Respiratory System • Nasal Septum – a partition dividing the nasal
INTRO:
Studying, sleeping, eating, even just lying in bed, doing
nothing, involve breathing.
>insert pic: *studying, *sleeping, *eating, *comfi
blanket in bed rainy, *breathing<
Respiration includes the following processes:
 Ventilation (breathing)
– the movement of air into and out of the
lungs;
– Ventilation is regulated by changes in
thoracic volume, which produce changes
in air pressure within the lungs.
• There are two phases of ventilation:
1. Inspiration (inhalation) – movement
of air into the lungs
2. Expiration (exhalation) – the
movement of air out of the lungs
 The exchange of oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide
(CO₂) between the air in the lungs and the blood.
 The transport of O₂ and CO₂ in the blood.
 The exchange of O₂ and CO₂ between the blood
and the tissues.
 Breathing also rids the body of potentially toxic
CO₂ produced during cellular respiration.
Respiration includes the following functions:
1. Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory system
can alter blood pH by changing blood CO₂ levels.
2. Voice production. Air movement past the vocal
cords makes sound and speech possible.
3. Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs when
airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal
cavity.
4. Innate immunity. The respiratory system protects
against some microorganisms and other
pathogens, such as viruses, by preventing them
from entering the body and by removing them
from respiratory surfaces.
The respiratory system has two divisions:
 Upper Respiratory Tract
• nose
• pharynx
• larynx
 Lower Respiratory Tract
• trachea
• bronchi
• lungs
Major Organs and their Functions:
The Nose
• Nose - consists of the external nose and the nasal
cavity
• External Nose – visible structure, the bridge of
the nose is bone and most of the external nose is
cartilage
• Nares (nostrils) – the external openings of the
nose
• Choanae – are the openings into the pharynx
• Nasal Cavity – extends from the nares to the
choanae
cavity
• Hard palate – forms the floor of the nasal cavity,
separating the nasal cavity from the oral cavity
• Nose
Three prominent bony ridges:
1. The conchae are present on the lateral walls on
each side of the nasal cavity. The conchae
increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and
cause air to churn, so that it can be cleansed,
humidified, and warmed.
2. The paranasal sinuses are air-filled spaces within
bone. The paranasal sinuses open into the nasal
cavity and are lined with a mucous membrane.
They reduce the weight of the skull, produce
mucus, and influence the quality of the voice by
acting as resonating chambers.
3. The nasolacrimal ducts, which carry tears from
the eyes, also open into the nasal cavity. Sensory
receptors for the sense of smell are in the
superior part of the nasal cavity.
Many processes occur in the nose and nasal cavity
including:
1. The coarse hairs just inside the nares and the
mucus trap large dust particles.
2. Cilia sweep the debris-laden mucus toward the
pharynx, where it is swallowed. The acid in the
stomach kills any bacteria that were trapped by
the mucus.
3. Air is warmed by the blood vessels underlying the
mucous epithelium. It is humidified by moisture
in the mucous epithelium.
The sneeze reflex dislodges foreign substances from
the nasal cavity.
• Sensory receptors detect the foreign substances,
and action potentials are conducted along the
trigeminal nerves to the medulla oblongata,
where the reflex is triggered.
• During the sneeze reflex, the uvula and the soft
palate are depressed, so that rapidly flowing air
from the lungs is directed primarily through the
nasal passages.
The Pharynx
• Pharynx (throat)
The pharynx is the common passageway for both the
respiratory and the digestive systems.
The pharynx is divided into three regions:
1. The nasopharynx
2. The oropharynx
3. The laryngopharynx
• The nasopharynx is the superior part of the
pharynx. It is located posterior to the choanae
and superior to the soft palate.
– The posterior extension of the soft palate. The
soft palate forms the floor of the nasopharynx.
– The posterior part of the nasopharynx contains
the pharyngeal tonsil, which helps defend the
body against infection
– The soft palate is elevated during swallowing; this
movement closes the nasopharynx and prevents
food from passing from the oral cavity into the
nasopharynx.
• The oropharynx extends from the uvula to the
epiglottis, and the oral cavity opens into the
oropharynx.
– Food, drink, and air all pass through the
oropharynx.
– It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium,
which protects against abrasion.
• Two sets of tonsils, the palatine tonsils and the
lingual tonsil, are located near the opening
between the mouth and the oropharynx.
– The palatine tonsils are located in the lateral walls
near the border of the oral cavity and the
oropharynx.
– The lingual tonsil is located on the surface of the
posterior part of the tongue.
• The laryngopharynx passes posterior to the
larynx and extends from the tip of the epiglottis
to the esophagus.
– Food and drink pass through the laryngopharynx
to the esophagus.
– A small amount of air is usually swallowed with
the food and drink.
– Swallowing too much air can cause excess gas in
the stomach and may result in belching.
The Larynx
• Larynx (voice box)
The larynx is located in the anterior throat and
extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea.
It has three main functions:
1. Maintains an open airway
2. Protects the airway during swallowing
3. Produces the voice
The larynx consists of nine cartilage structures, three
singles and three paired:
Three singles:
 Thyroid (Adam’s apple) – first single, shield-
shaped, largest cartilage
 Cricoid – second single, ring-shaped, forms the
base of the larynx
 The thyroid and cricoid cartilages maintain an
open passageway for air movement.
 Epiglottis – third singe, protects airway during
swallowing, it prevents swallowed materials from
entering the larynx by covering the glottis (the
opening of the larynx).
Three paired:
The three pairs of cartilages are on each side of the
posterior part of the larynx.
 Cuneiform – top cartilage, wedge-shaped
 Corniculate – middle cartilage, horn-shaped
 Arytenoid – bottom cartilage, ladle-shaped
 The arytenoid cartilages articulate with the
cricoid cartilage inferiorly.
 The paired cartilages form an attachment site
for the vocal folds.
The larynx houses the vocal cords.
Two sets of ligaments that extend from the posterior
surface of the thyroid cartilage to the paired
cartilages:
 The superior set of ligaments forms the
vestibular folds, or false vocal cords.
 The inferior set of ligaments composes the
vocal folds, or true vocal cords.
 When the vestibular folds come together, they
prevent air from leaving the lungs.
 The vestibular folds also prevent food and
liquids from entering the larynx.
• The vocal folds are the primary source of
voice production.
• Air moving past the vocal folds causes them
to vibrate, producing sound.
• Muscles control the length and tension of the
vocal folds. The force of air moving past the
vocal folds controls the loudness, and the
tension of the vocal folds controls the pitch of
the voice.
The Trachea
• Trachea (windpipe)
• The trachea allows air to flow into the lungs.
• It is a membranous tube attached to the
larynx.
• The adult trachea is about 1.4–1.6
centimeters (cm) in diameter and about 10–
11 cm long.
• It begins immediately inferior to the cricoid
cartilage, which is the most inferior cartilage
of the larynx.
• The esophagus lies immediately posterior to
the trachea.
Contraction of the smooth muscle can narrow the
diameter of the trachea, which aids in the cough
reflex.
– Sensory receptors detect the foreign substance,
and action potentials travel along the vagus
nerves to the medulla oblongata, where the
cough reflex is triggered.
– During coughing, the smooth muscle of the
trachea contracts, decreasing the trachea’s
diameter.
– As a result, air moves rapidly through the trachea,
which helps expel mucus and foreign substances.
– The uvula and soft palate are elevated, so that air
passes primarily through the oral cavity.
The trachea is lined with a mucous membrane.
– pseudostratified columnar epithelium
– containing numerous cilia and goblet cells
– The cilia sweep the mucus embedded with
foreign particles into the pharynx, where it is
swallowed.
The Bronchi
• Bronchi
• The trachea divides into the left and right main
bronchi or primary bronchi, each of which
connects to a lung.
• Foreign objects that enter the trachea usually
lodge in the right main bronchus, because it is
wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left
main bronchus and is more in direct line with the
trachea.
• The main bronchi extend from the trachea to the
lungs.
The Lungs
• Lungs
• The lungs are the principal organs of respiration.
• Each lung is cone-shaped, with its base resting on
the diaphragm and its apex extending superiorly
to a point about 2.5 cm above the clavicle.
 The right lung has three lobes:
1. superior lobe
2. middle lobe
3. Inferior lobe
 The left lung has two lobes
1. superior lobe
2. inferior lobe
• The airway passages of the lungs branch and
decrease in size.
• The main bronchi form the lobar bronchi
(secondary bronchi), which go to each lobe of the
lungs.
• The lobar bronchi form the segmental bronchi
(tertiary bronchi), which extend to each
bronchopulmonary segment of the lungs.
• The segmental bronchi branch many times to
form the bronchioles.
• The bronchioles also subdivide numerous times
to give rise to terminal bronchioles, which then
subdivide into respiratory bronchioles.
• Each respiratory bronchiole subdivides to form
alveolar ducts, long, branching ducts with many
openings into alveoli.
• Alveoli (hollow sacs) are small air-filled chambers,
connected to alveolar ducts and respiratory
bronchioles, where the air and the blood come
into close contact with each other. Facilitates
diffusion of gases.
• The epithelium from the trachea to the terminal
bronchioles is ciliated to facilitate removal of
debris.
• Cartilage helps hold the tube system open (from
the trachea to the bronchioles).
• Relaxation and contraction of the smooth muscle
within the bronchi and bronchioles can change
the diameter of the air passageways.
• The respiratory membrane of the lungs is where
gas exchange between the air and blood takes
place.
• The respiratory membrane has six layers,
including a film of water, the walls of the alveolus
and the capillary, and an interstitial space.
• Pleural Cavities
• Each lung is surrounded by a separate pleural
cavity.
• Each pleural cavity is lined with a serous
membrane called the pleura.
• The pleural membranes surround the lungs and
provide protection against friction.
• The parietal pleura lines the walls of the thorax,
diaphragm, and mediastinum.
• The visceral pleura covers the surface of the
lungs.
• The pleural cavity, between the parietal and
visceral pleurae, is filled with a small volume of
pleural fluid produced by the pleural membranes.
• The pleural fluid performs two functions:
 It acts as a lubricant, allowing the visceral and
parietal pleurae to slide past each other as the
lungs and thorax change shape during respiration
 It helps hold the pleural membranes together.
• Lymphatic Supply
• Superficial and deep lymphatic vessels drain the
lungs.
• The lungs have two lymphatic supplies:
 The superficial lymphatic vessels are deep to the
visceral pleura. They drain lymph from the
superficial lung tissue and the visceral pleura.
 The deep lymphatic vessels follow the bronchi.
They drain lymph from the bronchi and
associated connective tissues.
• No lymphatic vessels are located in the walls of
the alveoli.
• Both the superficial and deep lymphatic vessels
exit the lungs at the main bronchi.
Relevance to Homeostasis
• The gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
that occurs between the alveoli and pulmonary
capillaries and between tissues and tissue
capillaries is vital in the maintenance of
homeostasis.
• Cells are supplied with O₂ while CO₂, a waste of
cellular respiration, is expelled.
• Gas exchange helps maintain acid-base balance in
the body.
• Carbon dioxide has an important effect on the pH
of blood.
• As CO2 levels increase, the blood pH decreases
(becomes more acidic) because CO2 reacts with
H2O to form H2CO3.
• The H+ that results from the dissociation of
H2CO3 is responsible for the decrease in pH.
• Conversely, as blood levels of CO2 decline, the
blood pH increases (becomes less acidic, or more
basic).
Pathologic Condition
• Asthma
• Asthma (difficult breathing) is characterized by
abnormally increased constriction of the trachea
and bronchi in response to various stimuli, which
decrease ventilation efficiency.
• There is no definitive pathological feature or
diagnostic test for asthma, but three important
characteristics of the disease are:
• The inflammation can block airflow through the
bronchi.
• Airway hyper reactivity means that the smooth
muscle in the trachea and bronchi contracts
greatly in response to a stimulus, thus decreasing
the diameter of the airway and increasing
resistance to airflow.
• The effects of inflammation and airway
hyperactivity combine to cause airflow
obstruction.
• Some asthmatics react to particular allergens,
which are foreign substances that evoke an
inappropriate immune system response
 Examples:
1. inhaled pollen
2. animal dander
3. dust mites
4. droppings and carcasses of
cockroaches
 • Other inhaled substances, such as chemicals in • Taking anti-inflammatory medication
the workplace or cigarette smoke, can provoke an • Using bronchodilators
asthma attack.
• An asthma attack can also be stimulated by
ingested substances such as some medicines.
• Strenuous exercise (especially in cold weather)
can precipitate an asthma attack.
• Viral infections, emotional upset, stress, air
pollution, and even reflux of stomach acid into
the esophagus are known to elicit asthma attacks.

Tests:
• The most common lung function test is
called spirometry. This lung function test uses a
device called, a spirometer, to measure the
amount and speed of the air you blow out. This
helps your healthcare provider see how well your
lungs are working.
• Laboratory testing is used to help rule out
conditions that cause symptoms similar to
asthma, to identify allergies, and to help identify
and evaluate complications that arise. During
severe asthma attacks, testing may be ordered to
evaluate and monitor organ function, oxygen
levels, and the body’s acid-base balance. Tests
include:
• Blood testing for allergic sensitivity – blood tests that
are specific for the allergen(s) suspected to be
causing symptoms, such as dust mites, mold, pet
dander, and pollens; may be ordered to help
determine asthma triggers.
• Blood gases – an arterial blood sample is collected to
evaluate blood pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide; may
be ordered when a person is having an asthma
attack.
• CBC (complete blood count) – to evaluate blood cells
and provide information on infection and
inflammation
• CMP (comprehensive metabolic panel) – to evaluate
organ function
• Theophylline – therapeutic drug monitoring if an
individual with asthma is taking this medication
 A healthcare practitioner will consider the results
of the general tests, medical history, family
history, and risk factors for certain diseases as
well as the results of a physical examination.
Based on these findings, some additional
laboratory tests could be done. Other tests that
may be occasionally ordered include:
• Tests to rule out cystic fibrosis, such as a sweat test
or trypsin/chymotrypsin
• Sputum culture – to diagnose lung infections caused
by bacteria
• AFB testing – to diagnose tuberculosis and
nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM)
• Lung biopsy – to evaluate lung tissue for damage and
for cancer
• Sputum cytology – occasionally ordered to evaluate
cells found in the lungs; eosinophils and neutrophils,
two types of white blood cells, can be increased with
inflammation in some people with asthma.

Treatment:
• Avoiding the causative agent