History[edit]

Neolithic and early antiquity[edit]

Further information: Yangshao culture §  Houses

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A model of Jiangzhai, a Yangshao village

Chinese civilizational cultures developed in the plains along the numerous rivers that emptied into
the Bohai and Hongzhow bays. The most prominent of these rivers, the Yellow and the Yangtze,
hosted a complex fabric of villages. The climate was warmer and more humid than today, allowing
for millet to be grown in the north and rice in the south. There was, however, no single "origin" of the
Chinese civilization. Instead, there was a gradual multinuclear development between the years 4000
and 2000 BC – from village communities to what anthropologists call cultures to small but well-
organized states. 2 of the more important cultures were the Hongshan culture (4700–2900 BC) to
the north of Bohai Bay in Inner Mongolia and Hebei Province and the contemporaneous Yangshao
culture (5000–3000 BC) in Henan Province. Between the 2, and developing later, was the Longshan
culture (3000–2000 BC) in the central and lower Yellow River valley. These combined areas gave
rise to thousands of small states and proto-states by 3000 BC. Some continued to share a common
ritual center that linked the communities to a single symbolic order, but others developed along more
independent lines. All was not peaceful, and the emergence of walled cities during this time is a
clear indication that the political landscape was very much in flux. [10]
The Hongshan culture of Inner Mongolia (located along the Laoha, Yingjin, and Daling rivers that
empty into Bohai Bay) was scattered over a large area but had a single, common ritual center that
consisted of at least 14 burial mounds and altars over several hill ridges. It dates from around 3500
BC but could have been founded ever earlier. Although there is no evidence of village settlements
nearby, its size is much larger than one clan or village could support. In other words, though rituals
would have been performed here for the elites, the large area implies that audiences for the ritual
would have encompassed all the villages of the Hongshan. As a sacred landscape, the center might
also have attracted supplicants from even further afield. [10]

Features[edit]
A sancai (tri-colored) ceramic mansion from the Tang dynasty (618–907), excavated from a Tang era tomb at
Zhongbu village in the western suburbs of Xi'an.
The rectangular compound shown above has two sections of courtyards. The buildings on the axle line include
central entrance, four-pointed pavilion, mountain-shaped front hall, artificial mountain and ponds, eight-pointed
pavilion and mountain-shaped retiring quarters. The two sides of the central axle are arranged with corridor
rooms symmetrically.

Architectural bilateral symmetry[edit]

The Wonderland of Fanghu in the Old Summer Palace.It was destroyed by the Anglo-French Allied Forces in
1860.(Fanghu is one of the wonderlands on the sea in Chinese myths.It is the same as Fangzhang.“方壶”，
同“方丈”，是中国传说中海上三仙山之一。)
The Meridian Gate of the Forbidden City

A very important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateral

symmetry, which signifies balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found
everywhere in Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses. When possible,
plans for renovation and extension of a house will often try to maintain this symmetry provided that
there is enough capital to do so.[11] Secondary elements are positioned either side of main structures
as two wings to maintain overall bilateral symmetry. The buildings are typically planned to contain an
even number of columns in a structure to produce an odd number of bays (間). With the inclusion of
a main door to a building in the center bay, symmetry is maintained.
In contrast to the buildings, the Chinese gardens tend to be asymmetrical. The principle underlying
the garden's composition is to create enduring flow. [12] The design of the classic Chinese garden is
based on the ideology of "Nature and Man in One", as opposed to the home itself, which is a symbol
of the human sphere co-existing with, but separate from nature. So, the arrangement is as flexible as
possible to let people feel they are surrounded by and in harmony with nature. The two essential
elements of the garden are hill stones and water. The hill stones mean the pursuit of immortality and
water represents emptiness and existence. The mountain belongs to yang (static beauty) and the
water belongs to yin (dynamic wonder). They depend on each other and complete the whole nature.
[13]

Enclosure[edit]
In much of traditional Chinese architecture, buildings or building complexes take up an entire
property but enclose open spaces within themselves. These enclosed spaces come in two forms,
the:[11]

 Courtyard (院): The use of open courtyards is a common feature in many types of Chinese
architectures. This is best exemplified in the Siheyuan, which has consisted of an empty space
surrounded by buildings connected with one another either directly or through verandas.
 "Sky well" (天井): Although large open courtyards are less commonly found in southern
Chinese architecture, the concept of an "open space" surrounded by buildings, which is seen in
northern courtyard complexes, can be seen in the southern building structure known as the "sky
well". This structure is essentially a relatively enclosed courtyard formed from the intersections
of closely spaced buildings and offer small opening to the sky through the roof space from the
floor up.
These enclosures serve in temperature regulation and in venting the building complexes. Northern
courtyards are typically open and facing the south to allow the maximum exposure of the building
windows and walls to the sun while keeping the cold northern winds out. Southern sky wells are
relatively small and serves to collect rain water from the roof tops. They perform the same duties as
the Roman impluvium while restricting the amount of sunlight that enters the building. Sky wells also
serve as vents for rising hot air, which draws cool air from the lower stories of the house and allows
for exchange of cool air with the outside.
 

A skywell in a Fujian temple with enclosing halls and bays on four sides.

 


A mid-20th-century colonial style Taiwanese building containing a skywell.

 


A tulou outer building encloses a smaller circular building, which encloses an ancestral hall and
courtyard in the center.

 


A dugout dwelling enclosing an underground courtyard.

 An enclosing courtyard on four sides from the Astor Court in the Metropolitan Museum of

Art, New York City, USA.
Hierarchy[edit]

A tomb mural of Xinzhou, dated to the Northern Qi (550–577 AD) period, showing a hall with a tiled
roof, dougong brackets, and doors with giant door knockers (perhaps made of bronze)

The projected hierarchy and importance and uses of buildings in traditional Chinese architecture are
based on the strict placement of buildings in a property/complex. Buildings with doors facing the
front of the property are considered more important than those facing the sides. Buildings facing
away from the front of the property are the least important.
South-facing buildings in the rear and more private location of the property with higher exposure to
sunlight are held in higher esteem and reserved for elder members of the family or ancestral
plaques. Buildings facing east and west are generally for junior members or branches of the family,
while buildings near the front are typically for servants and hired help. [14]
Front-facing buildings in the back of properties are used particularly for rooms of celebratory rites
and for the placement of ancestral halls and plaques. In multiple courtyard complexes, central
courtyards and their buildings are considered more important than peripheral ones, the latter
typically being used as storage or servants’ rooms or kitchens. [11]

Horizontal emphasis[edit]
Classical Chinese buildings, especially those of the wealthy, are built with an emphasis on breadth
and less on height, featuring an enclosed heavy platform and a large roof that floats over this base,
with the vertical walls not well emphasized. Buildings that were too high and large were considered
unsightly, and therefore generally avoided. [15] Chinese architecture stresses the visual impact of the
width of the buildings, using sheer scale to inspire awe in visitors. [16] This preference contrasts
Western architecture, which tends to grow in height and depth. This often meant
that pagodas towered above all other buildings in the skyline of a Chinese city.[17]
The halls and palaces in the Forbidden City, have rather low ceilings when compared to equivalent
stately buildings in the West, but their external appearances suggest the all-embracing nature of
imperial China. These ideas have found their way into modern Western architecture, for example
through the work of Jørn Utzon.[18]

Cosmological concepts[edit]
Model of a Chinese Siheyuan in Beijing, which shows off the symmetry, enclosed heavy platform and a large
roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not as well emphasized.

Chinese architecture from early times used concepts from Chinese cosmology such as feng
shui (geomancy) and Taoism to organize construction and layout from common residences to
imperial and religious structures.[11] This includes the use of:

 Screen walls to face the main entrance of the house, which stems from the belief that evil
things travel in straight lines.
 Talismans and imagery of good fortune:
o Door gods displayed on doorways to ward off evil and encourage the flow of good
fortune
o Three anthropomorphic figures representing Fu Lu Shou (福祿壽 fú-lù-shòu) stars
are prominently displayed, sometimes with the proclamation "the three stars are present" (三
星宅 sān-xīng-zhài)
o Animals and fruits that symbolize good fortune and prosperity, such
as bats and pomegranates, respectively. The association is often done through rebuses.
 Orienting the structure with its back to elevated landscape and ensuring that there is water in
the front. Considerations are also made such that the generally windowless back of the structure
faces the north, where the wind is coldest in the winter.
 Ponds, pools, wells, and other water sources are usually built into the structure.
 Aligning a building along a north/south axis, with the building facing south and the two sides
facing east and west respectively.[17]
The use of certain colors, numbers and the cardinal directions in traditional Chinese architecture
reflected the belief in a type of immanence, where the nature of a thing could be wholly contained in
its own form. Beijing and Chang'an are examples of traditional Chinese town planning that
represents these cosmological concepts.

Architectural types[edit]
Han yuan tu by Li Rongjin, Yuan dynasty

Jianzhang Palace, Yuan dynasty

There are various types of Chinese architecture. Some of these relate to the associated use of the
structures, such as whether they were built for royals, commoners, or the religious.

Commoners[edit]
Due to primarily wooden construction and poor maintenance, far fewer examples of commoner's
homes survive to this day compared to those of nobles. According to Matthew Korman, the average
commoner's home did not change much, even centuries after the establishment of the universal
style, such as early-20th-century homes, were very similar to late and mid imperial homes in layout
and construction.[17]
These homes, be they those of bureaucrats, merchants or farmers, tended to follow a set pattern:
the center of the building would be a shrine for the deities and the ancestors, which would also be
used during festivities. On its two sides were bedrooms for the elders; the two wings of the building
(known as "guardian dragons" by the Chinese) were for the junior members of the family, as well as
the living room, the dining room, and the kitchen, although sometimes the living room could be very
close to the center.[19]
Sometimes the extended families became so large that one or even two extra pairs of "wings" had to
be built. This resulted in a U-shaped building, with a courtyard suitable for farm work. [17] Merchants
and bureaucrats, however, preferred to close off the front with an imposing front gate. All buildings
were legally regulated, and the law held that the number of stories, the length of the building and the
colours used depended on the owner's class.
Some commoners living in areas plagued by bandits built communal fortresses called Tulou for
protection. Often favoured by the Hakka in Fujian and Jiangxi, the design of Tulou also shows the
Chinese ancient philosophy of harmony between people and environment. People used local
materials to build the walls with rammed earth. There is no window to the outside on the lower two
floors for defense, but it's open on the inside with a common courtyard and lets people get together
easily.[20]

Imperial[edit]
There were certain architectural features that were reserved solely for buildings built for the Emperor
of China. One example is the use of yellow roof tiles, yellow having been the Imperial color; yellow
roof tiles still adorn most of the buildings within the Forbidden City. The Temple of Heaven, however,
uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs are almost invariably supported
by brackets ("dougong"), a feature shared only with the largest of religious buildings. The wooden
columns of the buildings, as well as the surfaces of the walls, tend to be red in color. Black is also a
famous color often used in pagodas. It was believed that the gods are inspired by the black color to
descend to the earth.
The Chinese 5-clawed dragon, adopted by the first Ming emperor for his personal use, was used as
decoration on the beams, pillars, and on the doors on Imperial architecture. Curiously, the dragon
was never used on roofs of imperial buildings.
Only the buildings used by the imperial family were allowed to have nine jian (間, space between two
columns); only the gates used by the Emperor could have five arches, with the centre one, of
course, being reserved for the Emperor himself. The ancient Chinese favored the color red. The
buildings faced south because the north had a cold wind.


A vaulted tomb chamber in Luoyang, built during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220)

 


A tomb chamber of Luoyang, built during the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220) with incised wall
decorations

 
 

The Great Red Gate at the Ming tombs near Beijing, built in the 15th century

 


The yellow roof tiles and red wall in the Forbidden City (Palace Museum) grounds in Beijing, built
during the Yongle era (1402–1424) of the Ming dynasty
Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century, completing the
easterly migration of the Chinese capital begun since the Jin dynasty. The Ming uprising in 1368
reasserted Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the next five
centuries. The Emperor and the Empress lived in palaces on the central axis of the Forbidden City,
the Crown Prince at the eastern side, and the concubines at the back (therefore the numerous
imperial concubines were often referred to as "The Back Palace Three Thousand"). However, during
the mid-Qing dynasty, the Emperor's residence was moved to the western side of the complex. It is
misleading to speak of an axis in the Western sense of a visual perspective ordering facades, rather
the Chinese axis is a line of privilege, usually built upon, regulating access—there are no vistas, but
a series of gates and pavilions.

Que 闕 towers along the walls of Tang-era Chang'an, as depicted in this 8th-century mural from Prince Li
Chongrun's tomb at the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi
Numerology heavily influenced Imperial Architecture, hence the use of nine in much of construction
(nine being the greatest single digit number) and the reason why the Forbidden City in Beijing is said
to have 9,999.9 rooms—just short of the mythical 10,000 rooms in heaven. The importance of the
East (the direction of the rising sun) in orienting and siting Imperial buildings is a form of solar
worship found in many ancient cultures, where there is the notion of Ruler being affiliated with the
Sun.
The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members, such as the 8th-century Tang
dynasty tombs at the Qianling Mausoleum, can also be counted as part of the imperial tradition in
architecture. These above-ground earthen mounds and pyramids had subterranean shaft-and-vault
structures that were lined with brick walls since at least the Warring States period (481–221 BC).[21]

Religious[edit]
See also: Temple (Chinese)

Nanchan Temple (Wutai), built in the late 8th century during the Tang dynasty

A timber hall built in 857 during the Tang dynasty, located at the Buddhist Foguang Temple of Mount Wutai,
Shanxi

Generally speaking, Buddhist architecture follows the imperial style. A large Buddhist monastery

normally has a front hall, housing the statues of the Four Heavenly Kings, followed by a great hall,
housing the statues of the Buddhas. Accommodations for the monks and the nuns are located at the
two sides. Some of the greatest examples of this come from the 18th-century Puning
Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple. Buddhist monasteries sometimes also have pagodas, which
may house the relics of the Gautama Buddha; older pagodas tend to be four-sided, while later
pagodas usually have eight sides.
Daoist architecture, on the other hand, usually follows the commoners' style. The main entrance is,
however, usually at the side, out of superstition about demons which might try to enter the premise
(see feng shui.) In contrast to the Buddhists, in a Daoist temple the main deity is located in the main
hall at the front, the lesser deities in the back hall and at the sides. This is because Chinese people
believe that even after the body has died, the soul is still alive. From the Han grave design, it shows
the forces of cosmic yin and yang, the two forces from the heaven and earth that creates eternity. [22]
The tallest pre-modern building in China was built for both religious and martial purposes. The Liaodi
Pagoda of 1055 AD stands at a height of 84 m (276 ft), and although it served as the crowning
pagoda of the Kaiyuan monastery in old Dingzhou, Hebei, it was also used as a
military watchtower for Song dynasty soldiers to observe potential Liao dynasty enemy movements.
The architecture of the mosques and gongbei tomb shrines of China's Muslims often combines
traditional Chinese styles with Middle Eastern influences.
Gallery[edit]


A group of temples at the top of Mount Taishan, where structures have been built at the site since the
3rd century BC during the Han dynasty
 


Nanshan Temple in Longkou, Shandong.

 


Lianhuashan (lit. "lotus flower mountain") Temple in Dalian

 


Songjiang Square Pagoda, built in the 11th century

 
 

The Nine Pinnacle Pagoda, built in the 8th century during the Tang dynasty
 


A Chinese pavilion instead of a minaret at the Great Mosque of Xi'an.

 


The Fogong Temple Pagoda, located in Ying county, Shanxi province, built in 1056 during the Liao
dynasty, is the oldest existent fully wooden pagoda in China
 
 

The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an, rebuilt in 704 during the Tang dynasty

 


The Songyue Pagoda, built in 523 AD during the Northern and Southern dynasties

 


The Liuhe Pagoda of Hangzhou, China, built in 1165 AD during the Song dynasty

 

 Hua Si Gongbei (the mausoleum of Ma Laichi) in Linxia City, Gansu
 


A timber hall built in 857 during the Tang dynasty,[23] located at the Buddhist Foguang

Temple in Mount Wutai, Shanxi
 


The Liaodi Pagoda, the tallest pre-modern Chinese pagoda, built in 1055 during the Song dynasty

Urban planning[edit]
Main article: Ancient Chinese urban planning
Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-field system of land division,
both used since the Neolithic age. The basic well-field diagram is overlaid with the luoshu, a magic
square divided into 9 sub-squares, and linked with Chinese numerology. [24] In Southern Song dynasty
(1131AD), the design of Hongcun city in Anhui was based around "harmony between man and
nature", facing south and surrounded by mountains and water. According to the theory of the
traditional Chinese fengshui geomancy, it is a carefully planned ancient village and show the
Human-Nature Intergraded Ecological Planning concept. [25]
Since wars happened in northern China very often, people moved to southern China. The building
method of a courtyard house was adapted to southern China. The village of Tungyuan in Fujian
Province is a good example of a planned settlement that shows the Chinese feng shui elements –
psychological self-defense and building structure – in the form of material self-defense. [26]