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Anemia Aplásica
Anemia Aplásica
Review Article
Aplastic Anemia
Neal S. Young, M.D.
A
plastic anemia is a disease with a long history. The first case From the Hematology Branch, National
description was published by Paul Ehrlich in 1888, the term “anemia aplas- Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda,
MD. Address reprint requests to Dr.
tique” originated with Louis Henri Vaquez in 1904, and clinical features Young at the Mark Hatfield Clinical Re-
were described by Richard C. Cabot and other pathologists in the early 20th cen- search Center, 10 Center Dr., Bethesda, MD
tury. What was once a terrifying, mysterious disease, most often sudden in onset 20892-1202, or at youngns@mail.nih.gov.
and occurring in young persons, can now be successfully treated in almost all N Engl J Med 2018;379:1643-56.
patients. An understanding of the pathophysiology of aplastic anemia, gained in DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1413485
Copyright © 2018 Massachusetts Medical Society.
the research laboratory, has guided the development of effective therapies. Marrow
failure syndromes have been linked to viral infection and environmental toxins,
inherited and acquired genetic mutations, early events in leukemogenesis, and the
hematopoiesis of normal aging.
Defini t ions
The long history of aplastic anemia has resulted in confusing terminology. The
term “anemia” derives from the early ability to measure red cells in a hematocrit.
Most patients with aplastic anemia have pancytopenia, with decreased platelets,
white cells, and erythrocytes. “Aplastic” refers to the failure of marrow to form
blood, and hematopoietic failure is the end-organ effect of diverse pathophysiolog-
ical mechanisms. Yet a seemingly “empty” bone marrow may be entirely capable
of supporting normal hematopoiesis. Conversely, bone marrow failure can occur
without low marrow cellularity, as in the myelodysplastic syndromes and paroxys-
mal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH).
Idiopathic
Cytotoxic drugs Telomere disease
Seronegative hepatitis
CAUSES Radiation Fanconi anemia
Eosinophilic fasciitis
Benzene Other germline gene mutations
Thymoma
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Chemical and physical damage Immune destruction Constitutional genetic defects
APLASTIC ANEMIA
Figure 1. Diverse Pathophysiological Features that Lead to a Common Pathologic Process in Bone Marrow Failure.
Replacement of hematopoietic cells by fat is the distinctive pathologic feature of aplastic anemia. A hypocellular marrow can result from
chemical or physical damage; the most frequent causes are iatrogenic, such as after cytotoxic chemotherapy or irradiation and exposure
to benzene, usually in industry. In certain constitutional genetic defects that affect hematopoietic stem-cell function and the immune
system, marrow failure and a hypocellular marrow are prominent. The disease immune aplastic anemia results from destruction, mainly
by T cells, of hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells. Treatments are different for marrow damage, genetic defects that produce
multiorgan effects, and the immune disease.
* AA denotes aplastic anemia, AML acute myeloid leukemia, MAA moderate aplastic anemia, MDS myelodysplastic syndrome, and SAA severe
aplastic anemia.
and has consequences for family members. Fatal not have a clear cause and have been labeled
graft rejection has followed inadvertent use of a idiopathic.
graft from an affected sibling10 and persistent Immune aplastic anemia lies on a spectrum
marrow failure after transplantation in patients of bone marrow and blood-cell diseases (Fig. 2B).
with mutations in the gene encoding the growth Cytotoxic T cells have been the focus in studies
factor thrombopoietin.11 Results of published of samples from affected patients and in vitro
surveys from specialty clinics are influenced by studies. These cells appear to be functionally and
referral patterns and case definitions. In a study phenotypically activated,18,19 skewed to produce
involving 98 children and adults with aplastic type 1 cytokines (e.g., interferon-γ),20,21 induce
anemia, 5% had genetic mutations on screening.12 apoptosis through Fas and the Fas ligand,22 and
Of 173 patients with bone marrow failure of circulate as oligoclones.23 Acquired, somatic mu-
suspected inherited origin, most of whom were tations in the signal transducer and activator of
under 18 years of age, about 50% had muta- transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway may be
tions.13 At the National Institutes of Health, pathogenic in some cases of aplastic anemia, as
among children and adults referred for protocol they are in large granular lymphocytosis, producing
treatments, unexpected pathogenic mutations constitutively activated T cells.24 Regulatory T (Treg)
were very unusual in patients with severe aplastic cells are decreased in patients with aplastic ane-
anemia but were much more prevalent in those mia and increase with a hematologic response.25,26
with moderate bone marrow failure (Rodrigues F: Aplastic anemia is associated with specific
personal communication). histocompatibility antigens.27 The presence of
“escape clones” (granulocytes with loss of the
Immune Aplastic Anemia region of chromosome 6 that encompasses HLA
Almost all sporadic cases of aplastic anemia, alleles) in 10 to 15% of patients is striking28,29;
especially when severe and acute, appear to be cells selected because of the absence of HLA,
immune-mediated. The strongest, most relevant acquired by 6p loss of heterozygosity (LOH) or
evidence for an immune mechanism is improve- somatic mutations, sustain hematopoiesis by
ment in blood counts after a variety of immuno- means of clonal expansion.30 Immune escape has
suppressive therapies and dependence of adequate also been hypothesized to explain clonal expan-
counts after recovery on a maintenance calci- sion of “PNH cells” in aplastic anemia; red cells
neurin inhibitor (usually cyclosporine).14 Aplastic and white cells deficient in glycosylphosphoino-
anemia is associated with immunologic diseases sitol (GPI)–anchored proteins originate from a
(particularly seronegative hepatitis,15 eosinophilic stem cell with an acquired mutation in PIGA
fasciitis,16 and thymoma17), but most cases do (phosphatidylinositol glycan class A).31 It has been
A
Paroxysmal
nocturnal
hemoglobinuria
Fanconi anemia
GATA2
RUNX1
CTLA4
Large granular
MPL APLASTIC lymphocytosis
ANEMIA
Telomere
disease
Myelodysplastic Acute myeloid leukemia
syndromes
Hypocellular
myelodysplastic
syndrome
B
B-CELL IMMUNITY
Paroxysmal
nocturnal Hemophagocytic
hemoglobinuria lymphohistiocytosis
Amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia
suggested that the GPI anchor itself is a target functional changes. Clonal populations may be
of the immune response.32 Autoantibodies of un- easier to detect in patients with marrow failure
certain clinical relevance have been identified by than in healthy persons with many more active
high-throughput screening of serum samples,33,34 stem cells. Mutated clones need not be malig-
but the inciting antigen (or antigens) for the nant. In aplastic anemia, benign clonal popula-
dominant T-cell response remains unknown. tions of granulocytes deficient in GPI-anchored
Immune aplastic anemia can be modeled in proteins or lacking HLA expression are com-
mice: infusion of mismatched donor lympho- mon, presumably selected for their survival un-
cytes leads to rapid hematopoietic failure and der immune attack. Indeed, healthy persons have
death.35,36 Limited numbers of T cells specifi- tiny numbers of leukocytes with PIGA mutations,
cally attack marrow cells, causing apoptosis and chromosomal clonal mosaicism is present in
through Fas engagement; type 1 cytokines have many normal tissues. Clonal evolution in aplas-
an active role in targeted cell death, directly for tic anemia is development of the myelodysplastic
interferon-γ and indirectly for tumor-necrosis syndrome (MDS) or acute myeloid leukemia
factor α (TNF-α); and Treg cells are inhibitory. (AML), usually characterized by aneuploidy, es-
pecially loss of all or a portion of chromosome 7.
Abnormalities of chromosome 7 are a feature of
Hem at op oie sis
both acquired39 and constitutional40 aplastic ane-
Stem-Cell Number mia, suggesting that the environment of marrow
Aplastic anemia has long been regarded as the failure itself confers a predisposition to their
result of a profound deficit in hematopoietic selection.
stem and progenitor cells.37 The marrow is de- With next-generation sequencing, clonality is
void of morphologic precursors to erythrocytes, detected in leukocytes with a mutation in a spe-
granulocytes, and platelets. Cells bearing the cific gene. In most targeted genomic studies,
antigen CD34, which contain stem and progeni- mutations are queried in about 50 “candidate”
tor cells, are almost completely absent in fixed genes (i.e., genes known to be recurrently mu-
biopsy specimens or on flow-cytometric analysis. tated in MDS and AML). (These mutations are
Colony-forming cells for differentiated lineages acquired, not inherited, and are present in a
and more immature multipotent cells are ex- hematopoietic stem cell and its progeny.41) Such
tremely low in number. None of the available clonal populations are present in about one third
measurements of hematopoiesis accurately quan- of patients with aplastic anemia, but in contrast
tify stem cells, and they also do not correlate to MDS and AML, a very limited set of genes
closely with blood counts. A return to normal (DNMT3A, ASXL1, and BCOR) is involved, and the
blood counts and bone marrow function after clone size (variant allele fraction) is small.42,43
immunosuppression, and even more dramatically Mutated clones are associated with prognosis
with growth factor stimulation, indicates the (favorable with BCOR and PIGA and unfavorable
presence of residual stem cells in an “empty” with DNMT3A and ASXL1).42 Clones containing
bone marrow. mutations in these genes can be stable over a
period of many years,42 and mutated clones in-
Stem-Cell Clonality frequently appear to drive evolution to a myeloid
Hematopoiesis in aplastic anemia is clonal, but cancer.44,45
this is not a well-defined term.38 Cancer is
clonal: a tumor is derived from a single malig- Telomeres
nant cell. Normal hematopoiesis is also clonal: Extremely short telomeres are a typical finding
a single stem cell gives rise to many differenti- in patients with a genetic telomere disease. In im-
ated progeny. In a tumor or leukemia, mutations mune aplastic anemia, telomere length may be
in specific genes alter cell function and in com- decreased as a result of increased mitotic demand
bination produce the malignant phenotype. Muta- on a limited pool of stem cells.46 Telomere length
tions also accumulate in normal cells as “pas- at diagnosis has correlated with outcomes,45,47
sengers,” in genes that do not lead to gross response to immunosuppression,48 and evolution
Treatment
Second failure Matched unrelated donor
Alternative donor hematopoietic immunosuppressive or haploidentical bone
stem-cell transplantation therapy marrow transplantation
(matched unrelated donor,
umbilical cord blood) Response
Long-term monitoring
(months to years): Relapse
After immunosuppressive
Observation Observation Observation Observation
therapy: Recurrent relapse Evolution to
Monitor for relapse or evolution to −7, MDS, or AML
and evolution −7, MDS, or AML
After bone marrow
transplantation:
Manage graft-versus-host
disease, infection, and
late complications
— graft rejection and graft-versus-host disease in older adults, the results have not improved
(GVHD) — and the need for suitable donors. for several decades, with a survival rate of about
Expanded donor options are major recent ad- 50% for recipients older than 40 years of age70
vances. and a relative risk of death that is almost three
For immune aplastic anemia in a young pa- times as high for older adults as it is for chil-
tient, transplantation is always the preferred dren in registry data.71 Black patients also have
treatment. When transplantation is undertaken poorer outcomes than white patients.72 Marrow
expeditiously after diagnosis, with the use of a is the preferred source, since the risk of GVHD
graft from a histocompatible sibling donor, the is higher with the use of peripheral blood.73,74
results are excellent, with a long-term survival Rabbit antithymocyte globulin (ATG) is often
rate of more than 90% among young children61,62 added to the conditioning regimen,64,75 and radia-
and more than 80% among adolescents63 and a tion therapy, especially in children, is avoided.
low rate of short- and long-term complications Histocompatible sibling donors are unavail-
(Table 2). Although transplantation of grafts able for most patients, but large donor registries
from sibling donors has become more common provide the option of an HLA match with an
yr % % %
IBMTR prospective RCT, MFD — 50% of recipients had no previ- 70 Median, 23 Conditioning: Cy, ATG 80 at 5 yr Acute: 11 16
1994–200164‡ ous treatment Prophylaxis: CsA, MTX Chronic: 32
King’s College retrospective MFD — most recipients had no previous 100 Median, 18 Conditioning: Alemtuzumab+Cy 90 at 5 yr Acute: 29 9
study, 1999–200965§ treatment; MUD — most recipients Prophylaxis: CsA for MSD, FLU+Cy Chronic: 3
Copyright © 2018 Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.
The
2000–200961 Cy+FLU Chronic: 6
Prophylaxis: CsA±ATG±MTX
n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l
n engl j med 379;17
The New England Journal of Medicine
EGBMT registry, adolescents, MFD — no previous treatment 394 Median, 15 Conditioning: mainly Cy, some 86 at 3 yr Acute: 12 8
2000–200963 Cy+FLU±ATG Chronic: 8
Prophylaxis: mostly MTX+CsA, some
CsA+MMF
EGBMT registry, 2005–200966 MFD — previous recipient treatments not 940 50% >20 — 83 at 5 yr Acute: 13 9
described Chronic: 6
nejm.org
EGBMT registry, 2005–200966 MUD — previous recipient treatments 508 53% >20 — 76 at 5 yr Acute: 26 9
not described Chronic: 11
French national prospective UCB — refractory SAA 26 Median, 16 Conditioning: FLU+Cy+ATG+TBI 85 at 2 yr Acute: 46 12
study, 2011–201567 Prophylaxis: CsA Chronic: 36
October 25, 2018
JSHCT registry, 2001–201268 UCB — refractory adult SAA 69 Median, 49 Conditioning: mainly 69 at 3 yr Acute: 32 29
of
FLU+melphalan+low-dose TBI Chronic: 21
m e dic i n e
Prophylaxis: MTX or MMF±
glucocorticoids±CIN
Eurocord and EBMT retrospec- Sibling UCB with or without bone marrow 20 Median, 5.6 Conditioning: variable but mainly 81 at 7 yr Acute: 6 10
tive registry, 1988–201469 — mainly for refractory disease Cy+FLU Chronic: 8
Prophylaxis: variable but mainly
CsA+glucocorticoids
* ATG denotes antithymocyte globulin, CIN calcineurin inhibitor, CsA cyclosporine, Cy cyclophosphamide, EBMT European Society for Bone Marrow Transplantation, EGBMT European
Group for Bone Marrow Transplant, FLU fludarabine, GVHD graft-versus-host disease, IBMTR International Bone Marrow Transplant Registry, JSHCT Japan Society for Hematopoietic
Cell Transplantation, MFD matched family donor, MSD matched sibling donor, MTX methotrexate, MUD matched unrelated donor, RCT randomized, controlled trial, TBI total-body ir-
radiation, and UCB umbilical cord blood.
† Data for acute GVHD are for grades II, III, and IV disease. Data for chronic GVHD are usually for grades II, III, and IV (for extensive disease) and occasionally for all chronic GVHD.
‡ This RCT compared Cy alone with Cy plus ATG. There were no significant differences between the conditioning regimens with respect to outcomes. For simplicity, only data for the
group that received CTX plus ATG are shown, since this is the more common conditioning regimen.
§ Only data from alemtuzumab-treated patients are shown; MSD and MUD are combined, as they were in the original report.
Aplastic Anemia
unrelated donor at molecular resolution for most ment for children.92 In Europe, with an average
white patients.76-78 In a comprehensive report on 1-year survival rate of about 74%, haploidentical
more than 500 transplantations, survival after transplantation is recommended as second-line
receipt of a transplant from an HLA-matched therapy.93 Current results are promising, but be-
unrelated donor was not statistically inferior to cause of the relatively limited numbers of cases
survival after receipt of a transplant from a reported and the unknown long-term effects of
matched sibling donor, but the frequency of seri- complicated regimens and a mismatched im-
ous GVHD was twice as high.77 Young age is a mune system, haploidentical transplantation is
favorable factor for transplantation of grafts regarded as experimental in the United States
from unrelated donors, as it is for transplanta- and Europe.
tion of grafts from sibling donors. For children For the constitutional marrow failure syn-
in whom other therapies have failed, grafts from dromes, transplantation is the only curative
unrelated donors are associated with excellent option for marrow failure or acute leukemia.
survival; the survival rate was 95% in a multi- Although recipients have the advantage of young
center British study.57 Outcomes are better when age, specific considerations relate to the under-
marrow is transplanted rather than blood cells, lying biology of the syndrome: patients with
ATG is included in the conditioning regimen, Fanconi anemia have an inherent sensitivity to
donors are young, and the interval between diag- alkylating agents in conditioning regimens and
nosis and transplantation is short.77,79 Outcomes an increased risk of late cancers, and patients
have been so good in children that some experts with telomere disease may have hepatic and pul-
have advocated for first-line use of transplants monary deterioration after transplantation. Both
from unrelated donors,80,81 despite sometimes the decision to perform transplantation and the
protracted delays in identifying and collecting timing of the procedure can be difficult because
donor cells. Late complications are more fre- of the slow progression of moderate hematopoi-
quent in recipients of transplants from unrelated etic failure, the uncertainty of variable disease
donors than in recipients of transplants from outcomes without intervention, and the unpre-
siblings.82 dictable risk of transformation to leukemia.
Umbilical cord blood transplantation has been Nevertheless, in some clinical circumstances,
successful in aplastic anemia, mainly in children improvement has been seen in survival and mor-
because of the favorable relationship between bidity over historically poor outcomes.94-96 For
the cell numbers in the inoculum and the re- almost 100 patients with constitutional marrow
cipient’s weight, with survival approximating failure who underwent cord-blood stem-cell
90%.69,83 Rates of GVHD are low. The major transplantation, the 7-year survival rate was 86%
disadvantages of cord blood are delayed engraft- and most of the patients did not have GVHD.69
ment and prolonged neutropenia. Some proto- Children with Fanconi anemia who received
cols combine cord blood and mismatched bone transplants from unrelated donors had good
marrow.58 outcomes, similar to those with transplants
A potential donor who is half-matched to the from matched family donors.97 Even among
patient should be present in virtually every fam- adults with Fanconi anemia who received matched
ily. Since even single antigen disparities mark- transplants from a sibling after a reduced-inten-
edly affect the outcome of transplantation, over- sity conditioning regimen, the survival rate was
coming major histocompatibility differences had 85% at 3 years.98
seemed an insuperable barrier. T-cell–depleting
strategies — administration of cytotoxic drugs Immunosuppression
and biologic agents before transplantation and In the early years of transplantation, occasional
cyclophosphamide afterward84 — have been autologous recovery of bone marrow despite
used to prevent GVHD. The results have been graft failure suggested that the antilymphocyte
encouraging on the basis of extensive experience globulin used in conditioning regimens might
in Chinese centers, with much smaller series of have had a salutary effect. Combined with cyclo-
transplant recipients in the United States and sporine, ATG leads to hematologic responses in
Europe (Table 3). Haploidentical transplantation about two thirds of patients.14,93 Complex mix-
has been advocated in China as first-line treat- tures of antibodies to human proteins that have
Study Patients Age Conditioning and Prophylaxis Overall Survival GVHD† Graft Failure
yr % % no. of cases
The
Prospective study in Korea, 2009–2010 85
4 18 Conditioning: Cy, FLU, ATG 100 at 19 mo 0 0
Prophylaxis: CsA, MMF; graft depleted of CD3 or
n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l
n engl j med 379;17
The New England Journal of Medicine
CD3–CD19 cells
King’s College study86 6 30 Conditioning: Cy, FLU, low-dose TBI 67% at 1 yr Acute: 17 (skin) 2 primary
Prophylaxis: Cy (after transplantation), tacrolimus, MMF; Chronic: 0
GCSF-mobilized peripheral blood
Retrospective study in Brazil, 16 17 Conditioning: Cy, FLU, low-dose TBI 67% at 1 yr Acute: 13 1 primary,
2010–201487 Prophylaxis: Cy (after transplantation), CNI, MMF Chronic: limited, 20; 1 secondary
nejm.org
severe, 7
Multicenter prospective study in China, 101 19 Conditioning: BU, Cy, ATG 89 at 3 yr Acute: 34 2 secondary
2012–201588 Prophylaxis: CsA, MMF, MTX Chronic: 20 (extensive, 9)
Prospective pediatric study in Beijing, 52 9 Conditioning: BU, Cy, ATG 85 at 3 yr Acute: 14 (grade III–IV) 3 secondary
October 25, 2018
of
Multicenter retrospective study in China, 89 Conditioning: BU, Cy, ATG 86 at 3 yr Acute: 30 1 primary
m e dic i n e
2012–201590 Prophylaxis: CsA, MMF, MTX Chronic: 3
Johns Hopkins study, 2011–201659 13 30 Conditioning: Cy, FLU, low-dose TBI, ATG 100 at 21 mo 0 0
Prophylaxis: Cy (after transplantation), MMF, tacrolimus
Retrospective study in Langfang, China, 41 13 Conditioning: Cy, FLU, BU, ATG, and GCSF-mobilized 80 at 3 yr Acute: 44 0
2012–201691 bone marrow and peripheral blood Chronic: 12
Prophylaxis: CIN, MMF, MTX
* BU denotes busulfan, G-CSF granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and MMF mycophenolate mofetil.
† Data for acute GVHD are for grade II, III, or IV disease. Patients with chronic GVHD may or may not have had grade II, III, or IV acute GVHD.
Aplastic Anemia
not been fully defined, ATGs have a relatively without Eltrombopag as Front-line Therapy for
mild lymphocyte-depleting effect, but subtle dif- Severe Aplastic Anemia Patients; ClinicalTrials.gov
ferences in the mechanism of action appear to number, NCT02099747), a multicenter European
be important for efficacy. For example, rabbit trial, is testing eltrombopag in combination with
ATG was much less efficacious than was horse ATG in a randomized protocol.
ATG in a randomized, controlled trial, in which Increases in bone marrow cellularity and the
a major difference in biologic effect was more numbers of CD34 and progenitor cells suggest a
severe depletion of CD4 cells and Treg cells after direct effect of eltrombopag on marrow stem
the administration of rabbit ATG.26 Even in pa- cells.45 Thrombopoietin concentrations in blood
tients with a response, blood counts do not usu- from patients with aplastic anemia are very
ally return to normal. Relapse occurs in 30%99 to high,107 but eltrombopag may evade a block to
60%100 of patients and usually responds to fur- receptor engagement in the presence of inter-
ther immunosuppression, but years of continued feron-γ (Alvarado L, Larochelle A: personal com-
cyclosporine therapy are required.101 Responses munication).
and outcomes are better in children102 than in
older adults.103 Patients who do not have a re- Androgens
sponse to horse ATG may have improvement Androgens have long been used as therapy for
with second-line rabbit ATG or alemtuzumab, a marrow failure syndromes. Although generally
pan–T-cell monoclonal antibody.101,104 regarded as much less efficacious than immuno-
suppressive strategies for the treatment of severe
Stem-Cell Stimulation aplastic anemia, androgens are standard care for
Many attempts to improve on ATG by adding many constitutional syndromes. Sex hormones
androgens, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, increase expression of the gene for telomerase in
mycophenolate mofetil, or sirolimus have not cell culture108 and in mice.109 In a recent prospec-
altered response rates or long-term outcomes.14 tive trial, high doses of danazol, a synthetic an-
Hematopoietic growth factors are ineffective in drogen, improved blood counts in patients with
aplastic anemia. It was therefore unexpected when telomere disease and also appeared to reverse
eltrombopag, a synthetic mimetic of thrombo- accelerated telomere attrition.110
poietin, showed activity in patients with refrac-
tory aplastic anemia. Approximately half the pa- C onclusions
tients had robust trilineage improvements in
blood counts, which in most cases were durable The development of understanding and treat-
after discontinuation of the drug.105,106 When ment of aplastic anemia is a success story of the
eltrombopag was added to initial standard im- laboratory and clinic, with implications beyond
munosuppressive therapy, it markedly increased bone marrow failure. The causes of aplastic ane-
the overall response rate to about 80% and the mia are related to common environmental tox-
complete response rate to about 50%, with pa- ins, specific viral infections, and genes affecting
tients often having rapid hematologic recovery.45 basic cellular mechanisms. The role of the im-
To date, the rates of relapse and evolution to mune system has been recognized as both po-
myeloid cancers appear to be similar to or lower tent and subtle. Most gratifying, treatments for
than the rates among historical controls treated patients with immune aplastic anemia have im-
with immunosuppression alone. Eltrombopag has proved remarkably over the past several decades
been approved for use in patients with refractory because of the development of better transplan-
severe aplastic anemia, and an application has tation and immunosuppressive regimens. Trans-
been submitted to the Food and Drug Adminis- plantation can be beneficial in all types of mar-
tration for the use of eltrombopag in combina- row failure, but in the future, gene editing and
tion with immunosuppressive agents as initial restoration of function offer hope for constitu-
therapy for aplastic anemia. In both cases, data tional diseases.
came from a single center and limited numbers of Disclosure forms provided by the author are available with the
patients. RACE (A Prospective Randomized Multi- full text of this article at NEJM.org.
I thank my colleagues James Cooper, Valentine Giudice, Clare
center Study Comparing Horse Antithymocyte Sun, Philip Scheinberg, and Danielle Townsley for their careful
Globuline [hATG] + Cyclosporine A [CsA] with or reading of an earlier version of the manuscript.