Biological and Cultural Evolution

Biological Evolution
- Refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited traits
of biological populations from one generation to another
- Physical Body
o Brain size
o Body size
o Shoulders
o Posture
o Hands and feet
o Hair
o Teeth
- Charles Darwin
o Theory of Evolution
▪ The Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859)
o Natural Selection
▪ Outcome of processes that affect the frequencies of traits in a particular
environment
▪ Traits that enhance survival and reproductive success increase in
frequency over time
▪ Important Principles:
1. Variation – every species is made up of a variety of individuals where
in some are better adopted to their environments compared to others
2. Heritability – organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits
that can be inherited
3. Differential Reproductive Success – organisms have traits most
suitable to their environment will survive and transfer these variations
to their offspring in subsequent generations
- Hominids
o General term used by scientists to categorize the group of early humans and
other humanlike creatures that can walk erect during prehistoric times
o Categories:
1. Sahelantropus
2. Ardipenthicus
3. Australophithecus (Southern Ape)
a. Gracile
o Australopithecus Anamensis
o Australopithecus Afarensis
o Australopithecus Africanus
b. Robust
o Australopithecus Aethiopicus
o Australopithecus Robustus
o Australopithecus Boisei
4. Homo
 a. Homo Habilis (Able Man)
b. Homo Erectus (Upright Man)
c. Homo Sapiens (Thinking Man)
d. Homo Sapiens Sapiens (Wise Man)
Cultural Evolution
- Changes or development in cultures from a simple form to a more complex form of
human culture
- Analyzing the change sin the latter’s way of life
- Transforms sociopolitical and political evolution
- Different Types of Societies
o Hunting and Gathering
▪ Oldest and most basic
▪ Simple tools
▪ Men: Hunting
▪ Women: Gathering
▪ Nomadic
▪ Caves as shelters
▪ Small groups with 20 to 30 members
▪ Shamans/Priests as leaders
o Horticultural and Pastoral
▪ Semisedentary – learn how to settle in one place (but not really
permanent)
▪ Small scale farming
▪ Use of hoes and digging sticks
▪ Surplus of food
▪ Crafts and trading
▪ Domestication of animals
▪ Unequal social relations
▪ Ruling elite and priests
▪ Barter
o Agricultural
▪ Agricultural societies: 5000 years ago
▪ Wheat, barley, peas, rice and millet (8000 and 3500 BCE)
▪ Farming and domestication of animals
▪ Economic subsistence led to the Neolithic Revolution
▪ Rising temperatures created the climate conditions necessary for the
cultivation of wild grasses (wheat and barley) and other crops (rice, olives
and grapes in Asia and Europe)
▪ More food = larger population
▪ Farming provided a steady source of food for growing communities
▪ Slash-and-burn farming cleared fields and fertilized soil but meant that
communities had to move every couple of years
▪ Domestication of animals (cattle, pigs and horses) provided a reliable
food source and a source of power for plowing
▪ Pastoral nomads (herders) based their entire way of life on the
domestication of some animals (camels and sheep)
 o Neolithic Revolution
o Increased in population
o Permanent Settlement
o Improved technology in farming
o Specialization
o Social inequality
o Money replaced the barter system
o Ex. Catal Huyuk (Turkey) – one of the earliest cities
o Industrial
▪ Industrial Revolution (1780s to 1850s)
▪ New sources of energy
▪ Advanced form of technology
▪ Industrialization (ex. Factories)
▪ Economic interdependence
▪ Centralized workplaces
▪ Industrial Societies
o Post-Industrial
▪ Information technology
▪ Computers and electronic devices
▪ Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service
▪ Professional and technical employment and decline of skilled and semi-
skilled workers
▪ Education as the basis of social mobility
▪ Human capital as an essential aspect of understanding the strength of
society
▪ Focus on communication infrastructure
▪ Knowledge as source of invention and innovation
▪ Intellectial technology-math, linguistics and algorithms and software
programming
Political Evolution and the Development and Early Civilization

• Civilization
- High level of culture
- Social organization
- Political developments
- Judicial systems
- Characteristics:
o Develoepd and highly advanced cities and well defined city centers
▪ River-Valley Civilizations
o Sumerian Civilization (Tigris and Euphrates River)
o Indus Civilization (Indus River Valley)
o Shang Civilization (Huang Ho/Huang He River)
o Egyptian Civilization (Nile River)
o Organized and centralized system of government
o Formalized and complex form of religion
o Complex and systematic institutions
o Development of Social Classses
 ▪ Egyptian Social Pyramid
o Pharaoh (highest)
o Government officials: Vizier, Priest, Noble
o Soldiers
o Scribes
o Merchants
o Craftsmen
o Peasants
o Slaves (lowest)
▪ Aztec Society
o Nobles: Priests, Officials, Warriors (highest(
o Merchants: Craftsmen, Traders
o Commoners: Farmers & Laborers
o Slaves
o Large-scale public works, defense walls, monuments, temples, mausoleums,
government edifices, trading centers and markets
o Detailed forms of arts and architecture
o Advanced technology
o System of writing and recording