Limits

The concept of limits of a function is one of the fundamental ideas that distinguishes Calculus
from other areas of mathematics e.g. Algebra or Geometry.
If f(x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches a from either side, then the
lim
limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L written as f (x) = L .
x®a
Consider a function y=f(x)
lim
f ( x ) = L means the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is equal to a number L i.e. as x gets
x®a
closer and closer to a ( x ¹ a ), f(x) gets closer and closer to L.
lim
Example 21: Let f ( x ) = x 2 . Find f ( x)
x®2
Solution:
lim lim 2
f (x ) = x = 22 = 4
x®2 x®2
lim
Example 22: Let f(x) = 5x – 3. Find 5x - 3
x®2
Solution:
lim
5 x - 3 = (5 ´ 2 - 3) = 7
x®2
Example 23: Let
1
f (x) =
x .
Find
lim 1
x®¥ x
Solution:
lim 1
=¥ (undefined)
x ®0 x

Properties of limits
lim
1. k=k
x®a
lim lim lim
2. [ f (x ) + g ( x )] = f (x) + g (x )
x®a x®a x®a
lim lim lim
3. f ( x )´ g ( x ) = f ( x )´ g (x )
x®a x®a x®a

1
 f (x ) lim f ( x )
4. lim = x ®a provided that lim g ( x ) ¹ 0
x ®a g (x ) lim
g (x )
x®a

lim
f (x )
5. lim n f (x ) = n x ® a

1
1
x = æç
lim lim x ö 2
e.g 2
÷
x®a è x ® aø
Example 24:
lim x 2 - 4 x + 3 lim x 2 - lim 4 x + lim 3
x ®5 = x®5 x ®5 x ®5

= 52 - 4 ´ 5 + 3
= 25 - 20 + 3
=8
Example 25:
3x + 5 lim 3 x + 5 3 ´ 2 + 5 11
lim = x ®2 = =
x®2 5 x + 7 lim 5 x + 7 5 ´ 2 + 7 17
x®2

Example 26:
x 2 - 4 lim x2 - 4
lim ¹ x®2
since lim x - 2 = 0
x®2 x - 2 lim x - 2 x®2
x®2

lim x 2 - 4 lim ( x + 2)( x - 2) lim

Hence = = ( x + 2) = 4
x ® 2 x-2 x ®2 ( x - 2) x®2

Example 27:
2
2
x + 3 x x ®8
3 lim x 3 + lim 3 x
lim = x ®8
x ®8 16 16
4- lim 4 - lim
x 2
x ®8 x ®8 x

83 + 3 8
=
16
4-
8
4+6 2
=
2
= 2+3 2
Example 28:

2
 3x 5 5
+ 3 +
lim 3x + 5 lim x x = lim x
=
x ® ¥ 6x - 8 x ® ¥ 8 x ® ¥ 8
6 - 6 -
x x
lim 5 lim
3 +
x ® ¥ x ® ¥ x 3 + 0 1
= =
lim lim 6 - 0 2
6 - 8
x ® ¥ x ® ¥
lim 4x 2 - x
Example 29: Divide by the highest power of x.
x ® ¥ 2x3 - 5
æ4 1 ö
lim ç x - x 2 ÷ 0 - 0 0
ç ÷= = =0
x ® ¥ç 5 ÷ 2-0 2
ç 2- 3 ÷
è x ø

Example 30:
ælim 2 ö
x 2 ç1 + 2 ÷
lim x +2 x®¥
2
è x ø
=
x ® ¥ 3x - 6 3x - 6
1
æ 2 ö2
xç1 + 2 ÷
lim è x ø
=
x ® ¥ 3x - 6

æ 2 ö
x ç1 + 2 ÷
è x ø
= lim
æ 6ö
xç 3 - ÷
è xø

lim 2
1+
x®¥ x2
=
lim æ 6ö
ç3 - ÷
x ® ¥è xø
1
=
3

Example 31:

3
 lim x 3 - 1
=3
x ® 1 x -1

( )
lim x 2 + x + 1 ( x - 1)
=
lim 2
x + x +1
x ®1 (x - 1) x ®1
= 1+1+1
=3

Example 32:
lim æ x 3 - 8 ö 0
ç ÷=
x ® 2 çè x - 2 ÷ø 0

lim (x - 2 )(x 2 + 2 x + 4 )
x®2 x-2
lim
x 2 + 2 x + 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
x®2

Exercise 3
lim 5 x + 1
1.
x ® ¥ 10 + 2 x
lim x 2 - 4 x - 5
2.
x ® 5 x -5
lim x 2 - 25
3.
x ®5 x-5
lim 2 + x - 2
4.
x®0 x
x
5.The domain of the functions f ( x ) = and g ( x ) = 7 - x is  .Write down as simply as possible.
5
a. f -1 (x ) b. g -1 ( x ) c. fg ( x ) d. ( fg )-1 ( x )

Solutions to Exercise 3

1
lim 5 x + 1 lim 5 + x 1
1. = =2
x ® ¥ 10 + 2 x x ® ¥ 10 + 2 2
x

4
 lim x 2 - 4 x - 5 lim ( x - 5 )( x + 1)
2. =
x ®5 x-5 x ® 5 ( x - 5)
lim
= x +1 = 6
x®5
lim 2 x - 4
Or = 2(5) - 4 = 6
x®5 1
lim ´2 - 25 lim ( x + 5 )( x - 5 )
= = 10
3. x ® 5 x - 5 x®5 ( x - 5)

lim 2 x
Or = 2(5) = 10
x®5 1

lim 2- x - 2 2-x + 2
4. ´
x®0 x 2-x+ 2
2- x-2
=
(
x 2 + 2- x )
-x -1
= =
(
x 2 + 2- x )
2 + 2- x
lim -1 -1 -1 2 2 2 2 2
= = ´ = =
x®0 2+ 2-x 2 + 2 2 2 2 2 4´ 2 4

L' Hospital Rule

lim f (x ) 0
= or ¥
x ® a g (x ) 0

lim f ( x ) lim f ' ( x )

Then =
x ® a g ( x) x ® a g' ( x)
e.g
lim x 3 - 1 lim 3 x 2
1. =
x ® 1 x -1 x ® 1 1
= 3 ´1
=3

lim x 3 - 8 0 lim 3x 2
2. = = 12
x®2 x-2 0 x®2 1

lim cos x - 2 x - 1 lim - sin x - 2

3. = =
x®0 3x x®0 3 3

5
Continuity
Continuity at a point.
A function is considered continous if the following conditions are met.
1. f ( a ) is defined.
2. lim f ( x ) exists.
x® a

3. lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x ®a

Otherwise it is discontinuous.
x2 - 4
Example 33: Show that f ( x ) = is not continous at x=2
x-2
Solution:
4-4 0
Condition 1: f ( 2 ) = = , which is undefined
2-2 0
lim lim x 2 - 4
Condition 2: f (x) =
x®2 x®2 x-2
lim ( x + 2 )( x - 2 )
=
x®2 x-2
lim
= x+2=4
x®2
Therefore, lim f ( x ) exists.
x®2

Condition 3: lim f ( x ) = 4, but f (2) is undefined

x® 2

lim
\ f ( x ) ¹ f (2)
x®2
Therefore f(x) is not continous at x=2
Note: It is possible to redefine f(x) to make it continous at x=2, as follows:

ì x2 - 4
ï x -2 ,x ¹ 2
ï
f ( x) = í
ï
îï4, x = 2

lim
f ( x ) = 4, i.e.lim exists, we redefine f(x) so that
x®2 x ®2

lim f ( x )
= f ( 2) = 4
x®2
Example of a continous function.

X y = x2

6
Example of a discontinous function.

1
y=
x

Remarks
1.Polynomials are always continous functions.
e.g f ( x ) = x 2 - 2 x + 1 at c since
Condition 1: f (c ) is defined i.e. f ( c ) = c 2 - 2c + 1
lim f ( x ) lim 2
Condition 2: = x - 2 x + 1 = c 2 - 2 x + 1 exists.
x®c x®c
lim f ( x ) 2
Condition3: = c - 2c + 1 = f ( c )
x®c

2 .Discontinuity means a function breaks at a particular point.

Example 34: Discuss the continuity of f ( x ) if
ì x3 + 27
ï x + 3 ; x ¹ -3
ï
f ( x) = í
ï27; x = -3
ïî
Solution:Condition 1: f(-3)=27, therefore f(x) is defined at x=3
lim
x 3 + 27
(
lim ( x + 3) x - 3x + 9
2
)
Condition 2: x+3 =
x ® -3
x ® -3 ( x + 3)
lim 2
= x - 3x + 9
x ® -3
=9+9+9
= 27
lim f ( x )
Condition 3: = f ( -3) = 27
x ® -3
\ f ( x ) is continous.
Example 35:Determine whether or not the function below is continous at x=1

7
 ì x2 - 1
ï x - 1 if x ¹ 1
ï
í
f ( x ) = ï 2 if x = 1
ïî

Solution:
Condition 1: f (1) = 2 hence f (1) is defined.
lim f ( x ) lim x 2 - 1 lim ( x + 1)( x - 1) lim f ( x )
Condition 2: = = = 2 Therefore exists.
x ®1 x ® 1 x - 1 x ® 1 ( x - 1) x ®1 .
lim x2 - 1
Condition3: lim f ( x ) = f (1) , hence f (x ) is continous at x=1
x ®1 x -1
Example 36: .Discuss the continuity of f (x ) if
ì x2 - 4
ï x -2 ,x ¹ 2
ï
f ( x) = í
ï3 x = 2
ïî

Solution:
Condition 1: f(2) = 3, so f(x) is defined at x=2
Condition 2:
lim f ( x ) lim x 2 - 4
=
x ® 2 x ®2 x-2
lim ( x + 2)( x - 2)
= hence lim f ( x ) exists.
x ® 2 ( x - 2)
=2
\ f (x ) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )
Condition 3: f (2 ) = 3 but =2 \ ¹ f (2) Thus f(x) is discontinuous
x®2 x®2
at x = 2
Exercise
Define the continuity of a real valued function f (x ) at a point x=a. Hence determine if the
following function is
continous at x=1.
ì x -1
3

ï x -1 , x ¹ 1
ï
f ( x) = í
ï3, x = 1
ïî

8
 1
Example37:Show that f ( x ) = for is x ¹ 2 is not continous at x =2.
x-2
Solution:

2
1
f ( x) =
x-2

Because f is not defined at the point x = 2 it is not continous there. Moreover f has what might
be called an infinite discontinuity at x = 2
Combinations of continous Functions.
Any sum or product of continous functions is continous. That is, if the functions f and g are
continous at x = a , then so are f + g and f × g e.g if f and g are continous at x = a , then
lim éë f ( x ) + g ( x ) ùû = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x ) = f ( a ) + g ( a )
x ®a x®a x ®a

Example 38: f ( x ) = x is continous everywhere,i.e.

y = f ( x)

It follows that the cubic polynomial function f ( x ) = x 3 - 3 x 2 + 1 is continous everywhere. More

generally every polynomial function p ( x ) = bn x n + bn -1 x n -1 + K + b1 x + b0 is continous at each
point of the real line.
If p ( x ) and q ( x ) are polynomials, then the quotient law for limits and the continuity of
polynomials imply that
p ( x ) lim p ( x) p (a) p( x)
lim = x ®a = provided q ( a ) ¹ 0 . Thus every rational function f ( x ) = is
x ®a q ( x ) lim q ( x ) q ( a ) q( x)
x ®a
continous wherever it is defined.

9
The point x = a where the function f is discontinuous is called a removable discontinuity of
f provided that there exists a function F such that F ( x ) = f ( x ) for all x ¹ a in the domain of f ,
and this new function F is continous at x = a .
x-2
Example 39: Suppose that f ( x) = 2
x - 3x + 2
x - 3 x + 2 = ( x - 1)( x - 2 )
2

x-2
\ f ( x) =
( x - 1)( x - 2 )
This shows that f is not defined at x = 1 and x = 2 Þ f ( x ) is continous except at these points.
x-2 1 1
But f ( x ) = = . The new function F ( x ) = is continous at x = 2 , where
( x - 1)( x - 2 ) x - 1 x -1
F ( 2 ) = 1 . Therefore f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2 ; the discontinuity at x = 1 is not
removable.
y=F(x)

Composition of Continous Functions

Let h ( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) where f and g are continous functions.The composition of two continous
functions is continous or more precisely, if g is continous at a and f is continous at g ( a ) , then
f o g is continous at a where f o g = f ( g ( x ) ) .
Proof: The continuity of g at a means that lim g ( x ) = g ( a ) ,and the continuity of f at g ( a )
x ®a

implies that lim f ( g ( x) ) = f ( g ( a ) )

g ( x)® g (a)

( )
i.e. lim f ( g ( x ) ) = f lim g ( x ) = f ( g ( a ) )
x®a x®a
2
æ x - 7 ö3
Example 40: Show that the function f ( x ) = ç 2 ÷ is continous on the whole real line.
è x + 2x + 2 ø
Solution: Consider the denominator
10
 x 2 + 2 x + 2 = ( x + 1) + 1 > 0 for all value of x. Hence the rational function
2

( ) is
1
x-7
r ( x) = 2 is defined and continous everywhere. Thus f ( x ) = éë r ( x ) ùû
2 3

x + 2x + 2
continous everywhere.
One-sided limits
Let S Í ¡ and f : S ® ¡ be a function. If for every x Î S , f ( x ) ® L as x ® a and
+
x > a always, then we say that x ® a from the right and write x ® a or we say lim f ( x ) = L . +
x ®a

Similarly, if f ( x ) ® L as x ® a and x < a always, we say that x ® a from the left and write
-
x ® a or we say lim- = L .
x ®a

The limits lim+ f ( x ) and lim- f ( x ) are called one-sided limits of f and a
x ®a x®a
Remarks
1. lim f ( x ) = L iff lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = L
x ®a
x ®a x® a

i.e the limit of a function f ( x ) exists if the right hand side limit = left-hand side limit.
2. If lim+ ¹ lim- f ( x ) , then lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x®a
x ®a x ®a

x
Example 41: Given f ( x ) = ,Find lim+ f ( x ) and lim- f ( x )
x -1 x ®1 x ®1
Solution:

0 1 1 1 2
1
2 2
0 -1 ¥ 3 2

1
Also consider the graph of f ( x ) = y
x -1

0 1 x

11
lim- f ( x ) = -¥ if x < 1
x ®1
lim+ f ( x ) - ¥1 if x > 1
x ®1

\ lim f ( x ) = ¥ Þ lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x ®1 x ®1
Example 42: Consider the following graph y
1
y = f ( x) = 2
x
1
y= 2
x

lim+ f ( x ) = ¥ lim+ f ( x ) = ¥
x ®0 x ®0
Example 43: Draw the graph of
ì1, if x = 1
ïï
f ( x ) = í - x, if - 1 < x < 1
ï
ïî -1, if x > 1
Solution: 4 y
3
2
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
-3

(
Example 44: Evaluate lim+ 1 + x - 2 and lim- 1 + x - 2
x®2
) x®2
( )
Solution:
(
lim+ 1 + x - 2
x®2
)
= lim1
+
+ lim+ x - 2
x ®2 x ®2

= 1+ 0 = 1
( )
On the other hand, lim- 1 + x - 2 does not exist (is not real).
x®2

12
Definition: A function f is said to be continous from the right at x = p if lim+ f ( x ) = f ( p ) .
x® p

We say that f is continous from the left at q if lim- f ( x ) = f ( q )

x® p

A function is said to be continous if its continous from the right and from the left i.e
lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) = f ( p )
x® p x® p

ì+1 if x ³ 0
ï
Example 45: Discuss the continuity of g ( x ) = sin x = í
ï-1 if x < 0
î
Solution:
lim- g ( x ) = -1 and lim+ g ( x ) = -1 .Therefore Its left-hand and right-hand limits at x = 0 are
x ®0 x ®0
unequal
Thus g ( x ) has no limit as x ® 0 . Hence the function g is not continous at x = 0 , it has what
might be called a finite jump discontinuity there. (see the graph below)

y
(0,1)

(0,-1) (not on the graph)

ì sin x
ïï x if x ¹ 0
Example 46:Discuss the continuity of h ( x ) = í
ï
îï0 if x = 0
Solution:
sin x
lim h ( x ) = lim = 1 whereas h ( 0 ) = 0
x®0 x ®0 x
Þ the limit and the value of h at x = 0 are not equal.
Thus the function h is not continous there (see the graph below)
y=h(x)
1

13
 The point (0,0)is on the graph, the
point (0,1) is not.
Remark:
Another way of finding out if functions are continous at x = a is by:
1. Checking if f ( a ) is defined.
2. Checking if lim+ f ( x ) = lim- f ( x ) and exist and are equal.
x ®a x ®a

3. Ensuring that both are equal to f ( a ) .

ì x + c if x < 0
ï
Example 47: Find the value of c such that f ( x ) = í is continous at x = 0.
ï4 - x 2 if x ³ 0
î
Solution:
Condition 1: Is f ( x ) defined at x = 0 ?
f ( x ) = 4 - x2
Yes,
\ f (0) = 4 - 02 = 4
Condition 2: Does lim f ( x ) exist? In other words,
x ®0

Does lim- f ( x ) exist?

x ®0

Yes, lim- f ( x ) = 0 + c = c
x ®0

Does lim+ exist?

x®0

Yes, lim+ f ( x ) = 4 - x 2 = 4 - 02 = 4
x®0

(c ) Is lim- f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) .
x®0 x®0

For them to be equal, lim- f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) Þ c = 4

x®0 x®0

Thus, lim f ( x ) exists, i.e. lim f ( x ) = 4

x ®0 x ®0

Condition 3: Is lim f ( x ) = f(0)

x ®0

Yes, lim f ( x ) = f(0) = 4

x ®0
Conclusion: for f(x) to be continous at x = 0, then c = 4.
Exercise: Evaluate
x2 - 2 x x-2 y+6 2- y x
1. lim lim 2 lim+ 2 lim lim+
x ®3 x + 1 2. x ®-¥ x + 2 x + 1 3. x ®6 y - 36 4. x ®+¥ 7 + 6 y 2 5. x ®3 x -3 6.
x
lim-
x ®2 x - 4
2

14
 4- y 5x2 - 2 x2
7. lim 8. lim 9. limsin( )
y ®4 2 - y x ®¥ x+3 x ®p p +x
10. For the following problems find the points where given function is not defined and therefore
not continous. For each such point a, tell whether this discontinuity is removable.
x
a) f ( x ) =
( x + 3)
3

x-2
b) f ( x ) =
x2 - 4
1 x - 17
c) f ( x ) = d) f ( x ) =
1- x x - 17
ì- x if x < 0 ì1 + x2 if x < 0
ïï ï
ï
e) f ( x ) = í f) f ( x ) = í
ï ï sin x if x > 0
ïî x 2 if x > 0 ïî x
11. For the following problems find a value of the constant c so that the function f ( x ) is
continous for all x.
ìx + c if x < 0 ì2 x + c if x £ 3
ï ï
a) f ( x ) = í Answer: c=4 b) f ( x ) = í Answer:
ï4 - x 2 if x ³ 0 ï2c - x if x > 3
î î
c=9

ìc 2 - x 2 if x < 0 ìc 3 - x 3 if x £p
ï ï
c) f ( x ) = í Answer: c=0 d) f ( x ) = í
ï ïc sin x if x > p
î2 ( x - c ) if x ³ 0
2
î
Answer: c = p

15