ISSN 0015-4628, Fluid Dynamics, 2007, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 212–220. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2007.

Original Russian Text © S.V. Zhigulev, M.N. Kogan, A.P. Kuryachii, V.M. Litvinov, A.A. Uspenskii, 2007, published in Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii
Nauk, Mekhanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, 2007, Vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 71–80.

Effect of Mini-Flaps on the Structure of the Near Wake

Behind a Model Half-Wing
S. V. Zhigulev, M. N. Kogan, A. P. Kuryachii,
V. M. Litvinov, and A. A. Uspenskii
Received June 16, 2006

Abstract—The effect of mini-flaps on the vortex structure of the near wake flow behind a model of
a half-wing, rectangular in plan, is investigated. In a subsonic wind tunnel the time-average flow pa-
rameters are measured in several sections behind a model with flaps mounted on both upper and lower
surfaces near the trailing edge. The wake flow parameters are compared with those for a model with no
flaps. The considerable effect of the flaps on the flow structure in the viscous core of a tip vortex formed
behind the model half-wing is established.
DOI: 10.1134/S001546280702007X
Keywords: wind tunnel, model half-wing, seven-hole pressure probe, tip vortex.

In spite of the fact that much theoretical, numerical, and experimental research has been done on the
vortex field behind a wing and, in particular, on the tip vortex, they remain a topical field of aerodynamic
study. The near vortex field behind a finite-span wing depends to a considerable extent on the wing tip
shape, the angle of attack, the Reynolds number, and the flow boundaries [1–4].
Apart from the fundamental aspect of the problem, studying the tip vortices and the near field behind
wings is of great practical importance. One pressing applied problem is that of ensuring the safety of an
aircraft in the wake of other aircraft [5]. Within the framework of this problem, possible ways of control-
ling tip vortices for the purpose of reducing the rotational moment in the flow behind the wing have been
investigated both theoretically and experimentally [6–8]. In experimental wind-tunnel studies very simple
models, based on a half-wing rectangular in plan, are usually used [8, 9]. Using these models, the influence
of different wing tip shapes [9] or notches in the vicinity of the trailing edge [8] ensuring a nonmonotonic
(saw-tooth) spanwise circulation distribution on the near wake flowfield have been studied. In the latter case,
a pair of vortices, rather than a single tip vortex, is formed; these vortices do not coalesce even far away
from the wing [8, 10] which results in a considerable reduction in the rotational moment in the wake [6].
However, a considerable change in the wing planform aimed at obtaining a nonmonotonic spanwise
circulation distribution can lead to an appreciable reduction of the lift-drag ratio, whose maximum value
in cruise flight is ensured by an optimal wing shape. Another efficient method for obtaining the required
spanwise circulation distribution (including nonmonotonic) consists in using mini-flaps mounted near the
trailing edge of the wing on both its upper and its lower sides.
By restructuring the pattern of the flow past the trailing edge of the wing airfoil the mini-flaps make it
possible to exert a considerable effect on the spanwise lift distribution which makes them very promising
as aircraft flight controls [11]. These small controls with a low hinge moment can be used in take-off and
landing regimes and retracted in cruise flight. Moreover, due to their low inertia, mini-flaps can also be used
for counteracting the atmospheric turbulence effect. Thus, these devices can be used for solving different
important applied problems.
Another topical problem motivating the investigation of the properties of tip vortices and the possibilities
of controlling them concerns the considerable influence of the near wake flow parameters on the physical
and chemical processes in the wake [12], particularly, in the regions of interaction between the tip vortices

212
 EFFECT OF MINI-FLAPS 213

Fig. 1. Schematics of the model half-wing and coordinate system used in presenting the results in Figs. 3 to 7.

CD CL

Fig. 2. Angle-of-attack dependence of the drag CD and lift CL coefficients (a) and the lift-drag ratio K = CL /CD (b) of the
baseline model (1) and the model with mini-flaps (2).

and mixing layers at the boundaries of the engine plumes. Studying the possibilities of controlling these
processes by aerodynamical means, that is, by modifying the parameters of the near flowfield downstream
of the aircraft, with the aim of reducing the injurious effects of the engine exhausts on the atmosphere, is
also of great practical importance.
The purpose of the above-mentioned experimental investigations was, firstly, to estimate the effect of
different aerodynamic controls on the near vortex flowfield formation behind a wing and, secondly, to obtain
detailed data for verifying the adequacy of the mathematical models used in the numerical study of the
formation and development of the vortex-jet wake behind an aircraft.
In this study the effect of one mini-flap configuration on the distributions of the time-average velocity
components and static pressure is investigated in several sections of the near wake behind a model half-wing
for two values of the angle of attack.

1. EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
The experiments were conducted in a subsonic low-turbulence closed wind tunnel with a test section
0.35 m in height, 0.5 m in width, and 2.61 m in length. The uniform freestream velocity was V0 = 30 m/s
and the turbulence level was not higher than 0.03%. By regulating the angle of divergence of the lateral

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214 ZHIGULEV et al.

walls of the test section it was possible to compensate boundary layer growth on the walls and ensure the
absence of a longitudinal pressure gradient.
The model half-wing used in the experiments was rectangular in plan. Its section was made in the shape
of a symmetric 12%-airfoil similar to the generalized Joukowski airfoil with a chord c = 58 mm. The model
was mounted vertically on the platform of an α -mechanism for setting the angle of attack. For the half-wing
length L/2 = 190 mm the aspect ratio was λ ≡ L/c ≈ 6.56. The model tip was a plane surface (flat endface).
In what follows this model is called the baseline.
The second model studied differed from the baseline by having mini-flaps set parallel to and 4 mm away
from the trailing edge. The flap height was h f = 1 mm (the relative height h f /c = 0.017). The mini-flaps
were mounted perpendicular to the model surface on its lower (windward) side over a length Ll = 165 mm
from the root section of the model (relative length 2Ll /L = 0.87) and on the upper (leeward) side over a
length Lu = 25 mm from the model tip (2Lu /L = 0.13), as shown schematically in Fig. 1.
The Reynolds number based on the freestream parameters and the model chord varied slightly in the
course of the experiments due to the variation of the atmospheric pressure pa and the temperature ta in the
wind tunnel hall from Re = 1.17× 105 for pa = 754 Torr and ta = 17◦ C to Re = 1.12× 105 for pa = 747 Torr
and ta = 22◦ C. For measuring the time-averaged flow parameters in the model wake a seven-hole pressure
probe was used. This made it possible to determine the flow velocity vector with good localizability over a
wide rake angle range (up to 80◦ ) [13, 14]. The pressure probe used was a tightly soldered package of seven
medical needles with an outside diameter of 0.8 mm and an inside diameter of 0.45 mm. The package was
placed in a housing with an outside diameter of 2.9 mm. The probe receiver, except for the central tube, was
ground to a cone with a semi-vertex angle of 30◦ . The calibration of the probe in a uniform flow showed
that the r.m.s. errors in measuring the angular parameters of the velocity vector for rake angles ranging from
0 to 80◦ are not greater than 0.6◦ .

2. RESULTS OF THE MEASUREMENTS

Before studying the flow parameters in the vortex wake, we measured the integral aerodynamical char-
acteristics of the models using a six-component balance (Fig. 2). In the presence of mini-flaps both the
drag and the lift increase, whereas the lift-drag ratio (L/D) decreases over the whole angle-of-attack range
in question. For both models the maximum L/D values are reached at the same angle of attack α = 5◦ . In
this case, the baseline model has a lift coefficient CL = 0.457 and an L/D ratio K = 24.3, while the model
with mini-flaps has CL = 0.532 and K = 17.6. On the flap-equipped model the value CL = 0.457 is reached
at α ≈ 3.5◦ . Maximum values of the coefficient CL are also reached at almost the same angle of attack
α ≈ 12◦ for both models. This indicates that the mini-flaps have only a slight effect on global boundary
layer separation from the models.
The mini-flap effect on the near wake parameters was investigated for two cases: (a) for the same lift co-
efficients and (b) for maximum L/D values. With account for the balance measurement results, the baseline
model wake flow was studied at an angle of attack of 5◦ . The data obtained were used for comparison with
the measured results for the wake behind a flap-equipped model at α ≈ 3.5◦ (equal values of CL ) and α = 5◦
(maximum K).
Table 1 compares our results with the data of other authors obtained using a four-wire hot-wire anemome-
ter ensuring a measurement volume of 0.5 mm3 [15]. In both cases, the models had the same relative airfoil
thicknesses, similar aspect-ratio values, and the same tips in the shape of a flat endface. We will consider
the results obtained for equal angles of attack. The coincidence of the above-mentioned parameters should
lead to similarity of the tip flows formed. The difference in the coordinates of the sections in which the mea-
surements were performed may be considered non-essential, since, in accordance with the results of [16],
between the sections X = 4 and 9c measured from the trailing edge of the model such vortex parameters as
the minimum value of the longitudinal Vx and the maximum value of the azimuthal Vtr ≡ (Vy2 + Vx2 )1/2 ve-
locity components, as well as the vortex core dimension, vary only slightly. Here, the vortex core dimension

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Table 1
Parameters [15] This study
Experimental conditions
Wing airfoil NACA 0012 Joukowski 12% airfoil
Angle of attack, deg 5 5
Wing chord (c), m 0.203 0.058
Aspect ratio 6 6.56
Reynolds number 320 000 115 000
Flow turbulence level less than 0.3% 0.03%
Measurement section X/c 9 7.24
Measured results
Vx /V0 minimum at the vortex core 0.85 0.83
Vtr /V0 maximum at the vortex core 0.31 0.36
Vortex core radius 0.039c 0.05c

is taken to mean the distance to the azimuthal velocity maximum from the vortex center determined by the
position of the longitudinal velocity minimum.
If the pressure probe has a strong disturbing effect on the flow in the vortex core, then the above-
mentioned similarity is violated. The data in Table 1 reveal a slight difference between the values of the
main flow parameters in the vortex core, which indicates a weak influence of the pressure probe in this case.
The average parameters of the near wake behind the models were measured in three flow sections located
at distances X1 = 3.19c, X2 = 7.24c, and X3 = 12.8c from the trailing edges. The main quantitative results
of the measurements are given in Table 2. The static pressure coefficient, whose minimum values are given
in the table, is defined as C p = (p − p0 )/ρ V 2 , where p0 is the static pressure in the freestream and ρ is
the gas density. In Figs. 3 to 7 we have plotted the distributions of the dimensionless velocity components
divided by the freestream velocity V0 .
In the first section under consideration the tip vortex behind the baseline model has not yet attained
maximum intensity. However, here the longitudinal velocity deficit in the vortex core is greatest (Table 2).
On the flap-equipped model an appreciable circulation gradient along the Z axis develops in the vicinity of
the discontinuity between the flaps; this leads to the formation of a secondary vortex in which the direction
of rotation is the same as in the tip vortex (clockwise in Fig. 3). Under the influence of the secondary vortex
the tip vortex ascends noticeably above the level of the trailing edge of the model. At an angle of attack
α = 3.5◦ in the section under consideration both vortices have approximately the same intensity with equal
longitudinal velocity deficits amounting to 10% (Fig. 3b). With increase in the angle of attack to 5◦ the lift
increase is accompanied by enhancement of the tip vortex and weakening of the secondary vortex, which
under the action of the former is displaced considerably below the level of the trailing edge of the model and
manifests itself as an indistinctly expressed local minimum of the longitudinal velocity with the coordinates
(Y /c; Z/c)≈ (−0.15; 0.4) (Fig. 3c). The longitudinal velocity deficit increases to 14% in the tip vortex core
and decreases to 7% in the secondary vortex.
The secondary vortex intensity reduction with increase in the angle of attack is due to spanwise redis-
tribution of the circulation such that its integral value increases but the circulation gradient decreases in the
vicinity of the discontinuity between the flaps.
In the three sections under consideration the transverse velocity distributions are qualitatively different
(Fig. 4). The flow in the tip vortex of the model with no flaps most closely corresponds to an axisymmetric
flow, though the maximum value of the transverse velocity above the vortex center is appreciably larger
than that beneath the center (Fig. 4a). This tendency is conserved in the other wake sections considered,
which is in qualitative agreement with the data [16]. For the same value of the coefficient CL the presence

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Table 2
Model Parameter Section
X1 = 3.19c X2 = 7.24c X3 = 12.8c
Baseline (Vx /V0 )min 0.79 0.82 0.82
α = 5◦ (Vtr /V0 )max 0.29 0.36 0.36
CL = 0.55 C p min −0.19 −0.375 −0.3
Mini-flaps (Vx /V0 )min 0.9 0.92 0.92
α = 3.5◦ (Vtr /V0 )max 0.13 0.13 0.12
CL = 0.55 C p min −0.057 −0.055 −0.057
Mini-flaps (Vx /V0 )min 0.86 0.91 0.91
α = 5◦ (Vtr /V0 )max 0.24 0.16 0.15
CL = 0.64 C p min −0.075 −0.08 −0.075

of mini-flaps leads to a more than twofold decrease in the transverse velocity maximum (Table 2). The
region of elevated transverse velocity encloses both vortices almost completely, while between their centers
there appears a fairly extended low transverse velocity region (Fig. 4b) due to the opposite directions of
the transverse velocity vectors induced by each vortex in this zone. With increase in the angle of attack α
the low transverse velocity region connecting the centers of the two vortices is conserved but its maximum
value increases considerably and the elevated transverse velocity region is concentrated above the tip vortex
center (Fig. 4c).
In the next section X2 = 7.24c this vortex has been completely formed behind the baseline model. Its
center is displaced slightly downward and toward the wing root (Fig. 5a), the flow in its core becomes
even more axisymmetric (Fig. 6a), and the transverse velocity reaches a maximum (Table 2). Behind the
flap-equipped model at α = 3.5◦ , as a result of the mutual influence of the tip and the secondary vortices,
the former is displaced toward the wing root up to a Z coordinate corresponding to the discontinuity of the
flaps, while the latter is also considerably displaced in the opposite direction, toward the wing tip (Fig. 5b).
The longitudinal velocity deficit amounts to 8% in the secondary vortex core and 6% in the tip vortex. The
vortices coalesce as a result of the absorption of the tip vortex by the secondary one. The relative uniformity
of the transverse flow, which in the preceding section embraces both vortices, no longer exists and the flow
becomes most intense near the wing tip (Fig. 6b).
At an angle of attack α = 5◦ the mutual influence of the two vortices remains qualitatively the same: the
tip vortex is displaced precisely toward the location of the discontinuity between the flaps but at the same
time descends to the level of the trailing edge of the wing (Fig. 5c). The weak trace of the secondary vortex
core is displaced considerably farther toward the wing tip almost reaching it. As in the preceding section, the
transverse flow is most intense above the tip vortex center (Fig. 6c). The maximum value of the transverse
velocity Vtr decreases by more than 30%, as distinct from the flow at α = 3.5◦ in which the Vtr maximum
remains constant (Table 2).
In the last section considered (X3 = 12.8c) the core of the tip vortex behind the baseline model grows in
size, extending along the Z axis (Fig. 7a). The vortex center is located precisely at the level of the trailing
edge of the model. The longitudinal velocity deficit and the transverse velocity maximum remain as before
but the static pressure difference across the vortex core decreases (Table 2).
On the models with mini-flaps the vortices finally coalesce at both angles of attack. Regardless of whether
the tip or the secondary vortex predominates, the resultant vortex center is located almost exactly above the
flap discontinuity location, at distances Y /c = 0.06 and 0.04 above the level of the trailing edge of the wing
for α = 3.5◦ and 5◦ , respectively (Fig. 7b and 7c). For α = 3.5◦ the resultant vortex is more smeared and
has lesser values of the longitudinal velocity deficit and the transverse velocity maximum. For both angles
of attack the Vtr distributions become more uniform, approaching the axisymmetric.

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Fig. 3. Contours of the longitudinal velocity Vx /V0 in the section X1 = 3.19c behind the baseline model (a) and the flap-

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equipped model (b) and (c) for α = 3.5◦ and 5◦ ; (1) corresponds to the position of the trailing edges of the models and (2)
to that of the flap discontinuity.
EFFECT OF MINI-FLAPS

Fig. 4. Contours of the transverse velocity Vtr /V0 in the section X1 = 3.19c; notation same as in Fig. 3.
217
 218

Fig. 5. Contours of the longitudinal velocity in the section X2 = 7.24c; notation same as in Fig. 3.
ZHIGULEV et al.

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Fig. 6. Contours of the transverse velocity in the section X2 = 7.24c; notation same as in Fig. 3.

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 EFFECT OF MINI-FLAPS 219

Fig. 7. Contours of the transverse velocity in the section X2 = 12.8c; notation same as in Fig. 3.

The mini-flaps have the greatest quantitative effect on the variation of the pressure difference in the vortex
core (Table 2). Since the transverse pressure gradient is proportional to ρ Vtr2 /r, where r is the distance from
the vortex center, and the pressure difference is estimated by the integral of this quantity with respect to
r, a 2.5–3-fold decrease in the maximum value of the transverse velocity accompanied by a considerable
increase in the vortex core dimensions leads to a fourfold-fivefold decrease in the static pressure difference.
Summary. The effect of a system of mini-flaps mounted with a discontinuity on the upper and lower
surfaces of a rectangular model half-wing on the time-average parameters of the near vortex wake behind
the model is experimentally investigated. The mini-flap effect manifests itself primarily in the smearing of
the resultant vortex formed upon coalescence of the tip vortex with the secondary vortex that develops at
the flap discontinuity location. This vortex smearing is expressed in the enlargement of the vortex core,
an almost threefold decrease in the longitudinal velocity deficit and the maximum values of the transverse
velocity, and an almost fivefold decrease in the static pressure difference in the vortex core.

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Fundamental differences in the resultant vortex formation are observable depending on the angle of attack
α of the model. For α = 3.5◦ , which corresponds to a lift coefficient equal to that of the baseline model, the
tip vortex, which initially has the same intensity as the secondary vortex, is absorbed further downstream
by the latter. With increase in α to 5◦ , when a maximum lift-drag ratio is reached, the tip vortex intensity
increases considerably, so that further downstream it absorbs the secondary vortex. Nevertheless, for both
α , at a fairly long distance from the wing the resultant vortex is displaced toward the wing root, up to a
coordinate corresponding to the flap discontinuity location.
Mounting mini-flaps with a discontinuity on the upper and lower sides of the wing makes it possible to
control not only the flow pattern in the near wake behind the wing but also the location of the tip vortex
along the wing span.
The study was carried out with the support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project
No. 05-01-08056), the State Program of the Support of Leading Scientific Schools (NSh-4272.2006.1) and
the International Scientific and Technical Center (project No. 2249).

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