REFERENCE

PERSONAL REFERENCE

Speech roles Speaker a) Speaker only (I, me, my, mine)

b) Speaker plus (we, us, our, ours)
Addressee/s (you, your, yours)
Other roles Specific a) Singular Human male (he, him, his)
Human female (she, her, hers)
Non-human (it, its)
b) Plural (they, them, their, theirs)

DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE

Neutral item the

Selective items a) Participant
NEAR FAR
SINGULAR this that
PLURAL these those

b) Circumstance
NEAR FAR
PLACE here there
TIME now then

COMPARATIVE REFERENCE

 General comparison

Identity Same, equal, identical

Identically
Similarity Such, similar, additional
Similarity, likewise, so
Difference (on/the) other, different
Differently, otherwise, else

 Particular comparison

Quality Comparative adj./adv. (-er, more/less)

Adv. Of comparison (so/as/quality) submodifying an adj./adv.
Quantity Comparative quantifier (more, fewer/less/further)
Adv. Of comparison (so/a7equallys) submodifying a quiantifier (many, few, little)
 SUBSTITUTION
NOMINAL SUBSTITUTION

One, ones; the same

“These biscuits are stale, I’ll het some fresh ONES”

VERBAL SUBSTITUTION

Do; do so.
A: I like pizza a lot
B: I do too

CLAUSAL SUBSTITUTION: Report, condition, modality.

So, not.
A: Is there going to be a snowstorm?
B: They say so

NON-PROMINENT PROMINENT
given new
NOMINAL Thing (count noun) one(s) the same
Process (nominalized) do
Attribute so be the same
Fact say
VERBAL Process (+ …) do do so
CLAUSAL: report, positive so so
condition, modality negative not not
 LEXICAL COHESION
REPETITION

Different forms of the same lexical item

 With identity of reference

Repetition of a word plus the use of an anaphoric item
“There’s a boy crossing the street. The boy’s wearing a red t-shirt”

 Without identity of reference

Repetition of a word
“There’s a boy climbing that tree. Those boys are always getting into trouble”

SYNONYMY

 With identity of reference

Repetition of a word plus the use of an anaphoric item

i) use of a synonym or near synonym ( a synonym is a word which has the same, or nearly the same, meaning as another word.
Forms of writing / Scripts
ii) use of a superordinate (the category superordinate refers to any item whose meaning includes that of an earlier one; a
superordinate term operates anaphorically as a kind of synonym, a superordinate is a synonym at a higher level of generality
car/Jaguar, vehicle/car, flower/daisy, spoon/teaspoon
iii) use of a general noun (the class of general noun is a small set of nouns having generalized reference within the major noun
classes)

people, person, man, woman, boy, girl (for humans)

creature (for non-human)
thing, object (for inanimate concrete count nouns)
stuff (for inanimate concrete mass nouns)
business, affair, matter (for inanimate abstract nouns)
move (for actions)
place (for places)
question, idea(for facts)

 Without identity of reference

Use of a synonym

i) use of a synonym or a near synonym

ii) use of a hyponym (hyponyms are words whose meaning is included in the meaning of another word) or meronym (meronyms
are part of a whole)
iii) use of an antonym (an antonym is a word which is opposite in meaning to another word)

Complementaries (ungradable pais): stand up/sit down, boy/girl

Antonyms (gradable pairs): like/hate, crowded/desserted
Converses: order/obey, teach/learn

COLLOCATION

The cohesive effect is achieved through the association of lexical items that regulary co-occur. Collocations is a cover term for the
cohesion that results from the co-occurrence of lexical items that are in some way or other typically associated with one another
because they tend to occur in similar environments. Instances of collocation depend on a particular association between the items in
question – a tendency to co-occur. There is always the possibility of cohesion between any pair of lexical items which are in some way
associated with each other in the language, e.g. garden –dig, doctor – ill. Other common sources of collocation are:
 Words from the same ordered series: the days of the week, the cardinal points, the ranks in the Armed Forces
 Words from unordered lexical sets: hotel staff
 CONJUNCTION

Kinds of conjuctive items

1. a) simple adverbs: but, so, then, next

b) compound adverbs in –ly: accordingly, subsequently, actually
c) compound adverbs in there- and where-: therefore, whereat, thereupon, whereupon
2. a) other compound adverbs: furthermore, nevertheless, anyway, instead, besides
b) prepositional phrases: on the contrary, as aresult, in addition
3. prepositional expressions with that or other reference item
- optional: as a result (of this), instead (of that), in addition (to that)
- obligatory: in spite of that, because of that

There’re three different types of expansion: Elaboration, Extension, Enhacement.

ELABORATION

One clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further specifying or by further describing it.
One clause provides a further characterization of one element of another clause, which is already in the picture by:
 Restarting it
 Clarifying it
 Replacing it
 Adding a descriptive attribute or comment to it

 APPOSITION
Some element is re-presented or restated

i) Expository. This is the “i.e.” relation; the continuing clause elaborates in the initiating by explaining, expanding or paraphrasing
some element in it.
ii) Exemplifying. This is the “e.g.” relation; the continuing clause elaborates on the initiating clause by giving an example.

 CLARIFICATION

The elaborated element is no simply restates but summarized, made more precise or in some other way clarifies for purposes of the
discourse.
i) Corrective. The continuing clause clarifies one element in the initiating clause by correcting its meaning or its wording.
ii) Distractive. The continuing clause reduces its weight and its connection with what went before.
iii) Dismissive. The continuing clause elaborates on the initiating clause by dismissing some circumstances which have been referred
to as irrelevant. This relation often means only a change of subject.
iv) Particularizing. The continuing clause clarifies the initiating clause by making some element of it more precise.
v) Resumptive. The continuing clause elaborates in the initiating clause by resuming the main purpose of the communication
following a digression.
vi) Summative. The continuing clause elaborates on the meaning of the initiating clause by summing up.
vii) Verificative. The continuing clause elaborates on the meaning of the initiating clause by asserting its veracity, by asserting the
truth of the initiating clause.

EXTENSION

One clause extends the meaning of another by adding something to it:

 An addition
 A replacement
 An alternative

 ADDITION

i) Possitive. And sometimes indicates a shift in the participants from one sentence to the next. It may mark transition between quoted
speech and the development of the narrative. Usually, it introduces the last of a series of points contributing to one general argument.
 ADVERSATIVE The continuing clause extends the meaning of the initiating clause by reñating two points of
contrast.

 VARIATION

i) Replacive. The continuing clause replaces the initiating clause.

ii) Substractive. The continuing clause introduces an exception to the initiating clause.
iii) Alternative. The continuing clause offers or suggests an alternative.

ENHANCEMENT

Our clause enhances the meaning of another by qualifying it (embellishing), in one of a number of possible ways:
 by reference to time
 by reference to place
 by reference to manner
 by reference to clause
 by reference to condition

 SPATIO-TEMPORAL

i) Simple.
FOLLOWING
SIMULTANEOUS
PRECEDING
CONCLUSIVE: in this relation the secondary sentence marks the end of some process or series of processes.
ii) Complex. These relations are simple ones with some other semantic feature or features present; the meaning is made more specific
by the presence of an additional component.
INMEDIATE (then/before + immediately)
INTERRUPTED (then + a specific time interval)
REPETITIVE (then/before + repetition)
SPECIFIC
DURATIVE (then + interval/in the interval)
TERMINAL (then + termination)
PUNCTILIAR (then/before + moment of time)
iii) Simple internal. The time these relations refer to, is the temporal unfolding of the discourse itself.
FOLLOWING
SIMULTANEOUS
PRECEDING
CONCLUSIVE

 MANNER Conjunctives of manner create cohesion

i) By comparison. Maybe positive or negative.
ii) By reference to means

 CAUSAL-CONDITIONAL
i) General. The continuing clause enhances the initiating clause by qualifying it referring to reason, result or purpose.
ii) Specific. They include result, reason and purpose, condition, concession.
RESULT
REASON
PURPOSE
CONDITIONAL POSITIVE
CONDITIONAL NEGATIVE
CONCESSIVE

 MATTER The continuing clause enhances the initiating clause by qualifying it with reference to matter.
i) Positive
ii) Negative