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1 Casting
1 Casting
Figure 10.2 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mold wall. Note that only
favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mold.
Alloy Solidification
Figure 10.3
Schematic illustration
of alloy solidification
and temperature
distribution in the
solidifying metal.
Note the formation of
dendrites in the
mushy zone.
Solidification Patterns
Figure 10.4 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note
that after 11 min. of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It
takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in
sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content
increases. Source: H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini.
Cast
Structures Figure 10.5
Schematic
illustration of three
basic types of cast
structures: (a)
columnar dendritic;
(b) equiaxed
dendritic; and (c)
equiaxed
nondendritic.
Source: D. Apelian.
(2)Surface tension
(3)Inclusions
characteristics
(3)Degree of superheat
(4)Rate of pouring
2
volume
= C
surface area
Solidification
Time
Figure 10.10 Solidified skin on a
steel casting. The remaining
molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure.
Hollow ornamental and decorative
objects are made by a process
called slush casting, which is
based on this principle. Source: H.
F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C.
Flemings.
Shrinkage
(1)Dimensional changes
(2)Cracking
Solidification Contraction for
Various Cast Metals
TABLE 10.1
Volumetric Volumetric
solidification solidification
Metal or alloy contraction (%) Metal or alloy contraction (%)
Aluminum 6.6 70%Cu–30%Zn 4.5
Al–4.5%Cu 6.3 90%Cu–10%Al 4
Al–12%Si 3.8 Gray iron Expansion to 2.5
Carbon steel 2.5–3 Magnesium 4.2
1% carbon steel 4 White iron 4–5.5
Copper 4.9 Zinc 6.5
Source: After R. A. Flinn.
Defects
(1)Metallic projections
(2)Cavities
(3)Discontinuities
(4)Defective surface
(5)Incomplete casting
(6)Incorrect dimensions or shape
(7)Inclusions
(8)Porosity (fig .10.13-15)
Hot Tears
(1)Expendable molds
- sand , plaster , ceramics , and similar
materials ,which are generally mixed
with various binder, bonding agent .
Major classification of casting
processes
(2)Permanent molds
-metals with adequate strength at
high temperature
(3)Composite molds
Sand casting
(1)Process
(2)Sands
-silixca(SiO2):naturally bonded
synthetic (preferred )
-grain shape and size affect mold
surface , strength , permeability
-clay (a cohesive agent)
Steps in Sand
Casting
34
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting
(cont.)
Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is
produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned
with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the
appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the
cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal
solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the
casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
Sand casting
TABLE 11.2
Typical
Typical Weig ht (kg) surface Section thic kness (mm)
materials finish Shape Dimensional
Process cast Minimum Maximum (µm, Ra) Porosity* complexity* accuracy* Minimum Maximum
Sand All 0.05 No limit 5-25 4 1-2 3 3 No limit
Shell All 0.05 100+ 1-3 4 2-3 2 2 --
Expendable
mold
pattern All 0.05 No limit 5-20 4 1 2 2 No limit
Nonferrous
Plaster (Al, Mg, Zn,
mold Cu) 0.05 50+ 1-2 3 1-2 2 1 --
All
(High melting
Investment pt.) 0.005 100+ 1-3 3 1 1 1 75
Permanent
mold All 0.5 300 2-3 2-3 3-4 1 2 50
Nonferrous
(Al, Mg, Zn,
Die Cu) <0.05 50 1-2 1-2 3-4 1 0.5 12
Centrifugal All -- 5000+ 2-10 1-2 3-4 3 2 100
*Relative rating: 1 best, 5 worst.
Note : These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur, depending on the methods used.
Sand casting
-one-piece patterns
simple shape and low quality production wood
-split patterns (two-piece)
cavity
-match-plate pattern (fig .11.6)
a popular type each half of one or more split
patterns large production
Patterns for Sand Casting
Figure 11.6 A typical metal
match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.
Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
Sand casting
(7)Sand-molding machines
-jolting , squeezing ,
compacting(fig.11.7-8)
-vertical flask less molding (fig .11.9)
-impact molding
-vacuum molding (V process )
Squeeze Heads
Figure 11.9 Various
designs of squeeze heads for
mold making: (a)
conventional flat head; (b)
profile head; (c) equalizing
squeeze pistons; and (d)
flexible diaphragm. Source:
© Institute of British
Foundrymen. Used with
permission.
Vertical Flaskless
Molding
Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern.
(b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.
Sand casting
(8)Sand-casting operation(fig.11.10)
-molds
-gating system , risers.
-solidification
-surface of casting
-heat treatment
-finishing operations
Sequence of Operations for Sand
Casting
Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel
Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for
the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c)
Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core
prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted
together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half
of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and
attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. (continued)
Shell Molding
(1)Close tolerance and good surface finishing
Suited for nearly any metal
More economical
Casting with sharper corners , thinner section ,
smaller projection
High quality and complex shapes
Typical parts : gear housings , cylinder head ,
connecting rods ,high-precision
molding cores
Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking
Processes
Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14
and 26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.
Dump-Box Technique
Figure 11.13 A common
method of making shell
molds. Called dump-box
technique, the limitations
are the formation of voids in
the shell and peelback
(when sections of the shell
fall off as the pattern is
raised). Source: ASM
International.
Composite Molds
Figure 11.15
Schematic
illustration of the
expendable
pattern casting
process, also
known as lost
foam or
evaporative
casting.
Evaporative Pat tern Casting
(Lost Foam)
(2)Velocity of molten metal:0.1-1 m/s
(3)Advantages
-relatively simple process
-inexpensive flasks
Evaporative Pat tern Casting
(Lost Foam)
-complex shapes , various sizes , and
fine surface detail of inexpensive
polystyrene pattern
-minimum finishing and cleaning
operation
-economical for long production runs
-automation
Evaporative Pat tern Casting
(Lost Foam)
(4)Typical parts
-cylinder heads , crankshafts , brake
components ,manifolds for automobiles
-machine bases
Plastor-Mold Casting
(1)Process
-plaster + talc /silica flour + water
placed at patter within 15 min
-plaster mold dried at 120-260℃
-mold assembled and preheated to
about 120℃
-pouring
-shakeout
Plastor-Mold Casting
(2)Pattern for plaster molding : Al alloys,
thermosetting plastic , brass , or zinc
alloys
(3)Increasing permeability
-Antioch process :
-dehydrated in a pressurized oven for 6-12
hrs, then dehydrated in air for 14 hrs
-foamed plaster
Plastor-Mold Casting
(4)Characteristics
-Max. temperature:about 1200℃
-used only for Al , Mg , Zn , and some
Cu-base alloys casting
Plastor-Mold Casting
-precision casting (Ceramic-mold ,
investment casting)
-high dimensional accuracy
-good surface finish
-weight less than 10 kg , typical range
of 125-250 g
Plastor-Mold Casting
(5)Typical parts
-lock component
-gears
-valves
-fitting
-tooling
-ornaments
Ceramic-Mold Casting
(cope-and-drag casting)
(1)Process
-slurry of fine-grained zircon , aluminum
oxide , fused silica , and bonding agent
poured into pattern
-green mold dried , burned off
-ceramic facings assembled into a complete
mold
-pouring
-shakeout
Ceramic Molds
Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in
making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern
assembly. (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under
a vacuum, with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source:
Howmet Corporation.
Investment and Conventionally Cast
Rotors
Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source:
From R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and
Processes, February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.
Vacuum Casting
(2)Characteristics
-temperature of molten metal:liquids
temp.+ 55℃
-suitab1e for thin wall(1.75mm)complex
shapes
Vacuum Casting
-casting of carbon and low- and high-
alloys steel part
-weight up to 70kg
-inexpensive production costs
(similar to green sand casting)
Permanent-Mold Casting
(1)Mold material:cast iron, stee1,
bronze, graphite, refractory metal
alloys
(2)Core material :oil -bonded or resin-
bonded sand ,plaster , graphite ,
gray iron, low-carbon steel
(3)Mo Id preheated to 150-200 ℃
Permanent-Mold Casting
(4)Casting material :A1 , Mg , Cu alloys ,
gray iron , steel
(5)Good surface finish , close tolerance ,
Uniform and good mechanical
properties
High production rates
Permanent-Mold Casting
(6)Typi calparts:automobile piston ,
cylinder head connecting rods , gear
blanks
Slush Casting
(1)Process
-pour molten metal into mold
-mold inverted
-remaining liquid metal is poured out
-hollow casting with thin walls
Slush Casting
(2)Small production runs
(3)Typical parts:ornamental and
decorative objects and toys
(4)Casting material :Zn ,Sn ,Pb alloys
Pressure Casting
(1)Process
-molten metal forced upward by gas
pres sure or vacuum into a graphite or
metal mold
Pressure Casting
Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of
steel railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b)
Gravity-pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a
riser. Railroad wheels can also be manufactured by forging.
Die Casting-two basic types
A. Hot-chamber process
(1)Pressure: max.35MPa average 15MPa
(2)Dies cooled by circulating water or oil
(3)Casting low-melting-point alloys: Zn ,
Sn , Pb
Die-Casting Examples
(a) (b)
Figure 11 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity
magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting
process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.
Die Casting-two basic types
B .Cold-chamber process
(1)Pressure: 20-70 MPa, max.150MPa
(2)Casting high-melting-point
alloys:A1,Mg ,Cu alloys
Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-
Casting
(a) (b)
Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management
and Technology.
Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine
(a)
TABLE 11.4
Ultimate
tensile Yield Elongation
strength strength in 50 mm
Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%) Applications
Aluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 Si) 320 160 2.5 Appliances, automotive components,
electrical motor frames and housings
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2.5 Complex shapes with thin walls, parts
requiring strength at elevated
temperatures
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbing fiztures, lock hardware,
bushings, ornamental castings
Magnesium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 Zn) 230 160 3 Power tools, automotive parts, sporting
goods
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al) 280 -- 10 Automotive parts, office equipment,
household utensils, building hardware,
toys
5 (4 Al-1 Cu) 320 -- 7 Appliances, automotive parts, building
hardware, business equipment
Source : Data from American Die Casting Institute
Centrifugal Casting-three types
(3)Cylindrical parts:
diameter: 13mm-3m
length: 16m
wall thickness :6-125mm
(4)Typical parts: pipes, bushing, engine-
cylinder liners bearing rings, gun
barrels
Centrifugal Casting-three types
B .Semi centrifugal casting
(1)Casting parts with rotational
symmetry
C .Centrifuging
Semicentrifugal Casting
Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes
can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are
placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal
force.
Squeeze Casting
(1)Combination of casting and forging
(2)Fine microstructure Good mechanical
proper ties
(3)Typical parts: automotive whee1,
mortar bodies
Squeeze-Casting
Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.
Casting Techniques for
Single-Crystal Components
(1)Convent ional casting of turbine
blades
-ceramic casting:
polycrystalline structure (fig.10.1c)
poor resistant to creep and cracking
Casting Techniques for
Single-Crystal Components
(2)Directionally solidified blades
-columnar grains
-better resistant to creep
(3)Single-crystal blades
-best resistant to creep and thermal
shock
Casting Techniques for
Single-Crystal Components
(4)Single-crystal growing
-crystal pulling (Czochralski process )
Si, Ge ingots: dia.50-150 mm
length 1m
-floating zone method
Single Crystal Casting of Turbine
Blades
Figure 11.30 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to
produce a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still
attached. Source: (a) and (b) B. H. Kear, Scientific American, October 1986; (c) Advanced
Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 29, ASM International.
(c)
Single Crystal Casting
Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.
Inspection of Castings
(1)Destructive tests
(2)Nondestructive tests
TABLE 11.1
Process Advantages Limitations
Sand Almost any metal cast; no limit Some finishing required;
to size, shape or weight; low somewhat coarse finish; wide
tooling cost. tolerances.
Shell mold Good dimensional accuracy and Part size limited; expensive
surface finish; high production patterns and equipment
rate. required.
Expendable pattern Most metals cast with no limit Patterns have low strength and
to size; complex shapes can be costly for low quantities
Summary of
Plaster mold Intricate shapes; good Limited to nonferrous metals;
dimensional accu- racy and limited size and volume of
finish; low porosity. production; mold making time
relatively long.
Processes
finish.
Permanent mold Good surface finish and High mold cost; limited shape
dimensional accuracy; low and intricacy; not suitable for
porosity; high production rate. high-melting-point metals.
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