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Paralleling Cts For Line Current Differential Applications: Problems and Solutions
Paralleling Cts For Line Current Differential Applications: Problems and Solutions
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This paper was presented at the 68th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers and can
be accessed at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/CPRE.2015.7102166.
For the complete history of this paper, refer to the next page.
Presented at the
43rd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference
Spokane, Washington
October 18–20, 2016
Abstract—Paralleling current transformers (CTs) is a the delta winding must be connected in wye, while the CTs on
common practice in differential or line protection applications the wye winding must be connected in delta in order to
where the number of CTs exceeds the number of relay current compensate for the phase angle shift and zero-sequence
inputs. This is especially true of line current differential
applications applied to breaker-and-a-half and ring-bus
current introduced by the transformer. On the other hand, both
configurations. This paper discusses complications that can arise CTs can be connected in wye when a digital 87 relay with
from this practice and highlights relay design improvements that internal mathematical compensation is used.
have been made to add security to these applications. Real-world We must decide if a CT can supply multiple relays or if
event reports are shown to illustrate problems and solutions. separate, designated CTs are required for each relay. One such
case of particular importance is bus 87 protection. A low-
I. INTRODUCTION impedance bus 87 relay can share CTs with other devices,
There are many principles that protection engineers must while a high-impedance bus 87 relay requires dedicated CTs.
learn. For example, one principle is that paralleled current In transmission line applications, it is common to see CTs
transformers (CTs) should be avoided as differential (87) paralleled together for line relays, regardless of whether the
inputs because a relay is less secure during external faults with application is using distance or line current 87 elements. This
heavy CT saturation. Another is that tapping a multiratio CT practice is driven primarily by typical bus configurations used
at less than its full winding derates the CT and makes it more at transmission voltage levels (see Fig. 1).
likely to saturate.
It was Douglas MacArthur who said, “Rules are mostly
made to be broken …” [1]. While protection engineers are
rarely known for their cavalier attitudes, engineers are tasked
with solving problems and have to make compromises for a
number of reasons. For example, CTs were paralleled to line
current differential relays for decades because the line
terminals to be protected were breaker-and-a-half
arrangements and each relay available and installed at the time
only had a single three-phase current input available. While
not ideal for restraint during external faults, paralleled CTs
have been used successfully for these dual-breaker
applications, and to remove transformers and bus sections
from differential zones. Also, CTs are sometimes tapped down
in order to meter low load currents or to match the ratio of a
paralleled CT. While not ideal for performance during faults,
dual-slope and Alpha Plane differential characteristics, as well
as adaptive overcurrent elements, external fault detectors, and
more, are tolerant of varying levels of CT saturation. Fig. 1. A Typical High-Voltage Breaker-and-a-Half Bus Configuration
In this paper, two case studies are presented. In both, a In a breaker-and-a-half bus configuration, each line is fed
fault occurred and an adjacent unfaulted line section by two breakers. The transmission line relay must measure the
misoperated. The subsequent root cause analysis revisits the total line current. For decades, it was standard practice for
two fundamental protection principles mentioned previously electromechanical and early digital relay designs to only have
and their importance. We share the lessons learned and offer a single set of three-phase current inputs. As a result, CT
some practical advice for improving security. inputs from separate breakers had to be paralleled before
being connected to the relay when the number of CTs
II. CT CONNECTIONS exceeded the number of relay inputs.
The method of wiring CTs that is chosen for a given Although paralleling CTs to line relays has been quite
application is typically driven by the system configuration and common over the years, it does have some shortcomings that
protective relay design. For example, to protect a delta-wye can significantly challenge the security of distance,
transformer with an electromechanical 87 relay, the CTs on directional, and differential line protection relays [2].
2
Therefore, modern digital relays provide additional CT inputs, CTs do not saturate immediately. A CT reproduces the
allowing the individual CTs to be connected separately to the primary current for a certain time after each current zero
relay. crossing. The time to saturate is given by (2).
X VSAT
III. CT SATURATION I ( R + R ) –1
The source of difference current between two paralleled TSAT = – R ln l – F S B (2)
ω X
CTs for an external fault is CT saturation and the varying
R
performance of the two CTs. A simplified equivalent circuit
for two paralleled CTs during an external fault is shown in where:
Fig. 2. Assume that there is a source behind CT A and that the ω is the angular frequency.
fault is located behind or external to CT B. The coil in the VSAT is the saturation voltage.
center of Fig. 2 is a current sensor.
IF is the fault current referred to in secondary amperes.
RL RCT RL RCT RS is CT winding resistance.
CT A CT B RB is the burden resistance.
I2
Keep in mind that the connection of CTs and the fault type
IF XM
I1
XM IF determine the multiplying factors for lead and relay
impedances in the burden calculation [5].
Lastly, CTs may succumb to ac or dc saturation. The volt-
time area under the burden voltage waveform signifies the
Fig. 2. Equivalent Circuit for Two Paralleled CTs During an External Fault
threshold of saturation. The volt-time area may be increased
The CT secondary current (IF) is the ratio current, or the due to large ac fault currents (ac or symmetrical saturation) or
primary fault current divided by the CT ratio. XM is the a large dc offset (dc or asymmetrical saturation). Equation (3)
nonlinear excitation branch of the CT, RL is the lead resistance indicates that fault current has a sinusoidal part (ac
from the CT to the summation point, and RCT is the CT component) and an exponentially decaying part (dc
winding resistance. I1 and I2 are the circulating currents. component). The fault current magnitude, phase angle, and
Ideally, the leakage or error current in the excitation branches time constant depend on the power system parameters. The
is minimal, and I1 and I2 are identical to one another and magnitude of the dc offset is determined by the angle of the
nearly identical to IF. The current sensor should measure voltage at fault inception.
0 amperes. Equation (1) shows the criteria for selecting CTs to
VM V
i(t) sin ( ωt + θ – ϕ ) – M sin ( θ – ϕ ) e L
–Rt
avoid saturation [3] [4]. = (3)
Z Z
X where:
I F • ZB + 1 ≤ kVSTD (1)
R Z is the system impedance and
where:
R 2 + ( ωL ) .
2
Z
= R 2 + X=
2
ZB is the CT burden.
k is a dimensioning factor of 7.5 for line 87 applications. ωL
ϕ is the system impedance angle and ϕ =arctan .
VSTD is the secondary terminal voltage rating. R
IF is the fault current referred to in secondary amperes. X or ωL is the system reactance.
X/R is the system reactance-to-resistance ratio. R is the system resistance.
If the whole winding of a CT is not used, the standard ω is the angular frequency.
burden is multiplied by the tapped ratio divided by the full VM is the peak system voltage.
ratio. In other words, tapping a CT at less than its full winding θ is the angle of the voltage at fault inception.
derates the CT and lessens its performance.
It is interesting to note the influence of various factors in
Despite our best efforts, CT saturation is not always
(3). A higher X/R ratio (higher source impedance) reduces
avoidable. Even if CT A and CT B are the same make and
fault current magnitude but increases the time constant or time
model, they may not perform identically during fault
required to eliminate the dc offset component. In high
conditions. As CT A saturates, its excitation branch current
inductive reactance systems, θ – ϕ = ±90 degrees produces the
increases dramatically, and I1 is no longer an accurate replica
maximum dc offset. In other words, the dc offset is at a
of IF. The difference between I1 and IF is the CT error, which
maximum when a fault occurs at a voltage minimum or zero
includes a difference in the current magnitude and phase
crossing. Insulation breakdown line-to-ground (LG) faults are
angle.
3
most likely to occur at a voltage maximum, resulting in little B. Traditional Slope-Based Differential Characteristic
to no dc offset in the fault current. However, in multiphase For external faults where significant CT saturation can
faults, all voltages cannot be simultaneously zero, so dc offset occur, an error signal presents itself as false difference current,
is inevitable in one or more phases. Fig. 3 shows a plot of the IOP. The traditional slope-based differential characteristic (see
fault current components in (3). Fig. 5) adds security by adjusting sensitivity based on restraint
30 current.
Resultant Current i(t)
20 IOP
Transient Term
10 Operating
Current (kA)
Region K2
0 K1
Restraining
–10
Region
K0 IOP = KIRT
–20
Steady State IRT
–30
Fig. 5. Traditional Slope-Based Differential Characteristic
0 1 2 3 4 5
Cycles
Restraint current, IRT, is calculated as the sum of the
Fig. 3. Plot of Fault Current Components magnitudes of IL and IR. In some designs, the sum of
magnitudes is further multiplied by a constant. In any case,
IV. LINE CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS restraint is a measure of current magnitude in the CTs. As
current increases, IRT increases, and the operate current
A. General Concepts
required to trip goes up according to a slope constant, K. K0 is
Differential protection is straightforward in principle. the relay minimum sensitivity.
Gustav Kirchhoff’s first law states that the sum of currents
into and out of any node is zero. We implement this principle C. Improved Slope-Based Differential Characteristic
with differential relays to protect transmission lines, bus Improved slope-based differential relays have an adaptive
sections, power transformers, and generators. characteristic. For internal faults, these relays use a lower,
Of course, an 87 relay does not measure primary currents. more sensitive slope, K1. For external faults, these relays shift
Compensation may be required for CT-induced and power to a higher, more secure slope, K2. See Fig. 6.
system element-induced magnitude and phase angle
differences. In transmission line or IEC 61850-9-2 process bus IOP
applications, the simple 87 principle is further complicated by
Operating
distributed digital signal processing, communications, and Region K2
alignment. A generic 87 relay, along with these complicating
functions, is shown in Fig. 4. K1
L R Restraining
K0 Region
Power System IRT
Element
Fig. 6. Improved Slope-Based Differential Adaptive Characteristic
Magnitude Magnitude Waiting for CT saturation to occur, detecting it, and then
and Angle and Angle
Compensation Compensation finally shifting to a more secure state is not reliable.
Therefore, adaptive relays detect the fault situation (an
87 Relay Data external fault) that presents a security risk if the CTs were to
Communications
IL IR
and Time saturate severely. The decision to shift to K2 is made by an
Alignment external fault detector (see Fig. 7) before the CT saturates.
IOP
DIOPR
∆IOPR + DIOP
DIOPP –
Fig. 4. Functional Current Differential Relay Diagram
DIRTR
For normal power flow or for external faults, we expect ∆IRTR + DIRT
that the current IL is nearly equal in magnitude and opposite in DIRTP –
greater than thresholds DIOPP and DIRTP, respectively, from The 87 element operates when the current ratio leaves the
one cycle before, then fast change detectors DIOP and DIRT restraining region and IOP exceeds a minimum pickup value. IL
assert. Even with severe CT saturation, we expect CTs to and IR may represent phase currents, negative-sequence
produce some valid output for at least 2 milliseconds. For currents, or zero-sequence currents. Fig. 9 shows a simplified
external faults, the raw IOP does not change and the raw IRT A-phase 87 element logic diagram; other phase and sequence
changes in the first instant of the fault data. The output of the elements are similar.
logical AND gate indicates an external fault and drives the
E. Generalized Alpha Plane Differential Characteristic
adaptive characteristic to the more secure K2 before the CT
saturates. In modern generalized Alpha Plane relays, IL and IR are
composite signals, which are functions of IOP and IRT. IOP and
D. Alpha Plane Differential Characteristic IRT are adjustable in order to further secure the 87L element
Alpha Plane characteristic relays plot the ratio of remote for in-line transformer applications, line charging current
and local current on a two-dimensional plane. The restraining compensation, and more. Additionally, the generalized Alpha
region of the Alpha Plane is defined by a radius and angle (see Plane relays employ an external fault detector, described
Fig. 8). For an external power flow or fault condition, IL and previously, which expands the restraining region and security.
IR ideally should be equal and opposite in phase angle. On the
F. Multiple CT Input Considerations
Alpha Plane, the current ratio for this condition would plot at
a magnitude of 1 per unit and an angle of 180 degrees. An Why are paralleled CTs less secure as differential relay
operating point that lies within the Alpha Plane restraining inputs? For external faults, the 87 relay is not able to measure
region is equivalent to a point below the slope line in Fig. 5 or the true local restraint current (the sum of the Breaker 1 and
Fig. 6. Breaker 2 current magnitudes). Instead, the local restraint
current is only the difference or error between these two
Im(k) signals. Fig. 10 shows a typical external CT summation
connection.
Restraining
Recall from the slope-based differential characteristic
Region Operating
shown in Fig. 5 that higher restraint magnitude equates to
Region more security and that lower restraint magnitude means the
relay is more sensitive. For external faults, we want the relay
e
gl
Re(k)
An
87LPF
(setting)
–
|IAL + IAR| 87LOPA
∑ +
Alpha Plane
IAL
R87LA 1/8
87LA
IAR H 0
Settings
1
87LANG, 87LR
1
V. CASE STUDY 1
∑ A 92 kV utility transmission line tripped in 2013 when an
adjacent line reclosed a second time into a permanent fault.
Fig. 12 shows a simplified one-line diagram of the system.
Fig. 10. Typical External CT Summation Connection When the Number of
CTs Exceeds the Number of Relay Current Inputs
Line 1 experienced a C-phase-to-ground (CG) fault close to
Substation Bravo. The Line 1 protection correctly interrupted
Today, for multiple breaker terminals, modern relays are the fault twice. When BK24 was reclosed into the fault a
available with multiple CT inputs (see Fig. 11). These relays second time, the primary relay on Line 2 at Substation Bravo
measure the individual CT signals for metering and breaker incorrectly operated, tripping BK21 and BK22. At the time of
failure functions, as well as for better restraint for the 87L the trip, the remote end of Line 2 (BK33) was open.
element. The Line 2 primary relay is a digital line current
Line differential relay. This relay only has a single three-phase
IR
current input. Because of this and the breaker-and-a-half bus
IL1 IL1 + IR
configuration, the BK21 and BK22 CTs were paralleled
••• 1 2 ••• external to the relay, as shown in Fig. 13. Note that the CTs
are also tapped down from 2000:5 to 800:5. Both CTs are
1 2 rated C800, but the CTs are from different manufacturers.
As discussed previously, paralleling CTs can significantly
∑
challenge differential, distance, and directional elements [2].
In this case, both the line current differential and backup
Fig. 11. Modern Relay With Multiple CT Inputs distance elements operated. However, in keeping with the
focus of this paper, the analysis concentrates on the line
Consider faults where the remote current contribution, IR, is current differential operation. Fig. 14 shows the filtered event
zero; now, any local operate or difference signal is much less data captured by the primary relay and the assertion of the
than the sum of the individual CT magnitudes. Because the elements mentioned previously. The three-phase terminal
true restraint current is known, the relay is more secure. In currents and voltages, as well as relevant digital elements, are
addition to allowing more relay inputs, modern 87L relay shown.
Substation Alpha
BK11
G Substation Bravo
BK12
BK16 92/230 kV
CG BK41
Line 1
BK13
Bus A Bus B
13.2/92 kV
BK14
Substation Charlie
BK31
BK33 92/161 kV
BK51
Line 2
13.2/92 kV
BK32
Primary
87L/21/67
Bus A
BK21 BK22
Line 2
Fig. 13. CTs Paralleled External to the 87 Relay for Case Study 1
Fig. 16. Filtered Differential Current Magnitude
Unfortunately, the breaker failure relays for BK21 and flashed over to ground on the aerial, 69 kV TCC-6 line
BK22 did not have the capability to capture event data from between Substations SK and PO-1 (see Fig. 20). The line is
the CTs. However, there was a relay on the 161 kV side of the less than one mile long and terminates at the remote end into a
transformer at BK51 that did capture its contribution to the transformer. The 42 MVA delta-wye power transformer serves
fault. The unfiltered data from this relay are shown in Fig. 18. a 400-ampere resistance-grounded switchgear bus.
Substation SK
4 7 13 32
6 9 15 34
TCC-6 TCC-8
TCC-7 TCC-9
Fig. 18. Unfiltered Event Data From BK51 During the Second Reclose
40,000
1:IA
1:IB
20,000
1:IC
Current (A)
–20,000
–40,000
9 10 11 12 13 14
80
1:VA_kV
1:VB_kV
40
1:VC_kV
Voltage (kV)
–40
–80
9 10 11 12 13 14
1:50N1
1:51N
1:51P
1:67N1
1:67N1T
1:RMB2A
1:PTRX
1:RMB1A
9 10 11 12 13 14
Cycles
80
1:VA_kV
40
Voltage (kV)
1:VB_kV
0 1:VC_kV
–40
–80
24.970713 25.020713 25.070713 25.120713 25.170713 25.220713
800
600 1:IA
Current (A)
400 1:IB
200 1:IC
0
–200
24.970713 25.020713 25.070713 25.120713 25.170713 25.220713
600
1:IBL
Current (A)
400
1:IBX
200
0
–200
24.970713 25.020713 25.070713 25.120713 25.170713 25.220713
1:87L
1:87LB
1:87LOPB
1:R87LB
24.970713 25.020713 25.070713 25.120713 25.170713 25.220713
Time (s)
Fig. 22. Raw Data From Terminal 14-15 on the TCC-9 Line During the Fault
9
Fig. 23 shows the beginning of the BG fault. These are raw Fig. 25 shows the same data from the breaker failure relay.
or unfiltered data. The first axis shows the local 87 phase However, to better compare the output from the two CTs, one
currents. The second axis shows the remote 87 phase currents. CT polarity has been mathematically reversed. The two
The digital element 1:R87LB is the Alpha Plane restraint current outputs are plotted together on the first axis. The
dropping out. Element 1:87LOPB shows when the difference difference or error between the two CTs can now be seen
current magnitude exceeds pickup. Elements 1:87LB and more easily. The CT outputs differ for only 1/4 cycle. The
1:87L indicate that the 87 element trips after a 1/8-cycle second axis is the summation or difference current. These
security delay. The time between the raw or unfiltered current currents are symmetrical, indicating that the CT error is due to
spike and the element assertion is due to a filtering delay. ac saturation.
600 1:IAL 1:IBW
8,000
1:IBL 1:IBX_NEG
Current (A)
400
Current (A)
1:ICL 4,000
200
0
0
–200 –4,000
25.020713 25.040713 25.060713 25.080713
–8,000
80
Current (A)
Current (A)
1:ICX 1,000
–100
25.020713 25.040713 25.060713 25.080713 600
1:87LOPB 200
1:87LB
1:87L –200
1:R87LB 25.030581 25.040581 25.050581
25.020713 25.040713 25.060713 25.080713 Time (s)
Time (s)
Fig. 25. The Difference or Error Between CTs From Breakers 14 and 15
Fig. 23. Terminal 14-15 on the TCC-9 Line During the Fault
A different scenario played out on the TCC-8 line. Fig. 26
A separate breaker failure relay for Terminal 14-15 shows the event data from the line current differential relay at
recorded a high-resolution COMTRADE event, which showed Terminal 32-33 at Substation SK on the TCC-8 line. The first
individual CT data sampled 2,000 times per second. In axis shows the line phase currents. The second axis shows the
Fig. 24, the first axis shows the B-phase current from terminal voltages.
Breaker 14. The second axis shows the B-phase current from
1:IA
Breaker 15, which is nearly equal and opposite of Breaker 14. 1,000 1:IB
Current (A)
of the other, from one bus to another during the fault, was
much larger than the current from the remote terminal across –1,000
1:VC_kV
8,000 1:IAW 0
Current (A)
4,000 1:IBW
1:ICW –40
0
–4,000 –80
–8,000 25.091352 25.141352 25.191352 25.241352 25.291352
25.045581 25.065581 25.085581 25.105581 25.125581
1:IAX Time (s)
6,000
Current (A)
2,000 1:IBX
–2,000 1:ICX Fig. 26. Filtered Difference or Error Current and Voltages on the TCC-8
–6,000 Line
–10,000
25.045581 25.065581 25.085581 25.105581 25.125581 First, observe that the fault data are about 11 cycles long.
1,400 The first six cycles are the BG fault. Then, the fault evolves
Current (A)
1:IB_SUM
1,000
600 into an A-phase-to-B-phase-to-ground (ABG) fault. This
200
–200
change was not seen in the previous data because the TCC-9
25.045581 25.065581 25.085581 25.105581 25.125581 line tripped immediately.
Time (s)
Fig. 24. Raw Individual CT 14-15 Currents From Breaker Failure Relay
10
Second, unlike the 87 relay on the TCC-9 line that As with the first case study, the difference or error current
measured difference current almost immediately at the onset is only present for a short time. Adding a small time delay to
of the fault, the relay on the TCC-8 line measures difference the 87 element adds security. Fig. 29 shows the result of
current at the transition between fault types. Recall that replaying the Terminal 14-15 raw event data into a similar
multiphase faults are more likely to have dc offset in the fault relay with externally paralleled CTs that now includes a one-
current on at least one phase. In fact, note that the difference cycle delay on the 87 element. With this delay, the relay
current seen in the TCC-8 line data is actually on A-phase, remains secure.
rather than B-phase. However, the drawback to this approach is that it also
A separate breaker failure relay for Breakers 32 and 33 delays operation for internal faults where speed is important.
recorded a high-resolution COMTRADE event, which showed Furthermore, setting the delay based on this one event does
individual CT data. In Fig. 27, the first axis shows the three not ensure that the delay will prevent reoccurrence for other
phase currents from Breaker 32. The second axis shows the faults on the system.
three phase currents from Breaker 33. The third axis shows the The CTs used for the Substation SK relays are 1200:5
difference or error between the two CTs. Note that the error multiratio CTs that have been tapped down to 300:5. This
current is on A-phase, that the error occurs when the fault essentially derates the CTs and causes them to saturate at
evolves from BG to ABG, and that both CT A-phase signals lower values of primary current. The CTs are rated C800 at
are distorted. their full winding ratio. Tapping them at 300:5 results in an
effective C-rating of C200. Essentially, 75 percent of the CT
Current (A)
6,000 1:IAW
2,000 1:IBW capability is lost simply by its tap selection. Increasing the tap
1:ICW
–2,000 on the CTs regains their full capability and improves security.
–6,000
25.132706 25.182706 25.232706 25.282706
This is the solution that was implemented at the industrial
6,000 plant.
Current (A)
1:IAX
2,000 1:IBX
1:ICX 1,000
–2,000 1:IBL
–6,000 1:IBX
Current (A)
5,000 1:IA_SUM
3,000 1:IB_SUM 200
1,000
–1,000 –200
25.132706 25.182706 25.232706 25.282706 37.310708 37.350708 37.390708
Time (s) 1:87LB
Fig. 27. Raw Individual Breaker 32 and 33 Currents From Breaker Failure 1:87LOPB
Relay 1:R87LB
1:SV1
Fig. 28 shows the same data from the breaker failure relay.
1:SV1T
However, to better compare the output from the two CTs, one 1:TRIP
CT polarity has been mathematically reversed.
37.310708 37.350708 37.390708
6,000 1:IAW Time (s)
1:IAXNEG
Current (A)
150
Current (A)
3,000
1,000 0
–1,000 –150
25.192706 25.196706 25.200706 25.204706
–0.017 0.017 0.050 0.083 0.117 0.150
Time (s)
Current (A)
Fig. 28. The Difference or Error Between CTs From Breakers 32 and 33 30
0
The two current outputs are plotted together on the first
–30
axis. The difference or error between the two CTs can now be –0.017 0.017 0.050 0.083 0.117 0.150
seen more easily. The CT outputs differ for 6 milliseconds in Time (s)
the raw or unfiltered event data. The second axis is the
Fig. 30. CT Performance at 300:5 (Top) and 1200:5 (Bottom) Taps
summation or difference current. These currents are
asymmetrical, indicating that the CT error is due to dc
saturation.
11
The CT saturation tool allows us to visualize CT addition to measuring the individual breaker CTs, this modern
performance at different taps, with varying levels of digital relay uses the generalized Alpha Plane characteristic
remanence flux, changing burdens, and more. Fig. 30 is shown and an external fault detector for added security.
with no remanence and maximum dc offset. The first axis Fig. 32 shows the individual CT 14-15 currents measured
shows the CT output on the 300:5 tap. The second axis shows by the modern 87 relay. These data simply match the data
the improved performance on the 1200:5 tap. from Fig. 24 that were used as the source information for the
Unlike the event in the first case study, the TCC-8 and test. Fig. 33 shows the difference current spike seen by the
TCC-9 lines had both line ends closed during the fault. original differential relay that used externally paralleled CTs
Therefore, the 87 relays calculated the Alpha Plane (first axis) and the difference current spike seen by the modern
characteristic. An event analysis tool allows us to simulate the relay that combines these signals mathematically (second
relay performance with expanded Alpha Plane angle settings. axis). Regardless of physical or mathematical summation, the
Fig. 31 shows the TCC-9 line data from the perspective of difference current that is seen is the same.
Substation L. The original Alpha Plane angle setting during
6,000 1:IAW
the fault was 195 degrees. In Fig. 31, the angle has been 1:IAX
Current (A)
2,000
expanded to its maximum allowed setting of 270 degrees. For 1:IBW
–2,000 1:IBX
a relay with a slope-based differential characteristic, this is 1:ICW
–6,000
equivalent to increasing the slope setting. Each point 1:ICX
–10,000
represents a processing interval, and the relay would have 37.871081 37.971081 38.071081
tripped even if the Alpha Plane restraining region had been Time (s)
expanded. Analysis of the TCC-8 line data showed similar Fig. 32. Individual CT 14-15 Currents Measured by Modern 87 Relay
results. In addition to not preventing the misoperation,
2:IA
expanding the restraining region could have the adverse effect 600 2:IB
Current (A)
2:IC
of delaying or preventing tripping for an internal fault with 400
similar CT saturation. 200
0
Im
–200
25.005581 25.045581 25.085581
1,200 1:IA_COMBINED
1:IB_COMBINED
Current (A)
800 1:IC_COMBINED
400
0
Re –400
25.005581 25.045581 25.085581
2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 Time (s)
Fig. 33. Physically and Mathematically Combined Currents Show the Same
Difference or Error
1,400
1:IB_COMBINED
1,000
Current (A)
600
200
–200
07.994706 08.044706 08.094706
800
2:IB
600
Current (A)
400
200
–200
07.994706 08.044706 08.094706
1:87EFD
1:87EFDL
2:TRIP87
2:DD
1:87L
2:87L
07.994706 08.044706 08.094706
Time (s)
Fig. 34. Modern Relay Does Not Trip for Replayed Event Data
X. BIOGRAPHIES
David Costello graduated from Texas A&M University in 1991 with a B.S. in
electrical engineering. He worked as a system protection engineer at Central
Power and Light and Central and Southwest Services in Texas and Oklahoma
and served on the System Protection Task Force for ERCOT. In 1996, David
joined Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. as a field application
engineer and later served as a regional service manager and senior application
engineer. He presently holds the title of technical support director and works
in Fair Oaks Ranch, Texas. David has authored more than 30 technical papers
and 25 application guides. He was honored to receive the 2008 Walter A.
Elmore Best Paper Award from the Georgia Institute of Technology
Protective Relaying Conference and the 2013 Outstanding Engineer Award
from the Central Texas section of the IEEE Power and Energy Society. He is
a senior member of IEEE, a registered professional engineer in Texas, and a
member of the planning committees for the Conference for Protective Relay
Engineers at Texas A&M University.