid
(b) Compare the arrangement of particles in are close together but
model X and Y. they are not arranged
in an orderly way.
(c) Predict the movement of particles in the state They can move freely
represented by model X. around.
3. Particles in a gas are

Q5. (a) Why does a solid have a definite shape? very far apart. They
move very quickly and
(b) Why is it easier to compress a syringe filled randomly.
with air than a syringe filled with water?
94 Science
4.2 Changes of States of
Matter
Matter can change its state when it is cooled or heated, that is with a
change in temperature. When a matter is heated, its particles absorb
heat energy and vibrate or move faster.
If the energy is sufficient, the matter will change its state.
Heat
When ice (solid) is heated, it will change to water (liquid).
Steam
Water
When water (liquid) is heated, it will change to steam (gas).
When a matter is cooled, its particles emit heat energy and vibrate
or move slower. If the released energy is sufficient, the matter will
change its state.
Freezer
Water
When water (liquid) is cooled, it will change to ice (solid).
During any changes of state, the chemical properties of the matter

do not change, but its physical properties might change. Its mass
does not change too.
Liquid (Water)
Co
g nd
zin Bo en
ee ilin sa
Dry ice or solid carbon Fr ing g/E tio
n
dioxide sublimes at a elt va
po
M ra
temperature of -78.5°C. tio
n
Iodine also sublimes at
(slightly higher than) room Deposition
temperature.
Diamonds sublime at a Sublimation
temperature of 3,550°C. Solid (ice) Gas (steam)
Changes of states of matter
Chapter 4 95
States of Matter
The table below summarizes the changes of states of matter that matter can undergo.
Change From To Heat Example
Sublimation Solid Gas Added Moth balls disappear when left in

cupboard for a few days.
Deposition Gas Solid Removed Iodine vapor will turn into needle crystals
of black iodine.
Boiling / Liquid Gas Added Rainwater dries up under the Sun.

Evaporation
Melting Solid Liquid Added Ice cubes turn to water at room

temperature.
Freezing Liquid Solid Removed Water turns into ice when left in freezer.
Condensation Gas Liquid Removed Drops of water form on the mirror when
taking a hot bath.
Q1. Name three changes of states that matter undergoes when heat is
(a) added.
(b) removed.
4.2
Matter
Solids Liquids Solid
• Binding forces between • Binding forces between Boiling/ • Binding forces between
particles are strong. Melting particles are weak. particles are very weak.
Evaporation
• Particles are very close • Particles are close • Particles are very far
together. Freezing together. apart.
Condensation
• Particles vibrate about • Particles can move • Particles can move
their fixed positions. freely. freely.
96 Science
gas arranged three strong weak

liquid close high vibrate fixed
change condenses sublimation melt
1. Matter exists in states, namely solids, liquids and gases.
2. The binding forces between the solid particles are , holding the
particles very close together. They have a regular pattern.
3. The particles in a solid can only at their fixed positions.
4. The particles in a liquid are to one another but not as close as the
particles in a solid because their binding forces are weak. They are not arranged in any
regular pattern.
5. The particles in a can move freely and collide into each other.
6. The particles in a are very far apart as the binding forces between
them are very . They are not at all.
7. The particles in a gas can move freely and collide into each other at
speeds.
8. The states of matter can when heat is added or removed.
9. A solid will when it is heated.
10. Steam when it is cooled.
11. Solid carbon dioxide will undergo when it is heated.
Chapter 4 97
States of Matter
Ice cube challenge
A new tour company is organizing tours to Sukhotai province, one of the hottest provinces in
Thailand. In this province, there are many historically interesting places that tourists have to
walk through in the Sun. Therefore, this company is looking for an insulated container that will
keep drinks cool and refreshing for its sweaty customers. You are required to design such
an insulated container for this tour company.
Guidelines
1. The container must be able to contain a small plastic bag with an ice cube.
2. Create and design your insulated container. Choose your appropriate materials
carefully.
3. The success of your product is based on its efficiency. The efficiency of the product
is the percentage of the mass of the remaining ice (after half an hour) divided by the
initial mass of the ice cube.
What is your need?

Define or describe the problem and set your goal.

Carry out a research and cite the sources that your group used.

Brainstorm for various solutions and choose the best one.
98 Science
What is your plan?
Draw a prototype in great detail and list the materials needed.

How does it work?

Record your observations and / or measurements. Do not forget to take pictures
for your presentation.

Reflect on your solution design.
Chapter 4 99
States of Matter
1. The diagram below shows three examples of matter.
Coffee in a cup Rocks Air in the balloon
(a) Identify the states of matter shown above.
(b) Which state of matter has particles arranged very loosely?
(c) What are the differences between the movement of particles in the coffee and the
rocks?
2. Mother hung out the wet clothes in the Sun. After two hours, the clothes became dry.
(a) What happened to the water in the wet clothes?
(b) Name this change in states of matter.
(c) Where does this change get the energy to do so?
100 Science
atoms,
What are
and
elements
s?
compound
5
Chapter
Atoms, Elements
and Compounds
• explain the physical properties of metals, non-metals and metalloids
using empirical evidence based on observation, experiment and
collected data from IT.
• group substances into metals, non-metals and metalloids.
• analyze the effects of using metallic, non-metallic, semi metallic
and radioactive elements to living things, environment, economy
and society based on empirical evidence
• recognize the values of metallic, non-metallic, semi metallic and
radioactive elements by introducing how to utilize elements safely,
effectively and economically.
• compare the boiling points and melting points of pure substances
and mixed substances based on temperature measurement.
• explain and compare the density of pure substances and mixtures.
• use equipment to measure mass and volume of pure substances
and compounds.
• explain the relationship between atoms, elements and compounds
by using a model and information.
• use a model to explain atomic structure which consists of protons,
neutrons and electrons.
5.1 Atoms
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It is made up
of very tiny particles known as atoms. Atoms are the basic building
blocks of all matter. They are so small that we cannot see them, Make a dot with the tip of a
except with an electron microscope. Electron microscopes are very sharp pencil. If the pencil
lead was just carbon
powerful compared to the compound light microscopes used in atoms, then the dot would
school laboratories. have about four billion
carbon atoms in it. Can
An atom is made up of even smaller particles, known as subatomic you imagine how small an
particles. There are three types of subatomic particles, namely atom is?
protons, electrons and neutrons.
Subatomic particles
Protons Electrons Neutrons
At the center of the atom, there is the nucleus. It is made up of the

protons and neutrons. The electrons move around the nucleus just
like the planets orbiting the Sun. Most of the volume in an atom is
space.
Neutron
123
Nucleus
Proton
Electron
Structure of an atom
The neutrons are neutral or do not have any charges. The protons
are positively charged whereas the electrons are negatively charged. Nanotechnology is the
Every atom has the equal number of protons and electrons. This study and application of
extremely small things.
makes all atoms without any charges. However, the nucleus of an
This technology is being
atom is positively charged due to the presence of protons in it. used in many industries.
In the future, we could
The masses of the subatomic particles are too light to be measured in have tiny machines that
kilograms or grams. We use atomic mass unit (amu) for their masses. can enter our body to
A proton has about 1 amu. A neutron has about the same mass as a repair damaged organs or
even to fix broken bones.
1
proton whereas an electron has amu. Therefore, an electron is Our devices may become
1840 smaller and more portable.
very much lighter than a proton or a neutron.
Q1. Name the three subatomic particles.
Q2. Describe the three subatomic particles.
Q3. Draw a diagram of an atom with its subatomic

particles.
5.1
102 Science
5.2 Elements
There are many different types of atoms with different numbers of
protons, electrons and neutrons. These different types of atoms are
known as elements. Elements are pure substances that cannot be
broken down into other simpler substances by physical or chemical
means. The atoms of an element are similar. For example, the gold is
made up of gold atoms only and the iron is made up iron atoms only.
Gold
atom
Oxygen
molecule
Gold Gas oxygen
Some elements have atoms of the same type combined to form

molecules. For example, oxygen gas is made up molecules and each
molecule of oxygen is made of two atoms of oxygen. Hydrogen gas is
also made of up molecules and each molecule of hydrogen is made
up of two atoms of hydrogen.
28%
silicon 9% others
3.5% calcium
47%
oxygen 4.5% iron
8% aluminum
Abundance of elements in the Earth
The most abundant elements in our Earth is oxygen (47%), follows

by silicon (28%) and then aluminum (8%). So far, 118 elements are
discovered. Most of them occur naturally. Some of them are made in
the laboratory. Each element is given a name and a symbol. Here are
The most abundant
some examples of elements with their symbols.
element in our body is
oxygen. It makes up Element Symbol Element Symbol
about 65% of our mass.
Carbon is the second Hydrogen H Sodium Na
most abundant element as
it makes up about 18% of
Oxygen O Magnesium Mg
our mass. The third one is
Carbon C Aluminum Al
hydrogen which makes up
about 10% of our mass. Nitrogen N Boron B
Calcium Ca Silicon Si
Chapter 5 103
Atoms, Elements and Compounds
The symbol of each element has one or two letters. For symbols with two letters, the first letter
is a capital letter while the second letter is a small letter. Different elements have different
properties as shown in the table below.
Melting Boiling Density Electrical Heat

Element Appearance
point (°C) point (°C) (g/cm3) conductivity conductivity
Hydrogen Gas -259 -253 0.000082 No No
Oxygen Gas -218 -183 0.0014 No No
Nitrogen Gas -210 -195 0.0012 No No
Carbon Solid, black 3550 3825 2.26 Yes No
Solid,
Calcium 842 1484 1.55 Yes Yes
dull gray
Sodium Solid, shiny 97.80 883 0.968 Yes Yes
Solid,
Magnesium 650 1090 1.738 Yes Yes
silvery-white
Solid,
Aluminum 660.3 2519 2.7 Yes Yes
silvery-white
Silicon Solid 1414 3265 2.33 Slightly Yes
Liquid,
Mercury -38.89 356.73 13.53 Yes Yes
silvery-white
Although each element has different properties, some of them share similar properties.
Scientists classified all the elements in a table called the Periodic Table. This enables us to
study the elements in a more systematic way.
Group
1 18
1 6 Proton number 2
Metal
C
1 H He
Hydrogen
1
2 Symbol of element Semi-metal 13 14 15 16 17 Helium
4
4
Carbon
3 5 6 7 8 9 10
Name of element
2 Li Be
12
Non-metal B C N O F Ne
Lithium
7
Berylium
9
Relative atomic mass Boron
11
Carbon
12
Nitrogen
14
Oxygen
16
Fluorine
19
Neon
20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium
23
Magnesium
24 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium
27
Silicon
28
Phosphorus
31
Sulfur
32
Chlorine
35.5
Argon
40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Period
4 K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn
Manganese
Fe
Iron
Co
Cobalt
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn
Zinc
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yitrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb
Niobium
Mo
Molybdenum
Tc
Technetium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rh
Rhodium
Pd
Palladium
Ag
Silver
Cd
Cadmium
In
Indium
Sn
Tin
Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe
Xenon
85.5 88 89 91 93 96 98 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs
Caesium
Ba
Barium
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re
Rhenium
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
Pt
Platinum
Au
Gold
Hg
Mercury
Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
133 137 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra
Radium
Rf
Rutherfordium
Db
Dubnium
Sg
Seaborgium
Bh
Bohrium
Hs
Hassium
Mt
Meitnerium
Ds
Darmstadium
Rg
Roentgenium
Cn
Copernicium
Uut
Ununtrium
Fl
Flerovium
Uup
Ununpentium
Lv
Livermorium
Uus
Ununseptium
Uuo
Ununoktium
Francium
223 226 (261) (262) (266) (264) (277) (268) (271) (272) (285) (289) (298)
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide 6 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
series
Lanthanum Cerium Preseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
139 140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 162.5 165 167 169 173 175
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide 7 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
series
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
227 232 231 238 237 244 243 247 247 251 254 257 258 259 262
The Periodic Table
104 Science
This table divides the elements into groups and periods. The vertical
columns of elements in the Periodic Table are known as groups and
the horizontal columns are known as periods. There are 18 groups
and 7 periods of elements in the Periodic Table.
Based on the Periodic Table, elements can be classified into three

main groups, namely metals, non-metals and metalloids. Elements
to the left of the Periodic Table are metals (except hydrogen) and
elements to the right are non-metals. Metalloids separate them in the
Let’s know more table.
about the Periodic
Table here.
Metals
Most of the elements are metals. Metals are solids at room temperature
with high melting and boiling points (except mercury). They are
usually shiny. They are good conductors of heat and electricity. We
can pound them into sheet as they are malleable and pull them into
wires as they are ductile. They usually have a high density.
Copper is a metal.
Non-metals
Non-metals can exist in the states of solids, liquids and gases. They
have low melting and boiling points. Examples of non-metals in
gaseous state are hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine.
Bromine is a non-metal in liquid state. Carbon, phosphorus, iodine
and sulphur are example of non-metals in solid state.
Sulphur
They have dull surface. They are brittle and non-ductile. Non-metals
do not conduct electricity and heat except carbon. They are usually
have a low density.
Chapter 5 105
Metalloids
Only a few elements such as boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,

antimony and tellurium are metalloids. These elements are unique as
they have some metallic properties and some non-metallic properties.
They seem to have the solid metallic appearance but they are brittle.
Silicon
Unlike metals, they are neither malleable nor ductile. At room

temperature, metalloids are poor conductors of electricity. However,
they become better conductors at higher temperatures.
Properties Metals Non-metals Metalloids

State at room Solid (except Solid, liquid Solid
temperature mercury) and gas
Appearance Shiny Dull Dull or shiny
Malleability Malleable and Brittle and non- Brittle and non-
and ductility ductile ductile ductile
Melting and High (except Low (except Varies
boiling points mercury) carbon)
Conductivity Good heat Poor heat Some conduct
and electrical and electrical electricity and
conductors conductors heat.
Comparison of properties of metals, non-metals and metalloids
Radioactive elements
Radioactive elements are elements that break down forming other

elements. The nucleus of a radioactive element is unstable. The
nucleus will break down naturally, randomly and spontaneously,
without any outside force or stimulus. When this happens, the amount
of the element reduces, forming new elements.
This decay process releases radiation which contains energy

and some charged particles. These radioactive elements undergo
radioactive decay over a period of time until they reach a stable state. Hazard symbol for
The decay refers to the loss of energy. radioactive elements
106 Science
Charged particle
Decay
event
Nucleus of
radioactive element Nucleus of new element
Decay of a radioactive element
There are three types of radioactive radiations, namely alpha

radiation, beta radiation and gamma radiation.
Alpha (α) radiation gives out alpha particles that are positively
charged. In an electric field, they are deflected toward the negative
electrode. These particles are relatively heavy and slow. They have
low penetrating power as they can be stopped by a piece of paper.
Beta (β) radiation gives out beta particles that are negatively
charged. In an electric field, they are deflected toward the positive
electrode. They are fast and light. These particles have medium
penetrating power and they can be stopped by a sheet of aluminum.
Gamma (γ) radiation is wave, not particles. In an electric field, this

radiation is not deflected and travels in a straight line. This radiation
has high penetrating power as only a thick sheet of lead or concrete
can reduce it significantly.
Paper Aluminum Lead

Alpha
radiation
Beta
radiation
Gamma
radiation
Penetration capabilities of radioactive radiations
Positive plate
β
γ
α
Negative plate
Directions of radioactive radiations in an electric field
Gamma radiation always accompanies alpha and beta radiations.
Chapter 5 107

Effects of using metals, non-metals,
metalloids and radioactive elements
As metals are strong, malleable and ductile, and have high boiling
and melting points, we use metals a lot in our daily life. Our vehicles
and bridges are made from iron as this material is strong and easy to
press into the desired shapes. Our wires are made of copper because
copper can conduct electric efficiently. Tungsten is used in making
the filaments in bulbs as it does not melt at very high temperatures.
Our pots, pans and kettles are made from steel or aluminum as they
are good heat conductors, allowing the food to cook fast and water
to boil fast.
Metal in cars Copper wire Tungsten filament
Non-metals are very useful too. We use nitrogen to make fertilizers.

Oxygen is used for respiration and burning. Argon and xenon are
used in colorful glowing signboards. Iodine is used as antiseptic to
clean wounds. Helium is used in weather balloons. Liquid hydrogen
is used as rocket fuels.
Oxygen for breathing Glowing signboard Iodine as antiseptic
Metalloids are used a lot in chemical, electronics and alloying

industries. They are used to make semiconductors that can conduct
electricity at certain conditions, enabling them to control the flow of
electricity. Silicon is best known in making tiny electric circuits in
computer chips.
Electronic components
108 Science
Radioactive elements are used in many industries. They are used
to detect leakage in pipes and thickness of metallic foils and paper,
and as tracers in agriculture and medical industries. Radiations are
used to treat cancer patients and to sterile surgical tools in hospitals.
They are used in radioactive dating whereby the age of artifacts is
determined. The radioactive elements are used in nuclear energy
production.
Nuclear power station
Although elements are very useful, the extracting processes and the
extensive use of these elements have great effects on the environment.
Mining sites create land, water and air pollution. Deserted mines
create large areas of barren and lifeless land. Some waste materials
from metal extraction are highly toxic to living things.
The radiation emitted by the radioactive elements is very harmful to

living things. The radiation can pass through our body and change
our genetic make-up in our DNA. This can cause mutation in our
body, leading to higher cancer cases and child deformities. Besides
that, plants and animals will be affected too. Reproduction of living
thing may be affected too.
Nuclear energy production has its disadvantages.

People working in these power stations are at risk of
being exposed to radioactive radiations if the proper
procedures are not followed. The by-products and
waste products are still highly radioactive. They
must be stored or disposed properly. These power
stations pose great risks when the safety procedures
are not followed and when accidents happen.
For instance, a nuclear plant in Chernobyl, Russia leaked in 1986

that caused excessive amounts of radiation pollution in that region. In
2011, a major earthquake caused a nuclear accident in Fukushima,
Japan. It is believed many radioactive substances leaked into the
atmosphere and the ocean.
We should use the elements safely, effectively and economically. We

should recycle the materials whenever we can. For the dangerous
radioactive elements, they must be stored in containers which are
made of thick lead so that the radiation is contained.
Chapter 5 109
Q1. What are elements?
Q2. Name the groups in classification of elements.
Q3. What is the Periodic Table? Name its uses.
Q4. Why are radioactive elements dangerous?

5.2 Q5. Briefly describe the types of radiation emited
during a decay of a radioactive element.
5.3 Compounds and Mixtures

Compounds
Compounds are pure substances. They are formed when two or more
elements combined chemically in a chemical reaction. The smallest
particle in a compound is a molecule.
For example, magnesium oxide is a compound, made up of

magnesium and oxygen elements. When we burn magnesium, a
silvery solid in the air (oxygen in the air), we get magnesium oxide, a
white solid.
Magnesium
Magnesium Oxygen oxide
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
Some examples of compounds are shown below together with the

elements they contain.
Compound Elements present

Common salt (sodium chloride) Sodium, chlorine
Carbon dioxide Carbon, oxygen
Water Hydrogen, oxygen
Magnesium oxide Magnesium, oxygen
Rust (iron oxide) Iron, oxygen
Copper(II) sulphate Copper, sulphur, oxygen
110 Science
A compound is made up of different elements combined in a fixed
ratio.
H H Two atoms of
H hydrogen (element)
O is made up of
H
Water (compound)
One atom of
H 2O O
oxygen (element)
For example, water is made up of the elements of oxygen and

hydrogen. In each water molecule, one oxygen atom is bonded with
two hydrogen atoms. All water molecules are similar. We say that
water has a fixed composition.
C Another example is carbon dioxide. Each carbon dioxide molecule

O O is made up of the elements of carbon and oxygen. A carbon atom is
Carbon dioxide bonded with two oxygen atoms to form a carbon dioxide molecule.
Mixtures
Mixtures have two or more components that are physically

combined. There are no chemical bonds between the components
in the mixtures. The mixtures do not have any fixed composition too.
Examples of mixtures are air, blood, sea water and rocks.
Air is a mixture. It has water molecules, oxygen molecules, carbon

dioxide molecules and nitrogen molecules. There is no fixed
composition among the components. There could be more water
molecules when the air is damp.
As the components in a mixture are not bonded chemically, they can

Components in air
be separated out by physical means such as filtration, crystallization
and evaporation. The table below lists the differences between a
compound and a mixture.
Compound Mixture
It has a fixed composition. It has no fixed composition.
The elements are combined The components are not
chemically combined chemically, but
physically.
Each substance cannot be Each component can be
separated by physical means. A separated by physical means.
chemical reaction is needed to
separate them.
It has a fixed melting and boiling It has variable melting and
points. boiling points.
Chapter 5 111
Q1. Name two compounds and two mixtures.
Q2. List two differences between a compound and

a mixture.
5.3
5.4 Effects of Impurities

Pure water is a pure substance whereas salt water is a mixture as
it contains water and salt. In salt water, the salt is referred as the
impurity.
Effects of impurities on melting

and boiling points
Materials/Apparatus: Beakers, water, ice, salt, spatula, measuring

cylinder, glass rods, thermometers, funnels,
wire gauze, tripod stands and Bunsen
burners
A On boiling point
Hypothesis: When salt is added to water, the boiling point

is raised.
Constant variables: Volume of water, stirring rate
Manipulated variable: Presence of salt
Responding variable: Reading of the thermometer
Procedure:
1. Two beakers, A and B are filled with 100 cm3 of water.
A B
Thermometer Thermometer
Water Water with

salt
112 Science
2. A spatula of salt is added into beaker B and the solution is stirred
to dissolve the salt.
3. Both beakers are heated and stirred with the same rate.
4. The readings of the thermometers are recorded when the water
in both beakers boil.
Observation:
The reading of the thermometer in beaker A is 100oC. The reading of
the thermometer in beaker B is 103oC.
Discussion:
Pure water in beaker A boils at 100oC because the boiling point of
pure water is 100oC. When the salt (impurity) is added into beaker B,
the impurity raises the boiling point to 103oC.
Conclusion:
When salt is added, the boiling point is raised. The hypothesis is
accepted.
B On melting point
Hypothesis: When salt is added to water, the melting

point is lowered.
Constant variables: Volume of ice
Responding variable: Reading of the thermometer
Procedure:
1. Fill two funnels, A and B full with ice and a thermometer is placed
in each funnel.
Thermometer Thermometer
Ice Ice with

salt
A B
2. A spatula of salt is sprinkled over the ice in beaker B.

3. The readings of the thermometers are recorded when the
readings become stable.
Observation:
The reading of the thermometer in funnel A is 0oC. The reading of the
thermometer in funnel B is –2oC.
Chapter 5 113
Discussion:
Pure ice in funnel A melts at 0oC because the melting point of pure
ice is 0oC. When the salt (impurity) is sprinkled onto the ice in funnel
B, the impurity lowers the melting point to –2oC.
Conclusion:
When salt is added, the melting point is lowered. The hypothesis is
accepted.
A pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling points. The presence
of impurities lowers the melting point. How low the new melting point
is depends on the quantity of impurity added. In cold countries, salt
is sprinkled on icy roads to melt the ice on the road.
In liquids, impurities increase the boiling points. Pure water boils at

100oC but with added salt, the boiling point is increased.
Effects of impurities on density

of water
Materials/Apparatus: Beakers, water, salt, eggs, measuring

cylinders, spoon
Hypothesis: When salt is added in water, the egg floats.
Constant variables: Volume of water, egg
Responding variable: Buoyancy of egg
Procedure:
1. Two beakers, A and B are filled with 500 cm3 of water.
2. 10 spoonfuls of salt are added into beaker B. The mixture is
stirred until the salt is dissolved.
3. An egg is placed into each beaker.
4. Observations are recorded.
Observation:
The egg in beaker A sinks to the bottom while the egg in beaker B
floats.
Discussion:
An object floats in water when it is less dense than water. The egg
sinks in the plain water because it is denser than the water. When
a lot of salt (impurity) is added to the water, the mixture becomes
denser and the egg floats in the mixture. Now the mixture is denser
than the egg.
114 Science
Conclusion:
When salt is added in water, the egg floats. The hypothesis is
accepted.
The density of a pure substance is constant at a temperature. The

density of a substance is the relationship between the mass of the
substance and how much space it takes up (volume). It is given by
Mass
the formula Density = Volume . It is measured in gram per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3) or kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). Every pure
substance has a fixed density. However, when impurities are added
to a pure substance, the density of the mixture changes.
Determining the density of

salt water
Materials/Apparatus: Beaker, water, spoon, electronic scale,
measuring cylinder, glass rod
Procedure:
1. A beaker is filled with 200 cm3 of water.
2. 5 tablespoonfuls of salt is added into the beaker. The mixture
is stirred.
3. A measuring cylinder is weighed and its mass is recorded.
4. 100 cm3 of the mixture (excluding the undissolved salt) from
the beaker is poured into the measuring cylinder.
5. The mass of the measuring cylinder with the mixture is
recorded.
6. The density of the salt water is calculated.
Results:
Mass of empty measuring cylinder = 24.50 g
Mass of measuring cylinder + 100 cm3 of salt water = 127.3
Mass of 100 cm3 of salt water = 127.3 – 24.5
= 102.8
102.8
Density of salt water =
100
= 1.028 g/cm3
Conclusion:
The density of the salt water is 1.028 g/cm3.
Chapter 5 115
Q1. What will change when impurities are added to a pure substance?
Q2. What is density? Give the formula to calculate density.
5.4
Matter
Pure substances Mixtures
Alpha radiation
Radioactive
Compounds Elements
elements
Beta radiation
Gamma radiation
Metals Non-metals Metalloids
116 Science
metalloids compounds gamma protons boiling

cancer density electrons alpha mixtures
atoms beta Periodic radiations elements
1. are the basic building block of matter.
2. Subatomic particles are made up of ,

and neutrons.
3. are made up of similar type of atoms.
4. Elements are classified in a table known as the Table.
5. Metals have high and melting points.
6. have both the properties of metals and non-metals.
7. Radioactive elements release to become elements that are

more stable.
8. radiation has high penetrating power that a thick block of lead

-
can stop it. -
9. radiation are negatively-charged particles and
radiation are positively-charged particles.
10. Radioactive elements are used in energy production and

treatments.
11. are pure substances with different elements that are chemically
bonded.
12. do not have a fixed composition.
13. Impurities in a pure substance affect the melting and boiling points and the
of the pure substance.
Chapter 5 117
1. We can classify matter into pure substances and mixtures.
(a) Pure substances can be further classified into two groups.

(i) Name them.
(ii) State the difference between them.
(b) M is a pure substance. When M is added with some impurities, what properties of M
will change?
2. A certain radioactive element releases radiation that can be stopped by a sheet of

aluminum.
(a) What is the possible type of radiation emitted by this element?
(b) Name one type of material that can stop all types of radioactive radiations.
118 Science
eat?
What is h
6
Chapter
Heat
• explain the relationship between heat energy and the change of
states by using the empirical evidence and model.
• analyze and interpret information and calculate the amount of heat
used in changing temperatures and states of matter.
• use thermometers to measure the temperature of matter.
• make a model that explains the expansion and contraction of matter
when heat is absorbed or lost.
• recognize the benefits of knowledge of contraction and expansion
due to heat.
• analyze situations of heat transfer and calculate the quantity of heat
transferred between substances resulting in thermal equilibrium.
• make a model to explain heat transfer by conduction, convection
and radiation.
• design, choose and create devices in order to solve the problems in
everyday life by applying the knowledge of heat transfer.
6.1 Heat as a Form of Energy
Heat is a form of energy. Heat can make things hot and we can use
heat to do work.
We feel hot when the Sun shines. This shows that the Sun is a source
of heat energy. Most of the heat on the Earth comes from the Sun.
Showing that the Sun gives out

heat
Materials: A piece of copper foil and a piece of wet tissue
Procedure:
1. A piece of copper foil is placed in the Sun. After a few minutes,
the copper foil is touched with your hand.
2. A piece of wet tissue is placed in the Sun. The wet tissue is
observed after some time.
Observation:
The copper foil feels hot and the piece of wet tissue dries up
after being exposed to the Sun for some time. This shows that
the Sun gives out heat energy.
Discussion:
The copper foil absorbs heat energy from the Sun, so it feels hot.
Water in the wet tissue absorbs heat from the Sun and changes its
state from water to vapor. The tissue dries up after all the water has
changed to vapor.
Conclusion:
The Sun gives out heat energy.
120 Science
Other sources of heat
Apart from the Sun, there are many other sources of heat. Heat can
be produced in many ways. Here are some sources of heat.
Heat sources Activities

Rubbing or friction • Rub your hands together for
Rubbing two objects against some time and then place
them on your cheeks. Your
each other can produce heat.
cheeks will feel warm, showing
that heat can be produced by
friction.
Rubbing can produce heat.
Burning • Burn a candle or a piece of

When an object burns, it paper and put your hands
above it. Your hands will feel
produces a flame that gives
hot, showing that burning
out heat. substances can produce heat.
Burning substances can produce heat.
Electricity • Switch on an electric bulb for

When electric current flows some time and place your
hands near the bulb. Your
through a wire, heat is
hands can feel the heat coming
produced. out from the bulb.
Electricity can produce heat.
Sources of heat
Chapter 6 121
Heat
Heat can also be produced by:
(a) Bending metal
Bending a coat hanger or a wire back and forth several times
produces heat in the object.
(b) Chemical reactions
After mixing solid sodium hydroxide with water in a test tube, the
test tube will get warm.
(c) Collision
When an iron nail is hit by a hammer several times, the hammer
and the nail will get hot.
Uses of heat in our daily life
Heat is a useful form of energy. We use heat to

(a) cook food.
(b) dry clothes.
(c) boil water.
(d) produce steam to generate electricity.
(e) dry food for preservation.
(f) warm ourselves.
Heat and temperature
Heat is a form of energy. An object becomes hot when it absorbs

heat. Heat is measured in joules (J).
Temperature measures how hot or cold an object is. The unit for
temperature is degree Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K). Temperature can
be measured with a thermometer.
Heat and temperature are different. The table below shows the
differences between heat and temperature.
Heat Temperature
• A form of energy. • The degree of hotness or coldness of
an object.
• Heat can do work. • Temperature cannot do work.
• Measured in Joule.(J) • Measured in degree Celsius (°C) or
Kelvin (K).
You will understand
• Transfers from a hot • Increases when heated and decreases more about heat and
area to a cold area. when cooled. temperature at this
website.
The differences between heat and temperature
122 Science
Showing the difference
between heat and
temperature
Materials/Apparatus: 500 ml beakers and thermometers
Objects with the same Procedure:
temperature contain
the same amount of
heat. The higher the
temperature of an Thermometer
object, the larger the 100 ml of 200 ml of
amount of heat contained boiling water boiling water
in it.
200 ml
of water
Beaker P Beaker Q
The amount of heat

1. Two 500 ml beakers labeled P and Q respectively are filled
contained in an object with 200 ml of water.
depends on 2. The temperature of water in both beakers is measured.
(a) the type of material that
the object is made of, 3. 100 ml of the boiling water is poured into beaker P and 200 ml
(b) the mass or the size of of the boiling water is poured into beaker Q as shown in the
the object, and above figure.
(c) the temperature of the
object. 4. The mixture of hot and cold water is then stirred gently with a
thermometer.
5. The maximum temperature reached by the water in each
beaker is recorded.
Observation:
Beaker Q shows a greater increase in temperature.
Discussion:
1. The volume of boiling water that is poured into beaker Q is
double the volume of boiling water that is poured into beaker
P. After mixing the boiling water, the temperature of water in
beaker Q is higher compared with the temperature of water in
beaker P.
2. It shows that temperature and heat are not the same though
they are closely related to each other.
3. As more boiling water is poured into beaker Q, more heat is
found in beaker Q. The change in temperature of water in
beaker Q is higher than that in beaker P.
Conclusion:
An object with a larger mass has more heat content than an object
with a smaller mass although their temperatures are the same.
When two objects are at the same temperature, the object that has
larger mass contains greater heat energy.
Chapter 6 123
Heat
Q1. Suggest two ways that heat can be produced
and state two examples of the uses of heat.
Q2. Explain briefly the difference between heat and

temperature.
6.1
6.2 Effects of Heat on Matter

When matter gains or loses heat, it will undergo some changes such
as:
(a) expansion or contraction
(b) changes in temperature
(c) changes in states of matter
A Expansion and contraction of matter

Most matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled. One
common example of the effects of heat is a thin glass cracking when
hot water is poured onto it.
The increase in the sizes of objects when they are hot is called
expansion. The decrease in their sizes when they are cooled is called
contraction.
Expansion and contraction of solids

The atoms or molecules in a solid vibrate at all temperatures. As
its temperature increases, the atoms vibrate more vigorously and
these vibrations push the atoms further apart. The volume of the
solid increases and so, the solid expands.
Heated
Cooled
Cold Hot
Arrangement of particles in a solid
When the solid is cooled, the atoms vibrate less vigorously and
they become closer together. The volume of the solid decreases
and so, the solid contracts.
124 Science
Expansion and contraction of liquids
When a liquid is heated, the molecules of the liquid have more
energy and move more vigorously. This allows them to have greater
freedom to move over greater volumes. Thus, the liquid expands.
Heated
Cooled
Cold Hot
Arrangement of particles in a liquid
At lower temperatures, the molecules of the liquid have less energy

and move closer to each other. This causes the volume of the liquid
to decrease and the liquid contracts.
Expansion and contraction of gases

The molecules of a gas are far apart compared with the molecules
in a solid and a liquid. The gas molecules move at high speeds
in all directions.
If a gas is confined in an expandable container, the volume of the

gas will increase with increasing temperature. The volume will
decrease as the temperature drops.
Always remember that
the particles themselves
do not expand or
contract when heated or
Heated
cooled.
Cooled
Cold Hot
Arrangement of particles in a gas
When the gas is heated, the molecules become more energetic,

move faster and are further apart. This causes the volume of
the gas to increase and expansion is said to occur. At a lower
temperature, the molecules move very much slower due to less
energy. They are closer together, causing the volume to decrease
and contraction occurs.
Chapter 6 125
Heat
Observing expansion and
contraction of solids, liquids
and gases
A Expansion and contraction of solids
Materials/Apparatus: Metal ball, metal ring and Bunsen burner
Procedure:
Ring Holder Metal ball Holder
Metal ball Ring
Before heating After heating
Studying the heating and cooling effects on a metal ball
1. A metal ball is dropped through a ring as shown in the above

figure.
2. The ball is taken out through the ring and heated over a Bunsen
flame for a few minutes. Then, it is dropped through the ring
again.
3. The ball is allowed to cool down to room temperature and is
dropped through the ring again.
Observations:
The metal ball cannot pass through the ring when it is hot but when
it is cool, it can pass through the ring.
Discussion:
1. The metal ball cannot pass through the ring because the size
of the ball increases. This shows that the metal ball expands
when heated. The volume of the metal ball increases.
2. When the metal ball cools down, it contracts back to its original
size and so, it can go through the ring again. The volume of
the metal ball decreases.
Conclusion:
Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
126 Science
B Expansion and contraction of liquids
Materials/Apparatus: Thermometer, beakers, ice and hot water
Procedure:
Thermometer
Beaker
Hot water
Studying the heating and cooling effects on mercury
1. A thermometer is placed inside a beaker of hot water as shown

above.The movement of the mercury column is observed and
the highest temperature is recorded.
2. The thermometer is taken out and placed in a beaker of cold

water. The movement of the mercury column is observed again
and the lowest temperature is recorded.
Observations:
The mercury column rises when the thermometer is placed in the hot
water. The mercury column falls when the thermometer is placed in
the cold water.
Discussion:
The rise of the mercury column is due to the increase in volume, or
the expansion of the mercury (liquid). The fall of the mercury column
is due to the decrease in volume, or the contraction of the mercury.
Conclusion:
Liquids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
C Expansion and contraction of gases
Materials/Apparatus: Round-bottomed flask, glass tube, rubber

stopper, indicator and retort stand
Procedure:
Glass tube
Column of
colored water
Retort stand
Hand
Air
Studying the heating and cooling effects on air
Chapter 6 127
Heat
1. The apparatus is set up as shown on the previous page. The
original position of the colored water column in the glass tube
is marked.
2. Rub your hands and place them on the flask to heat the air
in the flask. The movement of the colored water column is
observed.
3. Remove your hands from the flask and the flask is allowed
to cool down. The movement of the colored water column is
observed again.
Observations:
The colored water column is seen moving upwards when the
round-bottomed flask is held by the warm hands and moving
downwards when the flask is allowed to cool down.
Discussion:
The rise of the colored water column is due to the increase in the
volume, or the expansion of the air inside the flask. The fall of the
colored water column is due to the decrease in the volume, or the
contraction of the air inside the flask.
Conclusion:
Gases expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Uses of expansion and contraction of

matter
The effect of expansion and contraction of matter can be very

troublesome. Precautions have to be taken against these effects. We
can also apply the principle of expansion and contraction of matter in
making instruments that are useful in our daily life.
The following are some examples to show the uses of expansion and
contraction of matter.
(a) Mercury in a thermometer
Mercury is a liquid metal that can expand and contract when there
is a change in temperature. This makes it suitable for temperature
measurement and it is used in a thermometer.
Mercury Constriction Capillary tube Linear scale
Bulb -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
(a)
Mercury Linear scale Capillary tube
Bulb -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
(b)
Mercury in (a) a laboratory thermometer and (b) a clinical thermometer
128 Science
(b) Bimetallic strip in a fire alarm
An automatic fire alarm uses a bimetallic strip to switch on the
electric bell when there is a fire. The heat from the fire causes the
bimetallic strip to bend towards the contact point.
Bimetallic strip
Brass
Iron
Contact
point
Electric bell
Battery
An automatic fire alarm
When the bending strip touches the contact point to complete the
circuit, the fire alarm rings.
(c) Bimetallic strip as a thermostat

The bimetallic strip is also used as a thermostat in an electric
iron for controlling and maintaining temperature. As temperature
rises, the bimetallic strip bends away from the contact point and
cuts off the current.
Bimetallic strip
The bimetallic
Temperature strip bends
To power control upwards
supply
Heating
coil
Contact point Contact point
(a) When the iron is cool (b) When the iron is hot
Thermostat in an electric iron

When the bimetallic strip cools down, contact is made again and
current flows once more to heat up the iron.
(d) Bimetallic thermometer

A bimetallic strip wound in a spiral can be used to make a
thermometer. In the figure below, the metals used are brass and
invar, with brass on the outside. As the temperature decreases,
the spiral is wound tighter and the pointer will move to the left.
Temperature scale
Pointer
Bimetallic strip
A bimetallic thermometer
Chapter 6 129
Heat
(e) Metallic tyres
The metallic wheels of a train are fitted with metal tyres. To ensure
a tight fit, the tyre is made slightly smaller in diameter than the
wheel. Before fitting, the tyre is heated uniformly and the resulting
expansion enables the tyre to be slipped over the wheel. Upon
cooling, the steel tyre contracts and makes a tight fit.
Heated metal tyre
Wheel frame Metal tyre on wheel
Fitting a metal tyre onto a metal wheel
(f) Removing metal lids
Bottle
Hot water
Metal lid
Submerging the metal lid into hot water
A very tight bottle cap can be removed easily by immersing it in

hot water. The cap expands much faster than the bottle and so,
the cap can be removed easily when it expands.
(g) Fixing the axle into the hub of a wheel
Axle
Hub of
wheel
Fixing the axle into the hub of a wheel
The hub of a wheel is usually slightly smaller than the size of its
axle. To fix the axle into the hub of the wheel, the axle has to be
put in liquid nitrogen (at -190°C) to cool it so that it contracts until
it can be fitted into the hub.
130 Science
(h) Rivets
Rivets are steel pins used to join pieces of metal tightly together.
They are heated before being inserted through two pieces of
metal. While the rivet is still hot, the end is hammered flat.
Hammer
Hot rivet Steel plate
Rivet still hot
Cooled
Steel plates tightly held together
Stages of riveting
When the rivet cools, it contracts, pulling the two pieces of metal
tightly together.
The following are some examples to show how we solve some

problems due to expansion and contraction of matter.
(a) Railway tracks
When laying railway tracks, gaps have to be left between
successive lengths of rail to allow for expansion on hot days.
Without the gaps, the track buckles and this affects the safety of
the trains.
Rail track
Small gap
A gap in railway tracks
Chapter 6 131
Heat
(b) Concrete roads
When concrete roads are laid down, gaps (normally filled with
bitumen) are left between sections in order to allow for expansion
on hot days.
Gaps filled with bitumen
Gaps between concrete section
(c) Metal bridges

Structures like steel bridges and overhead bridges are built with
gaps to allow for expansion. Sometimes, one end is supported
by rollers which allow the bridges to expand easily when heated.
Sliding joint
Bridge is fixed here
Roller
Rollers of a steel bridge
(d) Cables
Electric transmission cable and cable cars’ cable sag on a hot
day and tighten during a cold night. Therefore, allowances have
to be made for the expansion and contraction of the cables.
Overhead cables sag in hot weather and tighten during a cold night.
132 Science
B Changes in temperature
When some water of 80oC is left in a beaker on a table, what will
happen to the water? The hot water will lose some of its heat to the
surroundings. After some time, the water will become cooler. After
a much longer period, it will have the similar temperature of the
surroundings.
80°C 25°C
Heat
loss
The temperature of an object will drop when it releases heat.
When a beaker of water is heated, the water will gain or receive heat.
The water will become hot. Its temperature will increase.
25°C 85°C
Heat
gain
The temperature of an object will increase when it gains heat.
P Q
500 cm3
100 cm3
When two beakers of different quantities of hot water are left on a

table, which is hotter after 10 minutes, water in beaker P or water in
beaker Q? Why?
The increase and decrease of temperature when an object is

heated or cooled depends on the
• mass of the object
• the substance the object is made from
• the amount of energy transferred
Chapter 6 133
Heat
Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat

required to increase its temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1oC.
Different substances have different specific heat capacities. Its unit
is J kg-1 oC-1.
Specific heat Specific heat

Substance capacity Substance capacity
(J kg-1 oC–1) (J kg-1 oC–1)
Water 4,200 Mercury 139
Copper 387 Gold 129
Glass 840 Iron 452

Heat capacity of a
Water has the specific heat capacity of 4,200 J kg-1 oC-1. In order to substance is the
amount of heat required
increase the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1oC, 4,200 J of heat is
to increase it is
needed. temperature by 1oC. It
is different from specific
25°C 26°C 25°C 26°C heat capacity.
1 kg water 1 kg water 1 kg copper 1 kg copper
4,2000 J 387 J
heat heat
Copper has the specific heat capacity of 387 J kg–1 oC–1. In order to
increase the temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1oC, 387 J of heat is
needed. Therefore, water needs almost 10 times larger amount of
heat than copper of the same mass.
Remember that heating substances with high specific heat capacities

need a lot of heat energy and therefore a longer time to heat up. They
also need a longer time to cool down. For example, the land heats up
quicker than the sea. This is because the specific heat capacity of
sea water is greater than that of the land. More heat energy is needed
to heat the sea water up to reach the same temperature increment as
the land and so it takes longer. The sea water also takes longer time
to cool down.
The quantity of heat gained or lost by an object is given by
Q = mcθ
where, Q = heat gained or lost in joules, J

m = mass of the object in kg
c = specific heat capacity in J kg–1 oC–1
θ = change in temperature in oC
134 Science
Example 1
How much energy must be provided to raise the temperature of
2 kg of water from 25oC to 35oC?
Solution:
Mass, m = 2 kg
Specific heat capacity of water, c = 4,200 J kg–1 oC–1
Change in temperature θ = 35 – 25
= 10 oC
Q = mcθ
= 2 × 4,200 × 10
= 84,000 J
Visit this website to

know more about Example 2
specific heat
capacity. 1 kg of water with the temperature of 15oC is placed in a refrigerator.
What is its temperature after 29,400 J of heat has been removed
from it?
Solution:
Mass, m = 1 kg
Specific heat capacity of water, c = 4,200 J kg–1 oC–1
Heat removed, Q = 29,400 J
Q = mcθ
Q
θ =
mc
29,400
=
1 × 4,200
= 7oC
Final temperature = 15 – 7
= 8oC
Application of specific heat capacity
Cooking pots and kettles are made of metals with low specific heat
capacities so that they need less heat to rise up the temperature.
However, the handles of cooking pots and kettles are made of
materials with high specific heat capacities.
Material with a high Material with a low

specific heat capacity specific heat capacity
Parts of a pot with different specific heat capacities
Chapter 6 135
Heat
Car radiators use water as the cooling agent as water has a high
specific heat capacity. The water is pumped to circulate around the
engine. The heat produced by the engine is absorbed by the water.
The water then travels to the car radiators where the heat from the
water is released through the cooling fan.
Energy given Heat removed from engine

out by radiator
Air flows
Pump
Car radiator
Sea breeze and land breeze are formed due to the differences
between the specific heat capacities of land and sea water. Land
has a lower specific heat capacity than that of the sea water. In the
day time, the land heated up faster than the sea. The hot air above
the land rises and the cooler air from the sea rushes toward the land,
producing sea breeze.
Warm air
Cool sea breeze
Land warmer
Sea breeze
However at night, the temperature of the land drops faster than the
sea water. The hot air above the sea rises. The cooler air from the
land rushes toward the sea, producing land breeze.
Warm air
Cool land breeze
Land cooler
Land breeze
136 Science
C Changes in states of matter
When heat is continuously supplied to an object, the temperature of
the object will increase. It will increase to a reading where it will remain
constant. At this moment the object changes its state of matter.
When we boil some water, the temperature of the water will increase.
When it reaches its boiling point or 100oC, it will remain constant.
Now, the water changes into steam. Boiling water has a temperature
of 100oC.
100°C 0°C
Boiling Ice
water
Measuring the temperature Measuring the temperature

of boiling water of melting ice
The melting point of ice is 0oC. At this point, the ice is melting, turning
into water. The temperature remains constant until all the ice has
turned into water.
The graph below shows the temperature of some ice being heated
against time.
Temperature (°C)
Latent heat of a
substance is the heat 120 Gas
required to change 100
its state of matter. It is
different from specific 80
Boiling
latent heat. 60
Liquid
40
Melting
20
0
-20 Solid
-40 Time
When 1 kg of a substance is melting and boiling, it absorbs heat

without an increase in the temperature. The heat absorbed is
known as specific latent heat. Therefore, the specific latent heat of
a substance is the amount of heat required to change the state of
matter of 1 kg of the substance at a constant temperature. Its unit is
J kg-1.
Chapter 6 137
Heat
During melting or boiling, the temperature of the substance does not
change even though the heat is being absorbed by the substance.
This is because the heat absorbed does not increase the kinetic
energy of the particles but is used to overcome the force of attraction
between the particles in order to change its state.
The quantity of heat gained or lost when a substance changes its

states is given by:
Q = ml
where, Q = heat gained or lost in joules, J

m = mass of the object in kg
l = specific latent heat in J kg–1
The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the

amount of heat needed to change 1 kg of the substance from the
liquid to the gaseous state without any change in temperature.
Steam
Releases Absorbs
latent heat of Condensation Boiling at latent heat of
vaporization at 100oC 100oC vaporization
Water
Releases
Freezing Melting at Absorbs
latent heat of
at 0oC 0oC latent heat
fusion
Ice of fusion
Water
The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of

heat needed to change 1 kg of the substance from the solid to the
liquid state without any change in temperature.
138 Science
The table below shows the specific latent heat of some substances.
Specific Specific
Melting latent heat of Boiling latent heat of
Substance
point (oC) fusion point (oC) vaporization
(J kg–1) (J kg–1)
Water 0 3.36 × 105 100 2.26 × 106
Mercury –39 1.14 × 104 357 2.96 × 105
Gold 1063 6.28 × 104 2808 1.72 × 106
Copper 1083 2.07 × 105 2566 4.73 × 106
In general, the specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance

is greater than its specific latent heat of fusion because:
• More energy is required to break the force of attraction between
liquid molecules in order to change into gaseous state.
• Extra energy is required to overcome the atmospheric pressure.
• Energy is used to overcome the surface tension of a liquid
when its molecules change into the gaseous state.
Example 3
How much energy is required to change 0.65 kg of ice into water
at 0oC?
Solution:
Mass, m = 0.65 kg
Specific latent heat of fusion of water, l = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1
Heat needed, Q = ml
Let’s know more
= 0.65 × 3.36 × 105
about specific latent = 2.18 × 105 J
heat here.
Example 4
6.78 × 106 J of heat energy is removed from a mass of steam
at 100oC to produce water at 100oC. What is the mass of water
produced?
Solution:
Specific latent heat of vaporization of water, l = 2.26 x 106 J kg-1
Heat removed, Q = 6.78 × 106 J
Q = ml
Q
m=
l
6.78 × 106
=
2.26 × 106
= 3 kg
Chapter 6 139
Heat
Application of specific latent heat
We can cool our cans by adding some ice cubes. When the ice cubes
start to melt, a huge amount of heat is absorbed by the ice to change
its states and this lowers the temperature of the drink.
Cooling the drinks
The freshness of fish and meat can be maintained by covering them

with ice cubes too.
When we are steaming our food, we are actually using the large
specific latent heat of vaporization of water to cook the food. The
steam is formed when the water is boiling. The steam then condenses
releasing the latent heat directly on the food, cooking the food.
Steaming food
Q1. Explain briefly how matter expands and contracts

when heated and cooled.
Q2. Explain briefly why mercury is used in

thermometer.
Q3. Why are the transmission cables usually fixed

6.2 with a sag?
Q4. Explain the difference between the specific

heat capacity and the specific latent heat of a
substance.
Q5. Find the heat needed for 500 g of ice at 0oC to

melt and become water with a temperature of
10oC.
140 Science
6.3 Thermal Equilibrium and
Heat Flow
Thermal equilibrium
Heat flows from warmer objects to cooler objects. When a warmer

object is in contact with a cooler object, the warmer object will transfer
heat to the cooler object.
This will go on until both objects have the same temperature. At this
point, they are in a state of thermal equilibrium.
Metal block
(50ºC)
After 2 hours
Water
(18ºC)
A hot metal block is put into Heat from the block is Their temperatures are
the water. released into the water. the same. They are in
thermal equilibrium.
When a hot metal block is immersed into cool water, the heat
from the block is released into the water, heating up the water. The
temperature of the block will drop and the temperature of the water
will rise. After a while, both the block and the water will have the same
temperature and we say that they are in the state of thermal equilibrium.
So, the amount of heat lost by the hot object is given to the cold
object.
Q lost = Q gained
For example, a bottle of soda is taken out from a refrigerator and

placed on a room. The air in the room will transfer heat to the bottle.
Eventually, their temperatures will be equal and thermal equilibrium
will be achieved.
Chapter 6 141
Heat
Example 5
20 g of steel with the temperature of 90oC is dropped into 0.25 kg
of water with the temperature of 24oC. What is the temperature
when the steel and water reach thermal equilibrium?
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4,200 J kg–1 oC–1;
Specific heat capacity of steel = 450 J kg–1 oC–1]
Solution:
msteel = 0.02 kg
csteel = 450 J kg–1 oC–1
mwater = 0.25 kg
cwater = 4,200 J kg–1 oC–1
20 g of steel 90oC
Heat lost
yoC
Heat gained
0.25 kg of water 24oC
Q lost by steel = Q gain by water

0.02 × 450 × (90 – y) = 0.25 × 4,200 × (y – 24)
9 × (90 – y) = 1050 × (y – 24)
y = 24.56oC
Heat flow
Heat only flows from a hotter object or place to a cooler object or

place. Heat is transferred by
(a) conduction through solids
(b) convection through liquids and gases
(c) radiation through vacuum
142 Science
Conduction
The flow of heat energy through solids, such as metals, is called

conduction.
When a pan is heated, the molecules at the bottom of the pan start to
vibrate energetically. They collide with their neighbouring molecules
and cause them to vibrate faster. The passing of heat energy from one
molecule to the next continues. In this way, heat energy travels to the
pan and then to the food on the pan.
Showing the transfer of heat

by conduction
Materials/Apparatus: Iron rod, thumbtacks, Bunsen burner, wax
and retort stand
Procedure:
1. A few thumbtacks are stuck to an iron rod using melted wax at
fixed intervals.
2. The rod is heated with the Bunsen burner at position X.
Wax
X
Iron rod
Thumbtack
Bunsen burner Retort stand
Wooden block
You can view the
animations of heat
transfer at this website Studying the method of heat transfer in a solid
to have a better
understanding. 3. The thumbtacks are observed to see the order in which they
fall off.
Observation:
The thumbtacks fall off one by one, beginning with the one nearest
to the hot end.
Discussion:
1. The heat energy from the flame flows along the iron rod,
melting the wax as it goes, causing the thumbtacks to fall off.
The iron rod has conducted heat energy along its length.
2. The wooden block is used to prevent the radiated heat from
the flame from reaching the thumbtacks directly.
Conclusion:
Conduction is a process of heat transfer through solids from an
area of high temperature to another area of low temperature.
Chapter 6 143
Heat
Convection
Heat can flow through a liquid or a gas because heated parts of the
liquid or gas move. Rising warm air is an example. The flow of heat that
occurs when a warm liquid or gas moves is known as convection.

in liquids by convection
Materials/Apparatus: 100 ml beaker, Bunser burner, tripod
stand, wire gauze and a small piece of
potassium permanganate(VII).
Procedure:
1. A large beaker is filled with water almost to the brim.
Water
Beaker
Potassium
permanganate(VII)
crystal
Bunsen burner

2. Using a glass rod, a small piece of potassium permanganate(VII)
crystal is placed into the beaker.
3. The water in the beaker is heated slowly and the direction of
the flow of water is recorded.
Observation:
Cold water moves

downwards Hot water moves
upwards
Potassium Convection
permanganate(VII) currents
crystal
Convection in liquid
Purple streaks are seen moving up to the surface of the water and
moving down again in cycles as shown in the above figure. The
whole body of water is seen circulating in the beaker.
Discussion:
When the water is heated, water molecules are moving faster and
pushing each other further apart. The water expands and becomes
less dense than the surrounding water, and rises above the cooler
144 Science
or denser water around it. The cooler or denser water sinks to
replace the less dense water. This flow of water is known as
convection current.
Conclusion:
Heat is transferred through liquids from a hotter area to a cooler
area by convection.

in gases by convection
Materials/Apparatus: Gas jar, candle, T-shaped cardboard and
wooden splinter
Procedure:
Lighted wooden splinter
T-shaped cardboard
Lighted candle Gas jar
Convection in gases
1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the above figure.

2. A lighted wooden splinter is brought near the mouth of the gas
jar on the side opposite to where the candle is.
3. The direction of flow of the smoke in the gas jar is observed.
Observation:
The smoke from the lighted wooden splinter moves downwards
and rises above the lighted candle.
Discussion:
When the air above the lighted candle is heated, it expands and
becomes less dense than the surrounding air. The cooler or denser
air flowing in from below pushes up the hotter air above the candle.
The smoke from the lighted wooden splinter shows the air current.
Conclusion:
Heat is transferred through gases from a hotter area to a cooler
area by convection.
Chapter 6 145
Heat
Radiation
The process where heat energy travels through an empty space or a

vacuum is known as radiation.
An example of heat radiation is the transfer of heat from the Sun to the
Earth through mostly empty space. Such a transfer cannot occur via
convection or conduction, which requires the movement of material
from one place to another, or the collisions of molecules within a
material.

through a vacuum by radiation
Materials/Apparatus: Bell jar, bulb and vacuum pump
Procedure:
To switch
Bell jar
Hand
Bulb
To vacuum pump
Transfer of heat through radiation
1. An electric bulb is fixed inside a bell jar as shown above.

2. The air in the bell jar is removed using a vacuum pump, and
then, the bulb is switched on.
3. The side of the bell jar is felt by touching the bell jar with both
hands.
4. The observation is recorded.
Observation:
The side of the bell jar feels warm after some time.
Discussion:
Since the air in the bell jar has been removed, there is no medium
for the heat to flow by conduction or convection. The hands feel
warm, showing that heat energy can flow through vacuum.
Conclusion:
Heat can be transferred through a vacuum by radiation.
146 Science
Heat flow in natural phenomena
Some natural phenomena occur as a result of heat flow.
Warming of the Earth by the Sun

(a) The Sun gives solar energy every day. During the day, the
Earth’s surface is warmed up and during the night, this energy
is radiated back into space as radiant heat energy.
(b) A fraction of the solar energy that reaches the Earth is absorbed,
causing evaporation of water from the oceans, the lakes, the
land and plants. Convection current carries the water vapor
up to the atmosphere to form clouds, which will form rain and
thunderstorms.
(c) The warming of the Earth by the Sun can cause changes in the
climatic conditions of the Earth and many natural phenomena
such as land and sea breezes, thunderstorms, hurricanes and
so on.
Land and sea breezes

(a) The unequal heating of air over the land and water will result
in breezes near the shores.
(b) During the day, both the land and the sea are heated by the
Sun. However, the land gets heated up faster than the sea.
The air above the land surface heats up, expands and rises.
It is lighter than the surrounding air. To replace the rising air,
cooler air is drawn in from the surface of the sea. This is the sea
breeze. It can offer a pleasant cooling effect on a hot afternoon.
The phenomenon of sea breeze

(c) At night, the land cools faster than the sea. When this happens,
the air over the warmer surface of sea heats up and rises,
pulling in the air from the cooler land surface to replace it.
This is the land breeze.
You may view this

website to know more
about the land and
sea breezes.
The phenomenon of land breeze
Chapter 6 147
Heat
Keeping buildings cool
A building can be cooled by having a good ventilation system, so that

air circulation in the building is continuous. Hot air from the building
flows out from the top and cool air can flow in from the bottom.
Most of the traditional houses are built with ventilation holes at the
base of the house and at the top near the roof. Hot air inside the house
will rise and flow out through the ventilation holes at the roof. Cool air
will enter through the openings at the base of the house to replace the
hot air. This produces a natural convection current inside the house.
In modern buildings, the ventilation system is made more effective by

installing exhaust fans and extractor fans. Hot and humid air can be
sucked out and replaced with fresh and cool air.
Modern houses are equipped with fans and air conditioners to make
the house cooler. Modern buildings use centralized air conditioning
system to cool the whole building.
Insulation can also help to keep a building cool. Buildings with loft
insulation, insulating cavity walls or double-glazed windows are usually
much cooler than those which are built without insulating materials.
Heat conductors and heat insulators
When materials allow heat to pass through them rapidly, they are known
as conductors. All metals are good conductors of heat compared with
other materials. They have low specific heat capacities.
Other materials like non-metals, liquids and gases that do not allow
heat to pass through easily are known as poor conductors of heat or
insulators. They have high specific heat capacities.
Conductors Insulators
• Mercury (liquid) • Glass
• Silver • Air
• Copper • Water (liquid)
• Aluminum • Plastics
• Zinc • Rubber
• Iron • Wood
• Lead • Materials containing trapped air (wool,
plastic foam, expanded polystyrene)
Examples of heat conductors and insulators
148 Science
Uses of heat conductors
Examples of the uses of heat conductors in daily life are shown in the
table below.
Materials/Devices Uses
Cooking utensils • Cooking utensils such as saucepans,
pots and kettles are usually made of
aluminum or stainless steel.
• They conduct heat quickly and easily to
the food and thus save fuel.
Electrical appliances • Electric irons and hot plates are made of
iron or stainless steel that conducts heat
well.
• Heat sinks that are used in computers,
disk drives and televisions as cooling fins
are made of aluminum.
Others • Radiator coils and cooling fins behind the
refrigerator are made of copper.
• Soldering iron rods are made of iron with
copper tips.
Some uses of heat conductors in daily life
Uses of heat insulators
Insulators are used in many applications where we want to minimize

heat flow or heat loss. Examples of the uses of heat insulators in daily
life are shown in the table below.
Materials/Devices Uses
Wood or plastics • Handles for cooking utensils, kettles,
teapots, soldering iron rods and so on.
• They protect our hands from the hot
surfaces.
Cork, asbestos • To prevent tabletops from being damaged
sheets, tiles by hot kitchenware or objects.
Sawdust • To cover ice blocks to slow down the melting
process.
Woolen blanket or • Used to keep the body warm on cold days.
cloth The woolen blanket and the air layer trapped
inside can prevent heat loss from the body.
Fiberglass, • Used as insulators in the walls of ice boxes
expanded and refrigerators. Air trapped inside acts as
polystyrene foam insulator.
Examples of insulators and their uses
Chapter 6 149
Heat
Investigating different materials as
heat insulators
Hypothesis Different materials have different abilities to

act as heat insulators.
Constant variable Size of materials
Manipulated variable Type of insulators
Responding variable Time taken for cobalt chloride paper to
change color
Materials/Apparatus Glass rod, wooden rod, plastic rod, cork,
cobalt chloride paper and metal trough
Procedure
Hot water
Wooden Glass Plastic
rod rod rod
Metal trough
Hot
water
Metal
Plastic rod
Cobalt trough
Glass rod
chloride
paper Cork
Wooden rod
Cobalt chloride paper
(a) Experiment setting (b) Top view
1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the above figure.

2. The rods of different insulators (wood, glass and plastic) are
inserted through corks at the side of the metal trough. The length
of all the rods inside the trough is made sure to be the same.
3. A piece of moist cobalt chloride paper is placed at the end of
each rod.
4. Boiling water is poured into the trough so that the ends of the
rods are all heated to the same temperature.
5. The time taken for the cobalt chloride paper at the end of each
rod to change from pink to blue is recorded.
Results
Type of Time taken for cobalt chloride paper to

insulator change color
Wood 15 minutes
Plastic 13 minutes
Glass 8 minutes
150 Science
Discussion
The results show that the cobalt chloride paper at the end of the
glass rod changes color first, followed by the one at the plastic rod
and lastly at the wooden rod. This shows that wood is the best heat
insulator compared with plastic and glass.
Conclusion
Different materials have different abilities to act as heat insulators.
The hypothesis is accepted.
Benefits of heat flow
There are many uses of heat flow in our daily life:

(a) The flow of heat through conduction is used for cooking and
boiling. Conduction of heat is also applied in electric irons, ovens
and toasters.
(b) The flow of heat by convection and radiation is used to dry wet
clothes, salted fish and others.
(c) Heat flow from the Sun to the Earth through radiation gives us
warmth.
Drying wet clothes Drying salted fish
(d) Convection currents can help to improve air circulation and cool
our houses and buildings. Fans and air conditioners help to cool
the surrounding air through convection currents.
Hot air
Air conditioner
Cold air
Air conditioning
Chapter 6 151
Heat
(e) Our life can be healthier and more comfortable with a good
ventilation system in our houses. Windows, openings and exhaust
fans are things that can help to improve the ventilation of air in a
house. Warm air inside the house can be drawn out and replaced
with fresh, cool air from the outside.
Chimney
Air vent
Hot air
Window
Cool air Ventilation hole
Ventilation of buildings
Q1. What does it means if we say that two objects are

in thermal equilibrium?
Q2. What is the final temperature of 0.5 kg of ice at

0°C added to an insulated container filled with
5 kg of water at 20°C? [Specific latent heat of
6.3 fusion of water, l = 3.36 × 105 J kg–1; Specific heat
capacity, c = 4,200 J kg–1 oC–1]
Q3. Explain briefly how heat flows through solids,

liquids and gases.
Q4. Give an example of a natural phenomenon of

heat flow.
Q5. What is meant by

(a) a good heat conductor of heat and
(a) a poor heat conductor of heat?
Q6. Explain why an air conditioner is usually fixed

near to the ceiling of a room.
152 Science
Sources Uses of heat Heat & temperature
Energy
Expansion &
Thermal contraction Application
Heat
equilibrium of matter
Heat flow Changes in

Specific
temperature
heat capacity
of matter
Conduction Radiation Changes in

states of Specific
latent heat
matter
Convection
Specific latent heat Specific latent heat

of fusion of vaporization
Chapter 6 153
Heat
latent heat convection Kelvin (K) heat

contract insulators temperature Joule (J)
expand radiation mercury thermal equilibrium
conductors gaps conduction heat capacity
1. is a form of energy and it is measured in .
2. measures how hot or cold the object is, and it is measured in
Celsius (oC) or .
3. When matter is heated, it will and its size or volume will become
bigger.
4. When matter losses heat, it will and its size or volume will become
smaller.
5. expands and contracts evenly as the temperature changes. This

makes it suitable to be used in thermometers.
6. There are in the railway tracks to allow the tracks to expand on a

hot day. This prevents the tracks from being buckled.
7. The specific of a substance is the amount of heat needed to

increase the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1oC.
8. The specific of a substance is the amount of heat needed to

change the state of 1 kg of the substance without any change in temperature.
9. When two substances in physical contact have the same temperature, they are said to
be in .
10. is the process in which heat is transferred through solids from a

particle to the other.
11. is the process in which heat is transferred through moving

particles such as in liquids and gases.
12. is the process in which heat is transferred through a vacuum.
13. Heat are materials that allow heat to pass through them easily
such as iron.
14. Heat are materials that do not allow heat to pass through them
easily such as rubber.
154 Science
A solar oven
The heat energy from the Sun makes our Earth habitable for humans and other living things.
Convection helps the heat to travel better in the atmosphere.
Design and build a solar oven to heat up 100 ml of water in a cup with the suggested materials,
using the Sun as your only source of energy. The temperature of your water in the oven must
increase by 10oC in 15 minutes.
Guidelines:
1. Remember the goal is to capture the solar heat in your oven. The suggested materials
are a plain box, a box with a black bottom and a black-bottomed box coated with
aluminum foil.
2. You can also cover the cup with a plastic wrap.
3. Design and create your oven. Do not forget to record the initial temperature of the
water and the final temperature of the water (after 15 minutes).
What is your need?



Brainstorm various solutions and choose the best one.
Chapter 6 155
Heat
What is your plan?

How does it work?


156 Science
1. Two similar beakers, A and B are placed on a flat electric hot plate as shown in Figure 1.
Beaker B contains more water than beaker A. The power supply is turned on for 5 minutes.
Thermometer
Beaker A Beaker B
Water
Electric hot plate

To power
supply
Figure 1
(a) (i) Which beaker of water absorbs more heat energy?

(ii) Which beaker of water has a higher temperature?
(iii) Give a reason for your answer in (a)(ii).
(b) State the process by which heat energy is

(i) transferred from the hot plate to the water.
(ii) spread through the water.
2. Figure 2 shows two identical flasks, P and Q, that are filled with colored water and air
respectively.
Pellet of
colored liquid
Colored water Air Hot water
P Q
Figure 2
(a) What can you say about the volume of water in flask P as compared to the volume of
air in flask Q ?
(b) When flasks P and Q are plunged into hot water in container R, it is found that the
colored pellet in flask Q rises up the tube very rapidly.
(i) Make an inference from this observation.
(ii) Suggest two ways in which the water level in flask P could be increased.
Chapter 6 157
Heat
3. Figure 3 shows an experiment to investigate heat conduction through different materials.
Rods of five different materials but having the same length and diameter are passed
through corks inserted in holes in the side of a metal trough. The rods are coated with
wax. Boiling water is then poured into the trough and the water is kept boiling using an
immersion heater.
Hot water
Wax
Aluminium
Copper
Wood Lead
Iron
Figure 3
The extent to which the wax melts is taken after 5 minutes and the results are shown in
Table 1.
Type of rod Length of wax melted after 5 minutes (cm)

Wood 0
Iron 2.0
Lead 1.5
Copper 8.5
Aluminum 6.0
Table 1
(a) What inference can you make from the observations?
(b) Identify the three variables in the experiment:

(i) Manipulated variable
(ii) Responding variable
(iii) Constant variable
(c) Which variable needs to be defined in operational terms?
(d) Among the materials used in the experiment, which one is the best conductor of
heat?
(e) Which material is a good insulator of heat?
158 Science
4. Figure 4 shows a 200 g metal block, M is placed in some ice cubes of temperature 0oC
for a long time. Then it is transferred quickly into 500 g of water at 60oC in a polystyrene
cup. The water is stirred until thermal equilibrium is reached.
Thermometer X Polystyrene
M M cup
Ice Water (60oC)
Figure 4
(a) What is the meaning of thermal equilibrium?
(b) Explain, in thermal equilibrium, how thermometer X which is placed into the ice
reached the temperature of 0oC.
(c) Calculate the final temperature of the water in the polystyrene cup.
[Specific heat capacity of M = 600 J kg–1 oC–1; Specific heat capacity of water =
4,200 J kg–1 oC–1]
5. What is the final temperature of 200 g of ice at –16°C added to a polystyrene cup filled
with 5 kg of water at 60°C?
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4,200 J kg–1 oC–1; Specific heat capacity of ice = 2,000
J kg–1 oC–1; Specific latent heat of fusion of water = 3.36 × 106 J oC–1]
Chapter 6 159
Heat
tmosphe re?
What is a
7
Chapter
Atmosphere and
Weather
• explain the division of atmospheric layers and compare them.
• explain the factors that affect the composition changes of climate

and weather.
• compare the formation process of a thunderstorm and a tropical

cyclone that affects organisms and the environment, and provide
guidelines on how to behave appropriately and safely.
• explain weather forecast and realize the value of weather forecast

by presenting the guidelines on how to behave and make use of
the weather forecast.
• realize the impacts of world climate change by introducing practi-

cal guidelines for self-care.
7.1 Layers of the Earth’s
Atmosphere
Our Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air known as the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases. If compared to the
diameter of the Earth, the atmosphere is very thin.
Earth
Our atmosphere can be divided into five layers. They are held to the
Earth by the force of gravity. There is no actual visible borders between
the layers of air and no drastic changes from a layer to the next layer.
Instead, the change is gradual.
Atmosphere
1,000
Exosphere
Thermosphere
Altitude (km)
500
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
80
Troposphere
50
Mt Everest 8,848 m
10
Layers in the atmosphere
We live in the troposphere, the layer closest to the ground.

It is about 10 km in height and contains 75% of the atmospheric
gases. Weather occurs here because this layer contains most
of the water vapor.
The temperature in the
atmosphere varies from
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere. The stratosphere -100°C to 2,000°C,
extends to the height of 50 km. There is no cloud here and the air is depending on its height
still. Therefore, most planes fly in this layer of air. from the Earth.
Chapter 7 161
Atmosphere and Weather
The stratosphere contains a thin layer of ozone. This ozone layer
absorbs the harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun. These rays cause
sunburn and skin cancer.
Beyond the stratosphere, the air here is very cold and thin. This layer
is known as the mesosphere and it extends to a height of 80 km.
Most meteorites are slowed down and burnt out in this layer.
The thermosphere is the fourth layer from the ground. It is found

between 80 km and 500 km above the Earth. Space shuttles fly in
this area. Aurora lights are found here.
The furthest layer from the Earth is the exosphere, where the
atmosphere merges into the space. Satellites are stationed here.
The temperature of the atmosphere varies, depending the height from

the Earth. It rises and falls throughout the layers of the atmosphere.
Aurora Thermosphere
Altitude (km)
Tem
per
atu
re Mesosphere
Meteor
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Temperature (ºC)
Temperatures in different layers in the atmosphere
Q1. What is atmosphere?
Q2. Name the layers of atmosphere, starting from the

one closest to the Earth.
Q3. Which layer has most of the atmosphere’s ozone?

7.1
162 Science
7.2 Weather
Weather refers to the present state of the atmosphere. It could be
sunny or cloudy, windy or still, wet or dry. A complete description of
weather includes the type of clouds, temperature, wind speed and
direction, precipitation, humidity and air pressure.
Meteorology is the study of the entire atmosphere, including the

weather. A meteorologist is a scientist who studies the causes of the
weather conditions and also forecasts the weather. He also studies
subjects not directly related to weather, such as the composition of
the atmosphere, the atmosphere of other planets and also the causes
of the past and present weather.
Weather forecasting
A weather forecast is a prediction about the

weather that will be experienced a short period of
time in the future, for example, for the next day or
the next few days.
We are very dependent on the weather especially

those who work outdoors. Bad or good weather
has huge impact on public health, agriculture,
occupations, construction, transportation, tourism,
recreation, ecosystems and biodiversity.
Weather forecasting is important to predict bad weather. The national

weather service issues weather alerts and advisories when it
anticipates approaching severe thunderstorms or tropical cyclones.
This helps to protect life and property.
Weather forecasting is important to pilots, fishermen and sailors.

Aviation and marine industries are sensitive to the weather. In
general, strong winds, lightning and high precipitation pose a risk to
them. They can avoid being trap in severe weather by referring to the
weather forecasting.
Find out the weather

forecast for today
and for this week
here.
Chapter 7 163
Agricultural production depends on the weather. Weather greatly
affects the growth and yield of crops, pests and disease invasions,
and the needs of water and fertilizers. Severe weather such as storms
and strong winds may damage the crops and cause soil erosion.
Bad weather may affect the transportation and storage of crops. With
weather forecasting, farmers can predict and plan for crop irrigation,
fertilizing, pesticide spraying and protection.
Crop irrigation
Weather forecasting of wind, humidity and precipitation also helps in

avoiding forest fires. The authorities can issue warning to areas that
are prone to forest fires due to the dry weather.
How do you use the weather forecast? It can guide us on what

clothes to wear or if we need to bring umbrellas, and what suitable
activities that can be carried out in the very near future. We can
also prepare ourselves and take precautions for any predicted bad
weather conditions such as heavy rain, cyclones, heat waves and
even droughts.
There are thousands of weather stations around the world. These

stations record the information about weather. They have instruments
to measure temperature, rainfall, wind speed and direction, air
pressure and humidity. Weather forecasting involves a combination
of computer models, observations and knowledge of trends and
patterns. Now, weather satellites are used in monitoring and
predicting the weather. The satellites are launched into the space
and left to orbit the Earth. They take pictures of the Earth from the top
view and send them back to the weather stations for analysis.
Weather satellites
164 Science
Weather components
What makes up the weather? There are six main components of

Meteorologists are weather. They are air temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity,
trying to predict weather
conditions months and speed and direction of wind, cloudiness, and precipitation. These
even years into the components describe the weather conditions at any given time.
future. Forecasts are These factors are affected by many elements such as the surface
getting more and more of the local area and the distance from big water bodies. They
accurate and being
able to predict weather influence each other too. Meteorologists can make weather forecast
events well ahead of time. through observing different weather components by using weather
This should help save instruments. They observe and analyze the collected data to prepare
lives and keep people the weather forecast.
safe. The research is
experimental at the
moment, but could one Air temperature is a measure of the hotness or
day help us prepare for coldness of the atmosphere. The air temperature
extreme or unexpected
weather well in advance.
varies at different times of the day and also during
different seasons of the year. It varies from place to
place too.
Air temperature is an important component as it

influences other weather components such as
precipitation, humidity and atmospheric pressure.
A thermometer can be used to measure the air
temperature. Thermometer
The air around us has weight. Atmospheric

pressure or air pressure is the amount of
force exerted by the weight of the air in the
atmosphere on the Earth’s surface.
Atmospheric pressure can be measured

with a barometer.
A higher air pressure indicates sunny and

dry conditions, while a lower air pressure Baromemeter
indicates approaching stormy or bad
weather.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. It is

affected by air temperature. Without water vapor in the air, we would
be living in an environment that has no clouds, rain, and lightning.
How does humidity affect us on a hot day?
Chapter 7 165
When the relative humidity is very high, the air is saturated with water
vapor and the sweat from our body does not evaporate. We will feel
warm and sticky. The instrument used to measure relative humidity is
called a psychrometer.
Psychrometer
Wind is moving air. The sun heats our Earth unevenly. Some places
are heated up more than the others. An anemometer is used to
measure the speed of wind.
Anemometer
A wind vane is used to show the direction of the wind, where the
wind is blowing from. The wind is also named based on the direction
from which it blows. For example, a north wind is a wind that originates
in the north and blows to the south.
Wind vane
166 Science
When the wind changes its direction, it usually brings a change in the
weather. For example, knowing the direction of the wind helps us to
predict which direction a storm will travel.
A cloud is made up of tiny water droplets floating in the atmosphere.

It is formed when the water vapor condenses to form water droplets
in the air. Clouds can be classified according to their shapes and
heights. There are many types of clouds such as cirrus, cumulus, and
cumulonimbus clouds. Each type of cloud is related to a different type
of weather.
Cirrus clouds usually indicate fair to Cumulus clouds usually indicate fair
pleasant weather. weather.
Cumulonimbus clouds usually produce

heavy rain, lightning, and thunder.
Meteorologists describe the cloud conditions in terms of cloudiness

such as clear, partly cloudy, or mostly cloudy. For example, “cloudy”
means that clouds cover more than 60 percent of the sky. The higher
the clouds, the better the weather will be.
Precipitation is any moisture that falls from the

air to the ground. Rain, snow, hail, and sleet
are examples of precipitation. The common
precipitation in our country is rain. A rain gauge
can be used to gather and measure the amount
of rainfall in a place over a set period of time.
The rainfall is usually measured in millimeters.
Rain gauge
Chapter 7 167
These weather components affect each other. For example, the air
temperature depends on the cloud cover. With less cloud in the
sky, the Sun can directly heat up the air. When it is raining with wind
blowing, the air temperature will drop.
Besides these components, the altitude of a place also affects the

local weather. Altitude is how high one is above the sea level. Air
temperature decreases as altitude increases. The temperature at
Doi Inthanon (2,565 m) is between 10 to 12oC whereas the average
temperature at Phuket (0 m) is about 27oC.
3000 meters = 10.5°C
2000 meters = 17°C
1000 meters = 23.5°C
0 meter altitude
(sea level) = 27°C
Altitude affects the air temperature.
Altitude also affects the atmospheric pressure. If you look at the

sky, you might think it weighs nothing. Actually the sky is made of
molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water. Even
though these molecules are very tiny, they have masses. This weight
of air pressing on us is the atmospheric pressure.
Mount Everest
8,850 m 31 kPa
Doi Inthanon
2,565 m 74 kPa
101 kPa
Altitude affects the atmospheric pressure.
At sea level or the bottom of this layer of air, there is more weight of air
and hence more atmospheric pressure at the sea level. As we travel
up, the atmospheric pressure reduces as there is less air above us. At
sea level (0 m), the atmospheric pressure is about 101 kPa whereas
at the top of Doi Inthanon (2,565 m), it is about 74 kPa and at the top
of Mount Everest (8,850 m), it is about 31 kPa.
168 Science
Q1. What is weather?
Q2. List five benefits of having weather forecasting.
Q3. List the components of weather and the

instruments to measure them.
7.2 Q4. How do the temperature and atmospheric
pressure change with the altitude?
7.3 Thunderstorms and

Tropical Cyclones
A thunderstorm, or T-Storm, is a form of weather characterized

by the presence of lightning and its attendant thunder. It is often
accompanied by copious rainfall, hail, or, on occasion, snowfall
(which is known as thunder snow).
Thunderstorm
How is a thunderstorm formed? At first, the Sun heats up the Earth’s

surface. The surface heats up the air above it. The warm moist air
rises, forming a cumulus cloud. The cloud continues to grow as long
as the warm air continues to rise.
Formation of a thunderstorm
Chapter 7 169
Then, the warm air meets the very cold air in the middle level of the
atmosphere. When these two masses of air collide, we can hear
thunder and see lighting. Later the cloud becomes very large. The
water droplets in it become large and heavy, and start to fall as rain.
About after 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to dissipate. The Thunderstorms help the
atmosphere to release
storm dies out as the rain gets lighter and the cloud disappears. energy. As the huge
amount of water vapor
In Thailand, thunderstorms are common throughout the year, condenses, it releases
especially during the southwest monsoon. Mild thunderstorms do not heat energy. As the
thunderstorm progresses,
cause much damage and only slightly affect us. We may have to the rain will cool the whole
postpone a game of football or seek shelter inside a building. process and the energy
is gone.
Severe thunderstorms however are very damaging.
(a) Flash floods commonly occur during thunderstorms. These floods
can cause loss of human or animal lives and damage crops and
property. In the cities, motorists may be stranded in traffic jams
that last for hours.
(b) The lightning generated is dangerous too. Lightning may cause
loss of lives and property damage. Lightning can also start fires.
(c) Winds can easily reach 80 km/h. In severe storms, wind velocity
is even higher, reaching more than 90 km/h. Such strong winds
are dangerous and cause a lot of damage.
(d) Thunderstorms may produce hailstones which can damage
property and crops and injure humans and animals.
Severe storm approaching
During a thunderstorm we should:

• avoid being outdoors. Always seek shelters inside buildings
immediately.
• avoid water-based activities such as swimming, fishing and
boating.
• do not use the telephone, computers or devices connected to
modems.
• stay away from transmission lines.
• prepare sandbags to prevent floodwater from entering and move
electrical items to higher areas if your area is low lying or prone to
flood.
170 Science
A tropical cyclone is a circular storm that brings heavy rain and
strong winds in tropical areas. It usually forms over warm oceans and
often moves onto the land. There are several basic conditions for a
tropical cyclone to form.
The sea temperature is above 26°C.
The humidity is high.
It happens near the equator.
Tropical cyclones form over the warm oceans with the temperature
above 26°C. The warm moist air rises. At a certain height, it condenses
to form clouds. The cool air rushes in to take up the space left by the
warm air, forming winds.
A tropical cyclone rotates

in a counter-clockwise
Formation of a tropical cyclone
direction around the eye in
the northern hemisphere
and in a clockwise A tropical cyclone rotates around the eye. This cycle causes huge
direction in the southern
storm clouds to form. These clouds begin to rotate along with the
hemisphere.
Earth’s spin. If there is enough warm water, the storm clouds will grow
into a tropical cyclone.
The main parts of a tropical cyclone are the eye, the eyewall, and
the rainbands. The eye is the center of the tropical cyclone. It is the
calmest part of the storm. Generally, there is no cloud and the wind
is slow.
Eye
Eyewall
Rainbands
Parts of a tropical cyclone
However, the most dangerous part is the edge of the eye known as the
eyewall. The eyewall produces heavy rains and usually the strongest
winds. The rainbands are the curved clouds trailing away from the
eye. They can produce heavy burst of rains and winds, sometimes
with no wind or rain between the spiral rainbands.
Chapter 7 171
Tropical cyclones can bring heavy damages to living things and
the environment in their paths. Not only will there be damages to
infrastructures, but also loss of lives can occur. Heavy rains cause
floods to occur.
Sometimes storm surges occur and this worsens the flood. Floods
can wash away weak buildings and damage plantations.
Effects of a tropical cyclone
Heavy rainfall may cause landslides. Mountain rocks washed away

by rain will tumble, damaging buildings, causing death and injuries
to people and animals, and blocking traffic.
How do you protect yourself during a tropical cyclone? If the

meteorological department issues warning of any approaching
tropical cyclones in your area, prepare an emergency kit which
should contain some water, food, battery, torches and first aid kit.
Stay inside as much as possible and be alert for evacuation warning.
Always stay calm and do not panic.
Evacuate when advised to do so
Q1. Differentiate between a thunderstorm and a

tropical cyclone.
Q2. What are the effects a thunderstorm?
Q3. What should you do when the meteorological

department issues a tropical cyclone warning for
7.3 your area?
172 Science
7.4 Changes in Global Climate
Global climate refers to the average climate on the Earth. On the
other hand, climate refers to the general prevailing weather conditions
of a region over a long period. For example, in general our weather
could be rainy, hot or even windy. However, the climate in Thailand is
tropical with an average temperature of 28oC and high humidity. It is
always warm and it rains a lot here.
The global average
surface temperature rose Scientists have warned that the world’s climate has changed a lot.
0.6 to 0.9oC between 1906 Our planet is getting warmer. Even a small increase in temperature
and 2005, and the rate of can change our climate, and this has a great effect on all the living
temperature increase has
things. This phenomenon is known as global warming.
nearly doubled in the last
50 years. Temperatures
are certain to go up Burning of fuel like coal, oil, and gas gives us energy to power the
further. The global sea machinery in factories; our homes; and means of transportation. This
levels have already risen burning produces carbon dioxide which keeps our atmosphere warm
200 mm since 1880 and
the rate of the rise is rising. enough to support life. Without it, our planet would be frozen!
Carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere acts like the glass of the
greenhouse. It lets in sunlight and heat, and prevents the heat from
escaping back into outer space. This is called the greenhouse
effect.
Carbon dioxide, methane, A greenhouse is made of glass and

water vapor, is used to keep the crops warm in
chlorofluorocarbons or temperate regions so that the plants
CFCs, oxides of nitrogen can grow well.
and ozone are naturally
occurring greenhouse
gases. The pie chart
shows their proportion
in the atmosphere by %
volume.
Oxides of
Others
nitrogen
13% Methane
Carbon dioxide and
6%
18% other gases in the
CFCs atmosphere trap
14% heat, keeping the
Carbon dioxide Earth warm.
49%
The layer of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases trap heat,
keeping the Earth warm like a greenhouse.
These gases help to
keep the Earth at the right
temperature for living
However as human burns more fuels, the amount of carbon dioxide
things to survive. However, in our atmosphere continues to rise. Too much carbon dioxide in our
human activities upset the atmosphere will increase the temperature of the world and the world
balance of these gases in is getting warmer. If global warming continues, it will likely change
the atmosphere.
the pattern of weather and climate all over the world.
Chapter 7 173
Another factor contributing to the increased amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is the clear-cutting of rainforests. This is done to
provide land for growing crops and timber for building. By cutting
down the trees, humans are taking away one of nature’s ways of
cleaning the extra carbon dioxide from the air. Eruptions of volcanoes
also release a lot of greenhouse gases into the air.
A B
Human beings, plants and all other Carbon dioxide is also produced in large
animals breathe out carbon dioxide. quantities when fossil fuels are burnt.
Green plants absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis,

but not as fast as it is being produced. The situation is
made worse when trees are chopped down!
A+B>C
As a result, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air increases.
All these activities increase the greenhouse effects and cause global
warming.
Global warming will change our climate drastically. It does not mean
that it will be hotter everywhere. Some places will be warmer while
others actually become colder. Some will even get drier while others
wetter. The increased heat will change the global pattern of climate
and weather, producing larger and more powerful storms, greater
periods of droughts in some regions, and increased rainfall in others.
174 Science
Global warming melts the ice caps. The heat melts the ice at the
poles, causing the sea levels to rise. A rise in the sea level will cause
low-lying and coastal regions to be flooded.
Thick snow Drought
Melting of ice Flood
We can reduce the effects of global warming by:

reducing fossil fuel use – By doing so, we will reduce the emission
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. We can reduce our
electricity consumption, use energy-efficient appliances and use
public transport or carpooling.
planting more trees – Plants take in carbon dioxide and thus help
to slow or stop global warming.
practicing 3Rs – Minimizing waste reduces the methane and
other greenhouse gases emitting from decomposition of waste in
dumpsites. Recycling metals, plastic, glass and paper lowers the
greenhouse gas emissions as this process uses less energy than
manufacturing the item from scratch.
conserving water – Saving water reduces carbon pollution. It takes
a lot of energy for the production of clean water. Turn off the tap
while brushing your teeth. Take shorter showers.
Heat exhaustion and heat stroke are heat related illnesses. We can
avoid them by keeping cool in shelters and taking plenty of fluid.
Warmer weather contributes to the spread of illnesses carried by
insects such as malaria and dengue. Therefore, we should keep our
environment clean to prevent the breed of these insects.
Chapter 7 175
Q1. Name the factors that contribute to the increased amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere.
Q2. What is the function of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
Q3. How will global warming affect our environment?

7.4
Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere
layer
Atmosphere
Air temperature
Atmospheric
pressure
components
Weather
Weather forecast
Humidity
Wind speed
Thunderstorm
Wind direction
Tropical cyclone
Cloudiness
Precipitation
Global warming
Melting of effects due to

polar ice
Increase of carbon
Flood dioxide in the air
Drought
176 Science
global warming temperature thermometer tropical cyclone

direction atmosphere speed carbon dioxide
melts humidity five meteorology
ozone thunderstorm warning weather forecast
1. is the layer of air around our Earth.
2. There are layers of air in the atmosphere, namely

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
3. A thin layer of in the stratosphere absorbs the harmful

ultraviolet rays.
4. is the study of the entire atmosphere including the weather.
5. A is the prediction of the weather for the very near future

using technologies and data collected from weather stations and satellites.
6. Weather forecasts help in preventing of damages to properties and loss of lives as

of approaching severe weather can be made in advance.
7. Air tells how hot or cold the atmosphere is and it is measured
using a .
8. is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere.
9. Anemometer is used to measure the of wind.
10. Wind vane is used to determine the of wind.
11. A is the form of weather characterized by the presence of

strong wind, heavy rain, lightning and thunder.
12. A is a circular storm that brings heavy rain and wind in the
tropics.
13. is the increase in the average temperature of the world.
14. The Earth is getting warmer due to the increasing of in the

atmosphere, preventing the heat from escaping into space.
15. Global warming polar ice, causing floods and the sea level
to rise.
Chapter 7 177
Climate and clothing
Most people think the only ones who participate in designing clothes are the fashion
designers. However, in reality, chemical engineers or material engineers play a crucial role in
transforming raw materials into useful clothing materials. Clothing materials have huge effects
on the wearer’s comfort. Chemical engineers have to design appropriate clothing materials to
suit the climate. Your challenge is to design your new material for certain climate conditions.
Guidelines:
1. What climate conditions are you designing your new materials to suit for?
2. Use a fan to represent wind, a spray bottle to represent water/snow, and a container
of ice to represent the cold climate in your product presentation.
3. You are free to use any materials for your clothing.
• A variety of clothing materials such as felt, cotton, fleece and polyester.
• A variety of other materials such as aluminum foil, plastic wrap, brown paper,
shower curtain liner and cardboard.
What is your need?



Brainstorm various solutions and choose the best one.
178 Science
What is your plan?

How does it work?


Chapter 7 179
1. Table 1 shows the type of weather experienced in Town G in last five days.
Day Sunshine (hours) Rainfall (mm) Relative humidity (%)

Monday 3 18 50
Tuesday 0 30 65
Wednesday 2 14 60
Thursday 4 4 55
Friday 6 2 55
Table 1
(a) Which was the most sunny day?

(b) How much rainfall was there on the two wettest days?
(c) Anon likes to go fishing. He could not go fishing one day in that week.
(i) What day was it?
(ii) Why?
2. Figure 1 shows a phenomenon which occurs in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Sun
Heat reflection
Earth
Figure 1
(a) What is this phenomenon?

(b) What causes this phenomenon?
(c) Explain how this phenomenon affects the environment.
(d) List four effects of this phenomenon.
180 Science
BCB031048
Focus Smart Plus Science Textbook
covers the entire range of topics included in the Basic
Education Curriculum B.E. 2551 (Revised Edition B.E. 2560).
Notes and plenty of exercises are given to help students
understand and apply the concepts in daily life.
BCB031048 978-616-541-305-3
,!7IG1G5-ebdafd! Based on the Basic Education Curriculum B.E. 2551

(Revised Edition B.E. 2560)
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,!7IG1G5-ebdafd! Based on the Basic Education Curriculum B.E. 2551

Cover Textbook Science M1.indd 1 3/19/18 1:42 PM

TPage Textbook Science M1.indd 1 3/19/18 11:12 AM

1.1 What is Science? 2

Cells as the Unit of Life 30

2.1 Understanding Cells 31

4.1 States of Matter 88

Atoms, Elements and Compounds 101

5.1 Atoms 102

6.1 Heat as a Form of Energy 120

Atmosphere and Weather 160

7.1 Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere 161

Provides information on the

Provides direct access to useful Provides extra information

Helps students to recall the Provides subjective questions

Provides direct access to

Explains how scientiﬁc concepts Guides students to test a

Assists students in reviewing Collaboration

Focus Smart + AR Critical Thinking

Provides an activity that engages Creativity

We see various natural phenomena in our daily life. Natural

Lightning, rainbows, the melting of ice, the growth of a baby into an

Science is the systematic study of nature and how it affects

Using scientiﬁc knowledge, we invent many useful devices such as

01 Focus TB (Thai) 2018 Sc M1.indd 3 26/11/2019 4:28 PM

Science offers various career opportunities according to one’s area

Science is divided into a number of areas of study, namely

Q1. What is the difference between science and

Q2. Give one beneﬁt of science in the following areas.

Q3. State the ﬁeld of science related to the following.

Q4. List three careers that deal with human health.

For containing, collecting and transferring chemicals

A beaker is used for

A round-bottomed flask A flat-bottomed flask

A bell jar is used for

For measuring the volume of liquids

volume of liquids of liquid and

For filtering and evaporating

01 Focus TB (Thai) 2018 Sc M1.indd 5 26/11/2019 4:29 PM

A test tube holder is used A tripod stand is used

For holding and supporting apparatus

Uses of some common laboratory apparatus

(a) Never enter the laboratory unless a teacher is present.

The Bunsen burner is used in the laboratory to heat

When the air-hole is opened, the Bunsen burner gives Collar

When the air-hole is closed, the burner gives a yellow

The correct way to light up a Bunsen burner is as follows:

The correct way to hold a test tube during heating

(d) Do not heat ﬂammable substances like alcohol directly.

Symbol Danger of substances Examples Handling techniques

• Easily explodes when • Sodium, potassium • Keep in parafﬁn.

Q2. Explain why you should not pour any unused

Q3. Brieﬂy describe the correct way to light up a

Q4. A bottle of hydrochloric acid

1.3 Steps in Scientific

Observing Using the ﬁve senses to gather information

Classifying From observations, grouping things

Measuring and using Making quantitative observations using

Making inference Making initial conclusions that are

Predicting Forecasting events based on observations

Communicating Presenting information or ideas in the

Using space-time Describing changes in parameters such