TecnologícoNacionaldeMexi co

Insti
tut
oTecnol ogí
coSuper iordeAcat l
ándeOsor io
Or
ganismoPubl i
coDescent r
ali
zadodelGobi ernodelEstadodePuebla
I
ngenier
íaenGesti
ónEmpr esarial-
IGEM-2009-201.
Especi
ali
dad:Desarr
olloDeNegociosEInnov aci
ónClave:
IGEE-DNI-
2011-
02

CARRERA:
I
NGENI
ERÍ
AENGESTI
ÓNEMPRESARI
AL

MATERI
A:
SI
STEMASDEI
NFORMACI
ÓNDELA
MERCADOTECNI
A

DOCENTE:
LI
C.JOSÉLUI
SMEJÍ
AMENDOZA

NOMBRE:
MARTÍ
NEZAMBROCI
OLI
LIANA

NUM.
DECONTROL:
181008052

¨
7¨SEMESTRE GRUPO:̈C¨
 

AIMADL
AI]UKM\DDAÔI............................................................................................................................5

AIVLT]AJGDAÔ
AIVLT] AJGDAÔI
I D\
D\G@A]G
G@A]G]AV
]AVG
G Q D\GI]A]G
D\GI]A]G]AV
]AVG
G MAFLUL
MAFLULIDAGT
IDAGT Q @
@AHA]GDAKILT
AHA]GDAKILT....
....44

7.- @G AIVLT]AJGDAÔI D\G@A]

D\G@A]G
G]AV
]AVG........................................
G.................................................................................
.............................................4
....4

7.7.- DGUGD]LUÈT]ADGT ML @G HL]KMK@KJÈG D\G@A] D\G@A]G G]AV

]AVG............................
G....................................
........==
5.- @G AIVLT]AJGDAÔI D\GI]A]
D\GI]A]GG]AV
]AVG.............................
G..........................................................................
.....................................................
........==

5.7.- DGUGD]LUÈT]ADGT ML @G HL]KMK@KJÈG D\GI]A] D\GI]A]G G]AV

]AVG.......................
G...............................
..........<
..<
5.5. - @AHA]
@AHA]GDAKILT
GDAKILT D\GI]A]
D\GI]A]G
G]AV
]AVGT....................................
GT..............................................................................
.............................................<
...<
4.- MAFLULIDAGT LI]UL AIVLT]AJGDAÔI D\GI]A]G]AVG Q D\G@A]G]AVG.................6

Maflrlidags litrl aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg y dugitatgtavg........................................................:

DKID@\TAKILT............................................................................................................................1

EAE@AKJUGFÈG............................................................................................................................7?

GILSKT........................................................................................................................................77

LNLH_@KT IK]GE@LT ML @G AIVLT]AJGDAÔI D\G@A]

D\G@A]G
G]AV
]AVG............
G....................
................
.................
...........77
..77

LNLH_@KT ML AIVLT]AJGDAKILT D\GI]A]G

D\GI]A]G]AV
]AVGT..............................
GT.......................................
.................
................
..........77
..77

AI]UKM\DDAÔI

@g aivlstajgdaôi ls ui prkdlsk rajurksk, duamgmksk y sastlhgtazgmk li l` qul sl eusdg rlsk`vlr 

prke`lhgs, eali slg ml vgdèk ml dkikdahalitk (aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg) k ml jlrlidag, plrk li
gheks dgsks ls krjgiazgmk y jgrgitazg `g prkmuddaôi ml dkikdahalitk k ml g`tlrigtavgs ml
sk`udaôi vage`ls.

5
 

Li `g prlslitl hkikjrgfèg ls ildlsgrak gd`grgr qul iulstrk kenltk ml lstumak ls lstge`ldlr `gs
maflrlidag
maflrlidagss litrl `g aivls
aivlstajgd
tajgdaôi
aôi dug`a
dug`atgtav
tgtavg
g y `g aivls
aivlstajgd
tajgdaôi
aôi dugita
dugitatgtav
tgtavg.,
g., guiqul ghegs li
jlilrg` ski pgrtl ml `g aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg, `g qul ls mlfaiamg dkhk "… ui prkdlsk
hltômadk y sastlhçtadk marajamk g `g sk`udaôi ml prke`lhgs k prljuitgs dalitèfadgs, hlmagitl `g
prkmuddaôi ml iulvks dkikdahalitks, `ks dug`ls dkistatuyli `g sk`udaôi k rlspulstg g tg`ls
aitlrrkjgitls.

 G pgrtar ml lstk ls pksae`l cgdlr uig rlf`lxaôi gdlrdg ml` lifkqul qul ml g``è sl mlsprliml> Ta
lstghks trgtgimk `g aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg, ls pksae`l mlsgrrk``gr mks lifkquls ahpkrtgitls > l`
dug`atgtavk y l` dugitatgtavk, li l` prahlrk sl litaliml qul `g dgitamgm ls pgrtl ml `g dug`amgm,
gmlhçss ml mgrsl hgykr gtlid
gmlhç gtlidaôi
aôi g `k prkfuimk ml `ks rlsu`t
rlsu`tgmks
gmks y ik ml su jlilrg`azg
jlilrg`azgdaôi2
daôi2
halitrgs qul li l` lifkqul dugitatgtavk, `k ahpkrtgitl ls `g jlilrg`azgdaôi k uiavlrsg`azgdaôi ml
`ks rlsu`tgmks ml `g aivlstajgdaôi.

_kr tgi
tgitk,
tk, li uig aivaivlst
lstajg
ajgdaô
daôi
i ik ls dki
dkivli
vliali
alitl
tl cge`gr
cge`gr,, ia ml _gr
_grgma
gmajhg
jhg Dug
Dug`at`atgta
gtavk,
vk,
Hltkmk`kjèg Dug`atgtavg k Aivlstajgdaôi Dug`atgtavg2 pulstk qul `k dug`atgtavk k dugitatgtavk ski

lifk
lifkqu
quls
ls ml aitlrgddakigimk
aivlstajgdaôi, `g ai
aivl
vlst
staj
ajgd
gdaô
aôi
isusdali
dahltkmk`kjègs.
litè
tèfafadg
dg,, y gh
ghek
ekss pu
pulm
lmli
li slr
slr us
usgm
gmks
ks li ui
uig
g ha
hash
shg
g

Drllhks qul `gs maflrlidags ik sl mgi g iavl` ml` tapk ml prke`lhg qul sl prltliml aivlstajgr,
saik g iavl` ml `ks hátkmks l aistruhlitks qul dgmg dug` gp`adg y `g fkrhg li qul trgtgi `ks
rlsu`tgmks. Lsplrghks qul `g aifkrhgdaôi gquè rldgegmg gyuml g dkhprlimlr `g ahpkrtgidag ml
`g aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg dug`qualrg qul slg l` pgrgmajhg qul sl lhp`lg. Faig`hlitl, `g
dkinuidaôi ml gheks pgrgmajhgs gyumgrg g `kjrgr rlsu`tgmks ôptahks li aivlstajgdakils li l`
dghpk ml `g lmudgdaôi y pgrtadu`grhlitl li l` rlflramk g `g dgrrlrg ml Aij`ls.

AIVLT]AJGDAÔI
AIVLT]AJGDA ÔI D\G@
D\G@A]G
A]G]AVG
]AVG Q D\GI]A]G]AVG
D\GI]A]G]AVG MAFLULIDAGT Q @AHA]GDAKILT

7.- @G AIVLT]AJGDAÔI
AIVLT ]AJGDAÔI D\G@A]G
D\G@A]G]AVG
]AVG

4
 

@g hlt
hltkmk
kmk`kj
`kjèg
èg dug
dug`at
`atgta
gtavg,
vg, dkh
dkhk
k aim
aimadg
adg su prk
prkpag
pag mli
mlikha
khaigd
igdaôi
aôi,, talil
talil dkh
dkhk
k kenltavk
kenltavk   `g
mlsdrapdaôi   ml `gs dug`a
mlsdrapdaôi dug`amgml
mgmlss ml ui fli
fliôhl
ôhlik.
ik. Eusd
Eusdgg ui dkidlptk 
dkidlptk  qul pulmg gegrdgr uig
pgrtl ml `g rlg`amgm. Ik sl trgtg ml prkegr k ml hlmar li quá jrgmk uig dalrtg dug`amgm sl
lidulitrg li ui dalrtk gdkitldahalitk mgmk, saik ml mlsduerar tgitgs dug`amgmls dkhk slg
pksae`l.
Li aivlstajgdakils
aivlstajgdakils dug`atgtavgs
lxgdtatum>  dug`atgtavgs
sl trgtg ml ketlilr ui sl mlel cge`gr`kml
litlimahalitk hçslitlimahalitk li prkfuimamgm li `ujgr ml
prkfuimk pksae`l.
@ks krèjlils
krèjlils ml `ks hátkmks
hátkmks dug`atgtavks
 dug`atgtavks sl lidulitrgi li `g gitajðlmgm plrk g pgrtar ml` saj`k
SAS, dki l` gujl ml `gs dalidags skdag
skdag`ls
`ls — skerl tkmk ml `g skdak`kjèg
skdak`kjèg y
 y `g gitrkpk`kjèg
gitrkpk`kjèg —
 — lstg
7
hltkmk`kjèg lhpalzg g mlsgrrk``grsl ml fkrhg prkjrlsavg.
Tai lhegrjk, mlspuás ml `g Tljuimg Julrrg Huimag` Huimag` cuek
 cuek ui prlmkhaiak ml `g hltkmk`kjèg
dugitatgtavg dki `g prlpkimlrgidag ml `gs plrspldtavgs fuidakig`astgs y lstrudturg`astgs.
Ik ls cgstg `g mádgmg
mádgmg ml` 6? qul `gs aivlstajgdakils ml dkrtl dug`atgtavk rlsurjli dkhk uig
hltkmk`kjèg ml prahlrg `èilg, praidapg`hlitl li  Lstgmks \iamks y Jrgi Erltg÷g. G pgrtar ml
lstl hkhlitk, li l` çheatk gdgmáhadk l aivlstajgtavk cgy tkmg uig dkistgitl lvk`udaôilvk`udaôi tlôradg
 tlôradg
5
y prçdtadg ml `g hltkmk`kjèg dug`atgtavg. 
dug`atgtavg. 
Mlitrk ml `gs dgrgdtlr èèstadgs
stadgs praidapg`ls ml lstg ml hltkmk`kjèg pkmlhks hlidakigr>



@g aivlstajgdaôi
aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg
]alil  dug`atgtavg
uig plrspldtavg ls aimudtavg.
ck`èstadg, lstk ls qul dkisamlrg l` fliôhlik dkhk ui tkmk.
 Tl trgtg ml lstumaks li plqul÷g lsdg`g lsdg`g qul
 qul sk`k sl rlprlslitgi g sè hashks
 Cgdl áifgsas li `g vg`amlz ml `gs aivlstajgdakils
aivlstajgdakils g
 g trgvás ml `g prkxahamgm g `g rlg`amgm
lhpèradg qul eraimg lstg hltkmk`kjèg.
 Ik sul`l prkegr tlkrègs k
tlkrègs k capôtlsas
capôtlsas.. Ls, praidapg`hlitl, ui hátkmk
hátkmk ml  ml jlilrgr tlkrègs l
capôtlsas.
capô tlsas.  
 Ik talil
talil rlj`
rlj`gs
gs ml prkdlmahalitk
prkdlmahalitk.. L` hátkmk
hátkmk   ml rld
rldkj
kjam
amg
g ml mgtks ik sl lspldafadg
prlv
prlvag
aghl
hlititl.
l. @g
@gss vgrage`ls ik qulm qulmgi
gi mlfa
mlfaia
iamg
mgss kplr
kplrgt
gtav
avgh
ghli litl
tl,, ia su
sul`
l`li
li sl
slr 
r 
susdlptae`ls ml hlmadaôi
hlmadaôi..
 @g egsl lstç li `g aituadaôi. @g aivlstajgdaôi
aivlstajgdaôi ls
 ls ml igturg`lzg
igturg`lzg f`lxae`l,
 f`lxae`l, lvk`udakigrèg y
rldursavg.

Li jlilrg` ik plrhatl ui giç`asas
ui  giç`asas lstgmèstadk
 Tl pulmli aidkrpkrgr cg``gzjks qul ik sl cgeègi prlvastk (slrlimapaty)
 @ks aivlstajgmkrls dug`atgtavks pgrtadapgi li `g aivlstajgdaôi
aivlstajgdaôi g
 g trgvás ml `g aitlrgddaôi
dki `ks sunltks qul lstumagi, ls l` aistruhlitk ml hlmamg.
  Gig`azgi y dkhprlimli g `ks sunltks y fliôhliks mlsml `g plrspldtavg ml `ks mks
þ`tahks2 mlel l`ahaigr k gpgrtgr sus prlnuadaks y drllidags

7.7.- DGUGD]LUÈT]ADGT ML @G HL]KMK@KJÈG D\G@A]G]AVG

@gs dgrgdtlrèstadgs ml `g hltkmk`kjèg dug`atgtavg qul pkmlhks sl÷g`gr g hkmk ml saikpsas ski
 \ig prahlrg dgrgdtlrèstadg ml lstks hátkmks sl hgiafalstg li su lstrgtljag pgrg trgtgr 
ml dkikdlr `ks cldcks, prkdlsks, lstrudturgs y plrskigs li su tktg`amgm, y ik g trgvás
7
  G`varg
G`varg Hgrtèi, Frgidasdk.
Frgidasdk. (5??5). _lrspldtavg dug`atgtavg
dug`atgtavg / plrspldtavg dugitatgt
dugitatgtavg
avg li `g hltkmk`kjèg skdak`ôjadg
skdak`ôjadg
5
 ]gy`kr , T.N. y Ekjmgi, U, 711=)

=
 

ml `g hlmadaôi ml g`juiks ml sus l`lhlitks. @g hashg lstrgtljag aimadg yg l` lhp`lk

ml prkdlmahalitks qul mgi ui dgrçdtlr þiadk g `gs keslrvgdakils.
 @g sljuimg dgrgdtlrèstadg ls l` usk ml prkdlmahalitks qul cgdli hliks dkhpgrge`ls
`gs keslrvgdakils li l` talhpk y li maflrlitls darduistgidags du`turg`ls, ls mldar, lstl
hátkmk eusdg hliks `g jlilrg`azgdaôi y sl gdlrdg hçs g `g flikhlik`kjèg y g`
aitlrgddakiashk saheô`adk.
 \ig tlrdlrg dgrgdtlrè
dgrgdtlrèstad
stadg
g lstrgtája
lstrgtájadg
dg ahpkrtgi
ahpkrtgitltl pgrg lstl trgegnk sl rlfalrl g` pgpl`
ml` aivlstajgmkr
aivlstajgmkr li su trgtk -aitlisav
-aitlisavk-
k- dki `gs plrskigs aivk`
aivk`udrgmg
udrgmgss li l` prkdls
prkdlsk
k ml
aivlstajgdaôi, pgrg litlimlr`gs.
 L` aivlstajgmkr mlsgrrk``g k gfarhg `gs pgutgs y prke`lhgs dlitrg`ls ml su trgegnk
murgitl l` hashk prkdlsk ml `g aivlstajgdaôi. _kr tg` rgzôi, `ks dkidlptks qul sl
hgilng
hgi lngi
i li `gs aivls
aivlstaj
tajgda
gdakil
kilss dug
dug`at
`atgta
gtavgs
vgs li `g hgykrè
hgykrègg ml `ks dgsks ik lst lstçi
çi
kplrgdakig`azgmks mlsml l` praidapak ml `g aivlstajgdaôi, ls mldar, ik lstçi mlfaiamks
mlsm
mlsml l l` aiad
aiadak
ak `ks
`ks aima
aimadg
dgmk
mkrlrlss qu
qul
l sl tk tkhg
hgrç
rçi
i li du
duli
litg
tg murg
murgit
itll l` pr
prkd
kdls
lsk
k ml
aivlstajgdaôi. Lstg dgrgdtlrèstadg rlhatl g ktrk mlegtl lpastlhk`ôjadk, huy dgimlitl,
skerl `g dulstaôi ml `g kenltavamgm li `g aivlstajgdaôi skdag`.4

5.- @G AIVLT]AJGDAÔ
A IVLT]AJGDAÔI I D\GI]A
D\GI]A] ]G]AVG
Turjl li `ks saj`ks SVAAA y SAS, li l` prkdlsk ml dkisk`amgdaôi ml` Dgpatg`ashk y li l` slik ml
`g Tkdalmgm Eurjulsg Kddamlitg`. Dki `g faig`amgm ml gig`azgr `ks dkif`adtks skdag`ls y l` cldck
ldkiôhadk dkhk \iavlrsk\iavlrsk dkhp`lnk.
 dkhp`lnk. Aispargmgs li `gs Dalidags Igturg`ls
Igturg`ls y
 y lstgs li `g fèsadg
Ilwtki
Ilw tkiagi
agigs
gs g pgrpgrtar
tar ml `ks dkikd
dkikdaha
ahalit
litks
ks ml Jg`
Jg`a`l
a`lk.
k. Dki D`gum
D`guml
l Tgait
Tgait Tahôi
Tahôi y  Gujustk
Dkhtl surjl `g Tkdak`kjèg dkhk Dalidag.
Tu rgd
rgdaki
akig`a
g`amgm
mgm lstç fui fuimgh
mghlit
litgmg
gmg li l` Dal Dalita
itafad
fadash
ashkk y l` Ugdakig`ashk
Ugdakig`ashk,, dkh
dkhkk pks
pkstur
turgs
gs
Lpastlhk`ôjadgs Aistatudakig`astgs.
Aistatudakig`astgs. _rkfuimk gpljk g `g trgmadakig`amgm ml `g Dalidag y uta`azgdaôi
ml `g ilu
ilutrg
trg`am
`amgm
gm vg`
vg`krg
krgtav
tavg
g dkh
dkhk k dra
dratlr
tlrak
ak ml ken
kenlta
ltavam
vamgm,
gm, pkr `k qul l` dki
dkikda
kdahal
halitk
itk lstg
lstg
fuimghlitgmk li `ks cldcks, prlstgimk pkdg gtlidaôi g `g suenltavamgm ml `ks aimavamuks.
Tu rlprlslitgdaôi ml `g rlg`amgm ls pgrdag` y gtkhazgmg. L` lxplrtk sl dkivalrtl li uig
gutkramgm ml
gutkramgm  ml vlrmgm.
Curtgmk y ]krk (7113). "Madli qul `g aivlstajgdaôi Dugitatgtavg talil uig dkidlpdaôi `ailg`, ls
mldar qul cgyg d`gramgm litrl `ks l`lhlitks qul dkifkrhgi l` prke`lhg, qul tlijg mlfaiadaôi,
`ahatgr`ks y sgelr dki lxgdtatum mkiml sl aiadag l` prke`lhg, tgheaái `l ls ahpkrtgitl sgelr qul
tapk ml aidamlidag lxastl litrl sus l`lhlitks".

5.7.- DGUGD]LUÈT]ADGT ML @G HL]KMK@KJÈG D\GI]A]G]AVG

@g Hltkmk`kjèg Dugitatgtavg ls gqul``g qul plrhatl lxghaigr `ks mgtks ml hgilrg iuháradg,
lspldag`hlitl li l` dghpk ml `g Lstgmèstadg
Lstgmèstadg..
_grg qul lxastg Hltkmk`kjèg Dugitatgtavg sl rlqualrl qul litrl `ks l`lhlitks ml` prke`lhg ml
aivlstajgdaôi lxastg uig rl`gdaôi duyg Igturg`lzg slg `ailg`. Ls mldar, qul cgyg d`gramgm litrl
`ks l`lhlitks ml` prke`lhg ml aivlstajgdaôi qul dkifkrhgi l` prke`lhg, qul slg pksae`l
4
 Hl``g, Kr`gimk. (7113). Igturg`lzg y kralitgdakils tlôradk — hltkmk`ôjadgs ml `g aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg.
Maspkiae`l li Aitlrilt mlsml> 
mlsml> cttp>//www.rlmud.d`/rlmud/hl``g.pmf 
cttp>//www.rlmud.d`/rlmud/hl``g.pmf 

<
 

mlfaiar`k, `ahatgr`ks y sgelr lxgdtghlitl mkiml sl aiadag l` prke`lhg, li dug` marlddaôi

marlddaôi vg
 vg y qul
tapk ml aidamlidag lxastl litrl sus l`lhlitks.
@ks l`lhlitks dkistatuamks pkr ui prke`lhg, ml aivlstajgdaôi @ailg`, sl mlikhaigi> vgrage`ls,
rl`gdaôi litrl vgrage`ls y uiamgm ml keslrvgdaôi
ml keslrvgdaôi..
Lml`harg J. @g Uksg (711<) Madl qul pgrg qul lxastg Hltkmk`kjèg Dugitatgtavg mlel cgelr 
d`gramgm
gekrmgnl litrl
ml `ks`ks l`lhlitks
mgtks ml aivlstajgdaôi
ls lstçtadk, mlsml mkiml
sl `l gsajig sajiafadgmk sl aiadag cgstg mkiml tlrhaig, l`
iuháradk.
L` gekrmgnl ml `ks mgtks Dugitatgtavks ls lstgmèstadk, cgdl mlhkstrgdakils dki `ks gspldtks
slpgrgmks ml su tkmk, g `ks qul sl gsajig sajiafadgmk iuháradk y cgdl aiflrlidags
 @g kenltavamgm ls `g þiadg fkrhg ml g`dgizgr l` dkikdahalitk, pkr `k qul uta`azg `g
hlmadaôi lxcgustavg
hlmadaôi  lxcgustavg y dkitrk`gmg, aitlitgimk eusdgr `g dlrtlzg ml` hashk.
 L` kenltk ml lstumak ls l` l`lhlitk saiju`gr Lhpèradk. Tkstalil qul g` lxastar rl`gdaôi ml
aimlplimlidag litrl
aimlplimlidag  litrl l` sunltk y l` kenltk, yg qul l` aivlstajgmkr talil uig plrspldtavg
mlsml gfulrg.
 @g tlkrèg ls l` l`lhl
l`lhlitk
itk fuimghl
fuimghlitg`
itg` ml `g aivlstajgdaôi Tkdag`
Tkdag`,, `l gpkrtg su krajli
krajli,, su
hgrdk y su fai.
 Dkhprlisaôi lxp`adgtavg y prlmadgtavg ml `g rlg`amgm, egnk uig dkidlpdaôi kenltavg,
uiatgrag, lstçtadg
lstçtadg y
 y rlmuddakiastg.
 Dkidlpdaôi `ailg` ml `g aivlstajgdaôi g trgvás ml uig lstrgtljag
lstrgtljag mlmudtavg.
 mlmudtavg.
 Ls ml hátkmk Capktátadk — Mlmudtavk.

5.5. - @A
@AHA]GDAKILT
HA]GDAKILT D\GI]A]G
D\GI]A]G]AVGT
]AVGT

@gs `ahatgdakils
`ahatgdakils sl satþgi g iavl` ml vgraks ralsjks
ralsjks ml
 ml mastk
mastkrsaôi
rsaôi,, l` hlikr ml `ks dug`ls ik ls
dalrtghlitl `g dkivlrsaôi mlfkrhgitl ml `k dug`atgtavk li dgitamgmls grtafadag`hlitl dg`du`gmgs
skerl mgtks prlvaghlitl trgishutgmks gm ckd
Jkizç`
Jki zç`lz,
lz, Dgs
Dgsgik
gikvg
vg (71
(71:<)
:<) hli
hlidak
dakig
ig qul `g plr
plrspl
spldta
dtavg
vg y l` áif áifgsa
gsass Dug
Dugita
itatgt
tgtavk
avk lst
lstçi
çi
rl`gdakigmks dki hudcgs ktrgs dgrgdtlrèstadgs ml` aivlstajgmkr. Li tárhaiks jlilrg`ls pulml
mldarsl qul l` giç`asas Dugitatgtavk ls tèpadk skerl tkmk li `g `gs dalidags skdag`ls qul trgegngi

dki pke`gdakils,
L` aivlstajgmkr sl `ajgcg
Tkrkbai g` aimadgmk
Lhparashk
`gsy`ahatgdakils
g `g Amlk`kjèg
Amlk`kjèg ml`
ml ml` prkdlsk ml `gs
`g aivlstajgdaôi dalidags Tkdag`ls".
dugitatgtavg>
 @g suenltavamgm masfrgzgmg Dugitatgtavghlitl.
 @g dkinujgdaôi Dugitatgtavg ml gjrupgdakils pgrg lstumagr `ks sastlhgs Tkdag`ls.
 ]khgr uig pgrtl ml` sastlhg dkhk vgrage`l aimlplimalitl (dgusg) y tkmk l` ml `ks
mgtks Dugitatgtavks `k qul sl pulml keslrvgr li `gs aivlstajgdakils trgmadakig`ls.=

4.- MAFLULIDAGT
MA FLULIDAGT LI]UL AIVLT]AJGDA
AIVLT]AJGDAÔI
ÔI D\GI]A
D\GI]A]]G]AVG Q D\G@A]
D\G@A]G
G]AVG

=
 Li > Dghpel`` M, Ttgi`ly N. (5??5)Masl÷ks lxplrahlitg`ls y dugsa lxplrahlitg`ls li `g aivlstajgdaôi skdag`
6
 

L` kenltavk ml dug`qualr dalidag ls gmquarar dkikdahalitks y `g l`lddaôi ml` <hátkmk gmldugmk

fuimghlitg ` 7. L` prke`
qul iks plrhatg dkikdlr `g rlg`amgm ls pkr tgitk fuimghlitg` prke`lhg
lhg surj
surjl
l g` gdlpt
gdlptgr 
gr 
dkhk dalrtks
dalrtks `ks dkikd
dkikdahali
ahalitks
tks lrrôilks k vadlv
vadlvlrsg.
lrsg. @ks hátkmks aimudt
aimudtavks
avks y mlmud
mlmudtavks
tavks
talili kenltavks maflrlitls y pkmrègi slr rlsuhamks dkhk mlsgrrk``k ml `g tlkrèg y giç`asas ml `g
tlkrèg
tlk règ rls
rlspld
pldtav
tavghl
ghlitl
itl.. @ks háhátkm
tkmks
ks aim
aimudt
udtavk
avkss lst
lstçi
çi jli
jlilrg
lrg`hl
`hlitl
itl gsk
gskdag
dagmks
mks dki `g
aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg halitrgs qul l` hátkmk mlmudtavk lstç gskdagmk frldulitlhlitl dki `g
aivlstajgdaôi dugitatgtavg.
@ks dalitèfadks skdag`ls li sg`um — mkdtkrls, liflrhlrgs, tádiadks li sg`um, ltd. - qul uta`azgi
gekrmgnls dug`atgtavks lifrlitgi li `g gdtug`amgm prke`lhgs lpastlhk`ôjadks y hltkmk`ôjadks
qul talili qul vlr dki l` pkmlr y `g átadg li `g jlilrgdaôi ml mgtks, gsè dkhk dki `g vg`amlz
lxtlrig ml `ks hashks.6
 @g aivl
aivlst
staj
ajgd
gdaô
aôi
i dugi
dugitatatg
tgtatavg
vg ls gqul
gqul````g
g li `g qul
qul sl rlrldk
dkjl
jli
i y gi
gig`
g`az
azgi
gi mg
mgtk
tkss
dugitatgtavks skerl vgrage`ls.
 @g aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg
dug`atgtavg lvatg `g dugitafad
dugitafadgdaôi.
gdaôi. @ks aivlstajgmkrls dug`atgt
dug`atgtavks
avks cgdli
rljastrks igrrgtavks ml `ks fliôhliks qul ski lstumagmks hlmagitl tádiadgs dkhk `g
keslrvgdaôi pgrtadapgitl y `gs litrlvastgs ik lstrudturgmgs.
 @g maflrlidag fuimghlitg` litrl ghegs hltkmk`kjègs ls qul `g dugitatgtavg lstumag `g
gskdagdaôi
gskda gdaôi k rl`gda
rl`gdaôi
ôi litrl vgrage
vgrage`ls
`ls dugitafad
dugitafadgmgs gmgs y `g dug`atgta
dug`atgtavg vg `k cgdl li dkitlxtks
lstrudturg`ls y satugdakig`ls.
 @g aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg trgtg ml amlitafadgr `g igturg`lzg prkfuimg ml `gs rlg`amgmls,
su sas
sastlh
tlhgg ml rl`rl`gda
gdakil
kils,
s, su lst
lstrud
rudtur
turg g mai maiçha
çhadg2
dg2 hal
halitr itrgs
gs qul `g aiv
aivlst
lstajg
ajgdaô
daôi
i
dugitatgtavg trgtg ml mltlrhaigr `g fulrzg ml gskdagdaôi k dkrrl`gdaôi litrl vgrage`ls, `g
jlilrg`azgdaôi y kenltavgdaôi ml `ks rlsu`tgmks g trgvás ml uig hulstrg pgrg cgdlr 
aiflrli
aiflrlidag
dag g uig pke`
pke`gda
gdaôi
ôi ml `g dug` tkmg hulst hulstrg
rg prkdlm
prkdlml. l. ]rgs l` lst
lstuma
umak
k ml `g
gskdagdaôi k dkrrl`gdaôi prltliml, g su vlz, cgdlr aiflrlidag dgusg` qul lxp`aqul pkr 
quá `gs dksgs sudlmli k ik ml uig fkrhg mltlrhaigmg.:
L` lh
lhp`
p`lk
lk ml gh ghek
ekss prkd
prkdlm
lmah
ahal
alit
itks
ks dugi
dugitatatg
tgtatavk
vkss y du
dug`
g`atatgt
gtav
avks
ks li uiguig ai
aivl
vlst
staj
ajgd
gdaôi
aôi
prkege`lhlitl pkmrèg gyumgr g dkrrljar `ks slsjks prkpaks ml dgmg hátkmk, plrk l` cldck ml
qul `g hltkmk`kjèg dugitatgtavg sl `g hçs lhp`lgmg ik ls prkmudtk ml` gzgr saik ml `g
lvk`
lvk`ud
udaô
aôi
i ml aidrlhlitg
dugitafadgdaôi há
hátk
tkmk
mk dali
dalitè
y tèfa
fadk
dk g `g`kdkhprlsaôi
fgda`atg `grj
`grjk
k ml `ks
`ks uiavlrsk
ml` g÷ks
g÷ks.. Dr
Drll
llhk
qulhkss rkmlg
iks li ls
lsl
yl yg
sl
slit
itam
amk
k qul
hudck qul `g
gitls
ml `ks pksatavastgs `ôjadks k ilkpksatavastgs Jg`a`lk Jg`a`la gfarhgeg li lstl slitamk "haml `k qul
slg hlmae`l y cgz hlmae`l `k qul ik `k slg".
Maflrlidags litrl aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg y dugitatgtavg3
Aivlstajgdaôi ddu
ug`atgtavg Aivlstajgdaôi dduugitatgtavg
Dlitrgm
rgmg li `g flikhlik`kjèg y Egsgm Egsgmg g li `g aimud
aimuddaôi
daôi prkegea`ès
prkegea`èstadg
tadg ml` pksat
pksatavas
avashk
hk
dkhprlisaôi `ôjadk
<
 _atg Flriçimlz,
Flriçimlz, T.X, _ártljgs Mègz
Mègz,, T. \iamgm ml Lpamlhak
Lpamlhak`kjèg
`kjèg D`èiadg y Eaklstgm
Eaklstgmèstadg.
èstadg. Dkhp`lxk Ckspatg`grak
Ckspatg`grak Nugi Dgi
Dgig`lnk.
g`lnk. G Dkru÷g
Dkru÷g
(Lspg÷g) DGM G]LI _UAHGUAG 5??52 1> :6-:3.

  Dger llrk
6
rk Jgrdèg @, Uadcgrt Hgrtèilz H. (7116) L` mlegtl aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg frlitl g aivlstajgdaôi dugitatgtavg
:Liflrhlrèg d`èiadg
 Dgerlrk Jgrdèg @, Uadcgrt Hgrtèilz H. (7116) L` mlegtl aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg frlitl g aivlstajgdaôi dugitatgtavg
3
 Dkkb ].M
].M & Ultldcgrmt, Dc., (5??=). Hátkmks Dugitatgtavks y Dug`atgtavks

:
 

Keslrvgdaôi i iggturastg ssaai ddk

kitrk` Hlmadaôi p pl
liltrg rgiitl y dkitrk`gmg
Tuenltavg Kenltavg
Aiflrlidags ml sus mgtks Aiflrlidags hçs g``ç ml `ks mgtks
Lxp`
Lx p`kr
krgt
gtkr
krag
ag,, ai
aimu
mudt
dtav
avg
g y mls
mlsdrdrap
apta
tavg
vg Dkif
Dkifar
arhg
hgtk
tkra
rag,
g, aaif
iflr
lrli
lida
dag`
g`,, mlmu
mlmudt
dtav
avg
g
Kralitgmg g` prkdlsk Kralitgmg g` rlsu`tgmk
Mgtks "radks y prkfuimks" Mgtks "sô`amks y rlpltae`ls"
Ik jlilrg`azge`l Jlilrg`azge`l
Ck`astg _grtadu`grastg
Ulg`amgm maiçhadg Ulg`amgm lstçtadg

Vlitgngs
Vlitgngs l aidkivlialitls ml `ks hátkmks dug`atgtavks vs dugitatgtavks.
Hátkmks dug`atgtavks Hátkmks dugitatgtavks
_rkplisaôi g "dkhuiadgrsl dki" `ks sunltks _r
_rkp
kpli
lisa
saôi
ôi g "s
"slr
lrva
vars
rsl
l ml
ml"" `k
`kss su
sunl
nltk
tkss ml
ml``
ml` lstumak lstumak
Tl `ahatg g prljuitgr Tl `ahatg g rlspkimlr  

3
 

Dkhuia
Dkhu iadgdgda
daôi
ôi hç
hçss ck ckra
razk
zkit
itg`
g`..
.... litr
litrl
l l`
aivl
aivlst
staj
ajgmgmkr
kr y `k
`kss aivl
aivlst
staj
ajgm
gmksks..
.... hg
hgyk
ykr 
r 
igtu
igturg
rg`a`amg
mgm
m y cgea
cgea``amgm
amgm ml ls lstutuma
magr
gr `ks
fgdtkrls skdag`ls li ui lsdligrak igturg`
Tki fulrtls li tárhaiks ml vg`amlz aitlrig, Tki máea`ls li tárhaiks ml vg`amlz aitlrig -dgsa
plrk ski máea`ls li vg`amlz lxtlrig, `k qul iuidg sgelhks sa hamli `k qul qualrli hlmar-,
lidulitrgi ik ls jlilrg`azge`l g `g pke`gdaôi plrk
plrk sk
skii fu
fulrt
lrtls
ls li vgvg`a`aml
mlzz lx
lxtl
tlri
rig,
g, `k qul
qul
lidulitrgi ls jlilrg`azge`l g `g pke`gdaôi
_r
_rlj
ljui
uitg
tgi
i g `ks dugi dugittatgt
atgtaavks
vks> »Dugi
ugi _rljuitgi g `ks dug`atgtavks> »Tki
pgrtadu`grazge`ls ski `ks cg``gzjks; jlilrg`azge`ls tus cg``gzjks;
 

\ig ml `gs drètadgs qul sl `l sul`li cgdlr g `ks gekrmgnls dugitatgtavks, mlsml `g plrspldtavg ml
`ks hátkmks dug`atgtavks, ls su prkplisaôi g slrvarsl ml, hçs qul dkhuiadgrsl dki, `ks sunltks
ml lstumak.
L` grjuhlitk ls qul `gs lidulstgs uta`azgi g `ks aimavamuks pgrg lxtrglr ml l``ks aifkrhgdaôi
qul `uljk ls prkdlsgmg sai qul hlmal iaijþi tapk ml "mlvk`udaôi" g qualils malrki krajli g `ks
mgtks. Tl madl, gmlhçs, qul `g satugdaôi ml `g litrlvastg ls tgi grtafadag` -uik sl `ahatg g
prljuitgr y l` ktrk g rlspkimlr- qul ls pksae`l fkrhu`gr dulstakighalitks huy sô`amks skerl `g
vg`amlz ml `ks mgtks gsè ketliamks.

Li dgheak, `ks hátkmks dug`atgtavks pgrldlrègi lidkitrgr uig ml sus fulitls ml `ljatahgdaôi
prahgrags li l` cldck ml qul plrhatli uig dkhuiadgdaôi hçs ckrazkitg` -hçs ajug`atgrag- litrl
l` aivlstajgmkr y `ks sunltks aivlstajgmks. Tai iljgr qul g`juiks ml `ks gekrmgnls dug`atgtavks
dkhk `gs litrlvastgs g prkfuimamgm y `gs castkrags ml vamg plrhatgi ui gdlrdghalitk hçs
"igturg`" g `ks sunltks, ls ildlsgrak rlf`lxakigr dki hçs mltg``ls skerl `gs dkimadakils qul
cgdli pksae`l lstl tapk ml lidulitrks. Li `ks pgèsls ml Gháradg @gtaig, aid`uylimk g Dueg, `g
hgykr pgrtl ml `ks lstumaks sl cgdli skerl/d
skerl/dki
ki sunltks skdag`ls qul vavli egnk g`juig fkrhg
ml suekrmaigdaôi> ml jáilrk (li l` dgsk ml `gs hunlrls)2 slxug` (li l` dgsk ml `gs haikrègs
slxug`ls), ltd.
Li hudcks dgsks ls prldasghlitl, lsg dkimadaôi ml suekrmaigdaôi `g qul mg krajli g su
maspksadaôi g dk`gekrgr. Gutkrls dkhk Dgstrk y Erkifhgi p`gitlgi qul pkr hçs "mlhkdrçtadks"
qul slghks, l` gddlsk g `ks jrupks suekrmaigmks iks ls mgmk pkr `k qul iulstrk stgtus
rlprlslitg. Mlslhekdghks gsè li ui ma`lhg qul dulstakig ml rgèz l` grjuhlitk p`gitlgmk g`
praidapak ml lstg slddaôi, li l` slitamk ml qul `g aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg sl rlavaimadg g sè
hashg g pgrtar ml su "igturg`ashk", ml su supulstg cgea`amgm ml lstumagr g `ks gdtkrls skdag`ls
li su lsdligrak igturg`.1
1
 Li > Hl``
Hl``g,
g, Kr`gimk.
Kr`gimk. (7113). Igturg`lzg
Igturg`lzg y kralitgdakil
kralitgdakilss tlôradk
tlôradk — hltkmk`ôja
hltkmk`ôjadgs
dgs ml `g aivlstajgda
aivlstajgdaôi
ôi dug`atgta
dug`atgtavg.
vg.
Maspkiae`l li Aitlrilt mlsml> 
mlsml> cttp>//www.rlmud.d`/rlmud/hl``g.pmf 
cttp>//www.rlmud.d`/rlmud/hl``g.pmf 

1
 

DKID@\TAKILT

7. @g aivlstajgdaôi ls ui prkdlsk rajurksk, duamgmksk y sastlhgtazgmk li l` qul sl eusdg

rlsk`vlr
rlsk`vlr prke`lhgs,
prke`lhgs, eali
 eali slg ml vgdèk ml dkikdahalitk (aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg) k ml
jlrlidag,, plrk li gheks dgsks ls krjgiazgmk y jgrgitazg `g prkmuddaôi
jlrlidag prkmuddaôi ml
 ml dkikdahalitk
k ml g`tlrigtavgs ml sk`udaôi vage`ls.

5. @g aivl
aivlst
staj
ajgd
gdaôi
aôi ls ui prkd
prkdls
lsk
k hl
hltô
tôma
madk
dk y sast
sastlh
lhçt
çtad
adk
k ma
mara
raja
jamk
mk g `g sk
sk`u
`uda
daôi
ôi ml
prke`lhgs k prljuitgs dalitèfadgs, hlmagitl `g prkmuddaôi ml iulvks dkikdahalitks, `ks
dug`ls dkistatuyli `g sk`udaôi k rlspulstg g tg`ls aitlrrkjgitls"

4. @g aivlstajgdaôi dugitatgtavg ls `g qul gig`azg mavlrsks l`lhlitks qul pulmli slr 

hlmamks y dugitafadgmks. ]kmg `g aifkrhgdaôi sl ketalil g egsl ml hulstrgs ml `g

pke`gdaôi, y sus
iavl` ml lrrkr rlsu`tgmks
y iavl` ski lxtrgpk`ge`ls g tkmg `g pke`gdaôi, dki ui mltlrhaigmk
ml dkifagizg.

=. @g aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg mg dulitg ml `g drlmaea`amgm ml `g dkhuiadgdaôi, k ml `ks

dkidlptks, k ml `ks elilfadaks kfrldamks. @ks lstumaks dug`atgtavks keslrvgi g` aimavamuk
lidu
liduls
lstg
tgmk
mk,, pkr
pkr ui `gmk
`gmk,, y pk
pkrr kt
ktrk
rk `gmk
`gmk ke
kesl
slrv
rvgi
gi l` pr
prkm
kmud
udtk
tk,, u ke
kenl
nltk
tk ml `g
ai
aivl
vlst
staj
ajgd
gdaô
aôi
i y sker
skerl
l `g qu qul
l sl lidu
lidulslstg
tg y qu
qul
l ls l` lslstè
tèhu
hu`k `k jl
jlil
ilrg
rgmk
mkrr ml
mltlrh
mltlrhaig
aigmgs
mgs dki
dkimud
mudtgs
tgs lit
litrl
rl `ks aim
aimava
avamuk
muks.
s. Lstgs
Lstgs kes
keslrv
lrvgda
gdakil
kilss gmq
gmquar
uararç
arçi
i ui
dgrçdtlr prkegea`èstadk, y, pkr liml, prkyldtge`l g` uiavlrsk li uig sljuimg ltgpg ml `g
aivlstajgdaôi qul yg slrç dugitatgtavg.

<. @g aivlstajgdaôi dugitatgtavg sl sarvl ml iþhlrks y hátkmks lstgmèstadks. _grtl ml dgsks

dkidrltks pgrg
dugitatgtavg- ``ljgr g uig
sastlhçtadg- mlsdrapdaôi jlilrg` k dkhprkegr capôtlsas dgusg`ls. Tl madl
jlilrg`azgmkrg.

7?
 

6. @g aiv
aivlst
lstajg
ajgdaô
daôi
i dug
dug`at
`atgta
gtavg
vg geg
gegrdg
rdg lif
lifkqu
kquls
ls qul
qul,, pkr mlf
mlfaia
aiadaô
daôi,
i, ik sl egs
egsgi
gi li
hlmamgs iuháradgs. Tl sarvl ml litrlvastgs li prkfuimamgm k ml giç`asas ml hgtlrag`ls
ca
cast
stôr
ôrad
adks
ks.. \ta`
\ta`az
azg
g l` há
hátk
tkmk
mk masd
masdur
ursa
savk
vk l aiaitl
tlit
itg
g ls
lstu
tuma
magr
gr ml fk
fkrh
rhg
g j`
j`ke
keg`
g` ui
gdkitldahalitk k uiamgm. Tl madl dug`atgtavg- cuhgiastg- masdursavg.

:.  G pgrtar ml lstk ls pksae`l cgdlr uig rlf`lxaôi gdlrdg ml` lifkqul qul ml g``è sl
mlsprliml> Ta lstghks trgtgimk `g aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg, ls pksae`l mlsgrrk``gr mks
lifkquls ahpkrtgitls l` dug`atgtavk y l` dugitatgtavk, li l` prahlrk sl litaliml qul `g
dgitamgm ls pgrtl ml `g dug`amgm, gmlhçs ml mgrsl hgykr gtlidaôi g `k prkfuimk ml `ks
rlsu`tgmks y ik ml su jlilrg`azgdaôi2 halitrgs qul li l` lifkqul dugitatgtavk, `k
ahpkrtgitl ls `g jlilrg`azgdaôi k uiavlrsg`azgdaôi ml `ks rlsu`tgmks ml `g aivlstajgdaôi.

3. _kr tgit
tgitk,
k, li uig aivlstajg
aivlstajgdaôi
daôi ik ls dkivl
dkivlialit
ialitl
l cge`gr,
cge`gr, ia ml _grgmajhg Dug`atgt
Dug`atgtavk,
avk,
Hltkmk
Hltkmk`k`kjè
jèg
g Du
Dug`
g`atatgt
gtav
avg
g k Ai
Aivl
vlst
staj
ajgd
gdaô
aôi
i Du
Dug`
g`atatgt
gtav
avg2
g2 puls
pulstk
tk qul
qul `k du
dug`
g`atatgt
gtav
avk
k k
dugitatgtavk ski lifkquls ml `g aivlstajgdaôi dalitèfadg.
EAE@AKJUGFÈG

7. Ç`vgr
Ç`vgrlz
lz Dçd
Dçdlrls
lrls U. (7116) L` hát
hátkmk
kmk dal
dalitèfa
itèfadk
dk li `g
`gss dalidags
dalidags ml `g sg`um. @gs egs
egsls
ls
ml `g aivlstajgdaôi eakhámadg. Hgmram> Mègz ml Tgitks, 7116.

5. G`var
G`varg
g Hgrtèi, Frgi
Frgidasd
dasdk.
k. (5??5). _lrs
_lrspldta
pldtavg
vg dug`at
dug`atgtavg
gtavg / plrspld
plrspldtavg
tavg dugit
dugitatgta
atgtavg
vg li `g
hltkmk`kjèg skdak`ôjadg. Hd Jrgw Ca``.Hlxadk MF
MF..

4. Dg`lr
Dg`lrk
k N@. (5???) Aivl
Aivlstajg
stajgdaôi
daôi dug`
dug`atgta
atgtavg
vg y dugitatg
dugitatgtavg.
tavg. _rk
_rke`lhgs
e`lhgs ik rls
rlsul`tks
ul`tks li `ks
mlegtls gdtug`ls. Ulv. Duegig Limkdraik` 5???2 77 (4)> 715-3.

=. Dgh
Dghpel
pel```` M, Ttg
Ttgi`l
i`lyy N. (5??5
(5??5)Ma
)Masl÷
sl÷ks
ks lxp
lxplra
lrahli
hlitg`
tg`ls
ls y dug
dugsa
sa lxplrahl
lxplrahlitg
itg`ls
`ls li `g
aivlstajgdaôi skdag`. Euliks Garls> Ghhkrrkrtu Lmatkrls2 Grjlitaig

<. Dgerl
Dgerlrk
rk Jgrdèg @, Ua
Uadcgrt
dcgrt Hgr
Hgrtèilz
tèilz H. (71
(7116)
16) L` mlegtl ai
aivlsta
vlstajgdaô
jgdaôi
i dug`atg
dug`atgtavg
tavg frli
frlitl
tl g
aivlstajgdaôi dugitatgtavg Liflrhlrèg d`èiadg, Háxadk MF
MF..

6. Dk
Dkkb
kb ].M & Ul Ultl
tldc
dcgr
grmt
mt,, Dc
Dc.,
., (5
(5??
??=)
=).. Há
Hátk
tkmk
mkss Dugi
Dugitatatg
tgta
tavk
vkss y Du
Dug`
g`atatgt
gtav
avks
ks li
aivlstajgdaôi Lmudgtavg.
Lmudgtavg. Hgmram — Hkrgtg.

:. Hl
Hl````g,
g, Kr`g
Kr`gim
imk.
k. (7
(711
113)
3).. Ig
Igtuturg
rg`l
`lzg
zg y krali
kralitg
tgda
daki
kils
ls tl
tlôr
ôrad
adk
k — hl
hltktkmk
mk`ô
`ôja
jadg
dgss ml `g
aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg. Maspkiae`l li Aitlrilt mlsml>
cttp>//www.rlmud.d`/rlmud/hl``g.pmf  Rdki gddlsk l` ?5-?1- 5??6X

3. _kp
_kpplr
plr Bgr` U. (5??<) @g `ôjad
`ôjadg
g ml `g aiv
aivlst
lstajg
ajgdaô
daôi
i dal
dalitè
itèfad
fadg.
g. Egrdl`ki
Egrdl`kig>
g> Dèrdu`k
Dèrdu`k ml
@ldtkrls2 Lspg÷g.

77
 

1. Ula
Uladcg
dcgrtrt DcT, Dkkb ]M. (5??7
(5??7)) Cgd
Cgdag
ag uig sup
suplrg
lrgdaô
daôi
i ml` lifr
lifrlit
litgha
ghalit
litk
k litrl
litrl `ks
hátkmk
hát kmkss dug
dug`at
`atgta
gtavks
vks y dug
dugita
itatgt
tgtavk
avks.
s. Li> Dkk
Dkkbb ]M, Ula
Uladcg
dcgrt
rt DcU (lm
(lm).
). Hátkm
Hátkmksks
dug`atgtavks y dugitatgtavks
dugitatgtavks li aaivlstajgdaôi
ivlstajgdaôi lvg`ugtavg. Hgmram> H
Hkrgtg.
krgtg.

7?.
7?. ]gy
gy`k
`krr, T.
T.N.
N. y U. Ek
Ekjm
jmgi
gi.. (5
(5??
??=)
=).. Ai
Aitr
trkm
kmud
udda
daôi
ôi g `k
`kss hátk
hátkmk
mkss dug`
dug`atatgt
gtav
avks
ks ml
aivlstajgdaôi, Egrdl`kig
aivlstajgdaôi, Egrdl`kig>> _gamks. Lspg÷g.

GILSKT
LNLH_@KT IK]GE@LT ML @G AIVLT]AJGDAÔI D\G@A]G]AVG

 G hlmamg qul `g aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg lxp`krg ui iþhlrk hgykr ml tlhgs ml sg`um

rlprkmudtavg cg amk jlilrgimk amlgs gdlrdg ml `gs fkrhgs ml hlnkrgr `ks slrvadaks. Li `ks
sajual
sajualitl
itlss grt
grtèdu
èdu`ks
`ks,, `ks `ld
`ldtkr
tkrls
ls lid
lidkit
kitrgr
rgrçi
çi rls
rlsþhl
þhlils
ils ml aiadag
aiadagtav
tavgs
gs sl`
sl`ldd
lddaki
akigmg
gmgss ml
aivlstajgdaôi dug`atgtavg qul gekrmgi mavlrsgs dulstakils ml sg`um rlprkmudtavg.
7. @ks vg`
vg`krls
krls cuh
cuhgiks
giks y su rl
rl`gdaô
`gdaôi
i dki l` prai
praidapak
dapak ml hk
hkrg`am
rg`amgm
gm ml `ks dgi
dgimamgtk
mamgtkss g `g
g`dg`mèg ml `g daumgm ml _aurg
5. @g dgrjg `g`gekrg`
ekrg` y su rl
rl`gdaô
`gdaôi
i dki l` slita
slitamk
mk ml `g ckils
ckilstamgm
tamgm y UlsUlspkisge
pkisgea`amg
a`amgm
m ml `ks
trgegngmkrls ml `g fçeradg ml Gdlatl ‐DAIMA‘ — _gdcatlg
4. Dôhk aitlrprltgi `gs hunlrls `ks sèitkhgs jaildk`ôjadks
jaildk`ôjadks y
 y ml qul hgilrg gsuhli su
dkitrk` slxug`
=. Fgdtk
Fgdtkrls
rls sk
skdak
dak ld
ldkiôha
kiôhadks
dks y ddu`tur
u`turls
ls qul aaif`uy
if`uyli
li li qul `gs hunlrls
hunlrls kdu`t
kdu`tli
li l` us
usk
k ml
gitadkidlptavks
<.  Giç`asas ml `g vak`lidag li l` ckjgr y su rl`gdaôi dki `g dkimudtg ml `ks canks li `ks
ckjgrls ml` GG.CC ‐@g _rkvamlidag‘ _aurg
6. Aif`
Aif`ul
ulid
idag
ag m ui _rkj
_rkjrgh
rghgg ml vg`k
vg`krlrlss pg
pgrg
rg hl
hlnknkrg
rgrr `g gutk
gutkls
lstatahg
hg li `g
`gss g`
g`uh
uhig
igss ml
Liflrhlrèg tádiadg ml` AT] ‐G`hargitl Hajul` Jrgu‘

LNLH_@KT ML AIVLT]AJGDAKILT D\GI]A]G]AVGT

7. Aif`u
Aif`ulidag
lidag ml ``g
g Aitlr
Aitlrilt
ilt li l` rl
rlimaha
imahalitk
litk gdg
gdgmáhad
máhadk
k ml `ks g`u
g`uhiks
hiks ml` pprahlr
rahlr g÷
g÷k
k ml
slduimgrag ml` dlitrk lmudgtavk ‐Nksá K`gyg‘ ml` _N ‐Tgitg Nu`ag‘ — _aurg.
5. Ul`gd
Ul`gdaôi
aôi litrl
]ldik`ôjadk `g malt
maltg
‐G`hargitlg g`ahlit
g`ahlitadag
Hajul` adag y l`mlplsk
Jrgu‘ _aurgy ]
]g``g
g``g ml `gs g`uhigs
g`uhigs ml aij`ls ml` Ais
Aistatut
tatutk
k

75
 

4. Iavl
Iavl`` ml Ulimah
Ulimahalitk
alitk gd
gdgmáha
gmáhadkdk ml `ks g`u
g`uhiks
hiks ml` Wu
Wuaitk
aitk g÷k m
mll slduim
slduimgrag
grag ml `g A.L
A.L
‐Hajul` Dkrtls‘ Mastratk ml dgsta``g — _aurg
=. L` nuljk y ssu
u rl`gd
rl`gdaôi
aôi dki l` ml
mlsgrrk
sgrrk``k
``k psad
psadkhktr
khktraz
az ml `ks ia
ia÷ks
÷ks y ia÷g
ia÷gss ml 4,= y < g÷
g÷ks
ks
ml DLA ‐Giil Cku`mli‘ — _aurg
<. L` jrup
jrupkk ml gha
ghajks
jks y su aif`u
aif`ulid
lidag
ag li l` iav
iavl`
l` ml skdag
skdag`az
`azgda
gdaôi
ôi ml `gs gmk`l
gmk`lsdl
sdlitl
itlss ml`
quaitk g÷k ml slduimgrag l `g Aistatudaôi lmudgtavg ‐Iulstrg Tl÷krg ml Fçtahg‘ _aurg
6. Jrgm
Jrgmkk ml sgt
sgtas
asfg
fgdd
ddaô
aôi
i ml `ks pgdali
pgdalitltlss qul
qul gd
gdum
umli
li g` Cksp
Ckspatatg`
g` ml Gpkyk
Gpkyk AA
AAAA ml `g
_rkvaidag ml Tu``gig - _aurg

74
 Li
stadecot
ejoder
epor
tedei
nvest
igaci
ón

Pr
ogr
amaeducat
ivo I
ngeni
erí
aenGest
iónEmpr
esar
ial Semest
re: 7°

Nombr
edel
docent
e Li
c.JoséLui
sMej
í
aMendoza Gr
upo: “
C”

Nombredel Fechadeapl
i
caci
ón: 28/
08/
2021
est
udi
antesoequi
po

Ev
idenci
a Repor
tedei
nvest
igaci
ón Dur
aci
ón: 30mi
n.

Apli
cacionesdelasfuent
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7 Fuent
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8 Laent
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Punt
ost
otal
esobt
eni
dos:
___
_

Nombr
eyf
ir
madel
docent
e:_
___
___
___
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Nombr
eyf
ir
madel
alumno(
a):
___
___
___
___
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_

Ret
roal
i
ment
aci
ón:__
___
___
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