Education Tech Research Dev

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09764-7

CULTURAL AND REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Exploring video games and learning in South Africa:

An integrative review

Rebecca Y. Bayeck1

© Association for Educational Communications and Technology 2020

Abstract
This study is a review of video games studies completed in South Africa. This paper looked
at existing research on video games in South Africa in order to understand the research
approaches used, and the  learning outcomes found in respect to findings from studies in
the western world. Interestingly, the study shows similarities in the learning outcomes, yet
a great emphasis on educational games targeted to address issues relevant to South Africa.
This research also reveals that context, as argued in sociocultural theory, shaped the con-
tent of the games designed, populations studied, type of game to associate with video
games, and learning.

Keywords  Video games · South Africa · Educational games · Commercial games ·

Learning outcomes

Introduction

Recent years have seen an increased number of studies discussing video games as alterna-
tive learning spaces that can give insights into learning, inform the design of learning, and
enhance learning environments (Richard and Gray 2018) Interest in video games is not lim-
ited to a country, or a continent, and research on their effect on learning is growing not only
in Europe, Asia, and North America (Segev et al. 2016), but in Africa. Yet, most reviews
addressing the relationship between video games and learning focus on studies conducted
in western settings (Clark et al. 2016). Hence, arguments on the learning potential of video
games are in their majority informed by western-based research (Wouters et al. 2013).
The prevalence of western studies in reviews overshadows work completed in non-west-
ern contexts such as Africa, and particularly South Africa where video game research is
on the rise. For instance, Darabi et al. (2018) literature review did not include studies con-
ducted in South Africa, neither did Clark et  al.’s (2016) meta-analysis. Similarly, Young
et al. (2012) review of serious games did omit studies from South Africa. Although these
reviews argued that video games increased players’ knowledge acquisition (Young et  al.

* Rebecca Y. Bayeck
rebeccabayeck@nypl.org
1
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, 515 Malcolm X Blvd, New York, NY 10037,
USA

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 R. Y. Bayeck

2012), facilitated learning (Clark et al. 2016), and even learned from failure (Darabi et al.
2018), these results were limited to western-based settings.
Consequently, the assumption about video games being learning spaces is mainly evi-
denced by extensive western-based empirical evidence. There is a paucity of reviews with a
focus on Africa, and particularly South Africa. Therefore, it is important to examine video
games and learning in a cultural context such as South Africa, especially because research
has shown that learning and activities people engage in are context bound (Delahunty et al.
2014; Vartiainen and Enkenberg 2013). Given that sociocultural contexts inform learning,
people’s actions, and interactions (Behizadeh 2014; Mercer and Howe 2012), it is relevant
to canvas video game research in South Africa to further explore the relationship between
learning and the sociocultural context in video game research. In other words, would South
African studies find video games (i.e., educational and commercial) to be learning spaces
as reported in empirical studies mostly completed in western settings (Adukaite et  al.
2016).

Research background

Interest in video games and the multiplicity of studies examining video games and learning
coincide not only with the popularity of these games, but also with Gee’s (2003) seminal
book on What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. Research has
shown that video games are learning spaces (Gee and Hayes 2010; Steinkuehler 2010), and
that well-designed video games provide learning opportunities and experiences that can-
not be found in traditional classroom settings (Gee 2018). The learning potential of video
games is as embedded in the game design as it is in players’ interactions with the game.
Hence, Gee (2018) adds that “a good video game is a well-designed educational environ-
ment…[because]… a good game gives players interesting and challenging problems to
solve, varied opportunities to learn, and instruction and mentoring as needed (p. 10).
Evidence from the literature suggests that game playing is not just about fun or enter-
taining. Learning occurs during gameplay (Corredor 2018; Song and Park 2015), which
explains research addressing diversity (Levan et al. 2019), racial (Shaw, 2015), and ethnic
representation in video games (Bayeck et  al. 2018). Indeed, through video games, play-
ers engage in critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving (Adachi and Wil-
loughby, 2013). Video games facilitate the acquisition and development of 21st century
learning skills such as collaboration, strategic thinking, and creativity (Hewett et al. 2018;
Steinkuehler 2010), while creating a supportive learning environment for players (Bayeck
2016). Moreover, recent reviews show that video games can foster 21st century skills such
as critical thinking, problem solving, and collaboration (Sourmelis et  al. 2017); enhance
knowledge acquisition (Boyle et al. 2016; Li and Tsai, 2013); and improve learning in dif-
ferent content areas (de Freitas 2018).
Video games can also motivate players to participate in the course, lead to a better
understanding of the game content, especially for games designed with learning objectives
(Braghirolli et al. 2016; Erhel and Jamet 2013), and facilitate students’ participation in sci-
ence, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields (Álvarez and Duarte 2018). Other
reviews have considered engagement and learning, and revealed that video game elements
(e.g., virtual characters, and the storyline) increased players’ engagement and learning
(Jabbar and Felicia, 2015).

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Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

Overall, the literature establishes the relationship between video gameplay and learning.
Although researchers have recently been moving away from using commercial video games
to investigate learning, preferring educational games to illustrate the learning potential of
video gameplay (Boyle et al. 2016; Koops et al. 2016), findings still support video games
as learning environments. Educational video games, sometimes called serious games, are
games purposely designed to teach a specific content or material, while commercial games
are those developed for entertainment (Connolly et al. 2012). Thus, it is agreed that video
games (i.e., educational and commercial) are learning spaces (Gee 2018), even though
this learning potential is mainly evidenced in western contexts. Yet, literature shows that
learning is shaped by the sociocultural context (Mercer and Howe, 2012). Moreover, video
games are designed objects that also interact with the sociocultural context (Corredor and
Rojas 2016; Steinkuehler 2006). Hence, arguments about video games being spaces that
for instance develop 21st century learning skills, engagement, and problem solving may
differ in a non-western sociocultural context such as South Africa. This explains the need
to deeply understand the interplay of learning, video games, and sociocultural contexts. For
this reason, this study sought to identify the kind of learning opportunities offered by video
games in South Africa. It also explored sociocultural context interaction with video game
research and learning in South Africa. This review was guided by the following questions:
(a) What are the learning outcomes of video gameplay in South Africa? (b) How does the
sociocultural context inform video game research in South Africa?

Video games in South Africa

In Africa, South Africa leads the video game market in terms of revenue according to a
2018 report by Price Waterhouse Coopers, followed by Nigeria and Kenya. South Africa
has established structures such as the Cape Innovation and Technology Initiative (CiTi),
the Interactive Entertainment South Africa (IESA), and the Cape Craft and Design Insti-
tute (CCDI) that partner with the government to train individuals and develop games (Hall
et  al. 2016). For instance, Toxic Bunny released in 1996, was the first commercial game
developed by Celestial Games, one of the first companies in Africa to design computer
games (Hall et  al. 2016). With a diverse and growing consumer base, reports predict a
healthy future for the video game industry in South Africa (Myburgh et al. 2018).
Hall et al. (2016) state that “South Africans like to play video games, and they know
how to create them. But, crucially, games also offer the opportunity to move beyond enter-
tainment into the realms of learning and social change” (p. 1). Hall et al.’s (2016) statement
explains the interest video games generate among various stakeholders, and particularly
researchers in the field of education in South Africa. It is then not surprising that research-
ers in South Africa leverage on South Africans’ gameplay habits, and ability to design
video games to explore/ address learning and social challenges in the country.

The South African learning context

South Africa is a complex society framed through the cruel ideology and violence of
colonialism and apartheid (Ramlagan et  al. 2019). This history has created disparities
and challenges in all aspects of life and education (Bhana et al. 2019). Indeed, scholars
have indicated that the educational system in South Africa faces multiple challenges
(Archer and Newfield 2014). For instance, the apartheid system instituted in South

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 R. Y. Bayeck

Africa, between 1940 and 1994 activated a culture of discrimination against black South
Africans (Nyahodza and Higgs 2017).
Under apartheid, South Africans were structurally divided into four racial categories:
African (native Black), White, Indian (people from the Indian subcontinent), and “Col-
oured”, that is, mixed race (Bhana et al. 2019). Apartheid impacted higher education by
establishing: institutions for black and white people; disparity in resources with black
institutions having limited financial resources; and poorly designed campuses, which
to this day remain unconducive learning environments (Bozalek and Boughey 2012).
For example, the experiences of teachers and learners in some Black African township
schools still reflects structural racial inequalities (Bhana et al. 2019). Despite the end of
apartheid, the adoption of innovative teaching and learning frameworks to ensure equity
and social inclusion, racial classification persists, and highlights the constant effects of
race and class differences (Bhana et al. 2019; Scott and Ivala 2019). Apartheid thinking
profoundly affected the quality of education offered to different groups in South Africa,
and its effects are still felt as those excluded during apartheid still have limited access to
quality education (Bozalek and Boughey 2012).
Apartheid limited access to a  good education for a small racial minority resulting
in high levels of illiteracy among Black South Africans decades after the apartheid
(Gyapong et  al. 2016). Desai (2016) explains that university students in South Africa
lack academic preparedness, English language competence, and are often in large class
sizes. Literacy and numeracy are very low among high school students often taught in
overcrowded classes by poorly trained and unskilled teachers (Modisaotsile, 2012).
However since 1994, South Africa has worked toward reversing the effects of apart-
heid on learning. Efforts have been made to achieve participation parity (Suransky
and van der Merwe 2016), provide equal learning opportunities (Ng’ambi et al. 2016),
and prepare all learners for the 21st century (Veletsianos 2010). To address some of
these challenges, researchers in South Africa have been investigating different ways to
approach learning and social change among South African learners in the 21st century.
For instance, researchers have explored:

• Tele-education to address the shortage of health professionals, and provide access to

quality education to students in the medical field (Mars 2014).
• YouTube, wikis, and Google docs to develop critical thinking and collaboration
among students (Bozalek et al. 2013).
• Student-centered approach to teaching with flipped classrooms to increase students’
engagement (Le Roux and Nagel 2018).
• Online education to bridge the learning divided among the different groups (Njenga
and Fourie 2010; Nyahodza and Higgs 2017).

Although  South Africa still struggles with providing similar learning opportunities
to all its citizens (Somekh 2008; Suransky and van der Merwe 2016), global trends, and
national needs have shifted practices around the use of emerging technologies for learn-
ing (Ng’ambi et al. 2016). Video games, as Hall et al. (2016) stated are promising learn-
ing environment that researchers in South Africa have also considered. For instance,
video games have the potential to address issues of literacy, numeracy, critical thinking,
and collaboration created by decades of apartheid. Apartheid legacy is still felt among
Black South Africans who, compared to the other communities, are less prepared for the
21st century.

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Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

Video games and education in South Africa

Compared to the United States, Canada, or Germany, video gaming is a recent phenom-
enon in South Africa. The rise of the game industry has caused video games to gain
grounds within Africa, and particularly South Africa, as more young people are playing
commercial video games (Elom, 2015; Kirinya 2015). Although the uses and implica-
tions of video games for learning in the literature are predominantly western (Adukaite
et al. 2016), South African scholars have proposed conceptual models for the develop-
ment of educational games. Amory and Seagram (2003) introduced the persona outlin-
ing model (POM) to provide scholars with a way to match software development with
the anticipated users. Amory (2007) proffered the game object model (GOM) for the
design of computer games (Amory 2007). Others have advocated for the design of edu-
cational games for mobile phones (Greenop and Busa, 2008), or have created mobile
games for learning taking into consideration the South African context already saturated
with mobile phones (Turtiainen et  al. 2009). Researchers have explored video games
and learning in South Africa, and this study would give insights into the empirical evi-
dences and highlight the relationship between video game research and the sociocultural
context. This review would not only inform policymakers and schools in meeting the
needs of  South African learners in the 21st century, but would also expand research-
ers’ understanding of how video games are employed and researched for learning in
this non-western cultural setting. To the author’s knowledge, at the time of this inquiry,
reviews of video game research in South Africa were scarce.

Theory and methods

As a framework, sociocultural theory considers varied contexts and contends that learn-
ing, people’s actions, social interactions, as well as skills acquisition are culturally sit-
uated and informed (Behizadeh 2014; Mercer and Howe 2012). Sociocultural theory
“explains the presence of culture in thinking, the nature of learning, and the relationship
between development and instruction” (Curtiss 2018, p. 749). From a sociocultural per-
spective, learning, thinking, and tool employed should be understood in relation with
the historical and collective experience of people (Mercer and Howe 2012). This the-
ory also contends that the sociocultural context shapes practice and/or activities people
engage as shown with research on writing, and literacy (Behizadeh 2014; Perry 2012).
Activities such as writing are embedded in a “writer’s sociocultural background and
current sociocultural context in which the writer is creating text” (Behizadeh 2014, p.
126). Thus, learning as well as people’s activities cannot be separated from the socio-
cultural context in which it takes place. Consequently, video game research as an activ-
ity could certainly be informed by its sociocultural context.
The integration of this theory provided a lens for reviewing and reexamining the
existing research to reveal facets of video game research that highlight sociocultural
influence. Literature reviews of video game research conducted in Africa, and particu-
larly South Africa are limited in the literature. In this regard, sociocultural theory is a
compelling rationale for the significance of this review in the way that it would shed
light on how culture mediates research on video games. It becomes therefore important
to review studies on video games in non-western countries such as South Africa, with

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 R. Y. Bayeck

the goal of understanding how the sociocultural context informs the questions addressed
and the findings of these inquiries. The next section will discuss the data collection and
analysis process.

Data collection

This integrative review examined studies that investigated video games and learning in
South Africa between 1999 and 2016. Integrative reviews are distinct from systematic
reviews because they combine studies with diverse methods, and data sources to increase
the understanding of a topic (Mancini et al. 2019; Whittemore and Knafl 2005). Therefore,
studies that meet the section criteria, irrespective of the research methods, were reviewed.
In the data collection process, a distinction was not made between serious games (games
designed with an educational goal), and commercial video games, or games designed for
entertainment (Connolly et al. 2012). Familiarity with game literature describing commer-
cial games as learning spaces (Gee and Hayes 2010; Gee 2018), justifies their inclusion in
this article. As it is a practice in every field, researchers in South Africa like other research-
ers build on previous studies to explore video games and learning.
The following databases were therefore searched to find studies conducted in South
Africa: ERIC, PsycINFO, ProQuest, LionSearch (the Pennsylvania State University search
engine), and Google Scholar. These databases were selected because they are more likely to
include articles related to technology and learning. A combination of the following search
terms that captured video games, learning, and South Africa was used. The terms used to
capture video games included (a) video games, (b) digital game, and (c) mobile games; the
term used to capture learning were (a) learning (b) digital-game based learning The terms
used to capture South Africa were (a) Africa and (b) South Africa. This resulted in 10 dif-
ferent combinations of terms. The author searched the databases using the different identi-
fied keywords for the period of 1999 to 2016. All the publications from this search were in
English. The period spanning from 1999 to 2016 corresponds to the emergence and use of
video games on the African continent (Kirinya 2015). During this period, particularly start-
ing in the 1990s, many African countries experienced income growth, increased access to
the  internet, and the emergence of a generation that grew up with games played in the
1980s by individuals living in the urban areas (Kirinya 2015). In addition, one of the first
studies on video games in South Africa was published in 1999, which makes the period
starting from 1999 appropriate for this review. The studies in this article covered domains
such as tourism (Adukaite and Cantoni 2016), science (Baxter 2008; Seagram 2005; Vahed
et al., 2016), and other fields such as communication (Foko and Amory, 2008; Titus 2016).
An electronic search was completed to identify peer-reviewed articles, and published
dissertations that address video games and learning in South Africa. The search yielded
30 studies conducted within the 17-year period. Additional articles (five) were also identi-
fied based on their titles through the bibliographic search of the 30 articles found, which
resulted in additional ones that appeared relevant to this study. A copy of each publication
was saved in a Google Drive folder.

Coding procedures

Coding in integrative reviews includes simplifying and organizing data into a manageable
framework (Mancini et al. 2019). Thus, similar information is traditionally extracted from
each primary source to allow for a succinct organization of the literature, which facilitates

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Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

the comparison of primary sources on “specific issues, variables, or sample characteristics”

(Whittemore and Knafl 2005, p. 550). The articles were then manually coded as follows to
facilitate the review process:

• Author (s)
• Year of publication
• Publication title
• Population studied
• Type of publication (e.g., article, dissertation, conference proceeding, etc.)
• Research method
• Game genre

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Thirty-five articles were reviewed using the selection criteria. To be included, a study had
(a) to discuss video games and learning in South Africa; (b) to be published in a peer-
reviewed journal; (c) to be a published and/or unpublished dissertation; (d) conference
papers and proceedings, and (e) collect empirical data. The review of abstracts and method
sections of the articles identified 11 studies out of the 30 that failed to meet these criteria.
Furthermore, studies were excluded either because they (a) did not address learning out-
comes related to interactions with video games in South Africa; (b) did not collect empir-
ical data; (c) discussed theories for the development of educational video games, or  (d)
focused on different technologies (i.e., mobile technologies, learning management systems)
impact on learning in Africa. The criteria discussed above was applied to the abstract of
each study found for inclusion or exclusion in this review. Through this process, 15 publi-
cations were selected for further analysis because they examined the topic of interest, the
relationship between video games and learning in South Africa.

Data analysis

The analysis and synthesis of each study was completed to address the research ques-
tions aimed at understanding video games and learning in South Africa. To achieve this,
the author read each study with the intention to locate implicit and explicit references to
culture in learning through interactions with video games. For the purposes of this study,
learning was understood as a “socially situated activity [that involves] a process of com-
ing to be, or forging identities in activity in the world” (Lave and Wenger 1991, p. 52).
Hence, any references to engagement with game content; motivation to participate in an
activity; change of attitude toward a specific topic or subject; an increase in understand-
ing or knowledge was counted as learning in this review. This sociocultural view of learn-
ing was useful in developing coding categories by examining the relationships among the
publications. Matrixes were then created to capture the nuances of each emerging theme.
During this process, studies were first grouped into categories such as game genre, popula-
tion, research purpose/problem, and findings to test my developing themes (Table 1). How-
ever, grouping the studies from a sociocultural view of learning—that is, a person actively
engaged in activity in the world that may result in change of role, attitude, or perception—
was revealed to be the most productive to identify themes. The next section, discusses the
results of this study.

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 Table 1  Characteristics of the studies reviewed
Study Population Game genre Research problem/Purpose Research method Findings

13
Adukaite and Cantoni 16 schools (Approximately Educational video game Students’ lack of interest Mixed method Students’ engagement
(2016) 213 students, and 218 and motivation to study and motivation to learn
teachers) tourism about related topics
was increased.Teachers
recognized the games
as an appropriate tool to
motivate tourism learning
for students
Amory et al. 2011) 195 participants (184 third Educational video games
Teaching and learning with Eclectic-mixed methods Students overcame miscon-
year pre-service stu- video games ceptions about genet-
dents; and 11 postgradu- ics, and understood the
ate students getting a importance of games in
teaching qualification) knowledge construction
Amory (2010) 12 participants aged Educational game Use of computer video Mixed methods Participants acquired new
14–19 years game in teaching and knowledge, recognized that
learning video games can mediate
learning, and as a result
of the game play thought
about ways to help their
communities
Amory and Molomo (2012) 78 participants aged Commercial & Educational Game preferences and Quantitative Participants irrespective of
14–24 years participated games attitudes gender like same games,
in game play workshops dislike cognitively chal-
for five days lenging games (educational
games). Gameplay leads
to authentic learning
(i.e., understanding of
new ideas, learning more
through group collabora-
tion)
Amory et al. (2011) Six participants(researchers Educational and commer- Evaluation of video game Qualitative study Participants’ understanding
and postgraduate stu- cial games for teaching and learning of the role of video games
R. Y. Bayeck

dents) in education was enhanced

 Table 1  (continued)
Study Population Game genre Research problem/Purpose Research method Findings

Amory et al. (1999) 20 undergraduate students Commercial games Determine games best Quantitative study Visualization and problem
in Biology suited for learning and solving embedded in
elements appealing to strategy games enhance
students learning. And game play
requires logic, memory,
visualization, and problem-
solving skills, which are
fundamental to learning
Foko and Amory (2008) 19 high school students Educational video Explore the effect of video Quantitative Video game play increased
(grade 11), 45 (grade 12) game play to overcome student performance and
students in secondary students’ misconcep- learning skills as they
school, and 7 first-year tions about photos- worked in groups to solve
university students in ynthesis problems during game play.
Business Information Students were also able to
Systems overcome misconceptions
about photosynthesis and
respiration
Grace (2016) 24 third- year University Educational game The effect of digital games Quantitative study The game positively
Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

students in an information on students’ perceptions impacted participants’

systems course of competence, useful- intrinsic motivation in the
ness, enjoyment, and course, which influenced
achievement learning achievement. The
game also made students
aware of their level of com-
petence in the subject
Petersen, De Beer & 80–120 students at a Uni- Educational game Raise awareness about Qualitative study Video games increased
Dunbar-Krige (2011) versity attending sessions HIV/AIDS awareness about HIV/
each for a period of three AIDS
years

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 Table 1  (continued)
Study Population Game genre Research problem/Purpose Research method Findings

13
Titus (2016) 106 college students in Educational video game Effect of game play on Mixed method The game facilitated cross-
sport studies cross-cultural engage- cultural engagement and
ment among students construction of knowledge.
Cross-cultural social prac-
tices and communication
were facilitated through
engagement with the game
Vahed, McKenna & Singh Study groups of college Educational game Make knowledge accessible Qualitative study Increase access to discipline-
(2016) students to all dental technology specific knowledge
students
Walton and Pallitt (2012) Two groups: seven stu- Commercial games Diversity in gaming Qualitative Access to games and gam-
dents, in grades 11 (ages practices and gaming ing practices of students
17–19), and a group of technologies among are related to their family
103 students in grades 6 young people incomes. Mobile gaming
and 7 (ages 11–13) was more popular at a
school with more low
income students, than at
a school with mostly high
income students where
video games were more
accessible
R. Y. Bayeck
Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

The publications reviewed were organized in alphabetical order by authors (Table  1),
and findings structured to address the research questions, that is, the research approaches,
and the studies’ learning outcomes. It is important to also state that most of the publica-
tions reviewed do not fit exactly into a single theme. Hence, studies containing findings that
are relevant to other themes here, were discussed once, and simply cited where appropriate.

Results

The following discussion is divided according to four major thematic topics that emerged
within the data: (a) overcoming misconceptions, (b) engagement and motivation, (c)
knowledge and skill acquisition, and (d) authentic learning. Within each theme, the per-
spective of learning as mediated by culture was privileged. The author discussed the video
games played, the content of the games, and the purpose of the study or experiment.

Overcoming misconceptions and improving literacy

The analysis revealed that interacting with video games led to a change in students’ mis-
conceptions and enhanced literacy. Foko and Amory (2008) investigated the potential of
educational games (Zadarh and yKhozi) to address misconceptions related to photosyn-
thesis, rote learning, literacy and communication among students. Playing these games
in pairs enabled students to overcome their misconceptions more than playing the game
individually. While working in groups, students were also able to improve their collabo-
rative, literacy, and communication skills as they solved problems together during game-
play. Addressing such misconceptions provided context to these findings given that many
learners within the South African context are situated in difficult learning conditions, as a
result of apartheid, and have experienced educational and instructional disparities (Adams
1998; Foko and Amory 2008). Furthermore, the use of game titles such as yKhozi, which
centers on important African diseases (HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria and Cancer) to
enhance literacy and communication, echoed the Zulu ethnic group language and anchored
this study in the South African context. The country has the largest number of people liv-
ing with HIV in the world, yet a diversified and innovative approach to teach and prevent
HIV/AIDs transmission (Bhana et  al. 2019; Nkosi and Rosenblatt 2019). The problems
addressed in the study (e.g., misconceptions and literacy) further placed the findings in a
post-apartheid South Africa (Gyapong et  al. 2016), showing the sociocultural relevance
of the findings, while connecting the effect of collaborative gameplay on learning to the
broader literature on video games and learning. As Meluso et al. (2012) found among stu-
dents in the United States, playing an educational video game collaboratively enhanced
learning. Amory (2011) employed an educational video game with genetics related content
to help graduate students overcome their misconceptions about genetics. Though the post-
test showed greater understanding of some concepts and no real improvement in some of
the items measuring misconceptions, the post-test focus group discussion showed that stu-
dents overcame some misconceptions related to genetics. Indeed, playing the game led stu-
dents to a new understanding of genetics. Interestingly, addressing students’ misconception
of genetics through video gameplay builds on previous studies discussing the need to pro-
duce “genetically literate” graduates in South Africa (Dlamini 1999, p. 7). South African
students since 1994 have had difficulties solving basic genetic problems (Dlamini 1999).

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 R. Y. Bayeck

Interventions such as Amory’s addressed a challenge faced by South African learners in

genetics. For this reason, Amory’s findings align with studies completed in western con-
texts that demonstrate a change of attitude or perception among participants (Barr 2018;
Bourgonjon et al. 2010).

Engagement and motivation

Motivation and engagement were reported to occur during gameplay. Adukaite and Can-
toni (2016) purposed to interest students’ in their cultural heritage and tourism through
video gameplay. After playing played the World Heritage Awareness Campaign for Youth
(WHACY) game, the authors found that tourism students engaged with the game and
found the activity more enjoyable than textbooks. Tourism teachers indicated that the game
would certainly motivate students, and grow students’ interest in tourism, and help them
better understand the South Africa touristic potential. These findings confirm the literature
linking video gameplay to increased engagement with content and motivation for learn-
ing (Annetta et al. 2009; Connolly et al. 2012; Erhel and Jamet 2013). Yet, the focus on
tourism education helped locate this study in the South African context where tourism in
a post-apartheid era was identified, along with mining and agriculture, as a critical sector
of development that would economically benefit the country (Adinolfi and Ivanovic 2015).
The industry need for more literates is also explained by its growth with the inclusion of
Black South Africans into tourism mostly centered on White South Africans during apart-
heid (Visser and Rogerson 2004).
Grace (2016) using an educational video game in a Business Process Management
course to examine the effect gameplay on students’ perceptions of competence, useful-
ness, enjoyment, and achievement. The game had positive effects on students’ intrinsic
motivation and achievements. The game motivated students, provided enjoyment and
interest in learning the course content, and students’ assessment showed learning attain-
ments. Research showed that motivation within a course is fairly low among South Afri-
can students given the historical context of post-apartheid (Wawrzynski et al. 2012). The
admission of students from all backgrounds after apartheid and merging of institutions,
changed the racial composition of institutions, and negatively influenced students’ motiva-
tion (Wawrzynski et al. 2012). The study addressed an issue specific to South Africa; thus,
connected the findings to this context, and to game studies.

Knowledge and skill acquisition

Researchers commonly used video games as spaces for students to gain new knowledge
on topics or issues pertaining and critical to South Africa. Video gameplay resulted in the
acquisition of disease related knowledge, domain-specific knowledge, and skill acquisition.

Disease related knowledge

Petersen et  al. (2011) used a video game to raise awareness about HIV and AIDS, and
about the risk of HIV infection among university students. Petersen et al.’s (2011) stated
that their focus on HIV/AIDS education was driven by the national push for collec-
tive efforts to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa. This argument explicitly
revealed the shaping of video game research by the sociocultural context in South Africa

13
Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

where the infection remained one of the major health problems even after apartheid (May-
osi and Benatar 2014).
The findings of this qualitative study showed that the game engendered and deepened
students’ discussion about the disease. The authors concluded that video games were
appropriate new and challenging pedagogies useful to engage learners in the 21st cen-
tury. Although this conclusion aligns with research in western settings showing that video
games are powerful learning spaces suited for 21st century learners (Álvarez and Duarte
2018; Barr 2018), teaching about HIV/AIDS through video games points to the specific
South African context.
Similarly, Amory (2010) investigated learning about the biology of HIV, AIDS, tuber-
culosis, and cancer through the video game yKhozi–The Burning Ground. The gameplay
improved knowledge about these diseases, and resulted in increased discussions about ways
to engage with the community to share the new knowledge acquired. In addition to the
focus of the study (e.g., understanding the biology of HIV, AIDS, tuberculosis, and can-
cer), the game played (yKhozi) contextualized the study and its findings to South Africa.

Domain‑specific knowledge

In their qualitative study, Vahed et al. (2016) found that games enabled students to access
accurate and complex discipline-specific knowledge in dental technology. Students played
two games designed to help them learn about tooth morphology, and increase their under-
standing of concepts pertaining to tooth morphology and anatomy. Though one of the
games was a board game, these discipline-specific games appeared to facilitate learning
in science, technology, engineering, and mathematic (STEM) related fields, as they made
learning fun and competitive. These findings confirmed that games are conducive environ-
ments for STEM related learning, even though studies in the western context make simi-
lar claims with both commercial and educational video games (Álvarez and Duarte 2018;
Barr 2018; Meluso et al. 2012). The post-apartheid context shaped the researchers focus on
exploring alternative ways to provide students with practical knowledge on dental technol-
ogy given that discrepancies in access, success, and inclusion in STEM related education is
still experienced by Black African students (Kloot and Rouvrais 2017).
The desegregation of schools in post-apartheid South Africa changed interactions and
dynamics in classrooms (Wawrzynski et al. 2012). It is within this context that Titus (2016)
used an educational game to address the lack of cross-cultural communication in a sport
studies classroom among students from different ethnic groups. The author situated the
study in South Africa by referencing apartheid education that prioritized education and
research that met the needs of White South Africans. In post-apartheid South Africa, stu-
dents still clustered around peers with similar cultural backgrounds. Interestingly, playing
the game allowed students to collaboratively learn the content, and answer questions related
to chapters in the course within 45 s. Students gained in knowledge, which built their self-
confidence, and allowed cross-cultural interactions among peers in the classroom. Knowl-
edge derived from playing the game removed feelings of inferiority (specifically among
Black African students), and facilitated cross-cultural communication. Titus concluded that
gameplay should be combined with other technologies to improve cross-cultural commu-
nication in classrooms. The acquisition of domain-specific knowledge through gameplay
echoed findings from authors such as Guillen-Nieto and Aleson-Carbonell (2012) on the
effectiveness of gameplay in increasing English proficiency and intercultural business com-
munication competence.

13
 R. Y. Bayeck

Skill acquisition

Amory et  al. (1999) differed from the previous authors with their use of commercial
games. The authors set out to identity games most appropriate for teaching and game ele-
ments found interesting by students. A group of 20 students were asked to evaluate differ-
ent aspects of the games including the game logic, challenge, and skills needed to play.
They discovered that visualization, problem solving, logic, and memory skills were needed
to play strategic and adventure games. Yet, researchers found differences between ethnic
groups for questions related to logic and game difficulty. The authors argued that these
differences could be explained by the fact that historically disadvantaged students lacked
cognitive, practical and psycho-social skills. Attempting to explain these divergences
by differences in cognition, practical, and psycho-social skills positioned the findings in
South Africa where apartheid thinking for example related intellectual potential to race;
and viewed Whites as intellectually superior to other groups (Digby 2013). The findings
also showed that playing these games developed fundamental skills (e.g., problem solving,
logic, and memory) for learning among participants. Commercial games are consequently
spaces for the acquisition of skills such as problem solving and visualization as observed
by authors in other contexts like Adachi and Willoughby (2013).
Walton and Pallitt (2012) qualitatively explored the gaming practices of students from
different socioeconomic status. Participants engaged in different gaming practices which
included designing a new game drawing on their sociocultural surroundings. Participants
from low-income families transformed a single-player game into a multiplayer game
among collocated peers. This illustrated a variant of game literacy that is not limited to
meaning making through play, but included the embodied enactment of play. Video game-
play enabled the development of participants’ creativity, that is, innovative thinking, origi-
nality, and inventiveness (Binkley et al. 2014). The relationship between video games and
skills development has also been established by other researchers. For instance, Moffat
et al. (2017) found that playing three different computer games resulted in a gain in creative
thinking. Yet, creativity in this context was slightly different because it was also informed
by the economic status of participants and the cultural context, which resulted in different
gaming practices among players. Students from rich income families developed a written
South African version of Grand Theft Auto (GTA), integrating local politics and characters
in an adventurous game designed in American cities. Low-income participants turned a
single-player mobile game into a “multiplayer game” through collated competition because
they could not as the authors noted afford expensive game consoles. The socioeconomic
status determined access to video games, and game practices. Yet, the cultural relevance of
these findings is found in the gaming practices of low-income participants (i.e., turning a
single-player mobile game into multiplayer game), but also in the development of a version
of GTA that spoke to the political realities of South Africa. The multiplayer-mobile game
practice can be rooted in the Black South African concept of “Ubuntu” that points to the
connectedness that should exist between people (Gade, 2012) further situating the findings
in South Africa.

Authentic learning

Authentic learning centers on learners, allows active participation, and provides opportu-
nities for learners to be exposed and address complex real-world problems (Pearce 2016;

13
Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

Wornyo et al. 2018). In studies such as Amory and Molomo (2012), gameplay was related
to authentic learning; while in Amory et al. (2011) authentic learning occurred in the pro-
cess of designing an instrument for evaluating the educational potential of video games. In
the first study, the authors had workshop participants play different games, and indicated
that gameplay was linked to authentic learning, and to the understanding of new concepts
through collaboration. Still, nuances appeared, with women rating gameplay as facilitat-
ing authentic learning less positively than men; and men slightly preferring competitive
games to other games. Though all participants overall liked similar games, rated their com-
petitiveness similarly, and disliked games that were cognitively challenging, they enacted
social and cultural expectations related to gender. For instance, male participants’ prefer-
ence for competitive games and women identification with female characters in the game
align with South African patriarchal and heteronormative society. The contextual interpre-
tation of these findings evidenced the influence of the cultural context on the findings, and
game titles like yKhozi linked the study South Africa. This is not to say that in other con-
texts, men and women do not differ in their video game genre preferences. For instance,
Greenberg et al. (2010) in their study of players in the United States found that women pre-
ferred thoughtful games, and men physically oriented games (e.g., sport games). Yet, the
distinction was not explicitly related to the cultural context. Studies of gender differences
in western settings also revealed differences in areas such as time spent playing (Rehbein
et al. 2016), participation (Shaw 2012), gameplay strategy (Martin and Good 2015), with
no explicit connection to the cultural context.
The second study investigated learning that occurred in the process of playing and
designing an instrument to evaluate the learning potential of video games Amory et  al.
(2011) found that participants’ understanding of the role of video games in education was
enhanced, and participants’ beliefs about learning and teaching were transformed as game-
play challenged perceptions, allowed for discovery, and collaboration. The workshop also
enabled participants to collaborate with individuals from diverse social, cultural, and eth-
nic backgrounds. In post-apartheid South Africa, the inclusion of worldviews from people
of various cultural backgrounds shaped any innovative approach implemented for learning
and teaching. As in other contexts, video games offered meaningful learning as they ena-
bled collaboration, failure, competition, challenge adjustment, self-expression, goals clar-
ity, discovery, or immediate feedback (Anderson 2011; Squire 2013).
Compared to western-based studies that predominantly discuss video games as spaces
that foster 21st century learning (Hewett et  al. 2020); and skills acquisition (Sourmelis
et al. 2017), findings in South Africa show video games as spaces for learning about issues
affecting the country such as HIV/AIDS. Thus, video games help address learning needs
emerging from and enhanced by apartheid. Video games in South Africa are mostly used
as a designed intervention to address learning challenges, and less as inherently learning
spaces given the predominance of educational video games.

Conclusion

This review offers an overview of the state of video game research in South Africa. Over-
all, the studies reviewed showed that in the South African context, video games are tools
and spaces for learning. Engagement, motivation, knowledge and skill acquisition are some
of the learning benefits of video gameplay. In this regard, these findings resonate with
studies completed in western contexts (Connolly et al. 2012; Darabi et al. 2018). Yet, the

13
 R. Y. Bayeck

current study does highlight the relationship between the sociocultural context and video
game research in South Africa. The researchers stopped short of extending their analysis to
explain how the cultural context mediated their investigations; however, the game titles, for
instance, revealed the connection between culture and research on video games in South
Africa. The game titles, the problems addressed, and the content of the games designed
exposed the uniqueness of South African approach to video games research. For exam-
ple, Grand Theft Auto in Walton and Pallit was redesigned to include local political scan-
dals, and games like yKhozi addressed issues of HIV/AIDS, relevant to South Africans.
Video games are learning spaces informed, shaped, and researched within the South Afri-
can sociocultural context. This study evidences the interplay between context and video
game research in South Africa, and a tendency to prioritized educational video games
when investigating learning. In South Africa, video games are certainly alternative learn-
ing spaces, but more importantly context-informed learning spaces (e.g., issues addressed
and game content).

Limitations and further research

This integrative review examined research related to video games and learning in South
Africa. No review is exhaustive (Rogers et  al. 2016), and this article does not claim to
have exhausted all studies conducted on video games and learning in South Africa. For
example, the current review excluded book chapters, which may have changed the findings.
In addition, this study was limited by the availability of data given that the author did not
have access to South African databases, which may have increased the number of publica-
tions. However, this endeavor does provide insights into the state of video game research
in South Africa. Video game researchers should consider the context and how it frames
gameplay when examining learning, and discussing video games potential integration in
classrooms. Likewise, designing video games with context-based relevance/issues should
further be explored to understand learning and video games.
This review did not consider the specific settings where the studies took place (e.g., pre-
dominantly white, or predominantly black schools or neighborhoods). This distinction may
have given more insights into the relationship between context and video game research in
South Africa given the past apartheid policies that segregated schools, as well as research
(Bozalek and Boughey 2012). Hence, future studies could examine the intersection of
video game research, research settings, and participants in South Africa.
This study did not also address the question of western hegemony embedded in tech-
nologies such as video games, and its potential effects on learning. Yet, future research
could explore how the use of western-built tools such as video games could affect learning
in non-western contexts such as South Africa. As indicated by sociocultural theory, con-
text, and particularly cultural context does have an effect on learning. Thus, contextualiz-
ing resources and tools is certainly critical for greater learning outcomes. Building on this
review, future studies could interrogate the appropriateness of using video games in South
Africa, and other non-western contexts for learning, and explore the question of western
hegemony through technology. This study contributes to video game research in other cul-
tural contexts, and could help start a discussion on the potential of video games as learning
spaces in South Africa, and other non-western cultural contexts.

Acknowledgments  Many thanks to Dr. Amy C. Crosson for her feedback, and to the anonymous reviewers
who helped improve this article.

13
Exploring video games and learning in South Africa: An integrative…

Funding  This study was not funded.

Compliance with ethical standards 

Conflict of interest  The author declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval  This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by
any of the authors.

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institutional affiliations.

Rebecca Y. Bayeck  is a dual-Ph.D. holder in Learning Design Technology and Comparative International
Education, and a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Her research
interests include literacies and learning in games (e.g., video and board games); the design of inclusive
learning environments; and the interplay of gender, culture, and context in different learning settings.

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