CELL PROTEINS

•Integral proteins (intrinsic)

Basic living unit of all organisms
•Transport function
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
•Peripheral proteins
• Cell metabolism and energy use
•Enzymes
• Synthesis of molecules
CARBOHYDRATES
• Communication
•Branching oligosaccharides
• Reproduction and inheritance
•Functions:
CELL MEMBRANE
• Cell to cell recognition and adhesion
- Also known as the plasma membrane, is a
double layer of lipids and proteins that • Immunologic response
surrounds a cell
CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS
2 MAJOR TYPES OF MOLECULES
• Gives shape to cell
• Phospholipids
• Separates cell from environment
• Proteins (Extracellular, intracellular)

•Other molecules: • Serves as recognition sites acting as antigenic

determinants which renders the cell surface its
• Cholesterol immunologic activity

• Carbohydrates • Selectively permeable barrier to prevent

harmful substances from moving freely into the
PHOSPHOLIPID cell.
•Hydrophilic phosphate heads (polar) • Role in communication between cells
•Hydrophobic tails (non-polar) INTRACELLULAR
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL • Enzymes
• Membranes are composed of a phospholipid • Glycogen
bilayer with various protein molecules floating
around within it. • Potassium

• Phospholipid bilayer has a fluid quality able to EXTRACELLULAR

move)
• Sodium
• Protein molecules float around within the
lipid layer • Calcium

• Chloride
 CYTOPLASM • Synthesis and modification of proteins

• CYTOSOL (Cytoplasmic matrix) • SMOOTH ER

• 70% water • For synthesis of cholesterol,

phospholipids, steroid hormones
• ENDOPLASM – sol stage, liquid
• For transport of fatty acids and lipids
• EXOPLASM – gel stage
• Stores calcium in skeletal muscles
NUCLEUS
GOLGI COMPLEX
NUCLEUS – little nut; stone of fruit
• Processes, concentrates, sorts and packages
• Control center of the cell proteins it receives from the ER.
• Repository of genes • Produces new organelles called lysosomes.
NUCLEOLUS • Numerous in pancreas and salivary glands
• Little nucleus LYSOSOME
• One or more per nucleus • contains enzymes that break down and digest
unneeded cellular components, such as a
• Forms the subunits of ribosomes, rRNA and
damaged organelle.
organelles
TYPES OF INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
• Proteins from the cytoplasm join rRNA to
form ribosomal subunits •Autophagy
CHROMATIN • (“self-eating”) - the process of a cell
digesting its own structures. (apoptosis – cell
• Coiled strands of DNA bound to basic proteins
suicide)
called histones
•Heterophagy
• Chromosomes at interphase
• Digestion of foreign body
• NUCLEOSOME
ORGANELLES FOR ENERGY
- Basic structural unit of chromatin
PRODUCTION AND DETOXIFICATION
- 4 pairs of histone molecules
MITOCHONDRIA
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
• Powerhouse of the cell
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Major site of ATP production
• Golgi apparatus
• Carry out aerobic respiration
• Vesicles
• Generates chemical energy for biochemical
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM reactions

• ROUGH ER – with attached ribosomes

• Abundant in cells where energy requirement MICROFILAMENTS
is high (parietal cells of the stomach, muscles,
kidney tubule cells, adrenal cortex, • Thinnest : 5-7n
hepatocytes)
• Actin and myosin
• Other functions:
• For cellular movement
• Accumulation of calcium
• Endocytosis
• Synthesis of sodium and proteins
• Exocytosis
• Oxidation of fatty acid

PEROXISOMES • Maintenance of cell shape

• contain oxidases and catalysts • For contraction muscle cells

• Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

and hydrogen peroxide • Keratin – epithelial cells in epidermis
• Synthesized in the free ribosomes • Desmin – smooth muscle cells
• Catalyze conversion of hydrogen peroxide to • Vimentin – mesenchymal cells
oxygen and water
• Neurofilament - neurons
• Numerous in hepatocytes (liver) and kidneys
• Glial filament – CNS
RIBOSOMES
• Mechanical support of cells
• Organelles where proteins are produced.
MICROTUBULES
• Polyribosomes
• Centrosome
• Free ribosomes
• Cilia
• Attached ribosomes
• Flagella
• Large and small subunit
• Microvilli
CYTOSKELETON
CENTROSOME
• Group of fibrous proteins that provide
structural support for cells • Site of microtubule formation

• Critical for cell motility, cell reproduction, and • Contains two centrioles oriented
transportation of substances within the cell. perpendicular to each other

•Important role in cell division

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE
PASSIVE PROCESSES
• Movement of substances from area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
•No ATP needed
ACTIVE PROCESSES
• Movement of substances through a
membrane against a concentration gradient
• Requires energy from hydrolysis of ATP
PASSIVE PROCESSES
• SIMPLE DIFFUSION
• OSMOSIS
• CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISM
• FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• FILTRATION
DIFFUSION
• Movement of solute from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration
of that solute in solution.
• Oxygen, CO2, Cl, urea
OSMOSIS
• Diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane
• Concentration of Solution:
• A hypertonic solution has a solute
concentration higher than another solution.
• An isotonic solution has a solute
concentration equal to another solution.
• A hypotonic solution has a solute
concentration lower than another solution.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• (a) Facilitated diffusion of substances crossing
the cell (plasma) membrane takes place with
the help of proteins such as channel proteins
and carrier proteins.
• (b) Carrier proteins are more selective, often
only allowing one particular type of molecule to
cross.
Active process
• Active transport
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis
• Receptor mediated endocytosis
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
• The sodium-potassium pump is found in many
cell (plasma) membranes.
• Powered by ATP, the pump moves sodium
and potassium ions in opposite directions, each
against its concentration gradient.
• In a single cycle of the pump, three sodium
ions are extruded from and two potassium ions
are imported into the cell.
• Exocytosis is much like endocytosis in reverse.
Material destined for export is packaged into a
vesicle inside the cell. The membrane of the
vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the
contents are released into the extracellular
space.
 CHROMOSOME
•Structural unit of the genetic material of the
cell
KARYOTYPE
•Number and length of chromosomes distinct
to each species.
MECHANISMS OF DEVELOPMENT OF CANCERS
• Cell cycle out of control
• Cancers may be caused by abnormal cells that
multiply continuously which can then spread to
other parts of the body.
• Failures of the cell cycle control can
cause unwanted and excessive cell division
• Causes:
• inherited genetic abnormalities that
compromise the function of certain “stop” and
“go” signals
• Environmental insult that damages
DNA
• Homeostatic imbalances
• Mutations or aberrations in a
cell’s DNA (cell cycle control)
MECHANISMS OF DEVELOPMENT OF CANCERS
• PROTO-ONCOGENES
• provide important signals that
regulate the cell cycle and move it forward
• Cell-surface receptors for growth
factors, or cell-signaling molecules
(protooncogene products)
• TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
• sends stop signals during a cell cycle
• “contact inhibition”
• Extensive cellular contact with
neighboring cells causes a signal that
stops further cell division.
• When compromised through a mutation, or
otherwise altered, proto-oncogenes can be
converted to ONCOGENES, which produce on
coproteins that push a cell forward in its cycle
and stimulate cell division even when it is
undesirable to do so.
• Dysfunctional TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE
may fail to provide the cell with a necessary
stop signal, also resulting in unwanted cell
division and proliferation
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC DRUGS
• Target cells at different phases of the cell
cycle
• Alkylating agents
• Inhibit cell reproduction by damaging
its DNA (break DNA strands)
• Used for cancers of the breast, lungs
and ovary
• Busulfan, cyclophosphamide
• Nitrosoureas • interfere with enzymes
involved in copying DNA during the cell
• alkylating agents that can cross the cycle
blood brain barrier
• Daunorubicin
• Lomustine, Streptozocin
• Doxorubicin (Adriamycin)
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC DRUGS
• Doxorubicin liposomal
• Antimetabolites
• Epirubicin
• interfere with DNA and RNA by acting
as a substitute for the normal building blocks of • Idarubicin

RNA and DNA • Valrubicin

• Inhibit cell reproduction • Bleomycin, Dactinomycin, Mitomycin-C,

Mitoxantrone
• leukemias, cancers of the breast,
ovary, and the intestinal tract • Topoisomerase inhibitors

• 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) • interfere with enzymes called

topoisomerases, which help separate the
• 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) • strands of DNA so they can be copied
Capecitabine (Xeloda)
• Topoisomerase I inhibitors (also called
• Cladribine camptothecins) include:
• Clofarabine • Irinotecan
• Cytarabine (Ara-C) • Irinotecan liposomal
• Decitabine • Topotecan
• Floxuridine • Topoisomerase II inhibitors (also
• Fludarabine called epipodophyllotoxins) include:

• Gemcitabine (Gemzar) • Etoposide (VP-16)

• Anti-tumor antibiotics • Mitoxantrone (also acts as an

anti-tumor antibiotic)
• alter the DNA inside cancer cells to
keep them from growing and multiplying. • Teniposide

• Anthracyclines • Mitotic inhibitors (plant alkaloids).

• Inhibits cell division

• Taxanes :
 • Cabazitaxel

• Docetaxel

• Nab-paclitaxel

• Paclitaxel

• Vinca alkaloids :

• Vinblastine

• Vincristine

• Vincristine liposomal

• Vinorelbine