1.

PrINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
1A . States of Matter
Dasun Adeesha (BSc, PGDS)
 Learning Outcomes
➢ Understand the 3 states of matter in terms of arrangement,
movement and energy of the particles.
➢ Understand the interconversions between the three states of
matter in terms of name and changes in energy
➢ Understand how the results of experiments involving the
dilution of coloured solutions and diffusion of gases can be
explained
➢ Know what is meant by the terms solvent, solute, solution
and saturated solution
 Learning Outcomes
➢ Know what is meant by the term solubility in the units g
per 100g of solvent
➢ Understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves
➢ Practical : investigate the solubility of a solid in water at
a specific temperature
 The three states of Matter

❖ The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases

❖ A substance can usually exist in all three states, dependent on temperature (and pressure)
 Solids
● Strong forces of attraction between particles,
particles are packed very closely together in a fixed
and regular pattern
● Particles vibrate in position but can’t change
position or move
● Solids have a fixed volume, shape and high density
Liquids
● Weaker attractive forces in liquids than in solids,
particles are close together in an irregular, unfixed
pattern.
● Particles can move and slide past each other which is
why liquids adopt the shape of the container they’re in
and also why they are able to flow.
● Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape and
have a moderate to high density.
Gases
● No intermolecular forces, particles are in random
movement and so there is no defined pattern
● Particles are far apart and move quickly (around 500 m/s) in
all directions, they collide with each other and with the
sides of the container (this is how pressure is created inside
a can of gas)
● No fixed volume, since there is a lot of space between the
particles, gases can be compressed into a much smaller
volume. Gases have low density
Summary of the Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases
Interconversions between States of Matter
 Melting
❏ Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
❏ Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy,
allowing the particles to move
❏ Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point
(m.p.) which is unique to each pure solid
 Boiling
❏ Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
❏ Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the
surface of a liquid, allowing for liquid particles to escape from
the surface and within the liquid
❏ Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point
(b.p.) which is unique to each pure liquid
 Evaporation

❏ When a liquid changes into a gas. Evaporation occurs only at the

surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from
the liquid’s surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the
liquid
❏ The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the
more quickly a liquid can evaporate
❏ No heat is required and evaporation occurs over a range of
temperatures
 Differences between Evaporation and Boiling
Evaporation
★ Evaporation is a normal process that
occurs when the liquid form changes
into the gaseous form; while causing an
oration.
★ The process of evaporation is usually
slower and more carried out when
compared to boiling increase in the
pressure or temperature
★ Evaporation usually occurs on the
surface of the liquid being heated up
★ Bubbling effect is not visible in evap
Boiling
★ Boiling is an unnatural process where the
liquid gets heated up and vaporized due
to continuous heating of the liquid.
★ Boiling usually occurs on the entire mass
of the liquid that gets heated up.
★ Bubbling effect is visible during the
process of boiling.
★ The process of boiling is usually much
quicker and the process happens quite
rapidly as well.
 Freezing
❏ Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
❏ This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same
temperature as melting, hence the melting point and freezing
point of a pure substance are the same. Water for example
freezes and melts at 0ºC
❏ Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal
energy) and occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for
each pure substance
 Condensation
❏ When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling. When a
gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into
each other they lack the energy to bounce away again, instead
they group together to form a liquid
❏ No energy is required for condensation to occur and it takes
place over a range of temperatures
 Sublimation
❏ When a solid changes directly into a gas
❏ This happens to only a few solids such as iodine or solid carbon
dioxide
❏ The reverse reaction also happens and is also called sublimation
(sometimes called deposition or desublimation)
❏ Sublimation occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for
a pure substance
 1.1.5 Diffusion
“ Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration.”
❖ Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles
move randomly from place to place.
❖ Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required
although it occurs faster at higher temperatures
❖ Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous
particles move much quicker than liquid particles
❖ At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the
same rate.
❖ This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses
❖ Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further,
therefore the lower its relative mass the faster a gas will diffuse
Diffusion in Gases
NH3 molecules have less mass than the HCl molecule, so diffuse faster, hence
the product (a white cloud of NH4Cl) forms closer to the end where the HCl is
Diffusion in Liquids
 Diffusion in Liquids
● Diffusion happens slower in liquids as the particles do
not move as fast
● When potassium permanganate is added to water, the
purple colour will diffuse throughout but it can take
days for the colour to fully spread out.
● This is because the particles are closer together so there
is much less space for them to move without colliding in
to one another.
 Solubility
When a solid dissolves in a liquid:
● The substance that dissolves is called the solute
● The liquid it dissolves in it called the solvent
● The liquid formed is a solution
When making a solution, the attractive forces between solute
particles are broken whilst new forces between solute and
solvent are being formed.
 Solubility
❖ Only a specific amount of solute can be dissolved in a fixed
amount of solvent
❖ This amount will vary depending on the substance as well as
the temperature of the solvent
❖ A saturated solution is a solution which contains as much
dissolved solute as possible at a specific temperature
❖ You can check to see if a solution is saturated by looking for
undissolved solid.
 Solubility Rhyme
A useful rhyme to remember
the key solubility terms:

➔ The solute is what you

put
➔ The solvent is where it
went
➔ And the solution is what
you’re producing’
 Solubility
● When a solid (solute) dissolves in a liquid (solvent) a
liquid mixture (solution) is formed
● The solubility of a solid is usually determined using a
specific solvent at a specific temperature
● Solubility is defined as “the mass of solute which must
dissolve in 100g of solvent at that temperature to form
a saturated solution”.
 Saturated Solutions
❏ For example, the solubility of sodium chloride in water
at 250C is approximately 36g per 100g of water
❏ A saturated solution is one which contains as much
dissolved solid as possible at a particular temperature
❏ Some undissolved solid would be present in a saturated
solution.
 Calculating Solubility
● We can calculate the solubility of a substance in 100g of solvent
using the following equation:

● The value of this solubility will change depending on the

temperature
 Question
Using the following information, calculate the solubility of
potassium nitrate at 400.C:

● Mass of evaporating basin 25.72 g

● Mass of evaporating basin + solution 58.00 g
● Mass of evaporating basin + dry crystals 38.00 g
 Solubility Curves
❖ The solubility of substances will change with temperature and
this can be plotted in a solubility curve.

❖ You can use solubility curves to work out what mass of crystals
you would get if you cooled a saturated solutions
 Practise Questions
Use the table of results to plot a solubility curve:

Temperature / 0C 10 30 40 70 90

Solubility / per 100 g of water 31.2 37.2 40.0 48.5 53.9

Use the curve to find:

1. Solubility at 500 C
2. Maximum mass that will dissolve in 50 g of water at 400 C
3. Temperature at which crystals will appear if a solution containing 51 g of
solid