MUSICAL CULTURE OF MALAYSIA

By
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Hassan Abdullah
Faculty of Music and Performing Arts
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris

GEOGRAPHY OF MALAYSIA

Malaysia is a country located in Southeast Asia between Thailand to the north and
Indonesia to the south. It is divided into two parts, with Peninsular Malaysia extending
southward from the Asian continent and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the North
Shore of Borneo Island. The country lies on a major east-west maritime route with the
Strait of Malacca on the West and the South China Sea to the East. Because of the
strategic location, it received many different peoples from the West and the East
including Indian, Arabian, European, and Chinese, who stopped to conquer, settle, and
trade (Andaya & Andaya, 1982:11-20).

There are thirteen states in Malaysia; eleven states located in Peninsular Malaysia
and two states in Borneo Island. The eleven states in Peninsular Malaysia are Kelantan,
Terengganu, Pahang, Johor, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Pulau Pinang,
Kedah and Perlis. Singapore was once a part of the Malaysia Federation but separated in
1965. Other than that, there are three federal territories, which are Kuala Lumpur and
Putra Jaya in Peninsular Malaysia, and Labuan in Sabah. Kuala Lumpur is the capital
city of Malaysia. Every state has a major city which is linked via road, rail and air to
other cities in the country.

Malaysia Federation
 Malaysia’s population consists of four main ethnic groups and many groups of
immigrant people. The main ethnic groups are including the Malay, the Orang Asli
(literally, original people or aboriginals) in Peninsular Malaysia, the Dayak, and the
Kadazan in Sarawak and Sabah. There are also many immigrant groups in Malaysia
including Chinese, Indian, Eurasians, Siamese, Javanese, Sumatran, Pakistani,
Bangladeshi and Arabs. The Malay people are the dominant group in Malaysia. As well
as the Malays, there are other numerically ethnic groups in the category of Bumiputera
(sons of the soil) including indigenous people known as Orang Asli in Peninsular
Malaysia and native people in the state of Sabah and Sarawak. In Sarawak, the dominant
native groups are the Dayak, who typically live in longhouses and are either Iban (Sea
Dayak) or Bidayuh (Land Dayak). In Sabah, most native people fall under the term
Kadazan. All of Malaysia's native people generally share a strong spiritual tie to the rain
forest.

All these groups make up a population of 22 million in Malaysia. According to

the statistics compiled by the Malaysian Department of Statistics (1993), the Malaysian
population is comprised of Malays (54%), Chinese (29 %), Indians (8%), indigenous
people, which include Iban, Kadazan, Murut, Bajau and others in Sabah and Sarawak and
Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia (8%), and others, mainly Arabs, Singhalese, Eurasians
and European (1%).

Indigenous
8% Others
1%
Indian
8%

Malay
Chinese 54%
29%

Pie chart of racial composition of Malaysian population

The indigenous people of Malaysia, known as Orang Asli (original people),

inhabit most parts of the foothills of the tropical forest in Peninsular Malaysia. They are
subdivided into three categories based on ethnic and cultural criteria commonly used to
describe the Orang Asli: Semang or Negrito, Senoi, and Proto-Malay or Aboriginal
Malay. Most of them are hunters and farmers. The Orang Asli practice their own beliefs
and customs. Now, some of them go to school and have adapted to the Malay culture,
especially those who dwell nearby Malay settlement (Roseman, 1991:17-19).

The Malays are the race of people who have settled in Peninsular Malaysia, and
adjacent islands of Southeast Asia such as coastal Borneo, South-east Sumatra, Java and
small islands in the nearby area. Anthropological study discovered that the Malay were
originally seafaring people from Proto-Malaya who migrated from Northwestern parts of
Yunnan, in China to Southeast Asia, as a result of their seafaring and trading way of life,
by 1000 B.C. The new settlement of the Proto-Malay played a major part in the making
of the great empires of Malaka and Johor in the 14 th and 15th centuries (Andaya &
Andaya, 1982:39). People from surrounding areas including Java and Sumatra also
migrated and settled down, especially in the Southwest of Peninsular Malaysia in the
states of Johor, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor. Small populations of southern
Siamese also live in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia especially in the states of
Kelantan, Perlis and Kedah.

Indian traders began travelling to Southeast Asia before the coming of Islam to
the Malay Archipelago in the 14th Century. The Indian Traders spread Hinduism and
Indian culture to the local settlements. The spread of Hinduism was not a result of any
organised missionary movement but through marriage and unconscious assimilation.
Gradually, the local population practised Hinduism, and Indian culture mixed with local
culture in their lives. In the 14 th Century, Arab traders travelled to Southeast Asia and
brought Islam and their culture to the area (Bellwood, 1997:136-141).

The Malay people in Peninsular Malaysia established first contact with Europeans
when a Portuguese squadron of five ships under Diago Lopez De Sequeira docked in
Melaka port in 1509. At the first arrival, the Portuguese were welcomed by the local
people as traders. The Western colonization era in Malaysia began when the Portuguese
invaded Melaka in 1511 in order to control the spice trade in the Asian maritime region.
Apart from trading activities, the Portuguese also spread Christianity to the local people.
Although the Portuguese were well entrenched in Melaka, they did not expand their
territory in the Malay Peninsula (Gullick, 1969:40-41). Over time, some of the
Portuguese merchants settled down in Melaka and remain today. The Portuguese
presence in Melaka contributed to a notable dance culture known to the local people as
the joget1 (Sarkissian, 1995-96: 39-41).

1
The Joget dance is performed by couples who combine fast hand and leg movements. It is a lively
rendition with fast upbeat tempo and is greatly enjoyed by the young and old. It is usually performed during
cultural celebrations and Malay weddings especially in Melaka. For further information, see Sarkassian
(1995-96).
 After a hundred years under the Portuguese, Melaka fell to Dutch rule in 1641.
The Dutch tried to establish a monopoly of the tin trade on the coast of the Malay
Peninsula. The Dutch relations with the Malay rulers were more fortunate than the
Portuguese. However, like the Portuguese, the Dutch had no intention of expanding their
territory in the Malay Peninsula and only sought Melaka as a means to control the straits
(Gullick, 1969:42). With the outbreak of the Napoleonic war in Europe, the Dutch
possessions in Southeast Asia including Melaka passed into British hands. The British
foundation of Penang in 1786 and of Singapore in 1819 strengthened British power in the
Malay Peninsula. British colonization in Malaysia was formally recognized in 1924 with
the signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. By then, only the British were left to strengthen
colonial power in the Malay Peninsula.

During the British colonization period (1824-1957), many immigrants had been
brought by the British into Malaysia from Southern China and India. The Chinese
immigrants mostly worked at tin mines throughout the West coast of Peninsular Malaysia
and those immigrants from India mostly worked at rubber estates and plantations
(Matusky & Chopyak, 1998: 401). In 1948, the British had committed themselves to
preparing for the independence of Malaysia. Under the strong pressure of the Malay
nationalist movement, the British introduced the first general elections in 1955. The
UMNO-MCA-MIC2 alliance won the first elections. The Alliance was successful in
pressuring the British to relinquish their sovereignty in August 1957, thus making
Malaysia an independent nation (Andaya & Andaya, 1982:274).

CULTURAL BACKGROUND

The blend of all ethnic groups in Malaysian has influenced Malay culture and
music. The influence of Hindu and Indian culture was historically very great, and the
Malay were largely Hinduized before they were converted to Islam in the 15 th century.
Some of the Hindu rituals, such as the wedding ceremony, survive in the Malay culture,
even though the Malays practice the Islamic way of life. The Malays have also preserved
some of their more ancient, animistic beliefs in spirits of the soil and jungle, often having
recourse to medicine men or shamans (bomoh) for the treatment of ailments (Laderman,
1991:115).

The explanation of the Malay culture and music cannot be well described unless
one realizes that Melaka, a small fishing village, turned into a splendid trading port by
14th century (Andaya & Andaya, 1982:7). Though not all the Malay culture and music
blends here, examining the evolution of the port of Melaka provides an essential
understanding of the blend of Malay culture and music. Melaka 3 is a small city located
on the Southwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Melaka was
a major centre of trade in Southeast Asia. This was the time when foreign traders,
especially from India, began traveling maritime routes and brought with them Hinduism,
cultural practice and the arts. Over many centuries the people of the region, especially the

2
Among the major political parties in Malaysia. UMNO- United Malay National Organization. MCA-
Malaysian Chinese Association. MIC-Malaysian Indian Congress.
3
In some publications, it is spelled as Malacca.
royal courts, synthesized Indian culture and indigenous ideas including Hinduism
(Matusky & Chopyak, 1998:401).

In the 1400s, the sea trade was almost completely controlled by Muslim traders
from India and the Arab world. The Muslim traders and missionaries spread their
influence along the major routes including Peninsular Malaysia and the Indonesian
provinces (Gullick, 1969:38). The spread of Islam was greatly enhanced by social
contact as a consequence of trade, and also through interracial marriages. It was a gradual
and peaceful process, best described as “Islamization” rather than conversion (Taylor,
1989:8). The marriages between the rulers of different kingdoms made an important
contribution in spreading Islamic belief even further. The king of Melaka converted to
Islam when he married the princess of Pasai who converted to Islam earlier. This event
led to commercial expansion and increased Muslim influence in the region (Mohd
Ghouse, 1992:2)

Some of the Muslim traders had settled down along the west coast of Peninsular
Malaysia. They practiced their own traditions and mixed with local people. At the same
time, the local people adapted the new culture and blended it with their own. This
changed the local literature, style of government, music, dance, dress, games, titles and
poetry. As a result, certain musical instruments associated with Islam and the Middle East
including drums, plucked lutes and oboes became established in Peninsular Malaysia. Of
the instruments and musical elements absorbed by local traditions, frame drums remain
the most important instrument associated with the Islamic sound used in many ensembles
(Miller & Williams, 1998:74). There are many frame drums used in many Islamic
processions including kompang, tar, rebana, marwas, and hadrah (Matusky & Chopyak,
1998:409-410). These instruments were also played by the people from surrounding
areas including Sumatra and Java. Among the musical ensembles associated with Islamic
tradition in Malaysia are kompang, hadrah, dabus, and rodat. Some of the ensembles
such as dabus have lost most of their religious significance and have become secular
genres, performed at various occasions (Miller and Williams, 1998:74).

MUSICAL BACKGROUND

Musical culture of Malaysia is very much influenced by foreign elements

especially the Hindu culture from India, Islamic culture from Arabia, and later on from
the Western world. It is believed that there already existed various types of native
musical culture, especially for ritualistic purposes, by the time the natives came into
contact with the Indian and Muslim traders. Furthermore, such musical performances can
be identified based on the existing performances apart from Hindu, Islam and Western
elements such as the rhythm for mantras and incantations in animistic belief (Mohd
Ghouse, 1992:1).

Undoubtedly, the Indian influence on the musical culture of Malaysia was very
great. The Indian musical culture greatly dominated the musical forms of the Malay
Archipelago with the setting up of the Indianised empires including Funan (1-627 A.D)
on the Mekong delta, Thailand, the Langkasuka Empire in Kedah, Malaysia, the Sri
Vijaya Empire (650-1377 A.D) in South Sumatra and the Majapahit Empire (1293 –
1470 A.D) in Java, Indonesia. Over a thousand years under these four successive
empires, the native people adapted to the Indianised musical culture and it became part of
their life. As an example, two Hindu epics, the Ramayana4 and the Mahabharata5 were
the greatest sources for the shadow theatre in Malaysia (Mohd Ghouse, 1992:2). There
are four main types of shadow theatre in Malaysia, namely, Wayang Jawa, Wayang Kulit
Melayu, Wayang Gedek and Wayang Kulit Kelantan, also known as Wayang Siam. The
Wayang Jawa and the Wayang Kulit Melayu were adapted from the Javanese Wayang
Purwa and draw on the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata. These two theatres came to
Malaysia through Indonesia and mainly performed in the Southern states of Peninsular
Malaysia. Unlike these two shadow theatres, the Wayang Gedek and the Wayang Kulit
Kelantan are based on the Ramayana epic and popular in the Northern states of
Peninsular Malaysia (Matusky & Tan, 1997:6-8).

The coming of Islam into the Malay Archipelago in the 13 th Century had changed
and added to the variety of the musical forms in Malaysia. The Zapin6 dance and various
types of choruses singing praise to Prophet Muhammad and Allah, the Islamic God are
among the elements of Arabian musical culture absorbed into the musical culture of
Malaysia. The groups singing praise to God and Prophet Muhammad are in the form of
various choruses accompanied by frame drum ensembles such as hadrah, rodat,
kompang, dabus and dikir rebana (see page 102-108).

Apart from its own elements, Islamic musical culture, which came through India,
also accommodated some of the Indian musical elements and produced its own
characteristics. The blend of the Indianised and Islamic elements of music were adapted
by the local people. The evidence for this is very clear, especially in the ghazal ensemble,
performed in the state of Johor. The term ghazal was derived from an Arabic word
meaning “love poem”. The ghazal ensemble consists of a combination of musical
instruments from Arabia and India such as the gambus (ud), harmonium and tabla. The
ghazal was originally performed at Mecca and Medina as well as in Iraq in the Eight
Century. In the Thirteen Century, the ghazal was performed in the courts of Delhi,
Lucknow and Rampur in India, later on being brought into Peninsular Malaysia by Indian
Muslim traders (Matusky and Tan, 1997:399-400).

4
For the past two thousand years the Ramayana has been among the most important literary and oral texts
of South Asia. This epic poem provides insights into many aspects of Indian culture and continues to
influence the politics, religion and art of modern India.
5
The Mahabharata is a classical Sanskrit epic of India. The Mahabharata, comprising more than 90,000
couplets, usually of 32 syllables, is the longest single poem in world literature. The 18-book work is
traditionally ascribed to the ancient sage Vyasa, but it was undoubtedly composed by a number of bardic
poets and later revised by priests, who interpolated many long passages on theology, morals, and statecraft.
It is the foremost source concerning classical Indian civilization and Hindu ideals.
6
It is believed that Muslim missionaries of the Middle East namely Persia and Arabia introduced the dance
to Malaysia during the fifteenth century. The dance was performed by males only but nowadays, it is also
performed by female dancers. The dance movements are devoid of complexities but are highly dignified in
disposition.
 Apart from Hindu and Islamic elements, musical forms in Malaysia are also
influenced by its neighbouring countries, especially Thailand and Indonesia. In the
Northern part of the Malay Peninsula, the Malay and the Siamese had long diplomatic
contact, as for over five hundreds years the Siamese empire (1403-1909) dominated the
Northern states of Peninsular Malaysia. As a result, the Malay people who settled in the
Northern states of Peninsular Malaysia also adapted Thai culture and music. Certain
musical forms such as wayang siam (shadow puppet theatre mainly performed in the
Northern part of Peninsular Malaysia), makyong (traditional theatre accompanied by
percussive instruments and a rebec acted mostly by women) and menora (like makyong
but accompanied by more percussive instruments and a serunai) were adapted from the
Siamese musical forms and widely performed in the Northern region of Peninsular
Malaysia. Some of the musical instruments used in the wayang siam such as geduk
(barrel drum), gedombak (goblet drum) and serunai (double-reed oboe) are identical to
the Siamese instruments used in the nang talung shadow theatre. Some of the dialogues
and incantations in the theatre also are recited in the Thai language (Mohd Ghouse,
1992:4).

The makyung and the menora theatre are other acculturated musical forms derived
from the Thai culture. Like the wayang siam, the makyung and the menora theatre
ensemble also used similar instruments to the Siamese theatre. Furthermore, the dance
and the movement in both theatres are pretty much similar. However, the dialogue used
in the makyong and the menora theatre performed in Malaysia is the Malay language with
the northern dialect (Id).

The influence of the Indonesian musical culture enhanced the richness of the
Malay musical forms. The migration of the Javanese, Minangkabaus, Achenese, Bugis
and Sumatrans into the Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia brought with them several
types of musical forms. The Javanese introduced a few types of musical forms including
the kuda kepang7, gamelan8, and wayang purwa9 (Ibid:3). The migration of the
Minangkabaus into the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, especially in the state of
Negeri Sembilan, brought with them the ensemble of gong-chimes called caklempong
(Ang, 1998:50)

Western colonization had a big impact on the Malaysian musical culture. Every
colonial power introduced their own culture and music to the native people. The notable
Portuguese contribution to the musical culture of Malaysia is the introduction of the
violin and guitar into the region. The uses of these two instruments as well as other
instruments in the keroncong10 ensemble are evidence of the Portuguese influence.
Originally, the keroncong song was performed by the black Portuguese known as
Mardijkers accompanied by guitars and violins. Later on, these instruments were added
7
This dance drama is performed with an accompaniment of a rich and exotic rendition of traditional music
played with indigenous instruments such as gongs, tambourines and angklungs.
8
An ensemble consists of many percussive instruments including gong chimes and double headed drums to
accompany a graceful classical dance.
9
Javanese shadow play accompanied by gamelan ensemble based on the Mahabharata epic.
10
Traditional songs accompanied by a band consisting of a few instruments including guitar, ukelele, cello,
double bass, violin and percussion.
into other musical ensembles such as in the bangsawan11 theatre (Matusky and Tan,
1997:343).

By the late Nineteenth Century and early Twentieth Century, the British
popularized other western musical instruments such as piano, trumpet, saxophone,
clarinet and others in Malaysia. Mainly, the instruments were used in the newly
introduced musical forms in Malaysia such as orchestras, brass bands, combos and some
mixed with the Malay traditional instruments in the bangsawan theatre. The uses of
western musical instruments in Malaysia became more popular with the setting up of
radio stations, recording companies and film studios (Tan, 1993:8-16). During the
British colonization period, especially in the early twentieth century, Chinese and Indian
workers were brought by the British into Malaysia to serve in the agriculture sector. The
Chinese and the Indian workers brought with them their musical culture and
performances into Malaysia. Most of the musical styles are performed in their original
forms. Malay traditional music is not much influenced by the music brought by the
Chinese and Indian immigrants. Only lately, there are a few composers attempting to
blend the Chinese and the Indian musical elements with the Malay elements in their
compositions (Ang, 1998:28).

The evolution of the musical instruments and musical forms, which have
contributed to the musical culture in Malaysia can be best described in two different
perspectives, adaptational and idiosyncratic (Nik Mustapha, 1998:23). In the
adaptational perspective, the original music or musical instruments from outside of the
country were adapted, changed and developed according to the local culture especially in
the aspects of vocal, mode, playing techniques, name, construction, ornamentation and
decoration. The music or musical instruments maintain some of their originality but
gradually change some of the elements to suit the local culture. One of the examples is a
double reed oboe called serunai used in the Malay shadow puppet theatre or wayang kulit
in the state of Kelantan. The instrument, originally from the Arab world, is known as a
shawn or surnay. The physical construction of the original serunai has changed,
especially its reed, size and decoration. It is constructed using local material such as
jackfruit wood for the body of the serunai and using the local palm leaf called daun tar
for the reed. The serunai is also decorated with local motif carving to suit the local taste
(Ibid: 24). The Kompang ensemble still preserves some of its original elements but
gradually changed especially with the use of new instruments in contemporary society12.

In the idiosyncratic perspective, the music or musical instruments still maintain

their originality including mode, construction, tuning, playing techniques and even their
name. If there are any changes, they are only very small changes in the elements of
music or the name of the instrument (Id.). The gambus from the lute family used in the
ghazal ensemble in the state of Johor is of Arab origin known as Ud. The instrument was
probably brought by the Muslim traders into the Malay Archipelago since the 14 th
Century during the arrival of Islam to the region. Now, the gambus in Malaysia still

11
The Malay theatre like Western opera cast by men and women, with its music accompanied by mixed
Malay and Western musical instruments.
12
See Chapter 7 for detail.
maintains its originality, including the construction, the tuning and the playing
techniques. Until this date, the Malaysian gambus still looks like the Ud in the Arab
world. The tuning system of the gambus is still the same as the Arab Ud, in which the
strings are tuned in double courses. The only change found in the instrument is its name,
which is Ud (wood) in Arabic and gambus in Malaysia (Id.). Another example is a frame
drum known as tar used to accompany the zikir13 in the rodat ensemble, which still looks
the same as the Arab tar. The skin-head of the Malaysian tar is made of goatskin and
tacked onto the wooden frame just like the tar found in the Arab world (Ibid: 94).

Summarizing the evolution of the musical culture in Malaysia, it can be

concluded that the musical cultures of Malaysia are mostly derivative. The main
influence on Malaysian music is from the Indian and Islamic cultures, with later addition
of Western elements. In addition to the Melaka strait as a window of incoming elements,
two more directions from the North (the Siamese), and the South (the Indonesian) have
also been great sources of the musical elements influencing Malaysian musical culture.
However, one should allow that the possibility of forms such as Tarian Saba, Sewang,
Kertuk Kelapa, the Malay lullaby, and others could have developed within the region
itself. Moreover, one also should be aware of the possibility of simultaneous
development of similar musical forms in different places.

TYPES OF MUSIC IN MALAYSIA

It is important to review about the types of music performed in Malaysia in order

to understand where the kompang is categorized in Malaysian music. Malaysia is a multi
racial country and has a diverse musical background. Every ethnic group performs their
own traditional music as well as sharing some of the contemporary types of music. The
types of music in Malaysia have been categorized by many scholars in many different
ways. Some scholars categorize Malaysian music based on ethnical perspectives such as
Malay music, Chinese music and Indian music (e.g. Hansa, 1989; Narayanam, 1985).
Some of them classified Malaysian music from the musical perspective regardless of the
ethnical concern such as vocal music, dance music, theatrical music (e.g. Matusky and
Tan, 1997; Mohd Ghouse, 1992). A few of them had discussed Malaysian music based
on the function of the music in the community such as religious music, ritual music, and
entertainment music (e.g. Roseman, 1991; Laderman, 1991; Malm, 1979). Based on
various scholars’ categorizations, the author charts the types of music in Malaysia as
illustrated in Figure 1b.

13
A choral singing of Arabic language texts used in praise of the Prophet Muhammad.
 Classical

Malay Music Folk

Syncretic

Art Music

Chinese Music Operatic Music

Religious Music

Carnatic

Types of Indian Music

Hindustani
Music in
Malaysia

Ritual
Indigenous Music

Entertainment

Classical
Western Music

Popular

Others

Diagrammatic representation of types of music in Malaysia

Malay Music

Malay traditional music is mainly performed by the Malay people either for
entertainment, ritual or religious functions. It can be categorized into three main types:
classical music, folk music, and syncretic or acculturated music. Some types of Malay
music though, may fall into more than one category such as Makyong, wayang kulit,
tarinai and zapin. This is because some of the elements in the musical ensemble exist in
both categories (Matusky and Tan, 1997:4).

Malay Classical Music

Malay classical music is a type of traditional music associated with royal

entertainment and ritual occasions performed in the royal court. It is only performed for
special occasions such as the birthday of a king, enthronement of a king, and at any royal
ceremony. The musicians are well trained and patronized by the royal figures or a
patrician family. Sometimes the music is notated in its own way as in the nobat and
gamelan ensemble. Types of music falling into this category are the nobat, tarian asyek
and joget gamelan (Matusky and Tan, 1997:3).

The nobat ensemble is a royal band, which consists of five to six musicians
playing traditional drums, gong and two types of wind instrument. It is exclusively
performed in the royal court of Kedah, Perak, Selangor and Terengganu. This ensemble
originates from the days of the Melaka Sultanate (1400-1511) and was brought by the
Indian Muslim traders from the Arab culture. It is performed to accompany religious and
royal ceremonies (Ku Zam Zam, 1994:1-10).

Another Malay classical form of music is the Tari Asyek (engross dance)
performed in the royal court of Kelantan. Apart from folk entertainment in the royal
court, it is also performed as a ritual dance during royal ceremonies. The musician and
dancers are well trained and only work in the court. The ensemble consists of three
gongs, drums and a large hanging gong (Malm, 1974: 4).

The Malay gamelan is distinctly different from the Javanese and Balinese
gamelan. Although the instruments are not much different, unlike Javanese gamelan,
Malay gamelan music is less complex. Nearly all the instruments in the Malay gamelan
play the melody or the counter melody. It was brought to the royal court of Pahang in
1811 from Riau-Lingga and in 1913 to the state of Terengganu after the royal marriage
between the Prince of Terengganu and Princess of Pahang. Originally, the Malay
gamelan was played to accompany the court dance called the Joget gamelan (Matusky
and Tan, 1997:91). Now, the gamelan ensemble has been introduced into the national
music curriculum as part of the music study in secondary schools. The gamelan
ensemble has become more popular and is performed on many occasions including
university convocations and grand dinners.
Malay Folk Music

Malay folk music includes many types of Malay traditional music played usually
by villagers. It is mainly performed for entertainment purposes among villagers. There is
no formal institution for folk music learning. The musicians acquire music skills by the
rote method. Malay folk music falls into six categories; dance music, theatrical music,
vocal music, instrumental solo, musical ensemble and percussion ensemble (Ibid:4).
Dance music is the musical ensemble used to accompany many types of Malay dance
including tari inang, zapin, joget, and gendang tarinai. Dance music also exists in
classical tradition, which the tari asyik performed in the royal court of Kelantan and the
joget gamelan performed in the royal court of Terengganu.

There are two types of Malay theatrical music in Malaysia; puppet theatre and
human theatre. The puppet types of theatre in Malay culture are mainly performed with
two dimensional shadow puppets made of goat or cow hide including wayang kulit Jawa,
wayang kulit Melayu, wayang gedek and wayang kulit Kelantan. Human types of theatre
include makyong, menora, mekmulung, bangsawan and randai. Almost all the music for
the theatres is performed with a chamber ensemble in which percussion instruments
dominate (Ibid: 5).

Wayang Kulit

Vocal music is involved in almost all aspects of life in the Malay community from
childbirth to the process of socializing. It exists in the form of zikir, marhaban, pantun,
gurindam and syair14. Some vocal music such as pantun, syair, and marhaban are sung
without any accompaniment, but some is accompanied by one or two musical
instruments. There are many kinds of musical instrument played in instrumental solos.
The instruments from the aerophone, chordophone and membranophone families are used
14
Pantun, gurindam and syair are among the forms of the Malay literature.
to play the melody, entertaining the player himself, or a group of people. Instruments
made of bamboo, wood or metal are played as solo instruments. These include mouth
zither, seruling, kecapi buluh, puling tanah, rebab and tetuang. Some of the instruments
mentioned above are also played in other ensembles such as the rebab used to play the
melody in makyong theatre.

A rebab player

Although most Malay musical ensembles are percussion-dominated and used to

accompany the theatre or dance, there are also percussion ensembles performing freely as
independent ensembles. These percussion ensembles perform for entertainment purposes
or on some occasions including ritual and martial art (Ibid:166). The ensembles falling
into this group are caklempong, tumbuk kalang, rebana ubi, kompang, gendang silat, and
kertuk.

Malay Syncretic Music

The third category in Malay traditional music is syncretic music, also known as
acculturated music. This type of music is found both in urban and rural areas. Syncretic
music which involves vocal music, dance music, theatre music and instrumental music
has been accepted by the Malay. In syncretic music, both folk and classical music blend
together with foreign elements from Arabia, Parsi, India, China and the West. This type
of music is also very flexible with the absorption and adaptation of foreign musical
elements including melody, textures, scales, themes and musical instruments. The types
of music included in this category are keroncong, ghazal, bangsawan, dondang sayang,
zapin, and joget (Ibid: 3).

Chinese Music in Malaysia

The Chinese in Malaysia perform their own traditional music, brought from the
mainland of China especially during the British colonization period. Though not all the
types of music of China are performed in Malaysia, the types of music performed in
Malaysia are very much similar to the ones performed in China. The types of Chinese
music in Malaysia generally fall into three categories: art music, theatrical or operatic
music, and ritual or religious music.

Chinese Art Music

In the art music category, Chinese orchestral music also known as Huayue tuan is
the main type of art music performed by the Chinese in Malaysia. The Chinese orchestra
in Malaysia is similar to the Chinese orchestra found in the mainland of China with a
blend of western and traditional Chinese musical instruments. The music itself combines
western polyphony with Chinese melodies and scales, with repertoires mostly imported
from Hong Kong, Taiwan and China (Ang, 1998:36). There are a few Chinese virtuoso
performers in the Chinese classical tradition in Malaysia. Most of them were trained
outside Malaysia. Two notable figures in the Chinese orchestra in Malaysia are Khor
Seng Chew of the Dama Chinese Orchestra and Chew Hee Chiat of Zhuan Yi Chinese
Orchestra.

Chinese Operatic Music

There are two types of Chinese theatrical music in Malaysia; Chinese opera and
Po-te-hi. These types of opera were initiated by the Malaysian Chinese after the
entourages of Chinese theatres from China came to Malaysia in the late 19 th Century and
early 20th Century to entertain Chinese immigrants. They date back to the forms of opera
popular with both the elite and common people in the Yuan dynasty (13 th Century). The
Chinese opera is a classical opera, which is primarily associated with Chinese religious
festivals. The opera is performed in Teochiu, Kantonis or Hokien dialect. The cast use the
specially decorated costumes and make-up to portray stories of ancient China or religious
legends. The music is like that to be found in the Chinese orchestra but the number of the
instruments maybe less. The melody is dominated by the bowed string instrument called
erhu. The action in the play is driven by the percussion instruments including drum,
clappers, gong and cymbals (Matusky and Tan, 1997:73-74).

Po-te-hi is a glove puppet theatre played by two puppeteers. The puppeteers use
their fingers to move the wooden puppet while reciting the dialogues. Unlike the human
opera, Po-te-hi is performed only in Hokien dialect. The functions of music used in the
theatre are as an accompaniment to speech and vocal melodies, as sound effects, to
announce the start of the show and changes of the scenes. Mainly, the music is
heterophony with the use of the percussion instruments including a drum, woodblocks,
clappers, cymbals, gongs and traditional stringed instruments. The Chinese opera is
performed as a religious symbol and social function. It is also performed to celebrate the
birthday of the Chinese angels. The performances of this theatre give an opportunity for
informal interaction between the Chinese communities (Ang, 1998:44).

Chinese Religious Music

Some types of Chinese music in Malaysia have a religious or ritual function.

Apart from Po-te-hi opera, other types of Chinese music that have religious or ritual
connotations are the Chinese lion dance, the Chinese drum ensemble and music for
funerals. The lion dance is an important tradition in China. Usually the dance is part of
festivities like Chinese New Year and the openings of restaurants and weddings. If well-
performed, the lion dance is believed to bring luck and happiness. The lion dance dates
back to the Han Dynasty (205 B.C. to 220 A.D in China) and during the Tang Dynasty
(716-907 A.D.) it was at its peak. It was particularly performed during religious festivals.
The Chinese lion dance is very popular among the Chinese in Malaysia and is performed
during the Chinese New Year and at wedding ceremonies, to greet honourable guests or
at other ceremonies. The lion is enacted by two dancers. One handles the head, made out
of strong but light materials like papier-mâché and bamboo, the other plays the body and
the tail under a cloth that is attached to the head. A Little Buddha teases it with a fan or a
giant ball. The head dancer can move the lion's eyes, mouth and ears for expression of
moods. The 'lion' is accompanied by three musicians, playing a large drum, cymbals and
a gong (Matusky and Tan, 1997: 156).

Plate 1c: The Chinese Lion Dance in performance.

The Chinese drum ensembles consist of 24 drummers playing various interlocking

rhythms. It is also known as 24 Jie ling gu and popular among the Chinese especially in
the Chinese medium school in Malaysia. The huge barrel drums known as shigu (lion
drum) used in the Jie ling gu ensemble are similar to the one used in the Chinese lion
dance. The music and the choreography in the ensemble refer to the cycle of the Chinese
agricultural calendar. The ensemble is performed in many Chinese festivals including
Yuan Zhi Yi (The night of water eyes), Chinese New Year, and cultural shows (Chan,
2002: 28-29).

Musical ensemble accompanies a funeral procession.

A small ensemble consisting of a barrel drum, a gong and cymbal is used to

accompany the procession of a funeral. As part of the ritual, the ensemble performs
instrumental music on a small open truck. The group continuously performs the music all
the way from the dead person’s family house to the graveyard. Mourners, family and
friends of the dead person walking behind the coffin follow the procession. The music is
played continuously without a melody part in moderate fast tempo. The drummer plays
various patterns of rhythmic ostinato with the cymbals and gong guiding the tempo.

Indian Music in Malaysia

Indian music in Malaysia exists in the form of art music, which includes pure
music as well as dance music, and folk music. Most Indian music generally has religious
overtones regardless of its categorization (Narayanan, 1985). The Indian music in
Malaysia evolved from Carnatic music from South India and Hindustani music from
North India.

Carnatic Music

Carnatic music is of Tamil origin from South India and Sri Lanka, which is the
largest group among the Indian population in Malaysia. The music is considered one of
the oldest systems of music in the world. Imbued with emotion and the spirit of
improvisation, it also contains a scientific approach. This is mainly due to the
contributions of such inspired artists as Purandara Dasa, known as the Father of Carnatic
Music. The basis of Carnatic music is the system of ragas (melodic scales) and talas
(rhythmic cycles). There are seven rhythmic cycles and 72 fundamental ragas. All other
ragas are considered to have stemmed from these. An elaborate scheme exists for
identifying these scales, known as the 72 Melakarta Ragas (Massey and Massey, 1976:
110-115).

Mainly, Carnatic music in Malaysia involves instrumental and vocal music being
the preferred medium for songs with Tamils. The elements of Carnatic music in
Malaysia still remain largely true to its origins. Both vocal and instrument study in
Carnatic music are popular with Tamil speaking Indians in Malaysia. The most popular
area of instrumental study includes the vina, tabla, and mrdanga (Ang, 1998:33).

Hindustani Music

Hindustani music in Malaysia originated from North Indian classical music,

which is much less commonly found in Malaysia than Carnatic music. This music
however is still performed and studied especially in the west coast of Peninsular
Malaysia. Historically, the North Indian people brought Hindustani music to Malaysia
during the British colonization in the mid twentieth Century. Hindustani music is based
on Carnatic music with the influence of Muslim and Persian music. In North India, the
Mughal Empire (1526-1727) from the East dominated the region and the Indianisation of
Mughal culture occurred through intermarriages. As a result, Persian and Sanskrit,
Islamic and Hindu culture blended together and contributed to the evocation of
Hindustani music (Matsky and Tan, 1997:417-418).

In Malaysia, small ensembles consisting of two to three players are common

compared to the large orchestras of Carnatic music. The main areas of musical study are
the sitar, tambura, tabla and voice. A few Hindustani composers and artists actively
perform true Hindustani music. However, composer Samuel Dass is currently making
efforts to produce “Malaysianized” Indian classical music. He has composed and
released albums of new pieces in classical Indian music, which incorporate elements
from other cultures in Malaysia (Ang, 1998:36).

The Music of Indigenous People

The music of indigenous people in Malaysia is mainly used in religious rituals,

but sometimes performed for personal entertainment. It is not categorized as art music but
they do have a rich tradition of folk music. The music of the Orang Asli (aborigine) is
evoked from dreams and performed for ritual in singing and trance-dance ceremonies
(Roseman, 1991: 80). Generally, the music of indigenous people in Malaysia can be
categorized into two groups; music for ritual and music for entertainment.

The Ritual Music

Most of the indigenous people in Malaysia still hold their ancient animistic belief,
which is centered on the spirit and soul. The sewang is a ritual dance which is performed
either for ritualistic occasions such as the harvesting season or New Year and to renew
the agreement between the community and the spirits or in the healing process. Mainly,
the musical instruments used in the ritual ceremonies are made of bamboo tube and
played as an ensemble accompanying the songs.

The Entertainment Music

Apart from ritual music, the indigenous people also perform instrumental as well
as vocal music for entertainment. As most of the settlements are far from modern
entertainment such as radio and television, solo instruments are useful in freeing the
tensions of the late afternoon. The solo instruments are played in the evening and night-
time after work, releasing the stress. There are also songs and solo music played by
children, a group walking into the forest or a sleepless person in the night as a self-
entertainment. The solo instruments used for entertainment are bamboo flute, mouth-
harp, and bamboo-tube zither. The flute is also an instrument of courtship and seduction.
Often a Temiar man plays his flute from the top of a fruit tree while women cutting fruit
on the ground admire his manly playing (Roseman, 1991:159).

Western Music in Malaysia

Western music or the music derived from the western culture is also widely
performed in Malaysia. This includes classical music and popular music. The influence of
Western music on Malay music began obviously during the British colonization early in
the Twentieth Century. The spread of Western music in Malaysia is parallel with the new
invention of electronic media such as radio, gramophone, film, cassette player and
television.

Classical Music

Western classical forms such as symphony and chamber groups regularly perform
pieces from various western composers in concert halls around the cities in Malaysia.
Among a few fine halls, which regularly organize western classical music performances
are the Petronas Philharmonic Hall, Istana Budaya, and Kuala Lumpur City Hall. This
type of performance is normally attended only by high-class communities in the big
cities. Apart from well-established groups from outside Malaysia, there are a few well-
known local groups regularly performing western classical music. Among the groups are
The National Symphony Orchestra, The Kuala Lumpur Symphony Orchestra, and The
Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra Ang, 1998:26).

Small groups performing western chamber music are found only in the big cities
such as Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Johor Bharu. Among the most popular chamber
groups are the Camerata, which are made up of a sub-section of players from the
National Symphony Orchestra, the Kuala Lumpur Chamber Players, which is a mix
between local and foreign invited musicians, and the Baroque Choristers which
exclusively perform western baroque vocal music. Beside these, large-scale choral
groups also were formed as western music in Malaysia becomes more popular. Among
them are the amateur Selangor Philharmonic Society which organizes choral groups
consisting of classically trained and untrained local singers, and Kumpulan Koir
Kebangsaan (The National Choir) which regularly performs western songs as well as
Malay songs (Ibid.:27).

Other types of western musical ensemble include wind orchestras, brass bands,
pop-orchestras and others. All these groups perform using western musical instruments
and the western forms of music. Study of western musical instruments is common in
urban areas. The piano is the most popular instrument followed by violin, guitar and
wind instruments. Two popular examination boards, which grade the students of western
study, are the Associated Board of the Royal School of Music and the Trinity College of
Music and Drama of London. Both of them are based in England and have established
branches in Malaysia (Ibid: 25).

Popular Music

There are many types of popular music derived from western culture in Malaysia.
This includes pop bands, jazz groups, combos, soloists and singing groups. It was
pioneered by the bangsawan theatre musicians in the 1920’s and 1930’s. The music uses
a mix of Indian, Western, Latin American and Malay traditional instruments. The Malay
elements such as the singing style, vocal ornamentation, cyclic drum patterns and the use
of Malay texts are mixed together with the western elements of harmony and
orchestration (Ang, 1998:45). The development of popular music in Malaysia in the
1950’s was influenced by western rock music since the 50’s. Songs from rock ‘n’ roll
such as “Rock around the Clock” were sung by Malay artists. Some of the songs were
translated into Malay lyrics, but maintained the original melodies and rhythm and used
the same instruments as the original songs (Matusky and Tan, 1997:447).

In the 1960’s, the so-called pop yeh-yeh music had developed in Malaysia based
on the Beatles music from England. Many pop yeh-yeh bands consisting of three guitars
and a drum set known as kugiran15 were set up and performed in the nightclubs, stage
shows and other occasions. Among the popular groups were The Siglap 5, The Hooks,
Nirwana and Mutiara Timur. From the 1970’s to 1980’s, popular music in Malaysia was
influenced by transnational music of artists such as Michael Jackson, Madonna, ABBA
and Boney M (Id). Later on came the rock and heavy metal music from the west which
invaded popular music in Malaysia. This type of music was imitated by local artists and
music groups such as The Search, Wings, Lefthanded, and Bumiputera Rockers.

In the mid 1990’s, some Malaysian artists and composers tried to find their own
identity in popular music. This had led them to mix Malay traditional elements with
western music. Manan Ngah, M. Nasir and Pak Ngah were among the composers who
had experimented with this new popular music called Muzik Nusantara. In this music,
the composers tried to mix the Malay traditional instruments such as kompang, rebana,
serunai, rebab, gamelan and others with western instruments. With the new technology,
15
Acronym for Kumpulan Gitar Rancak – Fast rhythm guitar group.
many Malay traditional instruments have been sampled and used in recording music.
This helped composers to mix the Malay musical instruments with the western
instruments in their recording. Since the late 1990’s, many nasyid16 groups have been set
up. This type of music is mostly accompanied with percussion instruments including
rebana and kompang and has become popular in Malaysia. Among the popular nasyid
groups are Raihan, Rabbani, Hijjaz, The Brothers and Nowseeheart. This has added to
the variety of popular music in Malaysia.

Other Music in Malaysia

Beside Malay, Chinese and Indian, there are also a few other immigrant groups
settled in Malaysia who performs their own music. Among them are Portuguese, Punjabi,
and Singhalese. The Portuguese mostly settled down in the state of Melaka and their
branyo dance is well known. Since 1952, songs and dances introduced by Fr. Manuel
Joachim Pintando in his church are regularly performed by the Portuguese in Melaka.
The music of the Portuguese in Melaka consists of a viola, accordion, guitar, rebana
(frame drum), tambourine and a triangle. Two popular songs sung in the branyo dance
are Jinkli Nona and Ti’ Anika. Some of the Portuguese musical elements were also
adapted by the Malay such as in the joget (fast dance) rhythm (Matusky and Tan,
1997:429).

The Punjabi who mostly settled in the West coast of Peninsular Malaysia also
perform their music. The bhangra is a folkdance of Punjabi performed in celebrating the
harvest season in Punjab. In Malaysia, it is performed for joyful occasions including
wedding ceremonies. It was originally an exclusively male preserve but now female
dancers are winning places as bhangra dancers. The music is dominated by the drums
and oboe type of instrument (Ibid: 417-419).

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