UPUEA Economic Conference Valume Oct 2017

(i) ISSN - 0975-2382
UPUEA ECONOMIC JOURNAL

A Biannual-Bilingual Journal of Economics
VOLUME - 13 CONFERENCE NO. 13 OCTOBER 2017
th
13 ANNUAL
CONFERENCE
THEME 1
The Emerging Contours of Centre–State Fiscal
Relations in India
  
THEME 2
Women and Development
  
THEME 3
Dynamics of Migration in U.P. and Uttarakhand
Uttar Pradesh - Uttarakhand Economic Association

Bundelkhand University, Jhansi
SUPPORTED BY NABARD
(ii)
From Secretary’s Desk
Uttar Pradesh - Uttarakhand Economic Association, currently with more than

1500 life membership, has grown by tenfold with regards to membership and pages
of publication over less than twelve years of span ever since its inception on 25 th
February 2005. The association has an excellent track record of continuously organising
annual conferences with rapidly increasing number of delegates, paper presenters
and high quality of resource persons and academic deliberations. We are grateful to
the untiring efforts of camp office of the association at D. S. College, Aligarh, efficiently
managed by Co-ordinator Dr. Indu Varshney and assistant co-ordinator Dr. Shobha
Jain for getting completed the tedious task of conference volume.
We have received more than two hundred papers for the conference of which 216
are being published in full text in the conference volume 60 papers in theme I, 126
in theme II and 30 in theme III are being brought out in the conference volume.
Despite persistent and frequent reminder to the members to contribute their papers
as per schedule, we continue to receive the late response under the pretext of late
information, leading to accomplishment of further steps in haste. Once again members
are requested to self enquire about the conference in the month of May itself either
from General Secretary of the association or from the organising secretary to keep
up with the schedule. Paper contributors are also requested to follow the instructions
related to size of their paper.
Our more than a decade old esteemed association now needs to diversify its
activities in order to meet the new challenges before the economies, more especially
related to agriculture and rural development, of the twin states posed by fast growing
national economy.
I appreciate Mr. Prem Singh Bisht, Kunal Books, New Delhi for accomplishing
the printing of the conference proceedings competently.
“The financial assistance received from Research and Development Fund of National
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) towards publication of
journal/printing of proceedings of the Conference and also by Indian Economic Trust
(IET) is gratefully acknowledged.”
Wishing you all the best
Prof. Shyam Kartik Mishra Prof. M.L. Maurya

General Secretary, UPUEA Head, Dept. of Economics and Finance
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi
Dated: 15-10-2017 & Organising Secretary, XIII Annual Conference, UPUEA
Volume 13, Conference Number 13 (iii)
October 2017
UPUEA ECONOMIC JOURNAL

A Biannual-Bilingual Journal of Economics
Contents
Theme 1
The Emerging Contours of Centre–State Fiscal Relations in India
1. GST and Centre State Financial Relation: A Critical Evaluation 3
Richa Rastogi & Jagdish Narayan
2. A Study of Inter Relationship Between Foreign Direct Investment 7
and GDP in India
Ashok Mittal & Yateesh Dubey
3. Analysis of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Doda District 11
with Special Reference to Block Bhalessa
Amjid Nadeem, Nisha Parveen, Padam S Bisht & Asheesh Juneza
4. Impact of Water and Sanitation on Women 15
Shilpi Rai & Prahalad Kumar
5. Fiscal Devolution to Local Bodies in India: Role of Central 19
Finance Commissions
Ashok Mittal & Aiman Fatima
6. An Empirical Analysis of Foreign Direct Investment and Economic 23
Growth in BRICS Countries
Javeria Maryam & Ashok Mittal
7. Relevance of Gender Bias in Indian Politics with Empirical Evidence 27
Ritu Tiwari
8. “Co-operative Federalism” and Contemporary Central-State 31
Financial Relations
Vinita Katiyar & Akhilesh Kumari
9. Socio - Economic Rigidity Faced by Rural Poor and Rural Development 35
Ram Kishor & Kiran Singh
10. Poverty Alleviation Programmes: Needs to Improve 39
R.S. Negi & Abhishekh Rai
(iv)
11. Potential Sectors to Remedy Indo-Iran Trade Deficit 43

Alok Kumar Yadav & Umesh Chandra Yadav
12. Emerging Trends and Issues in Centre - State Fiscal & 47
Financial Relation
Angrej Singh
13. Rebooting Centre-State Fiscal Relations 51
Anil Padmanabhan
14. Practice of Fiscal Federalism in India 53
M.R. Sreenivasa Murthy
15. Fiscal Federalism in India 55
Md. Mahmood Alam
16. Fourteenth Finance Commission-Implications for Fiscal Federalism 58
in India
Pratima Gupta
17. Financial Interrelationship in India: An Analysis 62
V.B. Chaurasia & Manjeet Singh
18. A Comparative Study of Financial Literacy among Medical 66
Professionals and Educationalist in Jhansi City of
Bundelkhand Region
Priyanka Agarwal, Mohd. Shamim Ansari & Rajat Kamboj
19. GST Reforms in India: A New Pathway 69
Priyanka Gaur & Preeti Mishra
20. Problems of Centre State Fiscal Relations in India 73
Manoj Kumar
21. Gender Inequality in India with (Causes, Impact and Solutions) 77
Mamta Adhikari, Hema Mehra & Harish Chandra
22. Co-operative Federalism: The Current Need of Hour 81
Hemlata Tiwari & Shambhu Nath Singh
23. A Study of Finance Commission in India 85
Shambhu Nath Singh
24. Co-operative Movement in India 89
Ram Krishna Upadhyay & Rekha Singh
25. A Critical Evaluation of Fiscal Relation between Centre and State 93
Brajesh
26. An Insight into GST in India: A Reform in Indirect Tax System 97
Shipra Saxena & Akanksha Avasthi
27. Problems and Prospects of Industrial Sector in India: A Case Study 101
of Kanpur District
Deepshikha Sonker
(v)
28. Evolving Nature of Cooperative Federalism in India 105

Dewendra Pratap Tiwari & Yogendra Tiwari
29. Co-operative Federalism and GST: Need of the Present 109
Vishal Dubey
30. Black Money-Size and Impact on Economy 113
Sharad Chandra Srivastava
31. Pivotal Role of Women in Ensuring Food Security Issues in India 117
Rukmani
32. Centre State Relation in the Tax Reform Period: GST as a 121
Game Changer
Dinesh Yadav & Anup Kumar
33. Feminization of Poverty: Role of Law and Economics 125
Divya Dwivedi
34. Water: A Fundamental of Economy 129
Jay Prakash Kant
35. The Feminization of Poverty 133
Shweta Varshney
36. About Indian Economy Growth Rate & Statistics 136
Sunil Kumar Singh
37. Assessment of Climate Induced Vulnerability in the Bundelkhand 140
Region, India: An Application of Indicator Based Approach
Surendra Singh & Alka Singh
38. A Study on Financial Administration of Centre and State in India 144
Saurabh Maheshwari & Farhat Yaqub
39. Convergence in Fiscal Behavior and Sustainability of Federal Transfers 148
Swati Jain
40. Agricultural Risk Management: A Case Study of Crop Insurance 152
in Ujjain District
Javaid Ahmad Mir
41. A Study of Inclusive Growth and Women Ownership among 156
SMEs in India
Ganesh Kumar
42. Goods and Services Tax a New Chapter in Centre State 160
Financial Relation
Aditi Pandey
43. Make in India: A Tool of Women Empowerment 164
Anubha Chaturvedi
(vi)
44. Indoor Air Pollution and Women Health Issues with Special 168
Reference of E-waste
Darshana Kumari
45. The Feminisation of Poverty in India 172
Kusum Nair & Hemlata Sanguri
46. Contribution of Nabard in Rural Economic Development 175
of Uttar Pradesh
Anukrati Srivastava
47. An Empirical Analysis of Fiscal Deficit, Money Supply and 179
Inflation in India
Vishal Sharma
48- foRr vk;ksx dh laLrqfr;ksa dk Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk ij izHkko 183
fot; cgknqj ;kno
49- Hkkjr esa foRrh; la?kh; ‘kklu iz.kkyh dk voyksdu 186
iwue cktis;h
50- d`f”k dk O;olk;hdj.k 189
izHkkdkUr feJ
51- [kknh % vk/kqfud Hkkjr ds fuekZ.k dh rkdr 192
izeksn dqekj ;kno
52- xzkeh.k d`f”k lk[k esa ^fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk* dh leh{kkRed v/;;u 196
jru yky
53- MkW- vEcsMdj dk Hkkjrh; eqnzk ds izfr vkfFkZd fpUru 200
jkefd”kksj lkxj
54- oL= fu;kZr % mEehn Hkjs Mxj ij lko/kkuh dh t:jr 203
uhjt dqekj dq”kokgk
55- dugj flapkbZ ifj;kstuk % xk¡oksa ds vfLrRo ij iz’u fpUg 207
le’ksj cgknqj
56- i;kZoj.k ,oa lrr fodkl % en~ns vkSj pqukSfr;k¡ 211
va”kw ik.Ms; ,oa vfHk’ksd jk;
57- Hkkjr esa la?kh; foÙk O;oLFkk dh leL;k,¡ 215
losZ”k dqekj flag
58- [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe] lekos’kh fodkl rFkk ?kjsyw O;kikj dh ‘krZ ds e/; 219
vUrlZaca/k ij ,d v/;;u ¼d`f”k dher uhfr ds fo’ks”k lanHkZ esa½
foosd dqekj ik.Ms;
(vii)
59- foÙk vk;ksx % Hkwfedk dh leh{kk] vko’;drk 223

dkfeuh xqIrk
60- fofuekZ.k m|ksx ds rgr oL= m|ksx ds vUrxZr fLdy LVS.Mvi vkSj LVkVZvi 227
dk la;kstu
;klehu ckuks ,oa vjfoUn izdk”k
Theme 2
1. Women Empowerment in Micro and Small Scale Industries in 231
National Capital Region: With Reference to Manufacturing Sector
Jasneek Arora & Shalini Singh Sharma
2. Issues and Challenges of Women Workforce of Chikankari 235
Handicraft Sector
Shristi Purwar & Jagdish Narayan
3. Gender Equality in Education and Employment: Strategy for 239
Women Empowerment
Anoop Singh & S.K. Chaturvedi
4. Women’s Participation in Economic Activity and their share of 242
Employment in India
Archana Mishra & Jagdish Narayan
5. A Study of Gender Discrimination in Nainital District of 246
Uttrakhand with Special References to Ramnager and
Haldwani Blocks
Pramod Kumar, Padam S Bisht, Navraj Karki & Nitesh Pant
6. Problems and Challenges of Women in Dairy Farming: A Study of 250
Garhwal Region of Uttarakhand State
M.C. Sati & Preety Panwar
7. Women Empowerment a Challenge for Self-Help Groups in India 254
Sweta Kumari & Prahlad Kumar
8. Analysis of Female Poverty with Special Reference to Ramgarh 258
Block in District Nainital
Daleep Kumar, Richa Ginwal, Padam Singh Bisht & Mayank Sah
9. Contribution of Financial Institutions in Promoting Women 262
Entrepreneurs
Masroor Ahmad Beg
10. Gender Gap in BRICS Nations: A Review through UNDP’s Global 266
Gender Gap Report 2016
C.B. Singh
(viii)
11. Socio Economic Status of Unorganized Sector of Women 269

Entrepreneurs of Urban Area of Jhansi District of UP
C.B. Singh & Ankita Jasmine Lall
12. Role of Women in Economic Development 273
Anamika Choudhary
13. A Strategy of Women Empowerment: Women Entrepreneurship 277
in India
M.K. Shastri
14. The Paradigm of Gender Main Streaming Through Gender 281
Budgeting: An Insight Analysis
Satish Kumar Tripathi & Shruti Tripathi
15. Strategy of Women Empowerment in India 285
Jagdish Singh
16. A Study on Functioning of Microfinance Self Help Group in 289
Bundelkhand Region of Uttar Pradesh
Radhika Choudhary Kureel, Suman Yadav & Shamim Ansari
17. Female Labour Force Participation in India 293
Kanwaljit Kaur
18. Miles to Go: A Socio-Economic Study of Woman Empowerment 297
with Reference to Rural Allahabad
Aarti Arora
19. Role of Education in Women’s Empowerment 301
Ganesh Kumar
20. Women’s Participation in Social Development 305
Shah Raziq Khalid
21. An Analysis of the Role of MSMEs in the Women Entrepreneurship 309
Development and Women Empowerment in India
Anusuya Biswas, Kalpana Singh & Dushyant Kumar
22. Female Labour Force Participation Rate in India: A Comparison 313
with Developing Countries
Rashmi Sharma & Archna Singh
23. Addressing the Health Issue of Rural Women through Ujjwala Scheme 317
Anup Kumar Mishra
24. Gender Inequality and Women Labour Force Participation in India 321
Bhanu Shankar & Shivani Srivastava
25. Gender Inequality in Education and Women Empowerment 325
Sharad Kumar Srivastava
26. Causes and Consequences of Declining Child Sex Ratio of 329
Uttarakhand
V.B. Chaurasia & Pooja Rawat
(ix)
27. Female Labor Force Participation in India and Domestic Labour 332
Shanti Rai
28. Women Empowerment and Development in India 336
Rama Rani
29. Strategies and Policies for Women Empowerment in India 340
Tanu Varshney
30. Status of Rural Education of Women in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, 344
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh
Rashmi Chaudhary
31. Putting Women at Centre: Development Dynamics With Special 348
Reference to India
Era Tiwari
32. Women and Voilence 352
Rukhsana Begam
33. Inclusive Economic Growth through Women Financial Inclusion 356
in India
V.S. Rawat
34. Women and Development: An Indian Perspective 360
Archana Pal
35. Impact of Caste Based Reservation System on Women Development 364
and Gender Equality: Special Reference of Bundelkhand
Atul Goyal
36. Women and Development (WAD) 368
Dipti Verma
37. Micro Finance: A Catalyst for Women Empowerment 372
Deepshikha Sonker, Karimullah & Pradeep Kumar Singh
38. Role of Micro Finance in Women’s Empowerment in Uttar Pradesh 376
Ajay Prakash Yadav & Dharmnath Uraon
39. Women Empoworment Through Financial Inclusion 380
Rashmi Devedi
40. Women Empowerment: Realities and Challenges 384
Preeti Mishra
41. Women and Development 388
Alka Asthana
42. A Study on ‘WorkLife Balance’ of Married Women Employees 392
Teaching in Technical Institutions of Moradabad Region
Monika Khanna
43. Women Empowerment in India: A Root in Development 396
Amit Kumar Singh
(x)
44. Women’s Empowerment in India 400

Bhupendra Kumar & Samta Tomar
45. Gender Bias on Farm Wage: A Micro Level Study of West Bengal 404
Chinmoy Sarkar
46. Women & Development 408
Kalpana Singh
47. Gender and Climate Change: Livelihood Challenges 412
Manveen Kaur, Rachna Gupta & Meenakshi Yadav
48. Violation of Women Human Rights in India 416
Brajesh Srivastava
49. Gender Discrimination and Status of Indian Women 420
Nimish Gupta
50. Gender Inequality in India: A Boon for Economic Growth 424
Himanshu Rastogi
51. Role of Women’s Movement for Empowering Women in India 428
Veena Upadhyay
52. Role of Agricultural Products in Woman Employment 432
Vijay Laxmi & Shambhu Nath Singh
53. Gender Inequality in Educational Opportunities in India 436
Manoj Kumar Mishra
54. Women Entrepreneurship: Opportunities and Challenges in India 440
Suman Joshi & P.S. Bisht
55. Women in Dairy Development: A Winning Pair to Reduce 444
Carbon Footprint
Yogendra Verma
56. Eliot’s The Waste Land as the Reflection of the Society and the 448
Tale of Gender and Sexuality
Bindiya Rahi Singh
57. Issues on the Economics of Women Empowerment 451
Urjaswita Singh
58. Women Empowerment Strategies 454
Pratibha Shah
59. A Study on Issues and Challenges of Women Empowerment in India 458
Anshu Gupta
60. Strategies of Women Empowerment: A Comprehensive and 461
Inclusive Approach
Mohan Singh
(xi)
61. Women’s Development Always Demand: Equality, Sustainability, 465

Empowerment
Swarnim Ghosh
62. Women’s Role in Economic Development 469
Manzoor Ahmad Khan
63. Child Sex Ratio and its Determinants in Uttar Pradesh: 473
An Empirical Investigation
Avinash Kumar Singh Yadav
64. Role of Co-Operative Banks in Empowerment of Women: 477
Special Reference to Uttar Pradesh
Vikash Singh
65. Female Labour Participation in India 481
Md. Babagana Shettima
66. Role of Commercial Banks in Women Empowerment 485
Nidhi Tripathi
67. Women and Development Gender Discrimination 489
Sumedha Pandey
68. Women’s Participation in Agricultural Employment with Special 493
Reference to Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand in India
Neha Vishwakarma
69. Prospects of Ecotourism in Livelihood of Women 497
Seema Yadav
70. Women and Poverty in India: A Case Study of Dobhi Block, 501
Jaunpur District
Garima Maurya & Vaibhav Agraval
71. Role of SHGs in Empowering Women 505
Nitu Saini
72. Women Empowerment & Entrepreneurship as the Way for 509
Economic Development
Kailash Bharti Goswami, Padam Singh Bisht & Shakti
73. Impact of Skill Development Related Education on Women 513
in India: Employment and Entrepreneurship Perspective
Sudip Mukherjee & Anirban Sarkar
74. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Global Challenge 517
Bansh Gopal Yadava
75. Impact of MGNREGA on Women Empowerment: A Case Study of 521
Pratapgarh District of Uttar Pradesh
Amit Singh
(xii)
76. The Schemes of Women Empowerment in India 525

Divya Pal & Kiran Singh
77. Indian Women in Development: In the Context of Global Scenario 529
Sushma Saini & Abha Saini
78. Health and Employment Dynamics of Public Transport on Urban 533
Poor’s: A Case Study of Allahabad City
Kiran Singh & Reena Yadav
79. Problems of Women Entrepreneurs in Aligarh District: An Analysis 537
Shobha Jain
80- dqekÅW dh d`f”k esa layXu tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f”k Jfed½ dk v/;;u 541
¼xzke egks yh taxy ds fo’ks”k lUnHkZ esa½
fu”kk ijohu] vfuy dqekj VEVk ,oa ine ,l- fc’V
81- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh Jecy esa ?kVrh Hkkxhnkjh % dkj.k o mik; 545
T;ksfr ;kno ,oa lh-ch- flag
82- l’kDr efgyk l’kDr lekt 549
fo’oukFk ik.Ms;] ine ,l- fc’V ,oa fp=k ik.Ms
83- lekos’kh fodkl o ySafxd vlekurk 552
euh’k dqekj ,oa ,l-ds- prqosZnh
84- f’k{kk vkSj efgyk l’kfDrdj.k 556
jke d`’.k mik/;k;
85- mRrj izns’ k ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh Hkwfedk 559
bUnq ok’.ksZ;
86- ukjh mRFkku es a thfodk dh Hkwfedk dk fo’ys ”k.kkRed vè;;u 562
“kksHkk jkuh ,oa fp=k xqIrk
87- efgyk m|fe;ksa dh leL;k;sa ,oa lq>ko 565
izhfr dqekjh ok’.ksZ; ,oa bUnq ok’.ksZ;
88- mŸkjk[kaM ds fodkl esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh Hkwfedk dk v/;;u 570
eerk ,oa vkj-,l- usxh
89- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ,oa xzkeh.k fodkl % iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk ds lanHkZ esa 574
fo’ys”k.kkRed v/;;u
vfuy Bkdqj
90- Hkkjr esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds iz;kl&pqukSfr;k¡] j.kuhfr;k¡ ,oa lEHkkouk,sa 578
lkgc flag
91- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dk vkfFkZd l’kfDrdj.k 582
fdju ekS;kZ ,oa mfeZyk nsoh
(xiii)
92- la?kh; ctV 2017&18 % efgyk vkfFkZd l’kfDrdj.k dk ,d iz;kl 586

eUtw yrk f}osnh
93- Hkkjr esa efgyk LokLF; % ,d fo’ys”k.k 588
ujs”kpUnz f=ikBh ,oa xkSjo f=ikBh
94- efgyk dkexkj ,oa lkekftd lqj{kk 592
lqjs”k dqekj feJ
95- {ks=h; xzkeh.k fodkl esa efgyk m|ferk % Cykd egsok ij ,d v/;;u 597
lquhy dqekj iky
96- Hkkjr esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k % ,d fo’ys”k.k 601
fu”kk ik.Ms;
97- Hkkjr esa efgyk fodkl vkSj iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk 605
vkj-ds- ekS;kZ
98- vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr % ,d v/;;u 608
yfyr dqekj
99- vkfFkZd txr ds fodkl esa efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk 611
o’kkZ jkgqy
100- ySafxd vlekurk ds i;kZoj.kh; izHkko 615
fo’.kq dqekj “kqDy
101- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k % lekt vkSj vFkZO ;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr;ksa 619
dk v/;;u
fLerk
102- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k % ,d voyksdu 623
iqUt Hkk’dj
103- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh ‘kSf{kd] lkekftd o vkfFkZd fLFkfr % ,d v/;;u 627
egsUnz iky flag ;kno
104- Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgyk Je dk fo’ys”k.k 631
eatw voLFkh ,oa vpZuk “kqDyk
105- mRRkj izns ’k esa eujsxk esa efgykvksa ds jkstxkj dk ifjn`’; 635
vthr “ka[k/kkj
106- nfyr lekt esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k 638
jf”e vk;kZ
107- Hkkjr esa efgyk laosnh ctV izfØ;k 642
“ksQkfydk jk;
(xiv)
108- 21oha lnh esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds lkekftd&vkfFkZd vk;ke 646

xtsUnz ukFk
109- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh vksj ctVh; igy ,oa fodkl ;kstuk,a 649
“kf”k ckyk
110- Ekfgyk fodkl gsrq viukbZ x;h ;kstukvksa dh Hkwfedk % fo’ys”k.kkRed vè;;u 653
;ksxsUnz dqekj
111- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh vksj fodkl ;kstukvksa dh Hkwfedk 656
ohjsUnz ;kno
112- iapk;rh jkt vkSj OkrZeku esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh fLFkfr 659
foØe flag
113- fyax fo”kerk&tSfod ;k lkaLd`frd 662
f”kizk jk;
114- Hkkjr mn; esa xzkeh.k efgykvksa dk ;ksxnku 666
f”kodqekj yky
115- Hkkjr ds d`f”k {ks= esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh vko’;drk % ,d v/;;u 669
eks- Qqjdku ,oa ghjkyky
116- mÙkjk[k.M ds ioZrh; xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgyk jkstxkj dk Lo:i ,oa 673
Je lgHkkfxrk
Ekuh’kk jkor ,oa iz”kkUr daMkjh
117- tuin Å/kefla g uxj ds fodkl[k.M flrkjxat esa dk;Zjr efgyk Jfedksa dh 677
vk;&O;; o cpr dk fo’ys”k.k ¼vkS|ksfxd vkLFkku flMdqy] flrkjxat
ds fo’ks”k lUnHkZ esa½
m’kk iks[kfj;k
118- xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh LokLF; izfLFkfr % ,d lekt’kkL=h; v/;;u 681
¼xkSykikj {ks= ds dq¡ojiqj xzke ds fo’ks ”k lUnHkZ esa½
fdju ckyk
119- xzkeh.k efgykvka s ds fodkl esa *Lo;a lgk;rk lewg* dh Hkwfedk % 685
tuin peksyh ds lUnHkZ esa
vfurk
120- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds fofo/k vk;ke 689
txnh”k ukjk;.k
121- efgyk l’kfDrdj.k esa mPp f’k{kk dh Hkwfedk 693
eqerkt valkjh
(xv)
122- xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa ySfxd HksnHkko dh fLFkfr rFkk bldk [kk| vkSj iks”k.kh; 695
lqj{kk ls lEca/k
ljkst dqekj ;kno
123- Ekfgyk fodkl gsrq viukbZ x;h ;kstukvksa dh Hkwfedk dk fo’ys”k.kkRed 699
vè;;u
;ksxsUnz dqekj
124- efgykvksa ds fodkl esa ySafxd ctV dh vko’;drk ¼,d leh{kkRed vè;;u½ 702
eerk vf/kdkjh
125- Ekfgyk l’kfDrdj.k % vko’;drk miyfC/k;k¡ ,oa pqukSfr;k¡ 705
lq’kek “kekZ
126- foeqæhdj.k dk efgyk Jfedksa ij vkfFkZd çHkko ¼mÙkj çns'k ds 709
cqUnsy[k.M {ks= ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa½
cfcrk flag ,oa lh-ch- flag
Theme 3
1. Exploratory Study of Factors Influencing Migration in Uttar Pradesh 715
David Campbell & C.B. Singh
2. Perceptions on Return Migration: A View of Migrants and Returned 719
Migrants of Uttarakhand
Kavita Baliyan & G.S. Mehta
3. Pattern of Women’s Work in Indian Economy 724
Vinod Kumar Srivastava
4. Urbanization and Rural Migration in India: An Overview 728
Tarun Kumar Dwivedi
5. Women Labourers in India: An Evaluation 732
Qaiser Alam
6. Socio-economic Condition of Migration Among Tribes of West 736
Champaran District of Bihar State in India
Dharmnath Uraon, Anup Kumar & Ajay Kumar Pandey
7. Social and Economic Determinants of Migration and Economic 741
Development of Uttarakhand: With Special Reference to
Kumaun Region
Mukesh Singh Negi & Padam S. Bisht
(xvi)
8. The Impact of the Work on the Physical and Mental Health of the 745
Women Workers Engaged in the Chikan Industry of Lucknow
District (with Special Reference to Home Based Women Workers)
Darshan Kaur Kinot & Padam S. Bisht
9. Trends and Determinants of Migration in Uttarakhand: An Overview 749
Prashant Agarwal
10. Economics of Migration: With Special Reference to 753
Uttrakhand Economy
Yamini Pandey
11. A Probability Model for the Total Number of Migrants from a 756
Household
Rakesh Singh, V.D. Upadhyay & V.S. Singh
12. Internal Migration in Uttar Pradesh: Trends and Reasons 760
Raju Kumar Gupta
13. Labour Migration from Uttar Pradesh 764
Nripendra Pratap Singh
14. Problems and Prospects of Industrial Sector in India: A Case Study 768
of Kanpur District
Deepshikha Sonker
15. Legislative Measures anxvid Welfare of Women Workers in Indian 772
Economy: A Study
Alka Srivastava
16. Migration: Its Effects on Mental Health 776
Vijay Kumar Singh
17. Migration a Crisis in Uttarakhand 780
Ajit Singh
18. Invisible Migration in India: A Case Study of Lucknow City 784
in Uttar Pradesh
Amrita Bajpai
19. Migration in India: Issues and Impacts 788
Vikas Pradhan
20. Impact of Migration on the Education of Young Children 792
Mukesh Kumar Sharma & Shubhika
21. Dynamics of Migration and Improvement of Livelihood Base 795
from Animal Husbandry in Uttarpradesh
Neelu Mishra
22. Migration of Labour from Bihar: A Study of Araria District 799
Sarwdaman Kashyap
(xvii)
23. Plan Fund Utilization of Social Services with Special Reference 803
to Uttar Pradesh
Sonam Gupta
24. Impact of Migration on Indian Agriculture in Uttar Pradesh 807
Priyanka Arya
25. Impact of Political Turmoil on Migration: A Case Study of 811
Kashmiri Pandits
Muddasir Ali Mir, Samta Jain & Rather Tajamul Islam
26. Perceptions on Return Migration: A View of Migrants and Returned 815
Migrants of Uttarakhand
Kavita Baliyan & G.S. Mehta
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UPUEA Economic Journal: 13 th Annual Conference, 2017 1
Theme 1
The Emerging Contours of Centre–State
Fiscal Relations in India
2 UPUEA Economic Journal: 13 th Annual Conference, 2017
GST and Centre State Financial Relation: A Critical Evaluation
Richa Rastogi* & Jagdish Narayan**
Introduction
India has completed 70 years of its existence as an independent sovereign nation
and 67 years as a sort of federation. It has survived as a unified nation in spite of
diverse cultures, multilingual loyalties and disparate regions. It is argued that though
there have been occasions of political instability both at the state and even at the
national levels, the Indian federation has never faced the crisis of political instability
originating from the operation of fiscal federalism.
Fiscal federalism refers to the constitutional structure which divides the powers to
raise revenue and to spend it between the central and state governments and also the
periodic financial transfers from the central government to the state governments to
reduce the vertical as well as horizontal federal fiscal imbalances. It is believed that if
the federal fiscal imbalances tend to operate discriminately and the expected hopes
and aspirations which initiated the formation of a federation fail to materialise, instability
sets in. Instability of a federation manifests itself in economic instability of its constituent
states and the consequent dissatisfaction or even frustration with the operation of
fiscal federalism. If these symptoms of instability are not recognised early and corrective
measures are not taken, the federation may eventually break down.
In order to analyse the essential conditions for the stability of a federation it is
necessary to recall the major factors which led to the formation of federations. A
major economic factor responsible for initiation and formation of federations all over
the world has been the desire to increase the level of GDP by exploiting economies
of scale through free mobility of factors and products and through uniform economic
policies. Thus, an important economic condition for the formation of a federation is
that the GDP of a federation comprising a given number of constituent states should
be more than the sum of GDP of all these states without forming a federation.
The second factor in the formation of federations is that the federating states
agree through a majority decision to achieve redistribution of income within the
* Assistant Professor, Government Degree College Bahua Dehat, Fatehpur, U.P.
** Professor in Department of Economics University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
federation. This is also essential for the stability of a federation. In order to strengthen
the centre state financial relation the Indian government has taken various steps
time to time in which Goods and Service Tax (GST) is most burning issue since last
one decade.
GST and Centre-State Financial Relations
Currently, fiscal powers between the Centre and the States are clearly demarcated
in the Constitution with almost no overlap between the respective domains. The
Centre has the powers to levy tax on the manufacture of goods (except alcoholic
liquor for human consumption, opium, narcotics etc.) while the States have the powers
to levy tax on sale of goods. In case of inter-State sales, the Centre has the power to
levy a tax (the Central Sales Tax) but, the tax is collected and retained entirely by
the originating States. As for services, it is the Centre alone that is empowered to
levy service tax. Since the States are not empowered to levy any tax on the sale or
purchase of goods in the course of their importation into or exportation from India,
the Centre levies and collects this tax as additional duties of customs, which is in
addition to the Basic Customs Duty. This additional duty of customs (commonly
known as CVD and SAD) counter balances excise duties, sales tax, State VAT and
other taxes levied on the like domestic product. Introduction of GST would require
amendments in the Constitution so as to concurrently empower the Centre and the
States to levy and collect the GST.
Applicability & Mechanism of GST
GST Rate Levied on
Manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer
Manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer

Claims back Claims back Claims Pays GST
GST GST back GST
GST Supply Chain Example (Assuming GST Rate @ 8%)

GST Supply chain example (Assuming GST Rate @ 8%)

Input Costs Sale Price GST
Supply of Goods GST Flow
(ex GST) (ex GST) Collected
A weaver sells a fabric to a The weaver pays GST of Rs. 8 0 Rs.100 Rs. 8
tailor for Rs. 108 per meter
The tailor sells a readymade The tailor pays GST of Rs. 12 (After Rs. 100 Rs. 250 Rs.12
completed shirt to a retailer for input tax claim weaver claims tax
Rs. 270 credit for Rs. 8)
The retailer sells the The retailer pays GST of Rs. 20 Rs. 250 Rs. 500 Rs. 20
readymade shirt in his (After input tax claim weaver claims
showroom for Rs. 540 tax credit for Rs. 12)
You purchase the shirt for Rs. No Tax credit claim You pay entire NA NA Total Rs. 40
540 GST Rs. 40 @ 8%
Goods/ Goods/ Services

Services Produced &
Goods/ Services Goods/ Services
Indirect Taxes GST Produced & Consumed in
Exported Imported
Consumed in different States
same State (Inter-State)
Excise Duty
Service Tax
CGST
Custom Duties
Central Sales Tax CGST rate +

Integrated CGST rate + SGST
SGST rate GST Not Applicable
GST(IGST) rate Levied
State Sales Tax Levied
Entertainment Tax
SGST
State VAT
Professional Tax
Applicable Rate of GST

There would be four tax rates namely 5%, 12%, 18% and 28%. The tax rates for
different goods and services have been finalized. Besides, some goods and services
would be under the list of exempt items. The exempted services has been finalized
which is same as the services exempted under existing service tax law, except services
supplied by Goods and Services Tax Network which is the addition to the list of exempted
services under service tax. Rate for precious metals is an exception to ‘four-tax slab-rule’
and the same has been fixed at 3%. A cess over the peak rate of 28% on certain specified
luxury and demerit goods, like tobacco and tobacco products, pan masala, aerated waters,
motor vehicles, would be imposed for a period of five years to compensate States for
any revenue loss on account of implementation of GST. The list of services in case of
which reverse charge would be applicable has also been finalized.
Advantages of Implementing GST

Amalgamating several Central and State taxes into a single tax would help mitigate
the double taxation, leading to a common national market. From the consumers
point of view, the advantage would be in terms of a reduction in the overall tax
burden on goods, which is currently estimated to be around 25%-30%.
GST Will Help in Reducing Tax Evasion
All the distributors will prefer purchase with invoices, because that would give
them better profit margins as the distributor will get credit of all the taxes paid at
the previous stage. Currently, it is the distributor who has to bear the burden of the
excise duty. So if the customer insists on taking the bill, we can presume that the tax
evasion should fall. This will indeed be the biggest advantage of GST.
• GST Will Removal Location Bias Approach : GST would help to even out
the tax structures across various states, omitting location bias. Introduction of
GST would help an investor to put up business units in any state without the
worry of tax difference. This would boost the business in undeveloped locations
as well.
• Lesser Incentive for Tax Evasion : Currently, taxes are being paid on the
entire underlying value of a product or service, but with GST, companies will
have to pay tax only on the value-addition. This would lead to reduction in
the actual tax paid and also decrease the incentive for evasion.
Conclusion
Since the Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a comprehensive indirect tax on
manufacture, sale, as well as consumption of goods and services throughout the country,
it will replace taxes collected by Central and state governments. Thus, it will remove
service tax, central excise, VAT and other taxes levied locally and by state governments.
Consequently, those bodies are set to lose a part of revenue. The Central Government
of India has promised states of compensation for revenue losses that they incur from
the date of GST introduction till a period of five years. The Central Government has
fixed base year for GST compensation as financial year 2016.
Thus, GST will bring in transparent and corruption-free tax administration, removing
the current shortcomings of the supply chain owing to the multi-layered policies.
GST is not only investor or business friendly but also consumer friendly. GST is the
need of the hour and any hindrance to its enactment is clearly unjustified and not in
national interest. Critics argue about the feasibility of implementing GST. But one
should always remember that there is no reform that is perfect. It is important that
we move forward with the current bill and gradually improvise the same in due
course. Finally we hope GST will strengthen the centre state financial relation in
future and dreams come true for the concept of New India and second generation
economic reforms.
References
1. http://www.onlinejournal.in.
2. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-2, Issue-6, 2016.
A Study of Inter Relationship Between Foreign Direct

Investment and GDP in India
Ashok Mittal* & Yateesh Dubey**
Introduction
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) plays a crucial role in the process of economic
development particularly in the capital scarce country, where the domestic base of
created assets like technology, skills and entrepreneurship are quite limited. It also
plays an important role in accelerating the pace of economic growth. FDI creates
positive externalities and generates increasing returns which leads to sustainable
economic growth. In developing countries like India, FDI helps to tackle socio-economic
problems such as unemployment, deficit, balance of payment, lack of capacity, scarcity
of foreign exchange and poor technological ability. Presently India has opened up to
world markets and trying to attract more foreign direct investment. This study examines
the impact of GDP and Trade Openness on FDI inflows and analyzes the long run
relationship between them. Further study analyse the causality among FDI, economic
growth and trade openness.
Gross Domestic Product
Gross Domestic Product is always considered as a major macro variable for almost
all the economic policies. It depicts the producing capacity of an economy in terms
of goods and services. GDP reflects the nature of economy whether it is expanding
or contracting and on behalf of it all the monetary and fiscal policies are formulated.
Indian economy is growing with a faster rate of growth since liberalization policy is
adopted. It is most growing economy among the developing nations. So it becomes
crucial to understand the pattern and growth rates of GDP for better understanding
and policy framing.
FDI Inflows in India
Economic theory has acknowledged a number of outlets through which FDI inflows
may be advantageous to the host economy. Developing countries trying to attract
* Professor, Department of Economics, A.M.U. Aligarh, U.P.

** JRF, Department of Economics, A.M.U. Aligarh, U.P.
more and more amount of FDI for better financial resources, increased market size,
global integrity and technological transformation. In India FDI extensively attracted
since 1991 with the aim to meet planned investment and the actual savings of the
country.
Trade Openness in India
Trade Openness is an essential element of economic liberalization and includes
the elimination of trade barriers, such as tariffs and non-tariff barriers, as well as
internal boundaries. This reduces the additional direct costs of the producers, thereby
increasing the output and stimulating growth. It also promotes technological changes
by raising the worldwide competition, leading to enlarge innovations. Initially Indian
economy followed restrictive trade policies but since emergence of globalization it
adopted liberal policies in terms of trade openness. Recently trade structure as well
as trade pattern is widely changed in India.
Trade openness in India was just 18 percent of GDP in 1992 which increased up
to 42 percent of GDP in 2015. It was highest in 2012. Since 1992 to 2008 there is
upward trend in trade openness. There was negative growth of trade openness in
2009, but since then it shows positive growth. Graph shows upward trend since 2010
to 2012 but since 2013 decreasing trend starts and it continues till last.
Review of Literature
Barua R., (2013) examined the advantages of FDI inflows for the export promotion
and economic growth for the host country. The result of study reveals that FDI boost
the exports as well as accelerate the GDP growth. FDI enhance the local development
efforts through increasing exports, higher employment generation and skill development,
improve technological abilities and provides larger financial resources for development.
Kirthika M. and S. Nirmala, (2014) tested the relationship between FDI inflows
and its impact on economic growth of India for the period 2003-04 to 2012-13. Through
correlation coefficient technique this study highlights that foreign direct invest influences
the growth of Indian economy and act as a significant vehicle for economic development.
Vishwakarma R., (2015) highlighted the significance of FDI for a developing
economy. She checked the causality between FDI and gross domestic product in
India and found that there is unidirectional causality runs from GDP to FDI. This
study emphasize that there should be good infrastructure, stable socio-economic
environment and favourable conditions for production then FDI can also accelerate
the growth of GDP.
Gupta K. and Ishu Garg, (2015), considered time lag for the effectiveness of the
FDI to improve GDP growth. They worked on Indian data for the period 2000-01 to
2012-13 and used lag regression model. Study makes it clear that a period of three
years is needed for the FDI to successfully influence the economic growth. So there
should be continuous rise in FDI to maintain pace of economic growth.
Pattayat S. S., (2016) determined the factors affecting FDI and the role of FDI in
economic development. Test results show that all the variables are co-integrated and
having long run relationship. GDP has highest influence on FDI inflows and it indicates
the significance of market size in attracting the FDI in a developing economy.
Hypothesis
Following hypotheses are formulated
1. H0: GDP has no significant impact on FDI inflows.
H1: GDP has significant impact on FDI inflows.
2. H0: Trade Openness has no significant impact on FDI inflows.
H1: Trade Openness has significant impact on FDI inflows.
Data Collection and Sources
Secondary data is used for empirical analysis. The required data of the defined
variables have been taken for the period 1992-93 to 2015-16. The present study uses
gross domestic product and FDI inflows at current US $ for Indian economy. All the
time series data have been taken from the World Bank data bank. The defined variables
are transformed into natural log form in order to remove the problem of
heteroscedasticity.
Simple Linear Regression Equation:
LnFDIt = b0 + b1 LnGDPt + b2 LnTO t + ut
Where, LnEmp = Log of FDI,
LnGDP = Log of Gross Domestic Product proxy for economic growth,
LnTO = Log of trade openness, u t = error term & t = time period
Table 1: Results of Simple Linear Regression Model

LnFDI Coef. Std. Error t-value P-value
LnGDP 1.045* 0.489 2.14 0.045
LnTO 1.793* 0.851 2.11 0.047
Intercept -12.22 10.578 -1.16 0.261
*significant at 5 percent level

Number of Observation=24, F= 102.84, p-value = 0.000
R-squared = 0.907, Adj R-squared= 0.898
Regression results show that GDP and Trade Openness both have positively
significant impact on FDI inflows in India since their p-values are significant. Over
all p-value and F-static values are also significant for the model. R-square and Adj.
R-square values are also very high, 90.7 percent and 89.8 percent respectively,
determining the high degree of explained variation in FDI by explanatory variables.
Coefficient of GDP indicating that if GDP increases by one percent it increases the
FDI inflow by 1.05 percent. While Trade Openness coefficient reflecting that one
percent increase in Trade Openness increases the FDI inflows by 1.79 percent.
Conclusions and Suggestions
The main objective of this study was to examine the interrelationship and causality
among GDP, FDI and trade openness in India. Interesting results are found in this
analysis that GDP, FDI and Trade Openness are cointegrated thus having long-run
relationship. Unidirectional causality is found that runs from GDP to FDI and Trade
Openness and Trade Openness to FDI. Some research work exposed stronger relationship
between FDI and GDP while some others could not. Therefore it is concluded after
this empirical study that there is a unidirectional relation as GDP Granger causes
FDI. So, there is need to emphasize more on GDP growth to attract more FDI and to
influence Trade Openness which ultimately positively influences the FDI inflows.
Based on these findings, the study suggests that India should go more of trade
liberalization policies to enhance more FDI. Therefore, to attract larger FDI inflows,
the government must adopt liberal policies to improve the investment climate (trade
openness) and achieve higher economic growth.
References
1. Mottaleba K. A. And Kaliappa Kalirajanb, (2010), “Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment
in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis”, ASARC Working Paper 13.
2. Marelli1 E. and Marcello Signorelli, (2011), “China and India: Openness, Trade and Effects
on Economic Growth”, The European Journal of Comparative Economics, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.
129-154, ISSN: 1824-2979.
Analysis of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Doda District

with Special Reference to Block Bhalessa
Amjid Nadeem*, Nisha Parveen**, Padam S Bisht*** & Asheesh Juneza****
Introduction
Generally, Poverty is understood in a common parlance as shortage of income.
Poverty is universal phenomenon and the concept of Poverty is as old as human
civilization. It is both wide spread and intensive and intrinsically related to socio-
economic, factor. Poverty is a curse of mankind. It worsens the health of the people
of the country, resulting into low productivity and low working capacity and reduces
the aggregate Further, Poverty is a deprivation from essential assets and opportunities
to which every human being is entitled. Poverty take different form of which three
broad ones can be identified as psychological deprivation, social deprivation and
human freedom deprivation. Though India boosts of a high economic rate it is shameful
that most of the people living in India is under below Poverty line. As India population
is estimated to be more that 1.27 billion out of them nearly 300-400 millions peoples
are under Poverty not even having even a single meal for one day.output of the
country and people become poor.
Objective of the Study
1. To highlight the scenario of Poverty alleviation Programme in Doda District
of Jammu and Kashmir.
2. To suggest effective policy measures for improving Poverty alleviation
programme in selected area
Methodology of the Study
The research paper is based on primary data. Primary data are collected from
survey made in sample area of selected block of Doda district of Jammu and Kashmir,
* Research Scholar,Department of Economics,D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital.
** Research Scholar,Department of Economics,D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital.
*** Professor, Department of Economics,D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital.
**** Research Scholar,Department of Economics,D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital.
out of 8 total blocks. The researchers have used multiple sampling. The block was
purposely selected; five villages were selected randomly from selected block and 30
households were selected from each village through a well structured schedule. The
data were collected through a well structured schedule.
Analysis of the study :Block Bhalessa has it headquarter at Gondoh, it is 66 km.
away from Doda District and 235 km. away from Winter Capital Jammu. It is one of
the largest blocks in Doda District.Prior to the creation of new block in 2014 Block
Bhalessa was comprised on 52 Panchayat. The total population of block Bhalessa
according to 2011 census is about 71889. It has 13216 household.
Finding of Research
Table 1.1: Description of Monthly Income after Implementation of Poverty Alleviation

Programme in Sample Area of Block Bhalessa (Total no of Panchyats = 52)
S. No. Monthly Income No. of Households Percentage
01 0 – 800 Nil Nil
02 800 – 1600 Nil Nil
03 1600 – 2400 50 33.33
04 2400 – 3200 60 40.00
05 3200 – 4000 30 20.00
06 4000 – 4800 05 3.35
07 4800 – 5600 05 3.34
Total Sample Size 150 100.00
Source: Based on Primary Survey.
Table 1.2: Average Monthly Income of Block Bhalessa after Implementation of

Poverty Alleviation Programmes
Class Interval Frequency (f) Mid Value (M.V.) f.M.V.
0 – 800 0 400 0
800 – 1600 0 400 0
1600 – 2400 50 2000 100,000
2400 – 3200 60 2800 168,000
3200 – 4000 30 3600 108,000
4000 – 4800 05 4400 22,000
4800 – 5600 05 5200 26,000
N = 150  fm.v. = 424,000
Table 1.3: Description of Monthly Expenditure in Sample Area of Block
Bhalessa Block Bhalessa (Total no of Panchyat = 52)
S. N. Monthly Expenditure No. of Households Percentage
01 0 – 500 Nil Nil
02 500 – 1000 Nil Nil
03 1000 – 1500 20 13.34
04 1500 – 2000 30 20.00
05 2000 – 2500 50 33.34
06 2500 – 3000 30 20.00
07 3000 – 3500 10 6.66
08 3500 – 4000 10 6.66
09 4000 – 4500 Nil Nil
Source: Based on Primary Survey.
Table 1.4: Average Expenditure in Sample area

Class Interval Frequency (f) Mid Value (M.V.) f.mv.
0 – 500 0 250 0
500 – 1000 0 750 0
1000 – 1500 20 1250 25000
1500 – 2000 30 1750 52500
2000 – 2500 50 2250 112500
2500 – 3000 30 2750 82500
3000 – 3500 10 3250 32500
3500 – 4000 10 3750 37500
4000 – 4500 0 42500 0
N = 150 fm.v. = 342500
Average Expenditure = Sfm.v./N

= 342500/150 = 2283.33
Table 1.5: Description of Poverty Alleviation Programmes (Beneficiaries) in

Block Bhalessa (Total no of Panchyat = 52)
S. N. Name of Beneficiary No. of Households Percentage
Benefited
01 IAY 04 2.66
02 MANREGA 120 80.00
03 BRGF Nil Nil
04 SBM 26 17.33
Source: Based on Primary Survey

Conclusion
• The study reveals the comparative picture of average monthly Income in Sample
area, where the survey is conducted. From our study we observed that in
sample area of block Bhalessa average monthly income is 2586.67 per.
• The study present in block Bhalessa real wage has fallen by 5.03 percent and
the monetary wage increased by 9.27 percent.
• From our study, we further observed that after the Implementation of Poverty
Alleviation programmes the average monthly income in the selected block
increases. In sample area of block Bhalessa the average monthly income increases
from 2586.67 to 2826.66.
• The study is based on the fact that in sample area of block Bhalessa, where
the survey is made of 150 households, 2.67% of households got benefited
from IAY, 40% of households got benefited from PMGSY, 40% got benefited
from MANREGA and 17.33% of beneficiaries got benefit from SBM.
• From our study, we further observed that the average monthly expenditure
in sample area of block Bhalessa is 2283.33.
Suggestion
• There is also need to check whether the benefit of anti-poverty programmes
goes to poor section of society or not.
• In selecting process of beneficiaries, there is lack of transparency. So, the selection
of beneficiaries should be responsibility of Community / Gram Sabha / Gram
Panchayat.
References
1. Department of Sttatics Rural Development, District Doda, Jammu Kashmir.
Impact of Water and Sanitation on Women’s
Shilpi Rai* & Prahalad Kumar**
Introduction
Water.org notes: “Glass ceilings aside, millions of women are prohibited from
accomplishing little more than survival. Not because of a lack of ambition, or ability,
but because of a lack of safe water and adequate sanitation.” Indeed, the image of
women with jerry cans on their backs, tracking kilometers to fetch water from remote
sources, is as old as time in many parts of Africa and Asia. Traditional roles and
inequalities in power make women the primary caregivers. They have to retrieve
water to cook and care for children, the elderly and people with disabilities. They
need to be made part of the decision-making structures. The South African Human
Right Commission found that more girls than boys miss school because they are
required to fetch water for their households. While women are most affected by a
lack of access to water, they are also less likely to be consulted when it comes to
decision making processes. The commission has recommended that water boards are
made more aware of the need for gender equity in their employment practices. If
women bear the brunt of collecting water, it is the children who are most affected by
contaminated and unclean water. The UN Development Programme found that
approximately 443-million school days are lost each year due to illness (such as
diarrhea) caused by poor water sources. A lack of proper sanitation still kills more
children than malaria, measles, and Aids combined. Around the globe, there are 980-
million children without toilets at home. The fact that children need to walk into
remote bushes to relieve themselves exposes them to sexual violence and kidnapping.
Objective
The Research paper has the following objectives:
(1) To access the rural-urban differential in drinking water facilities at the global
level.
(2) To access the rural-urban differential in sanitation facilities at the global level.
* Research Scholar, Department of Economic, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

** Professor and Former Head, Department of Economic, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
(3) To study the status of women and girls bear the burden of collecting water
around the world.
Methodology
The Research paper is based on secondary data. The main sources of data are
Human Development Report 2016, World Health Organization Report
Table 1: Use of Drinking Water Facilities (%)

Countries (water facilities) Urban Rural Total
Sub-Saharan Africa 1990 83 34 48
2015 87 56 68
Northern Africa 1990 95 80 87

2015 95 90 93
Eastern Asia 1990 97 56 68
2015 98 93 96
Eastern Asia without China 1990 97 92 96
2015 99 96 98
Southern Asia 1990 90 66 73
2015 96 91 93
Southern Asia without India 1990 92 73 79
2015 93 86 89
South Eastern Asia 1990 90 63 72
2015 95 86 90
Western Asia 1990 95 70 85
2015 96 90 95
Oceania 1990 92 37 50
2015 94 44 56
Latin American & Caribbean 1990 94 63 85
2015 97 84 95
Caucasus & Central Asia 1990 95 79 87
2015 98 87 89
Developed Regions 1990 99 93 98
2015 100 98 99
Developing Regions 1990 93 59 70
2015 95 83 89
World 1990 95 62 76
2015 96 84 91
Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water, June 2015

Table 2: Use of Sanitation Facilities (%)
Countries (sanitation data) Urban Rural Total
Sub-Saharan Africa 1990 39 18 24
2015 40 23 30
Northern Africa 1990 90 54 71

2015 92 86 89
Eastern Asia 1990 71 41 50
2015 87 64 77
Eastern Asia without China 1990 _ _ _
2015 82 51 68
Southern Asia 1990 54 11 22
2015 67 36 47
Southern Asia without India 1990 66 26 37
2015 77 57 65
South Eastern Asia 1990 69 38 48
2015 81 64 72
Western Asia 1990 94 58 80
2015 96 89 94
Oceania 1990 75 22 35
2015 76 23 35
Latin American & Caribbean 1990 80 36 67
2015 88 64 83
Caucasus & Central Asia 1990 95 86 90
2015 95 96 66
Developed Regions 1990 96 90 94
2015 97 91 96
Developing Regions 1990 69 29 43
2015 77 47 62
World 1990 79 35 54
2015 82 51 68
Source: WHO/UNICF Joint Monitoring Programme for Sanitation, June 2015

Figure 1: Distribution of households by person usually responsible for water

collection, by region and by urban and rural areas, 2005-2013 (%)
Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water and Sanitation
When water is not available on the premises, women are more often responsible
for water collection than men are. In 38 of the 48 countries with available data, the
percentage of Households where an adult woman (15 years or over) is the person
responsible for water collection is much larger than the percentage of households
where an adult man is the person responsible. This is the case in both rural and
urban areas in the majority of sub-Saharan African countries and in rural areas of
some Asian countries. On average, an adult woman is the person usually carrying
home the water in 65.27% of rural households and 33% of urban households in sub-
Saharan Africa (figure-3).
Conclusion
Safe water and sanitation are fundamental to human development. When people
are deprived in these areas, they face diminished opportunities to realize their potential
as human right. Unsafe water and inadequate sanitation are two of the great drivers
of world poverty and inequality. They claim millions of lives, destroy livelihoods,
compromise dignity and diminish prospects for economic growth. Poor people,
especially women and children, bear the brunt of responsibility for collecting water,
often spending up to 4 hours a day walking, this is a major source of time poverty.
Time poverty also contributes to income poverty. It reduces the time available for
participation in income generation limits the scope for women to take advantage to
market opportunities and impedes their ability to expand capabilities and skills,
reducing future economic returns.
References
1. World Health Organization. (2000). Global water supply and sanitation Assessment Report.
Geneva, Switzerland
2. WHO/UNICEF. (2005). Water for life: Making it happen. Geneva, Switzerland.
3. Available from: http://www.developmentgoals.org/Environment.htm.
Fiscal Devolution to Local Bodies in India: Role of Central

Finance Commissions
Ashok Mittal* & Aiman Fatima**
Introduction
Finance Commission is a constitutional body which is established under Article
280 of the constitution by the President of India every five years. Finance Commission
deals with the distribution of net proceeds of the taxes between the Centre and the
states, recommendations on the measures required to augment the consolidated funds
of the state to supplement the resources of the Panchayats and the Municipalities
and the devolution of funds and grants to the third tier of the government etc. Local
bodies are institutions of the local self governance, for the administration of an area
or small community such as villages, towns, or cities for providing basic services of
civic life like water supply, sanitation, roads, infrastructure, street lights and solid
waste management etc. There are two types of local bodies, Rural Local Bodies and
Urban Local Bodies, set up for planning, development and administration in the
rural areas and urban areas are referred as Panchayats and Municipalities
respectively.Prior to the introduction of 73rd and 74th acts, India was functioning as a
two tierbut with the 73rd and the 74th Amendments Acts (1992) coming into the
picture, the third tier or local bodies came into being. While rural local governments
received attention through the 73rd amendment, it was the 74th Amendment Act that
recognized the Urban Local Bodies and addressed the issues of local governments,
devolution of financial and administrative powers, and their effective and efficient
functioning. 74th constitutional amendment act, has been seminal in the process of
decentralization with greater devolution and delegation of powers to local governments
and the acknowledgement of the Urban Local Bodies as institutions of self government.
Therefore, the Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, is like a turning point of the
Government of India to empower local self-government in cities and towns.In India,
there are 4041(census 2011) Urban Local Bodies for a population of 1.15 billion, which
is growing at a rate of 1.47% as on 2000 (13th FC Report). Total revenue of the
municipal sector accounts for about 0.75% of GDP of the country. The municipal
* Professor, Department of Economics, A.M.U. Aligarh, U.P.

** Research Scholar, Department of Economics, A.M.U. Aligarh, U.P.
revenue and expenditure stands for about a meager value of 2% of the combined
state and central governments. Contrary to this, it is 20-35% of the total expenditure
in case of advanced and developed countries(Finance Commission Report).
Thispaper is divided into 6 sections. First section has given the introduction. In
second section, we have reviewed the existing literature on the subject whereas objectives
of the study are given in the third section. Fourth section provides the brief description
and the major recommendations of the 12th, 13th and 14th Finance Commissions. Fifth
section has given the comparative study of the three finance commissions. Finally,
the sixth section concludes the study.
Prasad, D. R. and V Srinivas Chary (2016)in theirpaper have broadly discussed
the main features and recommendations of the fourteenth finance Commissionthat
are in the interest of the local bodies.
Objectiveof the Paper
The main objective of the present study is “To study the allocation of grants to
the Local Bodies by the Finance Commissions in India”.
Central Finance Commissions and Local Bodies
Twelfth Finance Commission
The 12th Finance Commission was appointed on 1 November, 2002 to make
recommendations on the distribution of net proceeds of sharable taxes between the
Union and the States. Dr. C. Rangarajan was the chairman and the commissionsubmitted
its report on 30 November 2004 covering the period of five years (2005-10). Some of
the major recommendations of the twelfth finance commission pertaining to local
bodies are as listed below:
Major Recommendationsof the Twelfth Finance Commission (TFC)

• A grant of Rs. 20,000 crore for the Panchayati Raj institutions and Rs. 5,000
crore for urban local bodies to be given to States for the period 2005-10.
• This will be equivalent to 1.24 per cent of the sharable tax revenues and 0.9
per cent of gross revenue receipts of the center as estimated during the period
2005-10.
Thirteenth Finance Commission(13 th CFC)

Thirteenth Finance Commission was constituted by the President on 13 November
2007 to make recommendations for the period 2010-15 under the Chairmanship of
Dr. Vijay Kelkar. The important recommendationsregarding local bodies are as follows:
Major Recommendations
• Article 280 (3) (bb) & (c) of the Constitution should be amended and the
words ‘on the basis of the recommendations of the Finance Commission of
the State’ are changed to ‘after taking into consideration the recommendations
of the Finance Commission of the State’ for the local bodies.
• Article 243(I) of the Constitution should be amended to include the phrase
‘or earlier’ after the words ‘every fifth year’ and this is to empower state
governments to constitute and direct state finance commissions to present
their report even before the National Finance Commission finalizes its report.
Table 1: The Weights Assigned to the Criteria or Indicators for Grants to Local
Bodies
Weights Allotted Percentage
Criterion PRIs ULBs
Population 50 50
Area 10 10
Distance from Highest Per Capita Sectoral Income 10 20
Index of Devolution 15 15
SC/STs Proportion in the Population 10 -
Finance Com Local Body Grants Utilization Index 5 5
Source: Report of the Thirteenth Finance Commission
Fourteenth Finance Commission

The 14th FC was constituted on 2Jan, 2013 under the chairmanship of Y.V.Reddy
by the President of India for the period of five years(2015-20). The important
recommendations pertaining to the local bodies are written below.
Major Recommendations
• A total grant of Rs 2, 87,436 crore for the local bodies, of which Rs 2, 00,292
crore is assigned for panchayats and Rs 87,144 crore to municipalities.
• Grants to local governments will be in two parts- Basic grants and Performance
grants. The ratio of basic grants to performance grants is 90:10 for the Gram
Panchayats whereas in case of Municipalities, it is estimated to be 80:20.
Comparative Study of the Allocations to the Local Bodies in the Finance Commissions
The own resources of Local Bodies are very littlebut stillthey are required toperform
a number of core functions.These functions are of two types, Obligatory and
Discretionary. These functions are as follows:
1. Urban planning including town planning

2. Regulation of land use and construction of building
Conclusion
The present paper has made an attempt to study the three Finance Commissions
and their allocation of funds and grants in state wise trend to the local bodies.Local
Governments on account of being low with resources and revenues requires larger
amounts of devolution of grants for the efficient and effective functioning of the
local bodies for which they depend on the grants from the Central Finance commissions.
It has been seen that the share of funds and grants for the local bodies has been
increasing and the 14th Finance Commission has been commendablein the devolution
of grants and funds for the local governments and is significantly contributing towards
the local governments. Likewise the 13th CFC, 14th FC also divided the grants into
two parts that arebasic grants and performance grants to have a check upon the
performance and implementation of the schemes specifically meant for local bodies.
Although the 14th FC is significantly contributing for local governments, still they
are unable to meet the growingdemands of the local bodies and especially in the
case of smart cities, they will be needing more funds and grants for the maintenance
and improvement of their civic services.
References
1. Babu, M. D. (2009): “Fiscal Empowerment of Panchayats in India: Real or Rhetoric?”, The
Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, Working Paper 229, ISBN 81-7791-185-6.
2. Finance Commission (2004): Twelfth Finance Commission Report, Finance Commission of India,
Government of India, New Delhi.
3. Finance Commission (2009): Thirteenth Finance Commission Report, Finance Commission of
India, Government of India, New Delhi.
An Empirical Analysis of Foreign Direct Investment and

Economic Growth in BRICS Countries
Javeria Maryam* & Ashok Mittal**
Introduction
The contribution of emerging economies in the global growth rates, international
trade, and international capital flows has accelerated in the last decade. The emergence
of BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) is one of the significant
changes in the recent global economic development. These five economies collectively
account for more than a quarter of the world’s land area and 40 percent of the
world’s population.
The formation of groups like BRICS is mainly to overcome the certain disadvantages
at the global level.BRICS economies share common challenges as developing countries
and global challenges often affect them in similar ways. The emerging economies of
Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa have conquered animportant role in
the world economy as producers of goods and services.The role of BRICS countries
is vital in terms of increasing productivity, foreign investment inflows and creating
potential consumer markets for the developing countries. The large market size and
with the rising growth rate has reinforced the investors at global levels in general
particularly among the BRICS nations.
The foreign direct investment (FDI) has become one of the major pillars of
internationalization of economies. FDI is considered as a crucial component for the
economic growth with this rationalmost of the developing countries are taking major
steps to modify their policies to attract inward Foreign Direct Investment.
FDI inflows not only provide financial assistance in the host country, but it also
plays a multidimensional role in the overall development in the form of creating
opportunities for technological up gradation, access to global managerial skills,
etc.Foreign capital is required to support thesustainable development of the developed
countries. On the other side, for developing countries, it is a source of accumulation
to elevate the rate of investments for further intensive economic growth.
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.
** Professor, Department of Economics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.
The volume of the trade reflects the economic integration of an economy. A higher
ratio of trade openness shows the high level of economic integration. Trade openness
increases the productivity through efficient use of the resources, access to the
international capital flows and the latest technology. Trade openness is also considered
as one of the major factors in attracting the FDI inflows in the developing economies.
In this context, the main objective of this study is to investigate whether the economic
growth and trade openness attracts FDI in BRICS countries.
Vijayakumar, PerumalSridharan and Kode Chandra SekharaRao (2010) conducted the
study to examine the drivers of FDI in BRICS countries by employing the panel data
techniques. The findings indicated variables like market size, labour cost, infrastructure,
currency value and gross capital formation work as the catalyst for FDI inflows in
BRICS countries. However, factors like trade openness and economic stability & growth
came out insignificant for influencing FDI inflows. Rajan &Gaurav Agarwal (2011)by
employing the random effect method of panel data, based on Hausman specification
results found the variables like market size, trade openness, labour cost, infrastructure
facilities and macroeconomic stability, and growth prospects are the potential
determinant of FDI in BRIC countries. Mercan M, Ismet Goler, Sahin Bulut& Metin
Dam (2013)have evaluated the effect of trade openness on economic growth on BRIC-
T (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Turkey) by employing the panel data analysis.
The empirical results confirmed that trade openness and economic growth had a
positive and significant relationship.
Hypotheses
Inmost of the earlier studies, the economic growth was found as the vital factor
in attracting the large inflows in the developing economies. Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), GDP per capita income measures the economic growth of a country. In addition,
trade openness isalso one of the key determinants of FDI, the volume of trade and
trade openness is expected to have an important role in attracting FDI, as much of
the FDI is export oriented.
Therefore, for the analysis the following hypotheses are undertaken:
H0 = GDP does not have a significant impact on FDI
H1 = GDP does have significant impact on FDI
H0 = TO does not have a significant impact on FDI
H1 = TO does have significant impact on FDI
Data and Methodology
The data for the study is obtained from ‘World Development Indicators (WDI)’
for the period 1991-2015 BRICS countries, i.e., Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa. Based on the literature review, there can be a number of variables as determinants
of FDI in an economy. However, in this study, only the economic growth and trade
openness are taken as determinant variables that influence the FDI inflows in BRICS.
The dependent variable in the analysis is FDI (in current US$) and the independent
variables include Gross Domestic Product and Trade Openness.
For the analysis the following semi log estimation model is undertaken:
LFDIit= á+â1LGDPit+â2TRDO it+eit
Where,
LFDI it is a log of Foreign Direct Investment in current US $ for the country i at
time t.
LGDPit is a log of Gross Domestic Product in current US $ for the country i at the
time t and it is a measure of market size.
TRDO it is the trade openness for country i at time t and is the ratio of import of
goods and services plus export of goods and services divided by GDP.
eit it is the error term over time t.
For the empirical analysis, the Panel data techniques are used in the study. Panel
data are having advantages over cross-section and time series in using all the available
information and it captures the dynamic behaviour of the variables and provide a
more efficient estimate. There are three different methods of panel data model, i.e.
random effect method, fixed effect method, and common constant method. In the
random effects method, the constants for each section are taken as random parameters
rather than fixed. The intercepts for each cross-sectional unit are assumed to arise
from a common intercept áplus a random variable ºi that varies cross-sectionally but
is constant over time.On the other, fixed effects model takes the constant as group-
specific, it allows for differ constants for each group or sections. The fixed effects
also called as least squares dummy variables (LSDV) estimators. The common constant
method is also known as pooled OLS method. The common constant estimation
shows results under the principal assumption that there are no differences among
the data model matrices of the cross-sectional dimension. In the fixed effects model,
generally, the assumption is that each country differs in intercept term, whereas in
the random effects model it is assumed that the country differs in its error term.
Empirical Results
The estimation results of both random effects and fixed effects models on above-
defined variables fromthe period 1991 to 2015 are given in the [Table-1]. The empirical
results obtained from fixed and random effects models show that GDP and Trade
Openness are statistically significant at the 5 percent level. In the panel data model,
the Hausman Specification test is employed to know which of the two models, i.e.,
fixed effect or random effect is more suitable for the analysis.Based on the Hausman
Test, the fixed effect model has come out to be insignificant; therefore, the results of
the random effect model are accepted.
The empirical results as given in [Table 1] obtained from Panel data model shows
that the random effects model with dependent variable FDI fits well with independent
determinant variables i.e., economic growth and trade openness.The findings indicate
that GDP and Trade Openness have adirect and positive relationship with the FDI
inflows in BRICS economies. With the higher economic growth and trade openness,
there will be more inflows of FDI.
Table 1: Determinants of FDI Inflows: Panel Data Estimation Results based on

Fixed Effects and Random Effects Models
EXPLANATORY VARIABLES FIXED EFFECT RANDOM EFFECT

LOGFDI COEFFICIENT P-VALUE COEFFICIENT P-VALUE
*
LGDP 1.3868 0.000 1.5154 0.000*
TRDO 0.02530 0.005* 0.1671 0.027*
CONS -15.950 0.000 -19.0984 0.000
2
Hausman Test (prob>Chi ) 0.143
Conclusion and Suggestions

The recent economic and financial crisis seems to have changed the global
investment landscape broadly. The pattern of FDI inflows at the global level also
depicts the emerging and transition economiesas one of the most preferred destinations
for capital inflows. In this study,we have triedto find whether the FDI inflows in
BRICS are attracted by the host’s higher economic growth and trade openness.For
the empirical analysis,the inflows of FDI are taken as thedependent variable. The
determinant factors include Gross Domestic Product and Trade Openness.By using
the panel data analysis for the period 1991 to 2015, both the independent variables
Gross Domestic Product and Trade Opennessare foundsignificant in determining the
inflows of FDI in BRICS economies.The findings of the study reveal that with an
expansion of economic growth and the openness of an economy more capital inflows
can be channeled in a country. Therefore, theinvestment climatein BRICS economies
must be improved to attract larger capital inflows.BRICS as developing nations have
to involve themselves in the path of additional liberal economic reforms.Moreover,
these emerging countries are facing challenges from the developed nations, it is
necessary to assure the sustainability of economic growth.For the growth promotions,
these emerging economies must focus on the enhancement of infrastructures, wage
laws, fiscal stabilitypolicies, etc. that can further boost up the FDI inflows to these
countries.
References
1. Agrawal, Gaurav.(2015). Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in BRICS Economies:
A Panel Data Analysis. Journal of Economics, Business and Management, Vol. 3, No.4
2. Akpan, U.Salisu, I. &Simplice, A. (2014). Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in
Fast-Growing Economies: A Study of BRICS and MINT. MPRA Paper No. 56810.
3. Anand, R. &VolodymyrTulin (2014). Disentangling India’s Investment Slowdown.IMF Working
Paper.
4. Arindam, B. (2003). Foreign Direct Investment Inflows to India and China: Trends, Assessments
and Determinants. Savings and Development, Vol.27, No.1, pp. 5-22.
Relevance of Gender Bias in Indian Politics with Empirical

Evidence
Ritu Tiwari*
Introduction
The phrase “missing women” was coined by Amartya Sen when he showed that
in parts of the developing world, the ratio of women to men in the population is
suspiciously low. The worsening sex ratio (number of females per 1,000 males) in
countries such as India and China reflected the gross neglect of women. It was
commonly believed that “boy preference” at birth and the mistreatment of young
girls were the main reasons. Some careful and subsequent data work by Anderson
and Ray showed that excess female mortality is a more universal phenomenon which
holds for all age groups in these countries. Compared to economic opportunities,
education and legal rights, political representation is the area in which the gap between
men and women has narrowed the least between 1995 and 2010.
Recognizing this fact, many governments are taking active steps to encourage
the participation of women in policy making, notably by establishing quotas for
women in parliaments or in local governments. Quotas for women in assemblies or
on parties’ candidate lists are in force in the legislation of over 81 countries. While
reservation policies clearly have a strong impact on women’s representation, the fact
that women and men may have different policy preferences need not imply that
increased female representation will affect policy decisions.
In a world where candidates care about electoral success and can commit to
policies before elections, voter preferences, rather than the legislator’s gender identity,
will determine policy outcomes. Further, if men and women are equally likely to
vote and monitor elected officials, the implemented policies should not exhibit any
gender bias. Even if mandated political representation raises the bargaining power
of women, increased female representation in politics should only affect transfers to
women, not policy, as long as the preferences of different voters are known and
individuals are not credit constrained. The preferences of politicians will have a
direct effect on policy decisions, however, if institutions to ensure policy commitment
on the part of politicians are limited or absent (Levitt (1996), Thomas (1990), Pande
* Head, Dept of Economics, D.A.K.M.V. Nagpur, Maharashtra

(2003)). If men and women have different policy priorities, then increasing female
representation should shift the policy mix towards those favored by women. Even if
the elected women and men have similar preferences, mandated female representation
can affect policy decisions by changing the mechanism by which preferences are
aggregated.
The present paper tries to focus on the measurement of empowerment of women
through enhancement in autonomy in decision making at political level. For this
study we have drawn secondary data from the empirical study of:
• Women Politicians, Gender Bias, and Policy-making in Rural India A report
By: Beaman & Rohini Pande Yale University Esther Duflo, Jameel Poverty
Action Lab, MIT, Petia Topalova, International Monetary Fund, in 2006 UNICEF
• Conditional Cash Transfers: A ‘Pathway to Women’s Empowerment’?,
Contextualizing economic pathways to women’s empowerment: findings from
a multi-country study Pathways Policy Paper October 2011.
Women participation in politics in India
The Constitution of India is based on the principles of equality. It prohibits
discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth. It envisages
political equality for men and women but no concrete step was taken by the government
before 1993. India, the world’s largest democracy, has now only 59 women
representatives out of 545 members in Lok Sabha, while there are 25 female MPs in
the 242-member Rajya Sabha. Statistics reveal that India lags behind many countries,
including its neighbours Pakistan and Nepal, when it comes to women’s participation
in politics (The Hindu March 8, 2011). With only 11 per cent of women representation
in the Lok Sabha and 10.8 per cent in the Rajya Sabha, India ranks 98 in the world.
Participation of Women in Politics Comparing with Other Countries
The competitive electoral process will perpetuate gender-biased policies in India
because of the missing women; the problem here is that the politicians respond to
the preferences of the existing electorate in the population and not to the counterfactual.
This is why gender-biased practices and policies will be perpetuated over the long
run in a democratic system like India’s unless there is an exogenous shock to this
system.
Statistics on women participation in political activities are shocking and raise the
same question again that why it is happens? Women occupy only 18% of parliamentary
seats around the world.
India is far behind from average of percentage of women in political position.
According to a global poll conducted by Thomson Reuters, India is the “fourth most
dangerous country” in the world for women and the worst country for women among
the G20 countries.
Women Participation in Politics in India, from 1952 to 2014
There is unanimous agreement among experts that this phenomenon is one of
the most momentous problems faced by the developing world in modern times. The
general sense is that it can be corrected by political action and public policy. It is in
that regard that we explore the role of democracy in solving the missing women’s
problem. The number of women winning elections will be so small that their percentage
in the legislative body will be nominal. The percentage of winning women candidates
has been below ten in Parliament, in all the past elections, as shown in the chart.
The State Assemblies too present a similar situation. No variation whatsoever has
occurred in half-a-century! In the same period, in the past we were under the impression
that political empowerment will follow economic empowerment automatically, but
we were utterly wrong. Under the circumstances it became obligatory for the women’s
organizations as well as the Government of India to search for remedial measures to
improve the political status of women.
After prolonged deliberations, as a first step, the government made the provision
in the Panchayat and Nagarpalika Bills of 1992 to reserve 33 per cent of candidature
and constituencies in the local bodies—panchayats, municipalities and corporations—
for women. There was widespread criticism that it will be difficult to find such a big
number of eligible women candidates all of a sudden, and the newly elected members’
performance may not be befitting to the dignity of the post etc. Two local body
elections have taken place since then and twelve uneventful years have passed. Now
nobody is bothered about the women members of the local bodies. The number of
women at the top, policy-making executive bodies of the parties is absolutely nominal.
In any political party, if there is a section without sufficient and effective presence in
the executive bodies, the interests of that section will naturally be neglected.
Relevance of Empowerment of Women in India
This section deals with the empirical findings of participation of women and the
most important determinant of empowerment of women i.e., decision making capacity
or autonomy in decision making with the help of three different empirical studies. It
tries to analyze the effectiveness of women’s participation in the political process,
largely to be judged on the basis of their political awareness, their capability of
decision making in a male dominated society.
Research findings from case studies in Asia, Africa and Latin America suggest
that where women have organized collectively under the banner of promoting gender
equality, they have played important roles in influencing the design of electoral laws
and in holding the state, political parties and others (such as the media) accountable
for their gender-biased policies and practices. Quotas do increase numbers in most
cases, but they don’t work very well as proxies for democratization or gender justice
and when used by authoritarian regimes, they become tainted. This presents us with
a policy conundrum: affirmative action has been lauded by progressive politicians,
feminists and development bodies as a way to empower women politically. There is
no reason to drop affirmative action, but there is a need to go beyond reducing
women’s political empowerment to the number of women in office.
Conclusion
The change in development policies from the focus on women’s active role in
production as a means to more efficient development, to the approach of women’s
empowerment through women organizing for greater self-reliance, has also meant a
change in policies for the enhancement of women’s economic role.
The political participation of women may have important benefits for children.
Higher investment in clean drinking water could potentially lead to large improvements
in children’s health since water-borne and diarrheal diseases (including cholera) kill
nearly over 1.5 million children under 5 yearly (WHO).
If we are serious about promoting gender justice, we must turn political
empowerment upside down. Our starting point should be to better understand how
women get involved in politics. For a start, it means broadening our understanding
of politics to go beyond the nomination for office in legislatures, so that we are able
to recognize those women who also engage politically in formal and informal capacities
The key to enhancing women’s political empowerment is the role of building a
constituency. Working in neighborhoods is important for outreach, but so is gaining
visibility through television. It means that policies to support women’s political
empowerment should not only target the women who announce they will run for
office, but also have expanding political apprenticeship opportunities for a wide
pool of women so that they can build the constituency they need to claim legitimacy.
In the end it would only be apt to conclude in the words of Annie Marie Goetz,
UNIFEM adviser on Governance, Peace and Security “ Women’s effectiveness at
promoting women’s rights once in public office, however, is dependent upon many
other factors besides their numbers. Institutional changes are needed in civil society,
the media, political parties, legislatures and the judicial system in order to support
women’s policy agendas and to make the transition from policy to practice”.
References
1. raichel matthai December 23, 2006 VOL XLV No 01 > Political Status of Indian Women:
Progress since independence “Political Status of Indian Women: Progress since independence”
2. Shiva Kumar Lal presented paper on “A Study of Issues and Challenges in Empowerment
of Women Through Their Participation in the Panchayat Raj Institution: A Case Study of
Allahabad District of Uttar Pradesh” in the seminar, http://www.isical.ac.in/~wemp/
index1.html
“Co-operative Federalism” and Contemporary Central-State

Financial Relations
Vinita Katiyar* & Akhilesh Kumari**
“We want to promote co-operative federalism in the country. At the same time, we
want a competitive element among the states. I call this new form of federalism Co-
operative and Competitive Federalism”.
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi
Introduction
“Co-operative Federalism” where a State (like India), shares the powers between
the Union/Centre and the States, while inclining towards the strong Centre. This
term was coined by Granville Austin, which means a system which produces strong
central government yet it does not necessarily result in weak state governments that
are largely implementing agencies for central policies. This implies a system of
governance in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing
authority and sub-national political entities.
Promoting both cooperative and competitive federalism has been an overarching
theme of the present central government. Article 1 of the Constitution states, “India,
that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States”. While the Constitution doesn’t provide
the term “federal”, it does mention for a governance structure primarily federal in
nature. It provides for different governments at the centre and in the states. Further,
it defines and specifies the powers, functions and jurisdictions of the two governments.
Last, it details the legislative, administrative and financial relations between the
centre and the states.
Financial Relations between Centre and States
To understand the Financial Relation between Centre and State in India, we need
to know the following issues. According to a World Bank study, transfer of funds
from the central government to sub-national units (states) is essential because the
* Head of Department, Economics, Narain P.G. College, Shikohabad, U.P.

** Post Doctoral Fellow, UGC, Narain P.G. College, Shikohabad, U.P.
centre has monopolised the most productive sources of tax revenue. Also according
to the study in most cases, national governments impose income taxes because states
lack the resources and skill to maintain such a complex tax system.
Figure 1: Chart Depiction of Centre Assistance to States

Finance Commission as a Resource Allocator
Table 1: Horizontal Devolution Formula in the 13th and 14th F C:

Weight Accorded
Variable 13th FC 14th FC
Population 25 17.5
Population 0 10
Fiscal Capacity/Income
Distance 47.5 50
Area 10 15
Forest Cover 0 7.5
Fiscal Discipline 17.5 0
Total 100 100
Source: Finance Commission reports
i) Finance Commission Transfers
Table 2: Finance Commission Fund Transfers

13th Finance Commission 14th Finance Commission
Devolution of taxes (in Rs. Grants-in Aid (in Rs. Crore) Devolution of taxes (in Rs. Grants-in Aid (in Rs.
Crore) Crore) Crore)
1,448,096 268,573 3,948,188 529,284
Source: RBI Data on State Finances

ii) Transfer to States through Budgetary process
Normal Central Assistance, Special Plan Assistance, Special Central Assistance
and Additional Central Assistance for other purposes are subsumed in the award
itself.
Table 3: Transfer of Funds to States Through Budgetary Process

2014-15 2015-16 (Revised estimates) 2016-17 (Budgeted estimates)
Devolution of Assistance to Devolution of Assistance to Devolution of Assistance to
taxes (in States (in taxes (in States (in taxes (in States (in
Percentage) Percentage) Percentage) Percentage) Percentage) Percentage)
56 44 71 29 71 29
Total 602,533 crore Total 714,780 crore Total 804,703 crore
Source: Respective Year ’s Budget document
Relevant issues in financial relations of Centre and States

A) Issues of Vertical and horizontal imbalances
Economists use a word called “vertical imbalance” to describe the mismatch between
revenue raising capacity and expenditure needs as far as different levels of governmental
units are concerned. States being closer to ground realities and having first hand knowledge
to the local needs have been assigned functional responsibilities involving expenditure
disproportionate to their assigned sources of revenue resulting in vertical imbalances.
B) High Dependence of states on Centre

Very often in Indian federation the taxes which are assigned to states are generally
less elastic and less profitable. More over the centre has more or less monopoly in two
sources of revenue like foreign aid and deficit financing. These sources are not provided
to states. As a result, with the passage of time states in India have become more and
more dependent on centre in financial matters. The situation sometimes becomes worse
for states ruled by a different political party from the one in the centre.
C) Reduction in State Autonomy

The interference of the centre in the functioning of the state governments has
been patronized by the concurrent list which contained around 57 items. Together
with this the continued financial dependence of states on centre has increasingly
reduced the autonomy of states.
D) Overlapping of responsibilities
In practice it is observed that the planning commission encroached in the area of
the others in regard to grants. There has been duplication and overlapping of the
responsibilities of these institutions.
E) Growing Debt books of States

Our federal financial system has evolved a situation in which the states cannot
do without the central assistance. The utilisation of loans and grants by the state has
resulted in financial dependency and indiscipline on the part of the states. This also
led to a situation of inevitable growing debt burden of the states.
Suggestions to Improve Co-operative Financial Federalism
1. Some eminent Scholars suggest that all current transfers should be initiated
through a permanent Finance Commission and responsibility of all central
transfers should devolve upon the NITI Aayog. Prof. V.K.R.V. Rao has argued
for placing both the NITI Aayog and Finance Commission on a firm statutory
recognition with a clear division of responsibilities and the establishment of
“National Loan Organisation” on the lines of Australian Loan Council to
effectively manage market borrowing and central loan to states.
2. The number of divisible taxes should be increased to enrich the resource base
of the state government.
Conclusion
The central pillars of federal finance are efficiency, uniformity, economy, autonomy,
sufficiency. The central state relations are crucial in the preservation and the very
existence of federal system. India has evolved a noble kind of federation which is
completely different from the accepted notion of federation. The evolved Indian
federalism is very unique in character and the Union-State relationship has also
become extremely complex over the years. The role of NITI Aayog, constitutional
mechanism and working of various institutions will determine the future of Indian
federation. The rising disparity in an increasingly market economy demands scientific
approach for financial transfers from Centre to States so that the objectives of financial
federalism of equality and the provision of providing public goods across states is
ensured. There are few issues which remain in the domain of centre-states financial
relations such as multiple channels of transfer; limited scope of FC transfers;
methodological weakness and too much reliance on the “gap-filling” approach, and
multiplicity of objectives failing to focus on main objective of reducing disparities.
The Inter State Council, NITI Aayog and Finance Commission should be streamlined
with objectivity and efficiency to strengthen the impulse of Indian financial federal
relations and achieve the objectives of Co-operative Federalism.
References
1. Government of India, Finance Commissions reports.
2. Government of India, Reports of erstwhile Planning Commission.
3. Government of India, Report on State Finances, RBI.
4. Government of India, Budget Document for 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Socio - Economic Rigidity Faced by Rural Poor and Rural

Development
Ram Kishor* & Kiran Singh**
Introduction
The real face of our country is rural India. Its most of the population resides in
villages and towns. The residents of the villages are mainly landlords, farmers, labourers,
cultivators and poor families. According to the Census-2011, India’s population is
1.21 billion after China. But India’s 69% population is rural population. Rural India
is facing many challenges such as poverty, drought, illiteracy, hunger & malnutrition,
ill heath, lack safe drinking water and health facilities, unemployment, low income,
low productivity of agricultural area, high level of mortality rate & morbidity rate,
lack of road connectivity & electricity, lack of good living conditions, low level of
living standard. Nearly half of India’s small children are malnourished. Malnutrition
is alarmingly high among the rural poor. Ill health, disability or serious illness makes
them physical weak.The NHP (National Health Policy)-2013 report has revealed that
in our country only 33%of Government doctors are available in rural India where
69%population lives. These circumstances make them vulnerable, weak and poorer
as possible as. In short these challenges make a vicious cycle of poverty from which
they cannot escape. They have to face these challenges without any wishes.
Meaning of Poor
In practical everyone on this earth has to access the resources available here.
Those who cannot afford to acquire basic need of life as food, shelter and clothing
are counted as reprieved section of society. In official words, they are counted a
‘poor’. But scholars identify the poor on the basis of their occupation and ownership
of assets- rural poor (25.7%) and urban poor (13.7%). Now days the concept of poverty
has become a multidimensional phenomenon. A multidimensional approach of poverty
recognises that the poor experience several deprivations such as lack of standard
income, lack of educational achievement, inadequate facilities of health, sanitation &
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

** Associate Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
safe drinking water, social exclusion, lack of security from exploitation and violence,
adverse effect of environment( like drought, flood, earthquake, displacement etc.),
high mortality & morbidity rate etc..And based on what people say poverty means
to them, it expands this definition to include powerlessness, voicelessness, vulnerability
and fear.
Meaning of Rural Development
The concept of rural development is a very wide in development economics. The
concept of rural development has changed during the last four decades. As we know
that the development of rural areas depends upon the healthy growth of agriculture
sector and its production and also provides a livelihood to the majority of rural
population. But now the concept ‘development’ after 1990s has begun to be used in
broader sense as it includes GDP growth, per capita income, health, education, accesses
to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, poverty alleviation, employment, good
living conditions. That’s means development is a condition of human development
(health, education & income), social inclusion, inclusive growth, poverty reduction,
financial inclusion, job creation and employment, agricultural growth. Development
is focusing on the quality of life.
Poverty in Rural India
According to Mahatma Gandhi, “Poverty is the worst form of violence”. One of
the biggest challenges of independent India has been to bring millions of its people
out of abject poverty. Hence SDGs (sustainable development goals-2015) are a bold
commitment to finish poverty in all forms and dimensions by 2030. The SDGs build
on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs-1990). The SDGs addressing the root
causes of poverty and the universal need for development that works for all people.
The 17 SDGs are as no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well being, quality
education, gender inequality, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy,
decent work and economic growth, reduce inequality, sustainable consumption and
production etc.. India has ranked a low 110 out of 149 countries in Sustainable
Development Index assessed on where they stand with regard to achieve the sustainable
development goals. The UNDP supports government efforts to reduce poverty and
achieve sustainable development Measuring poverty in India has a long and vulnerable
tradition. In pre-independent India, Dadabhai Naoroji was the first to discuss the
concept of poverty. In post –independent India, there has been several attempts to
work out a mechanism to identity the number of poor in the country. For instance,
in 1962, the Planning Commission (now the NITI Aayog) formed a Study Group. In
1979, another body called ‘ Task Force on projection of minimum need and effective
consumption demand’ was formed. The accepted average calorie requirement in India
is 2400 calorie per head per day in rural areas and 2100 calorie per head per day in
urban areas. Poverty estimates for 2009-2010 using the earlier Lakadwala method
stands at 24.2% in rural areas and 23.5% in urban areas.
The percentage of persons BPL in 2011-12 has estimated as 25.7% in rural areas
and 13.7% in urban areas and 21.9% for the country as whole (Table-1).
Result and Discussion
Table 1: Trends of Poverty in India

2004-05 2011-12 2004-05 2011-12 2004-04 2011-12
State (Poverty Ratio)
(Rural ) (Rural) (Urban) (Urban) (Total) (Total)
Andhra Pradesh 32.3 11 23.4 5.8 29.6 9.22
Bihar 55.7 34.1 43.7 31.2 55.4 33.27
Gujarat 39.1 21.5 20.1 10.1 31.6 16.6
Himachal Pradesh 25.0 8.5 4.6 4.3 22.9 8.1
Kerala 20.2 9.1 18.4 5.0 19.6 7.1
Orissa 60.8 35.7 37.6 17.3 57.2 32.6
Uttar Pradesh 42.7 30.4 34.1 26.1 40.9 29.4
West Bengal 38.2 22.5 24.4 14.7 40.9 20.0
INDIA 41.8 25.7 25.7 13.7 37.2 21.9
Source : Economic Survey of India2013-14, Ministry of Finance, GoI.
Efforts for Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation in Rural India: Most
development advocates have maintained that sustained economic growth is essential
for poverty reduction. This belief was strongly expressed in World Bank research in
the 1990s that concluded “Growth is good for the poor”. Indeed poverty alleviation,
employment, equitable income distribution in India across social classes and regions
remain crucial goals of rural development. There are three approaches of poverty
reduction in India: (a) Growth oriented approach or ‘Trickle down’ strategy (b) Poverty
alleviation programmes and(c) Minimum basic amenities.
Government must ensure that every citizen have access to essential public services
of acceptance quality in health, education, skill development, provision of safe drinking
water and sanitation. Improving infrastructure in rural areas is critical issue for rural
development and poverty reduction. Transfer of resources to the vulnerable sections
of society through government schemes is needed.
In order to increase the growth of agriculture, Central Government has started
many programmes for rural development in India. The government aims to double
the income of farmers by 2022 and also proposed to spend Rs. 850 billion on irrigation
projects in the next five years. Stating that the ‘Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sichai Yojana’
28.5 lakh hectare will be brought under irrigation. The Government has also told
creation of a Long Term Irrigation Fund in the NABARD bank with a amount of Rs.
20000 crore. As announced by the prime Minister, the Long Term Irrigation Fund
already set up in NABARD to be augmented by 100% to take the total corpus of this
fund to 40000 crores ( Budget 2017-18). In the budget 2017-18 it is announce new
mini labs in Krishi Vigyan Kendras(KVK) and ensure 100% coverage of all 648 KVKs
in the country for soil sample testing And a programme for sustainable management
of ground water resources has been prepared with Rs.6000 core. The Finance Minister
of India presented the Union Budget for 2016-17 and also shared ‘nine pillars’ for
transformational budget: agriculture and farmers’ welfare, rural sector, social sector,
educational skills etc. Allocation for agriculture and farmers’ welfare in the budget
is Rs.35984 crore.
Conclusion
Increased participation of rural people in rural development process, decentralisation
of planning, better enforcement of land reforms and greater access to credit,
improvement in health, education, safe drinking water, energy supply, sanitation
and housing coupled with attitudinal changes also facilitate their social development.
It is important to enhance incomes for the rural poor, especially on small family
farms and far wage earners. Progressive shifts of agricultural activities to expanding
high productivity, non-agricultural activities can also raise agricultural productivity
with positive impacts on poverty alleviation. A virtuous circle of rural development
leading to poverty reduction can be happened by growth of employment with rising
agricultural productivity. If rural development would be happened then the vicious
cycle of poverty will be changed in virtuous cycle of growth which promotes income,
self –employment, job creation, high productivity of agricultural area, inclusive growth,
increasing the living standard, good educational achievement etc. After this happened
every poor will live pride and honour like a common people.
References
1. Rural Development Report-2015,Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India
2. Islam, Rizwanaul (2004): The Nexus of Economic Growth, Employment and Poverty Reduction:
An Empirical Analysis.
3. Economic Survey 2013-14.Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
4. Alkire and Seth (2008): Multidimensional Poverty and BPL, Erasures’ in India: A Comparison
of Method, oph Working Paper Series.
5. World Development Report (2000-01). Attacking Poverty, The World Bank, Oxford University
Press, Delhi, 2003.
6. Dev, S Rani (2016): Rural Health Care Infrastructure in India, December, Kurukshetra, Vol.65.
7. Union Budget 2017-18, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
Poverty Alleviation Programmes: Needs to Improve
R.S. Negi* & Abhishekh Rai**
Introduction
Poverty is socio economic phenomenon in which a section of society unable to
fulfil their basic necessities of life. The minimum needs are food, housing, clothing,
education and minimum human needs. Humanity faces pains and miseries if it does
not attain a subsistence level of such needs. It is generally agreed in this country
that only they who fail to reach a certain minimum consumption standard should be
regards as poor. “No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far
greater part of the members are poor and miserable” (Adam Smith, 1776). Poverty is
about denial of opportunities and fulfilment of human potential. So above definition
And world bank consider India as one of poorest country.
Poverty is an important issue in India, despite having one of the fastest growing
economies in the world, clocked at a growth rate of 7.6% in 2015, The development
strategies adopted in various five year plans lead yawning gap between the standard
of living of the people, and the economic indicators in India. Although the eradication
of poverty has been a recurrent theme over several decades of planning, the proportion
of those living below the poverty line has not declined substantially.
Phases of Anti-Poverty Programmes
The frontal attack on poverty was perused in four successive phases in India. In
the FIRST PHASE lasting from the beginning of the 1950s till the end of the 1960s.
The major emphasis was on redistribution of land and improving the plight of poor
tenants on abolition of functionless intermediaries, on tenancy reforms culminating
in the principle of ‘land to the tiller’, on imposing ceilings on large holdings,
sequestering surplus land and redistributing it among the landless agricultural laborers
and marginal farmers.
By the late 1960s the SECOND PHASE of Poverty Alleviation Programmes started
with measures that promised to address directly and exclusively the poor in rural
areas. This target group oriented approach started with the programme for backward
regions, graduated to the programme for development of small and marginal farmers,
landless laborers, etc. and finally culminated in the Integrated Rural Development
* Assosiate Professor, Department of Economics, University of HNBGU, Garwhal, U.K.

** Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of HNBGU, Garwhal, U.K.
Programme and National State Employment Programme. Serious efforts for poverty
alleviation were initiated only during this phase.
In the THIRD PHARSE starting from the beginning of the 1990s, emphasis has
shifted to measures aimed at accelerating economic growth and on creating an
environment for ensuring a ‘spread effect’. Beginning with the launch of integrated
rural development programme (IRDP) in the year 1980, a number of Poverty Alleviation
Programme has been formulated fresh from time to time. Among these Poverty
alleviation Programme :Training of Rural youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM 1975),
food-for-Work Programme (NREP 1980), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Programme (RLEGP 1983), Development of women and Children in Rural areas
(DWCRA), Million wells Scheme (MWS), Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY) and National
Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREG), Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS),
Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY), Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty
Eradication Programme (PMIUPEP),etc are very important.
In the FOURTH latest PHASE the Poverty Alleviation Programmes dealt with
reference to the New Economic Reforms (Liberalization, privatization and Globalization)
and Millennium Development Goals. Of the eight ‘Millennium Development Goals’
of 1990, (each goal is to be reached by 2015), the first goal, “Eradicate extreme poverty
and hunger” has given further boost to the poverty alleviation programes towards
the targeted groups of people who are below poverty line in India, especially the
rural poor. The NREG is the result of the above revolutionary vision of the government.
Policy Mechanism of the special programmes can be described as follows:
• Precise identification of the weaker sections or the target groups on the basis
assets, income, and caste.
• Investigation of their economic problems and formation of programmes to
raise their income and employment in the present as well as in the new
occupations.
• Provision of special extension facilities so that the poor are not only informed
about the existence of the programmes, but is also helped in participating in
them.
• Providing credit for undertaking the scheme in such a way that it is available,
it meet all the type of credit needs of the scheme for the poor, it is available
at lower than the market rate of interest, and it is to be repaid in easy
installments.
• Providing a complete package of infrastructural facilities to the poor to run
the scheme successfully.
• Evaluation of the programmes from time to time and monitoring them effectively
to ensure efficient performance of the programs.
Research Objectives
The objective of the present paper is to review the policy perspectives of Poverty
Alleviation Programmes and to analyze various programmes and its policy back –
drop. More specifically the objectives of the present study are:
1. To analyze the phases of various Anti- poverty programmes in India.
2. To elucidate the conceptual Objectives of the poverty alleviation programmes
in last decade and its progress.
Reserch and Methodology
In order to review the policy perspectives of poverty alleviation programmes,
the present study and the methodology is based on Historical – Analytical method
of analysis. As poverty is happen to be a persisting phenomenon having vicious
circular dimensions, the analysis of policy perspectives of poverty alleviation
programmes are obviously having more relevance in Indian context. In course of
time with the long term mission of development more emphasis given on increase
in national income, gross national product, gross domestic product (GDP), income
distribution and equity, raising per capita income besides several other dimensions
of development including public health, education and infrastructure. Thus the last
six decades of development planning has resulted in widening the concept of
development to include various socio economic aspects in order to improve the
quality of life. How ever poverty and its severity reminds, besides the overall economic
growth in India. This happens to be the biggest concern among economists and
administrators.
Case Study: Impact of Mgnrega on Poverty
Poverty Reduction Due to MGNREGA
• MGNREGA’s contribution to reducing poverty is about 32%. In the absence
of MGNREGA-induced consumption, poverty among the participants would
have been 38.0% in 2011–12, not 31.3%.
• MGNREGA prevented 14 million persons from falling into poverty (those
non-poor in 2004–05 who would have become poor by 2011–12 without
MGNREGA employment).
• In spite of a high initial poverty rate (75.8% in 2004–05), poverty among
adivasis was reduced by 27.6% and for dalits by 37.6%.
Employment and Poverty Reduction

• Additional employment of 107 crore days for the chronic poor and 54 crore
days for those who slipped into poverty (falling into poverty from a non-
poor status) is sufficient to push them up to non-poor status.
Policy Plan Required for Poverty Alleviation in India
1. To promote growth in agricultural productivity and non-farm rural activities.
2. Public investment in rural infrastructure and agricultural research. Agricultural
research benefits the poor directly through an increase in farm production,
greater employment opportunities and growth in the rural non-farm economy.
3. Credit policies to promote farm investment and rural micro enterprises Policies
to promote human capital to expand the capabilities of the poor Development
of rural financial markets.
4. Self-Help Group Approach to be strengthened as it is a proven method of
empowerment of the poor.
5. Involvement of local communities and people’s participation in NRLM and
MGNREGS.
6. Decentralization of the programmes by strengthening the panchayati raj
institutions.
7. Public Distribution System (PDS) needs to be reformed and better targeted.
8. Provision of safety nets like targeted food subsidies, nutrition programmes
and health.
9. Targeted poverty alleviation programmes to continue as the poor of the
developing world may not have the patience to wait for the trickle-down
effect
Conclusion
The main objective of Indian planning is to alleviate poverty. In this regard
government has launched many poverty alleviation programmes. Even then no radical
change has been undergone in the ownership of assets, process of production and
basic amenities to the poor. In this way poverty alleviation programmes have not
proved as success as India want .Due to insufficient resources and lack of proper
implementation, active participation of poor, proper identification of poor and
infrastructure. Government need to implement efficient credit policy ,involvement of
local communities and corruption free work.
References
1. Singh, Manmohan, 1986, “The Quest for Equity in Development.” R. R. Kale Memorial
Lecture, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics. Pune, India.
2. Thimaiah, G (1991):‘Centrally Sponsored Schemes; Some Issues’, The Economic Times,
November 28 and 29.
3. Kaushik Ranjan Bandyopadhyay, Poverty Alleviation and Pro-Poor Growth in India, Asian
Institute of Transport Development, New Delhi, 2007.
4. MGNREGA and Poverty Alleviation Prem S. Vashishtha Visiting Senior Fellow National
Council of Applied Economic Research.
Potential Sectors to Remedy Indo-Iran Trade Deficit
Alok Kumar Yadav* & Umesh Chandra Yadav**
Introduction
Why trade with Iran? The Islamic Republic of Iran holds an important position
in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves
of petroleum and natural gas 1. Located at the juncture of Southwest Asian and the
Middle Eastern region, Iran for more than a millennium has served as a major conduit
for cultural, religious and economic exchanges between India and the Islamic world
(Yazdani, 2007). The nature and extent of the Indo- Iranian relationship is centered
on hydrocarbon and extensive gas resources that has brought remarkable mutual
relationship capacities between the two countries (Fair, 2007). India-Iran commercial
ties have traditionally been dominated by Indian import of Iranian crude oil. India
is the second largest buyer of Iranian crude after China and Iran was the third
largest supplier of crude to India (2015-16). The India-Iran bilateral trade during the
fiscal year 2015-16 was USD 9.054 billion. India imported USD 6.2 billion worth of
goods mainly crude oil and exported commodities worth USD 2.7 billion 2.
India’s trade balance with Iran which showed a surplus of US$ 428.8 million in
2005, moved into a deficit of US$ 4.3 billion in 2006 (Sinate, Fanai, & Chakrabarti,
2012). Thereafter, a regular deficit in Indo-Iran bilateral trade has been found, which
eager us to work on the possibilities to lower this deficit. Clearly, therefore India
needs to enhance its volume of trade with Iran by identifying potential export
commodities/sectors having comparative advantage and yet to be traded between
these two nations. In this context it is appropriate, to identify India’s comparative
advantage sectors by using revealed comparative advantage (RCA) approach. Though,
several studies have been undertaken using the concept of RCA for Gulf and other
countries, but this study was mainly done with the aim to minimise India’s regular
trade deficit with Iran since 2006.
In this paper, RCA indices have been calculated for India and Iran across the top
20 chapters of the Harmonized System (HS -1996) classification for the year 2006
and 2016 to identify specific advantages in trade. The export data used here is for
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, V.S.S.D College, C.S.J.M. University Kanpur, U.P.
** Associate Professor, Department of Economics, V.S.S.D College, C.S.J.M. University Kanpur, U.P.
each commodity classification and in US$ for the most recent year available for the
given trading partner. Each commodity classification has been aggregated using HS
classification to 2 digit level.
Objectives of the Study
Specifically, the main objectives of the study are:
1. To evaluate the structural dimensions of India’s economic cooperation with
Iran.
2. To investigate the nature of India’s balance of trade with Iran.
3. To identify the degree of India’s trade intensity with Iran.
4. The pattern of comparative advantage for India and Iran in the global market.
5. To analyse the leading commodities/sector in terms of their revealed comparative
advantage in India and Iran.
Review of the Literature
Although there exists a vast literature on the India-Gulf trade relations, but the
literature particularly on India-Iran trade relations is limited.
Suresh & Ramesh (2015) in their article arrive at a conclusion that for India, Iran
continues to remain important for various reasons: energy security, countering Pakistani
Taliban in Afghanistan, access to trade and transport connectivity with Central Asia
and Afghanistan and, to some extent, managing the domestic political dynamics. In
the current context, the real test for India and Iran is to maintain and sustain the
current momentum.
Database and Research Methodology
The present study is based on secondary data, collected from ITC calculations
based on UN COMTRADE statistics. The time period for the study is 2006-2016. The
appropriate methodology employed is based on the objectives of the study.
1. Trade Intensity Index (TII)

Range of values varies between 0 and +”. It is calculated as:
TIIij = (Xij / Xi) / (Xwj / Xw) (1)
Where, Xij and Xwj are the values of country i’s exports and of world exports to
country j and where Xi and Xw are country i’s total exports and total world exports
respectively. An index of more (less) than one indicates a bilateral trade flow that is
larger (smaller) than expected, given the partner country’s importance in world trade.
Measuring revealed comparative advantage (RCA) index

The current resurgence of interest in industrial policy sometimes confronts trade
economists with demands to identify commodity/sectors of comparative advantage.
The traditional measure is the revealed comparative advantage (RCA) index (Balassa,
1965). It is ratio of product k’s share in country i’s exports to its share in world
trade.
Analyzing Trade Flows
1. Trends in India-Iran trade

Indo-Iran trade relations have witnessed a significant rise, during the last decade,
with India’s total trade (exports plus imports) with Iran rises by 41.54 percent from
US$7.54 billion in 2006 to US$ 10.7 billion in 2016, but India’s trade balance was
negative in the all years of study. Moreover, Fig. 1.2 portrays that the India’s total
trade with world has increased continuously except in year 2009, 2014, 2015 and
2016, but Iran share in India’s total trade (in percentage) irregularly remains low
standing at 0.2.52 in 2006 and 1.72 in 2016, however, it reaches its highest at 3.28 in
2008.
2. Product composition of merchandise trade by HS sector

2.1 India’s major orientation of exports to Iran
The corresponding description of each section is listed in Appendix B. Based on
comparable data from UNCTAD, during 2006-2016; India’s exports to Iran have risen
close to 48 percent from US$ 1.62 billion in 2006 to US$ 2.41 billion in 2016, with
highest at US$5.43 billion in 2013. The top 20 export sectors at HS 2-digit level (table
2.1) account for 84.55 percent of total export to Iran in TE 2016. The majority of
exports are reported in the sector 10-cereals, followed by 72-Iron and steel, 29-Organic
chemicals, 84-Machinery and mechanical appliances parts thereof. These four export
items constitute 49.29 percent of India’s total exports to Iran in TE 2016. In the case
of 9-Coffee, tea, mate and spices, 55-Man-made staple fibers, 85-Electrical and electronic
equipment and 23-Residues and waste from the food industries,
2.2 India’s major orientation of imports from Iran

As regards, the composition of India’s import from the Iran suggest that sector
27-mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, etc. dominate the import basket with
80.81 percent in TE 2016 followed by 29-Organic chemicals, 31- Fertilizers, 28- Inorganic
chemicals, 39- Plastics and articles thereof and 8-Edible fruit and nuts; peel of citrus
fruit or melons. The rest is accounted for with a significant share in India’s global
imports.
3. Analysis of trade intensity between India and Iran

Nevertheless, previous section says little about India’s strong export and commodity
sectors. In the light of an increasingly competitive international environment, it is
useful to examine India’s TII with respect to the Iran. The trade intensity across
various years shows varying values. Starting from 3.49 in 2006, it reaches its highest
to 3.88 in 2013 and lowest to 1.74 in 2011. In most of the year’s TII was above 3
except in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2016.
Conclusion and Potential Sector for Enhancing Bilateral Trade Relation
Bilateral trade relation between India and Iran has witnessed a robust rising
trend, with total trade between the two countries having stood at US$ 10.7 billion in
2016. At the same time, bilateral trade balance has been in Iran’s favour, with India’s
trade deficit with Iran amounting to US$ 5.8 billion in 2016, due to heavy dependence
of Indian industries and transport sector on mineral fuels, oils, distillation products.
The 12 sectors in which India possesses RCA in Iran market are primary commodities
and raw material. In the last 11 years, India has improved only in 1 export sectors to
Iran which lie predominantly in the primary commodities. The low values of India’s
trade intensity also indicate that India’s trade is not intense in Iran market. To enhance
bilateral trade relations, as also to address the high trade deficit, strategy to boost
trade relations with Iran would entail identification of potential items of India’s
exports. As can be seen from the result, apart from 10-cereals, 72- iron and steel and
29- organic chemical, India’s share in Iran’s major imports is still low, which highlights
the potential for enhancing these exports to Iran. The potential items of exports to
Iran would include: 9-Coffee, tea, mate and spices, 55-Man-made staple fibers, 30-
Pharmaceutical products, 73-Articles of iron or steel, 27-Mineral fuels, mineral oils
and products of their distillation, 12-Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, 38-Miscellaneous
chemical products, 23-Residues and waste from the food industries and 56-Wadding,
felt and non-woven’s; special yarns, twine, cordage, ropes and cable.
Through this exercise, Indian exporters can easily identify their areas of global
RCA in re-examining the feasibility of exporting such items which are not yet exported
to the Iran. Moreover, a high level political engagement between Iran and India will
push the relations in the positive direction and also provide a fresh fillip to the
economic relations.
References
1. Ansari, S. A., & Khan, S. (2011). India’s Trade Relations with China in the Era of Globalization.
Foreign Trade Review, 46(3), 48-88.
2. Balassa, B. (1977). Revealed’ Comparative Advantage Revisited: An Analysis of Relative
Export Shares of the Industrial Countries, 1953-1971. The Manchester School of Economic &
Social Studies, 45(4), 327-344.
Emerging Trends and Issues in Centre - State Fiscal & Financial

Relation
Angrej Singh*
The concept of Federalism implies that the centre and the units ought to be co-
sharers in the Management of Governmental Powers and also accepting equal
responsibility for benefit and loss. “The principles underlying our constitution are a
compromise between the demands of regionalism and local patriotism and the
requirements of unitarism” (Banerjee ). Though a number of critics and commentators
have described the constitution of India a combination of Federalism and unitarism,
a few of them to the extent of suggesting that it is more unitary than Federal. However,
a correct assessment of the constitution should leave no doubt in anybody’s mind
that the Indian Constitution is a Federal Constitution with some unique features of
unitarism. Under the constitution, the relations between the centre and the state
have been discussed. Part 11 and 12 of the constitution enumerates the legislative,
administrative and financial powers of the centre and the states comprising three
lists- union list, state list and concurrent list.
Centre State Fiscal and Financial Relation
The 14th Finance Commission has sown the seeds of a radical overhaul of the existing
fiscal relationship between the Centre and states. While the findings of the report are
still under wraps, a sneak peak shows that it has proposed that the states’ share in
central tax revenues be bumped up substantially to 42% from the existing level of 32%—
this is the largest increase ever. This will be the second seminal reordering initiated by
a Finance Commission. The 10th Finance Commission had dumped the earlier practice
of restricting sharing of resources only to a divisible pool made up of corporation tax
and central excise duties. Instead, it proposed pooling of all central tax revenues, with
the exception of surcharges and cesses. After the Constitution was duly amended, the
11th Finance Commission pegged the share of states at 29.5%, which has been upped
progressively by subsequent commissions to its present level of 32%.
There is no precedent of a government rejecting the recommendations of a Finance
Commission. So we can safely assume that this will go through. Before assessing the
implications, it would be worthwhile to keep in mind that transfer of resources from the
* Associate Professor & Head, Department of Economics, Upadhi P.G. College, Pilibhit U.P.
Centre to states takes place in two ways—statutorily and by executive order. The former
takes place through the Finance Commission; and the non-statutory transfers are effected
through the Planning Commission a body that was created by an executive order and
central ministries. The states have, naturally, always preferred the statutorily ordained transfers.
While statutory transfers are an entitlement protected by the Constitution, the residual
resources are implicitly discretional and provide the union government potential leverage
over states especially those with a different political hue.
The recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission seem to coincide with
another overhaul being attempted by the BJP-led National Democratic Alliance by
extinguishing the Planning Commission (though the structure of the new body that
has sprung up in its place seems, on first thoughts, a planning commission-lite).
This, in turn, was preceded by another move that accelerated the process of streamlining
centrally sponsored schemes and allowing states greater say in spending the budgets.
In his first Union Budget, finance minister Arun Jaitley increased transfers to states
for funding of centrally sponsored schemes by 50% to Rs.7.9 trillion. To be sure, the
first step in this direction, based on the Chaturvedi panel recommendations, was
initiated by his predecessor P. Chidambaram.
Practice of Fiscal Federalism in India
The subject of Centre-State financial relations in India has received much less
attention than it merits in academic research as well as in public discourse. This
book by two renowned specialists meets a long-felt need of practitioners and students
of federal finance. Rangarajan headed the Twelfth Finance Commission (TFC) and
Srivastava was a member of the panel. The TFC made path-breaking recommendations,
which not only ushered in an era of rule-based fiscal consolidation at the State level
but also provided the basis for reforms in the management of public debt, both at
the State and Central levels. Federal Constitutions everywhere are characterized by
an imbalance between the functional responsibilities and the financial powers at
different levels of government. The Indian Constitution, while expressly vesting the
Centre with greater powers of taxation, also provides for an institutional mechanism
— the Finance Commission — to determine the share of the States in the Central tax
revenues by way of correcting this imbalance.
When we have to discuss the ills and problems of our economy and the remedial
measures to be adopted for their solutions, we have to consider with great care and
caution union-state financial relationship. Despite the categorical declaration by the
Framers of the Indian constitution that India is a Federal State aiming at securing
“justice-social, economic, and political and equality of status and of opportunity”,
many of us have developed an instinct and habit of granting to the state a subordinate
status not only in the realm of legislative and administrative relation but also in
financial relation. Even in the Financial relation, the centre has assumed the role of
the Godfather trying to dictate to the state governments even when it is not required.
Under article 264 to 293, the provisions regarding the distribution and management
of financial power have been discussed. The theoretical foundation of the constitution
indicates the necessity and urgency of greater devolution of financial powers on the
states, but many other provisions have prescribed restriction and constraints. We
would like to point out a few indications as follows:
(i) In the management of financial affairs, the centre occupies a dominant position,
as it is financially stable and stronger than the State Governments. Majority
of the important taxes are allocated to the centre whereas areas of the state
taxes are comparatively low yielding. On many occasions Finance Commissions
have been underlying the need for the change in the tax structure.
(ii) The areas of taxation, where the centre is required to levy and collect taxes
and distribute among the states fairly and equitably are not properly managed.
Due to this, State Governments are being denied of their legitimate share in
the taxes levied and collected by the Central Government.
Issues: Centre-State Fiscal & Financial Relations
1. Development of Infrastructure in Different States: There is an emergent need for
the growth and facility of proper infrastructure in different states. It is hardly
necessary to point out that many poor and backward states have neither the
resources nor the proper technology for developing proper infrastructure. The
centre, despite full knowledge about the fact, has not taken necessary measures
in this direction. This clearly implies that such states would not be able to
improve their economic status unless the centre comes forward with help and
assistance.
2. Alleviation of poverty and unemployment: The major problem of present day
India is poverty and unemployment. Many states are poverty stricken and
the per centage of people living below the poverty line in such states is much
higher than the country’s average of 26.10 per cent.
The centre is not coming forward with a sense of determination to fight out
the poverty prevailing in different states of the country. Hardly necessary to
impress upon that only with a co-operative and collaborative effort on the
part of centre and the states, the menace of poverty and unemployment can
be eliminated.
3. Centre Projects in States: It has been noticed that the Central Government is
more interested in central projects. In every state there are a number of projects
working with the help and assistance of the centre and the states together. In
many of the cases, due to inability of the State Government to offer the matching
grants as required byu the provisions, the projects are not completed in time
and its ill effects have to be borne by the states. Almost all Finance Commissions
have offered suggestions that the central projects in the states must be completed
in time even though states are not in a position to offer matching share.
4. State’s Indebtedness: One of the major restraints in the Centre State relationship
is the problem of outstanding debt. Not only the poor and underdeveloped
states but even the developed and advanced states are confronted with the
problems of outstanding debts. The problem has wider effects both on economy
and the polity of the states. Many suggestions have been forwarded including
the suggestions of Finance Commissions that this problem should be taken
up seriously and earnestly. It has been suggested that the interest on the
debts should be as minimum as possible and the states which are unable to
repay the debts within time schedule should not be subjected to penalty
provision strictly and literally.
In this connection it would be relevant to point out that the centre should not
act as master or dictator, it should act as a friend, philosopher and guide to
the states. Our suggestion would be regular monitoring in the affairs of the
states’ economy by the central government with a view to motivating and
inspiring confidence in the states. On the other hand, the states too ought to
behave like younger partners and accept suggestions and corrective measures
to ensure adequacy, efficiency and discipline in their finance and economy.
Adjustments will have to be made in the light of changing pattern of the
economy. Legislative enactments on taxation cannot be made for all time to
come. After all, the relationship between the Central Government and the
States in a federal system is a dynamic one; and the problems arising out of
this relationship cannot be solved once for all any more than the problems of
life itself.”
References
1. Banerjee, D.N () Some Aspects of Indian Constitution. Government of India, Ministry of
Finance () 11th Finance Commission Report. Joint Memorandum submitted by the Government
of Bihar to the 12 th Finance Commmission.
2. Prof. Pylee M.V. (2000), An introduction to the Constitution of India, Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. p.245
3. Indira, Rajasthan, Indian statistical institute, New Delhi.
4. Vijay Jaiswal Indian Constitution New Delhi.
5. Sharma J.N (year). The Union and the States, Publisher.
Rebooting Centre-State Fiscal Relations
Anil Padmanabhan*
The 14th Finance Commission has sown the seeds of a radical overhaul of the
existing fiscal relationship between the Centre and states. While the findings of the
report are still under wraps, a sneak peak (mintne.ws/1FRg5iY ) shows that it has
proposed that the states’ share in central tax revenues be bumped up substantially
to 42% from the existing level of 32%—this is the largest increase ever. (The states
had lobbied the 13th Finance Commission, without success, for a 50% share in tax
revenues.)
This will be the second seminal reordering initiated by a Finance Commission.
The 10th Finance Commission had dumped the earlier practice of restricting sharing
of resources only to a divisible pool made up of corporation tax and central excise
duties. Instead, it proposed pooling of all central tax revenues, with the exception of
surcharges and cesses. After the Constitution was duly amended, the 11th Finance
Commission pegged the share of states at 29.5%, which has been upped progressively
by subsequent commissions to its present level of 32%.
There is no precedent of a government rejecting the recommendations of a Finance
Commission. So we can safely assume that this will go through. Before assessing the
implications, it would be worthwhile to keep in mind that transfer of resources from
the Centre to states takes place in two ways—statutorily and by executive order.
The former takes place through the Finance Commission; and the non-statutory
transfers are effected through the Planning Commission—a body that was created by
an executive order—and central ministries (funding of centrally sponsored schemes
implemented by states). The states have, naturally, always preferred the statutorily
ordained transfers. While statutory transfers are an entitlement protected by the
Constitution, the residual resources are implicitly discretional and provide the union
government potential leverage over states—especially those with a different political
hue.
The idea of the Finance Commission, a key institution in the federal governance
structure, was to address an asymmetry between the taxation powers and functional
responsibilities. While the Centre has greater taxation powers, the states, who oversee
law and order, public health, sanitation, agriculture, education and building of roads
* Deputy Managing Editor of Mint and Writes Every Week on the Intersection of Politics
and Economics.
and bridges, have far more functional responsibilities. The commission’s

recommendations are meant to bridge the gap between the resources of states and
the costs of funding its functional responsibilities.
The recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission seem to coincide with
another overhaul being attempted by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led National
Democratic Alliance (NDA) by extinguishing the Planning Commission (though the
structure of the new body that has sprung up in its place seems, on first thoughts, a
planning commission-lite).
This, in turn, was preceded by another move that accelerated the process of
streamlining centrally sponsored schemes and allowing states greater say in spending
the budgets. In his first Union Budget, finance minister Arun Jaitley increased transfers
to states for funding of centrally sponsored schemes by 50% to Rs.7.9 trillion. To be
sure, the first step in this direction, based on the Chaturvedi panel recommendations,
was initiated by his predecessor P. Chidambaram.
If we do connect the dots, it is apparent that a new paradigm is being etched in
centre-state relations. Especially, if we also include the idea of a single goods and
services tax (GST), which is likely to go through, bickering notwithstanding. With
greater fiscal resources being devolved to states, its their relationship with the Centre
is likely to be on a more even keel. This is because the discretion vested with the
union government will be severely diminished. This is something that should be
welcomed as political scores cannot be settled by compromising economic potential.
However, the downside of the move is that it presumes states do have the capacity
to manage the enhanced resources. The development record, especially after the initiation
of economic reforms since 1980 and its acceleration in 1991, is a matter of concern.
There is a visible growing regional imbalance as states like Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have taken the lead. This trend can only become more
pronounced once the new resource distribution pattern is put in place, unless steps
are taken to raise capacities.
While competitive federalism, a pet theme of the NDA, is a good idea, the downside
should be borne in mind. There have been scores of government committees that
have already drawn attention to the growing regional imbalances, some of which are
prompted by some states being exposed to sharp variations in climate and rainfall
or facing topographical disadvantages. Presumably, raising capacities of the laggard
states, will be one of the key agenda items of the Niti Aayog.
Particularly if the idea of inclusion—the primary means through which the growing
aspirations of the Indian populace can be addressed—is to be realized. This is because
education, skill development, health services, assistance to weaker sections of society,
means to teach the population to fish, fall mostly in the realm of states. In the final
analysis, it is clear that the new blueprint for centre-state fiscal relations is likely to
economically empower states. It is only logical that this will give them a greater say in
the polity at the national level, injecting a welcome new dynamic in centre-state relations.
References
1. Various departments of government of India.
Practice of Fiscal Federalism in India
M.R. Sreenivasa Murthy*
The subject of Centre-State financial relations in India has received much less
attention than it merits in academic research as well as in public discourse. This
book by two renowned specialists meets a long-felt need of practitioners and students
of federal finance. Rangarajan headed the Twelfth Finance Commission (TFC) and
Srivastava was a member of the panel. The TFC made path-breaking recommendations,
which not only ushered in an era of rule-based fiscal consolidation at the State level
but also provided the basis for reforms in the management of public debt, both at
the State and Central levels.
Imbalance
Federal Constitutions everywhere are characterised by an imbalance between the
functional responsibilities and the financial powers at different levels of government. The
Indian Constitution, while expressly vesting the Centre with greater powers of taxation,
also provides for an institutional mechanism — the Finance Commission — to determine
the share of the States in the Central tax revenues by way of correcting this imbalance. In
deciding on the devolution of taxes and the provision of grants, the Finance Commission
is required to address the vertical imbalance (between the Centre and the States) as also
the horizontal imbalance, the one between the States with varying fiscal capacities but
similar responsibilities in the provision of public services.
The Centre gets a little over 60 per cent of the total revenues. While the States
are thus left with less than 40 per cent of the revenue, their share in revenue expenditure
averaged about 57 per cent. At present, about 40 per cent of Central revenues (tax
and non-tax) is transferred to the States, and this includes the grants they get from
the Planning Commission and the Central Ministries.
Although the shareable pool has been enlarged (thanks to the 80 {+t} {+h}
Constitution Amendment) to include all Central taxes, the relative revenue accruals
of the Centre and the States have not seen any major change. As the authors note,
“there has been a long-term stability in the shares of the Centre and the States in the
combined tax revenues.”
Against this background of continuing resource asymmetry, most States achieved
the statutorily envisaged fiscal consolidation by 2006 itself. They brought down the
fiscal deficit to less than 3 per cent of the GDP and wiped out the revenue deficit as
mandated. But the Centre has not complied with the FRBM mandate; it has not been
able to control its revenue expenditure, particularly the outgo by way of subsidy.
What will be the impact of the proposed Goods and Services Tax (GST) on the
vertical imbalance? Naturally, this would depend on the pattern and the rate of the
GST that will be put in place. The authors clearly favour a dual rate, with the Central
and State levies applying concurrently to all goods and services. In their opinion,the
GST rates should be determined “taking into account the present level of revenues
of the two tiers from the concerned taxes” so as to ensure that the fiscal imbalance
does not increase. It is in the matter of correcting the “horizontal imbalances” that
several issues are contentious.
The fiscal capacities of the States as measured by the per capita income continue
to vary widely even after six decades of federal financial devolution and economic
planning. The disparity between the highest and the lowest is in the ratio of four-to-
one. As a consequence, there is an uneven provision of public services across different
States, including ‘merit goods’ such as education and health services.
This inter-State inequality on account of differences in fiscal capacity is further
compounded by two factors. The States with low income levels have a large population.
It means they have to transfer huge additional resources if there has to be any
impact at all. Further, some States have certain “cost disabilities” because of the
vastness of the area or other geographical and climatic factors. An explicit equalisation
methodology is yet to be developed to tackle this systemic problem.
The authors take the position that the Finance Commissions should, as a general
principle, provide for more grants in the scheme of transfer of funds. (The 13th
Finance Commission headed by Vijay Kelkar recommended only 15 per cent of the
total devolution as grants) But this is contrary to what most of the States want —
they “overwhelmingly prefer revenue-sharing.” Finding a suitable and optimal mix
of these two modes of revenue transfer is indeed a ticklish problem, as acknowledged
by the authors.
Fiscal Deficits
The book contains a useful discussion on the dynamics of debt accumulation and
fiscal deficits in India. The authors point out that, in the era of rising interest rates,
the debt burden of the Central and State governments will become unsustainable
unless the growth of GDP is maintained at a level higher than the interest rate.
The chapters offering a comparative analysis of the system of federal fiscal transfers
in Canada and Australia with that prevailing in India go to enhance the value of the
book. Although the book is a collection of papers published over the years (with
some revision), it reads like a single treatise with an integral framework, what with
its analysis of the fundamental principles governing the financial relations between
the Centre and the States. Those engaged in academic research and the practitioners
of federal finance will find it particularly useful.
References
1. Finance Commission of India
Fiscal Federalism in India
Md. Mahmood Alam*
Introduction
The Financial relation between the centre and the state governments in the Federal
Structure of government provides the distribution of powers to raise revenues for
them and certain constitutional binding for revenue distribution.However,there are
some specific problems that have to be solved within the federal system In determining
the basis of division and the amount that should be divided between union and
states.The fiscal relation between the union and the states is provided in the
constitution.The Indian constitution gives a detail method of distribution of financial
resources between centre and states. It makes a broad distribution between the power
to levy a tax and the power to divide the proceeds of a tax.In this way we can say
that the legislature which levies a tax is not necessarily the authority which retains
the proceeds of a tax. The constitution gives the central government through
parliament,exclusive powers to levy taxes on many items mentioned in the union
list. In the same way,the state legislative assembly enjoys similar power with regard
to levy tax on items mention in the state list.In summary the constitution of India
being federal in structure divides all power (legislative,executive and financial)between
the centre and the states.
The centre and states are related in three ways namely-
A. Legislative Relations
B. Administrative Relations,and
C. Financial Relations
Of all the three relations the Financial Relation between centre and states is part
of our study.Financial Relation i.e fiscal Federalism explains the mechanism for financial
distribution of resources between the cenre and states.The Indian constitution makes
provision for centre and states share in revenues through Article 268-293,In 12th schedule
of the constitution.
* Associate Professor, Department of Economics, D.S College, Aligarh, U.P.

1. Sources of Revenue of Central Government

A. Sources of tax revenue for the central government
It includes taxes on certain items mentioned in the union list in the 7 th schedule
like income tax,service tax,excise duties(now GST).
B. Sources of Non-Tax Revenue for the Central Government

It includes,
1. Borrowings
2. Revenue from government undertakings.
3. Income from government properties.
4. Interest earnings on loans and advances.
5. Gifts, donations, grants and aid etc
6. Fees (excluding court fees other than the Supreme Court)
2. Sources of Revenue of State Government
A. Sources of Tax Revenue for States
Taxes on the items contained in the state list of the 7th schedule of the constitution
which includes land revenue,taxes on agricultural income sales tax(now GST,SGST)etc.
B. Sources of Non–Tax Revenue for the State Government

It includes,
1. Fee taken in all courts except Supreme Court.
2. Income of government undertakings.
3. Income of state owned properties.
4. Borrowings from Central government under article 293.
5. Royalty from mines,forest etc.
6. Grants-in-Aid.
7. Share of states in income tax excise duty (now part of GST) through
recommendations of Finance Commissions.
Objective
1. Division of tax proceeds.
2. There should be equal division of resources between centre and state.
3. Adequate infrastructure should be developed for tax collection.
4. Sharing of some more taxes with state government.
5. Provision of taxation for rich agricultural farmers.
Explanation
The Indian Constitution appoints Finance Commissions for five years which
recommends the criteria and amount of momey to be divided between centre and
states in three ways.(1) Share in taxes and duties( 2)Loans and advances,and(3) Grants
–in –aid.But only about 33% of transfer take the route of Finanace Commission from
centre to stares.The rest is in the hand of centre which give the funds through NITI
Ayog and other discretionary methods.Therefore,thre is always scope for arbitrary
distribution with backward states.The revenue raising capacity of states are also
restricted.Therefore,resources distribution through Finance Commission should be
the maximum to avoid discrimination in resourse distribution.
Conclusion
From the above discussion it is clear that the Indian Government and the Indian
constituition undestandts the need to change the criteria in Finance Commission for
the division of resources from centre to states.The role of states liability and resources
should be clearly explained to the centre.Both centre and State has definite role to
play for the strengthening of our democracy and nation building.For which cordial
and just resourse distributioun is mandatory and necessary condition.
References
1. Imperial journal of Interdisciplinary research,vol2 issue 6-2016.
2. Finance Commission Reports.
3. Sharma J N -The Union and the States.
4. Avasthi A.P, Indian government, politics .Narain Agarwal Publicatyons Agra
5. Prest, W. The economics of Federal State Finance, Adelaide 1955.
6. Online journals,news papers,yojna.
7. Mishra and Puri, Indian Economy, Himalaya Publications, 2016.
8. B.Mishra–Public Economics.
9. R.L Bhatia –Public Finance.
10. Economic Times.
Fourteenth Finance Commission-Implications for Fiscal

Federalism in India
Pratima Gupta*
The Fourteenth Finance Commission (FFC) was appointed on 2ndJanuary, 2013under

the chairmanship of Dr. Y. V. Reddy, the former RBI Governor. In addition to the
primary objectives mentioned above, the terms of reference for the commission sought
suggestions regarding the principles which would govern the quantum and distribution
of grants-in-aid (non-plan grants to states), the measures, if needed, to augment
State government finances to supplement the resources of local government and to
review the state of the finances, deficit and debt conditions at different levels of
government.
The Fourteenth Finance Commission (FFC) has made far-reaching changes in tax
devolution that will move the country toward greater fiscal federalism, conferring
more fiscal autonomy on the states, This will be enhanced by the FFC-induced
imperative of having to reduce the scale of other central transfers to the states. In
other words, states will now have greater autonomy on the revenue and expenditure
fronts. The numbers also suggest that this renewed impulse toward fiscal federalism
need not be to the detriment of the center’s fiscal capacity. A collateral benefit of
moving from Central Assistance to States (CAS) to FFC transfers is that. overall
progressivity will improve.
The far-reaching recommendations of the FFC, along with the creation of the
NITI Aayog, will further the Government’s vision of cooperative and competitive
federalism.
Objectives/Purpose of Finance Commission
The Finance Commission is required to recommend the distribution of the net
proceeds of taxes of the Union between the Union and the States (vertical devolution);
and.
At the next level, the allocation between the States of the respective shares of
such proceeds is decided (horizontal devolution).
* Associate Professor, Department of Economics, RBS College, Agra, U.P.

Methodology
The study is based on secondary data based in which reference, tables and content
collected through various reports of finance Commission.
The establishment of NITI Aayog and acceptance of recommendations of Fourteenth
Finance Commission (FFC) in 2015 resulted in a paradigm shift in fiscal federalism
in our country. The origins of NITI Aayog could be traced to the disenchantment
with the Planning Commission on two important fronts, viz, the perception that it
was not able to capture what has been described as the new realities of macro-
economic management at the national level, and that it has not been conducive to
sound fiscal relations between the Union and the States. The Fourteenth Finance
Commission (FFC) submitted its report in December 2014, a few days ahead of the
announcement about establishment of NITI Aayog.
The second relates to grants-in-aid in the recommendations of Finance Commission,
which are in the nature of transfer of funds from Union to States, unlike devolution
which is sharing of funds.
The third channel is transfer of resources by Union to States outside the award of
Finance Commission, essentially by the Union Government which in the past was,
on the advice of Planning Commission.
New Challenges and New Agenda
There are new challenges ahead for fiscal federalism in India, and there are
opportunities too.
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) introduces a new dynamic to Union State
relations. It demands a level of cooperation between Union and all States that is
unparalleled in our history. The Good and Services Tax Council consisting of the
Union and States’ Finance Ministers is vested with the powers to make recommendations
to the Union and the States on relevant matters. Virtually, tax structure is agreed in
GST council and the Union and States are expected to act on that basis. The weight
for a State does not vary based on size or economic strength. The remedies in case
of non compliance with recommendations and disputes on interpretation are not,
understandably very clear at this stage. In brief, a new dynamic, has given birth to
a new challenge; and fruits of success are high and chances of frictions not low,
especially when more than two third of state revenues comes from indirect taxes
and the right to taxation will now be shared with the Union.
Major Recommendations of 14th Finance Commission
The FFC has submitted its recommendations for the period 2015-16 to 2020-21.
They are likely to have major implication for center-state relations, for budgeting by,
and the fiscal situation of, the centre and the states. Some of the major recommendations
are as follows;
1. The FFC has radically enhanced the share of the states in the central divisible
pool from the current 32 percent to 42 per cent which is the biggest ever
increase in vertical tax devolution. The last two Finance Commissions viz.
Twelfth (period 2005-10) and Thirteenth (period 2010-15) had recommended a
state share of 30.5 per cent (increase of 1 percent) and 32 per cent (increase of
1.5 percent), respectively in the central divisible pool.
Criteria for Fiscal Transfer
Vertical Balance
On the revenue side, there has been stability in the relative shares of the Union
and States, after taking into account the Central transfers to States. However, the
composition and character of these transfers have changed over time.
Horizontal Balance
To take a comprehensive view of these commonalities and special characteristics
of individual States while making our assessment and recommendations.
Table 1: Amount of Funds to be Transferred

Rs. 1 Kh. Cr 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 Total
Tax devolution 5.79 6.68 7.72 8.93 10.35 39.48
Grants from FC 0.88 1.00 1.03 1.11 1.33 5.37
Aggregate 6.68 7.69 8.75 10.04 11.68 44.85
Horizontal Distribution
Table 2: % Share of Various States

% 14 th FC 13 th FC
Andhra Pradesh 4.31 6.94

Arunachal Pradesh 1.37 0.33
Assam 3.31 3.63
Bihar 9.67 10.92
Chhattisgarh 3.08 2.47
Goa 0.37 0.27
Gujarat 3.08 3.04
Haryana 1.08 1.05
Himachal Pradesh 0.71 0.78
Jammu & Kashmir 1.85 1.55
Jharkhand 3.14 2.80
Karnataka 4.71 4.33
Kerala 2.50 2.34
Madhya Pradesh 7.55 7.12
Maharashtra 5.52 5.20
Manipur 0.62 0.45
Meghalaya 0.64 0.41
Mizoram 0.46 0.27
Nagaland 0.50 0.31
Odisha 4.64 4.78
Punjab 1.58 1.39
Rajasthan 5.50 5.85
Sikkim 0.37 0.24
Tamil Nadu 4.02 4.97
Telangana 2.44 —
Tripura 0.64 0.51
Uttar Pradesh 17.96 19.68
Uttarakhand 1.05 1.12
West Bengal 7.32 7.26
All States 100.00 100.00
Balancing Fiscal Autonomy and Fiscal Space
Conclusion
The main conclusions are that the FFC has made far-reaching changes in tax
devolution that will move the country toward greater fiscal federalism, conferring
more fiscal autonomy on the states. This will be enhanced by the FFC-induced
imperative of having to reduce the scale of other central transfers to the states. In
other words, states will now have greater autonomy on the revenue and expenditure
fronts. The numbers also suggest that this renewed impulse toward fiscal federalism
need not be to the detriment of the centre’s fiscal capacity. A collateral benefit of
moving from CAS to FFC transfers is that overall progressivity will improve.
To be sure, there well be transitional costs entailed by the reduction in CAS
transfers. But the scope for dislocation has been minimized because the extra FFC
resources will flow precisely to the states that have the largest CAS financed schemes.
In sum, the far-reaching recommendation of the FFC, along with the creation of
the NITI Aayog, will further the Government’s vision of cooperative and competitive
federalism.
References
1. Agarwal, Pratibha. Fiscal Federalism in India : Impacts of Union Transfers on State Finances,
New Delhi : New Century Publications, 2012. “Finance Commissions in India : An Assessment”,
www.rbi.org.in.publication.
2. Fourteenth Finance Commission Final Report, Vol. 1, Chapter 11, Grants-in-aid.
3. Fourteenth Finance Commission Final Report, Vol. 1, Chapter-8, Sharing of Union Tax Revenue.
Financial Interrelationship in India: An Analysis
V.B. Chaurasia* & Manjeet Singh**
Introduction
India is a Union of twenty-nine States and seven Union territories having federal
structure with a clear distinction between the Centre and the States functions and
resources. When we analyze the distribution of revenue between the Union and the
States, we see that Centre has superiority over the states regarding resources and
States are much dependent on the Centre to get revenue. Since the functions and the
activities of sub-national government bodies are more than their resources, States
are dependent on the mercy of the Union government. Although, there is a provision
in the Indian constitution to strengthen financial relation between the Centre and
the States but there is always a conflict of interest between them.The Centre government
has made many provisions to improve the financial position of the State’s governments
on the recommendations of the various Finance Commissions set up at time to time,
has to play significant role in financial allocation.
Table 1: Revenue Resources of the Centre Table 2: Expenditure of the Centre
Source: Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
* Associate Professor, DAV PG College, Dehradun, U.K.

** Research Scholar HNBGU Srinagar, Garhwal, U.K.
There is clear division of fiscal power between the Union and the States, in the
7th schedule of Indian constitution. All subjects of list-1 belong to the Union and
Union has the power to levy taxes on these subjects. According to the government
data, the main sources of revenue of the Central government are Corporate tax,
Income tax, Custom duty, Excise duty, Taxes on the capital gain etc. these are the
major sources of revenue of the Central government and it can be seen by the following
pie chart.
Direct and indirect taxes are the main source of tax revenue of the Central
government. Direct tax contribution is increasing regularly for the past few years.
The proportion ofdirect taxes rose to 51.05 percent in 2015-16;. On the other hand,the
share of indirect taxes gradually decreasing for the past few years. The major indirect
taxes are excise duty, custom duty, service tax thatcontributes the major proportions
in the total revenue of the central government.
In the 2nd list of seventh schedule, the power of tax collection is given to State
government. These are the subjects on those States have the direct control to levy
and collect the tax. These subjects are namely, land revenue, taxes on agriculture
income, taxes on luxurious, capital tax, excise on alcoholic liquors and narcotics etc.
But these taxes contributes very low amount of revenue to the State government.
Distribution of Revenue
Central government has more taxable items at its disposal, There are many taxes
on which Union government has the residuary power to levy and collect the taxes.
The tax rate on these items varies time to time by the Union government. Although,
there are many taxes, that are collected by the Union government and shared with
the States, the distribution may be wholly or partially depends upon the nature of
the tax. The revenue of the State governments is less than their expenditure and
States are bothered to get loan from the Central government to fulfill their expenditure
requirements. A broad criteria has been used, these are i.e. population, income distance,
forest cover and area.
Table 3: Criteria for Horizontal Devolution to the States (in percentage)

Criteria Weights
13thFC 14thFC
Population (1971) 25 17.5
Demographic changes (2011) 0 10
Fiscal capacity/ Incomedistance 47.5 50
Area 10 15
Forest Cover 0 7.5
Fiscal discipline 17.5 0
Total 100 100
Source: Report of the Thirteenth FC p. 122 and Fourteenth Finance Commission p. 95

The Central government has to concern itself with the heavy expenditure on
items such as banking system, railways, foreign trade, defense etc. While the States
are concern more on developmentaland public welfare functions. These are irrigation,
power, road transport, education, promotion of primary sectors like agriculture, fisheries
etc. Each item needs huge expenditure both at Centre and State level. The revenue
of the Central government has increased faster than all state governments together.
State’sexpenditure is more than its revenue and to fulfill this gap of revenue and
expenditure, the Centre government transfers resources to the States according to
the recommendation of the finance commission.
The Government of India always prudent to reform in financial structure of both
the Centre and the States. This has been recognized that, there is a disparity between
the Centre andthe State in fiscal division. Union government has taken many steps
forward to mitigate this disparity and fiscal spillover. To reduce this disparity, Finance
Commission is an apex body.Apart from the finance commission, government of
India also constituted many committees to analyze the financial position of the Centre
and the States. Recently,government of India move towards the new tax regime Goods
and Services tax (GST), which is considered to the biggest tax reform since independence
of India.Almost all the previous indirect taxes like; sales tax, excise duty, entertainment
tax, entry tax, etc. are subsumed in single tax. These all indirect taxes were the
major sources of revenue of the Centre and the State governments. Although, many
items are out of GST basket, such as petroleum, natural gas, liquor and stamp duty.
But after all these changes,the financial position of the government will be better,
vibrant and transparent. As per the recommendations of GST council,the upper limit
of tax will be 28 percent and four tax slabs are recommended for the different items
by the GST council; these are 5 percent, 12 percent, 18 percent and 28 percent. As
per the 101th constitutional amendment act, article 246(A) is inserted and three tax
lawswere included.These are CGST, SGST and IGST. This law also gives residuary
powers to the Centre. According to this law, State government will have to pass the
same law in their respective States. In this new tax regime State government can be
imposed the service tax on various items, which was not in their subject earlier and
the Central government can also impose sales tax on various items which was not in
their subject earlier. Under the same provision another article 269(A) related with
inter-state trade.According to this provision, tax will be levy and collected by the
Central government and it will be shared with the related States. This type of revenue
transfer will improve the financial condition of the States.
This reform in tax regime will boost the tax revenue of the States in the long run.
But it will also reduce some tax revenue of the State governments in the short
period.Although, the whole tax system is dual tax system i.e. the Centre and the
States will levy the taxes on goods and services, which are under the GST regime
and tax will be divided between the Centre and the States.GST will also lead more
accuracy, accountability and transparencyin the tax system.
Conclusion
There has always conflict and tension between the Union and the States in fiscal
allocations. The new tax regime of GST will enhance the revenue of States and will
make them self-sufficient.There may be some loses in total tax revenue in short run
due to various tax slabs of GSTs, but in the long run, it will boost the tax revenue
and overall income of the both the Centre and the States. Besides, the existing criteria
of resource transfer from Centre to the States, the allocation of resources should be
on the basis of backwardness and HDI ranks of the States. More resources should be
given to the economically and socially weak states. The financial position of the
States and the Centre is not efficient; there is high tax burden on the consumers due
to cascading effect.This cascading effect of tax increases the prices of the commodities,
which is ultimately paid by a consumer. This high tax burden reduces the real
purchasing power of the consumers, which reduces the aggregate demand and total
revenue of the Centre and the States.There should be tax cap on the basis of Laffer
curve to increase the tax revenue of the Centre and the States. These provisions will
make Centre –State financial inter-relationship more equitable and will move to achieve
cooperative federalism in the country.
References
1. Balvir, A. (1995), “Adapting Federalism to India: Multilevel and Asymmetric Innovations”,
in Balvir Arora and Douglas Verney (Ed), Multiple Identities in a Single State, Konarak
Publishers, New Delhi
2. Sivanna, A. N., Devendra BabuM., SekherMadhushree and Charles NelsonC. (2002).
“Decentralised Governance and Planning: A Comparative Study in Three South Indian
States”. Macmillan Press, New Delhi
3. Chanda, A. K. (1965), Federalism in India, George Allen and Unwin, London
4. B. Amaresh (1988), First Award of the Ninth Finance Commission – An Appraisal”, Economic
and Political Weekly, December 3.
5. Devendra, B. M. (2002),” Eleventh Finance Commission’s Recommendations and the Local
Bodies: Impact across the States. Management in Government.”
A Comparative Study of Financial Literacy among Medical

Professionals and Educationalist in Jhansi City of
Bundelkhand Region
Priyanka Agarwal*, Mohd. Shamim Ansari** & Rajat Kamboj***
Introduction
Concept of Financial Literacy
Financial Literacy has been defined as ‘a combination of awareness, knowledge,
skill, attitude and behavior necessary to make sound financial decisions and ultimately
achieve individual financial wellbeing’. (Atkinson and Messy, 2012)
The above given definition clearly brings out the elements of financial literacy
which is a combo pack of awareness of various available options where a person can
deploy his funds and from what sources he can make it through which he can improve
his financial wellbeing. Thus financial literacy is a dynamic process of an individual’s
own saving and investment pattern where he regularly updates himself about the
available investment avenues after adjusting risk and reaping returns.
Financial Literacy has also been defined as ‘the ability to make informed judgments
and to take effective decisions regarding the use and management of money’. (Noctor,
et.al, 1992)
Study done by Volpe (2002) has revealed that women are less knowledgeable as
compared to males in terms of Personal Finance handling.
Importance of Financial Literacy among Highly Educated Class
It has been seen that financial literacy is related to education level and experience
related factors. It was also found that Men are more enthusiastic and confident in
handling personal finance as compared to women. (Volpe, 2002)
* Research Scholar, AKTU, Lucknow

** Associate Professor, AMU, Aligarh
*** Research Scholar, Management, Jiwaji University, Gwalior.
Bundelkhand Region of U.P.
Bundelkhand Region of UP is a backward region with 7 districts falling under its
jurisdictions, viz. Jhansi, Jalaun, Banda, Hamirpur, Lalitpur, Mahoba, Chitrakoot. The
literacy rate of Bundelkhand is quite low as per the All India literacy rate claimed
by Census 2011. Also with this the major population of the region is engaged in
unorganized sector for earning a livelihood for themselves. The usual status of
employability in this region in formal sector is found in Government Sector majorly.
But still the private sector is expanding at a good rate.
Jhansi City is one of the major districts of Bundelkhand Region with 8 blocks.
The whole Bundelkhand very well depicts the condition of Jhansi City. It is the city
of the Great Maharani Laxmibai famous for her bravery and valor shown in 1857
revolt. The city is famous for its MLB Medical College and Bundelkhand University.
Thus there is quite availability of highly educated class present here. Thus medical
professionals and educationalists are quite major pillars of Jhansi’s formal sector.
But still the question which arises is that what is the saving investment behavior of
individuals and how much knowledge does they posses in dealing in financial avenues.
Statement of Problem
As we know that medical professionals and educationalists are regarded as highly
educated persons but still what is their financial awareness about their saving and
investment behavior is still a dilemma. Studies reveal that people in India prefer to
save but where the basic problem is where to channelize these savings is a great
concern. Thus this paper attempts to bring out the awareness of financial literacy
among these two groups of professionals and make a comparative study on it.
1. To analyze the level of financial awareness towards saving modes and investment
avenues among the educationalist and medical professionals in Jhansi City.
2. To make a comparative analysis of financial literacy among educationalists
and medical professional
Methodology Used
Sampling Technique Convenience Sampling

Targeted Population 1. Medical Professional
2. Educationalists
Sample Size 70
Break up of Sample 50 % weight assigned to each sector (i.e. 35 medical professional
and 35 educationalist)
Data Collection Method/Tools 1. Primary: Questionnaire to be used.
2. Secondary: Journals, govt. websites, etc to be used
Statistical Analysis SPSS software to be used for analysis i.e descriptive statistics to
analyse the data.
Analysis
Table 1: Distribution of Respondents According to their Investment Avenues
Doctors Educationalist
Investment Frequency Total Percentage Frequency Total Percentage Rank- Rank
Avenues Doctors Educatio-
nalists
Equity 3 35 8.571429 4 35 11.42857 6 6
Bonds 0 35 0 0 35 0 8 9
Mutual Funds 1 35 2.857143 0 35 0 7 9
Gold 8 35 22.85714 5 35 14.28571 4 5
Bank 27 35 77.14286 20 35 57.14286 1 2
Post Office 0 35 0 0 35 0 8 9
Real Estate 6 35 17.14286 1 35 2.857143 5 7
Government
Securities 0 35 0 1 35 2.857143 8 7 .
Provident
Fund 25 35 71.42857 8 35 22.85714 2 3
Pension Plans 0 35 0 6 35 17.14286 8 4
Insurance 12 35 34.28571 26 35 74.28571 3 1
Chit Funds 0 35 0 0 35 0 8 9
Liquidity 0 35 0 0 35 0 8 9
Source: Authors own calculation

Findings
 It has been found that Insurance is the most common Investment avenue
preferred by both doctors and educationalist.
 Bonds, Mutual funds and post office saving schemes are less preferred for
Investment by educationalist and doctors.
 Educationalist have more knowledge of investment for saving to move out
from home
 Doctors have more knowledge of investment for buying a home.
Conclusion
After the study it is conclude that insurance sector is preferred for investment
and professionals like to invest in Insurance as compared to other investment avenues.
Doctors and educationalist knowledge about investment differs and investment avenues
selection is also different they make investment in different areas.
References
1. Atkinson, A. and Messy, F-A. (2012), Measuring Financial Literacy: Results of the OECD/
International Network on Financial Education (INFE) Pilot Study”, OECD Working Papers
on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 15, OECD Publishing.
GST Reforms in India: A New Pathway
Priyanka Gaur* & Preeti Mishra**
Introduction
India has a federal form of government; the main essence of federal form of
government is that the Centre and the State Governments are independent of each
other along with sources of raising adequate revenues to disseminate their functions.
So, for the successful operation of the federalform of government, financial independence
and revenue adequacy form the backbone. Fiscal federalism helps governmental
organization to realize cost efficiency by economies of scale in providing public
services, which correspond most closely to the preference of the people. This helps
to create a unified common market, which promotes greater economic activity. Major
objectives of the study are as follow:
• To study scope of GST
• To understand the concept of GST
• To examine pros and cons of goods and services tax
• To study challenges before GST in India
Meaning and Types
GST is a value-added tax levied at all points in the supply chain, with credit
allowed for any tax paid on input acquired for use in making the supply. It would
apply to both goods and services in a comprehensive manner, with exemptions restricted
to a minimum.
In keeping with the federal structure of India, it is proposed that the GST will be
levied concurrently by the central government (CGST) and the state government
(SGST). It is expected that the base and other essential design features would be
common between CGST and SGSTs for individual states. The inter-state supplies
within India would attract an integrated GST (IGST), which is the aggregate of CGST
and the SGST of the destination state.
* Lecturer Economics, Government Degree College Samthar Jhansi, M.P.

** Associate Professor, Department of Management, BBDNITM.
It actually accelerates the reconfiguration of centre-state fiscal relations already

underway. Once in place—presumably next year, if not by the deadline of 1 April—
it will make states a key stakeholder in the national economy. While the Constitution
of India always saw them this way, in practice, the state governments were rarely
equal partners.
This is not to undermine the significance of the tax reform, by far the most
dramatic since the country attained Independence. Instead, it is to argue that it is
considerably more significant than just putting in place an efficient tax regime.
A central feature of the new tax framework—defined by the notion of ‘One Nation,
One Tax’—is the creation of the GST Council. The way it has been designed, the
Union government has only one-third say in decisions taken by the GST Council,
while the rest is accounted for by the states; and all decisions have to be carried by
a three-fourth majority.
In other words, now onwards, the centre and states are enjoined in a three-
legged race—one which they can win only if they coordinate their actions. In short,
their future destinies depend on how they cooperate with each other.
We must remember this comes in the backdrop of another game-changing move
initiated by the 14th Finance Commission (FFC). Championing the idea that one size
cannot fit all—the conventional economic practice wherein uniform central schemes were
proffered to states—FFC decided that the spending decision should be in the hands of
the states, implicitly accepting that they are mature enough to take such decisions.
Accordingly, it bumped up the share of states from 32% to 42% of net Union tax
receipts, did away with tied aid, wherein states had to subscribe to the conditionality
prescribed by the Union government and allowed states conforming to good fiscal
records greater leeway to borrow from the markets to fund their budgets. By accepting
the FFC’s recommendation, the Union government has assured, for the first time,
public expenditure is now decisively in the jurisdiction of states; they get to influence
their own fiscal destinies.
This is only fair, given that the states, which oversee law and order, public health,
sanitation, agriculture, education and building of roads and bridges, have far more
functional responsibilities than the centre.
Purists argue, rightly so, that maybe this transition to greater fiscal autonomy
could have been staggered, given that many states do not have the capacities to
absorb such large expenditure capability. But then, is there ever a right time; if you
have to take the plunge, might as well be at the deep end of the pool as it were.
It is significant that the green signal to the Constitutional amendment by Parliament
comes just a fortnight ahead of India’s 70th year of Independence. It is a big milestone
for India, which has retained its sovereignty and, more importantly, emerged as a
beacon for other aspiring democracies.
Research Methodology
The research paper is an attempt of exploratory research, based on the secondary
data sourced from journals, Internet, articles, previous research paper. Looking into
requirements of the objectives of the study the research design employed for the
study is of descriptive type. Keeping in view of the set objectives, this research
design was adopted to have greater accuracy and in depth analysis of the research
study. Available secondary data was extensively used for the study. The investigator
procures the required data through secondary survey
Financial Relation between Centre and State in India
The financial relation between centre and state is provided in the Indian constitution.
The constitution grants the Indian parliament exclusive power to levy taxes on items
mentioned in the union list while the state legislature levy taxes on items mentioned
in the state list the residuary power of taxation belongs to the centre.
Besides the exclusive power of taxation of the union and the states government,
there are three other categories of taxes -
1. Taxes levied by the union but collected by and appropriated by the states.
Stamp duties on bill on exchange, excise duty on medicinal and toilet preparation
fall in the category.
2. Certain duties are levied and collected by the union but the net proceed of
such taxes are distributed among the states according to the collection within
its territory e.g. succession duties estate duties etc.
3. Certain taxes are levied and collected by centre but the proceeds are distributed
between the centre and state, e.g. taxes on non- agriculture items and excise
duty on item in the union list except medicinal and toilet preparations
Taxes Levied and Collected by the Centre

1. Central Excise duty
2. Additional Duties of Customs (commonly known as CVD)
3. Special Additional Duty of Customs (SAD)
4. Service Tax
Taxes Levied and Collected by the State

1. State VAT
2. Central Sales Tax
3. Entertainment and Amusement Tax (except when levied by the local bodies)
4. Taxes on lotteries, betting, and gambling
5. Luxury Tax
6. Octroi
Conclusion
GST will be a comprehensive indirect tax on manufacturer, sales as well as
consumption of goods and services throughout the country; it will replace taxes
collected by centre and state government. Thus it will remove service tax central
excise, VAT, and other taxes levied locally and by state governments. Consequently
those bodies are set to lose a part of revenue. Implementing the goods and services
tax (GST) will pose the biggest challenge in the centre, state fiscal relation. The
major challenge is that so far centre used to levy its tax, the state use to levy its tax
the jurisdiction was clear after constitution amendment, the tax power virtually cross
each other. They have to agree on rates, the category to be excluded. Tax power are
based on recommendation of the GST council, now the centre and state have to
determine the rates together and they also have to work together on its implementation.
So there would be serious problem for the first time there possibility for great success
or great difficulties in centre state relationship.
Keeping in mind, the other probable side effects of the GST rollout and
implementation such as wrong cash flow, accounting, etc. some industry experts
worry that the tax implementation turmoil could force investors to leave the country
and drying up the foreign direct investments (FDIs).
References
1. Dr. Indira Rajasthan Indian statistical institute, New Delhi.
2. Akauntan Nasional. Hanefah, M., Ariff, M., & Kasipillai, J. (2001). Compliance Costs of
Small and Medium Enterprises. Journal of Australian Taxation, 4(1), 73-97.
3. Avashi. A.P Indian government, Politics Narain, aggrwal, Agra.2001
4. Avasthi, A.P, Indian Government and Politics, Narain Agarwal, Agra, 2001.
5. Badyal, J.S, Indian Government and Politics, Raj Publishers, Jalandhar, 2013.
6. Fadia, B.L, Indian Government and Politics, Sahitya Bhawan Publication, Agra, 2002
7. Ghai, U.R, Indian Government and Politics, New Academic Publishing, Jalandhar, 2002. ?
Johari, J.C, Indian Government and Politics, Vishal Publication, 1979. Kanchan Assistant
Professor in Economics Department S.G.G.S Khalsa College Mahilpur. Punjab.
8. Goblin, L.F. ‘Federation and Finance’ in the Economic Record, Melbourne 1926..
9. Godwin, M., & Sandford, C. (1983). Simplifying VAT for Small Traders. Accounting and
Business Research, 13(52), 279-288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00014788.1983.9729765
Problems of Centre State Fiscal Relations in India
Manoj Kumar*
In the context of Centre-State relations, an assessment of the federal Structure of

government in the Constitution is essential. In fact a federal structure is a design of
government in which there is division of power on territorial basis between the
Centre and States. This limits the concentration of power and authority in the hands
of only one government as the country’s powers get divided between the Centre
and States.
Concept of Indian Federation and Centre-State Relations
The Indian Constitution provides for a federal system of government but the
term ‘federation’ has nowhere been used in the Constitution. On the other hand,
Article 1 of the Indian Constitution describes ‘India, that is Bharat’ as a ‘Union of
States’, an expression which implies two things. Firstly, unlike the ‘USA the Indian
federation is not the result of an agreement between the units. Secondly, the units
have no right to secede from the federation. In fact the States of the Indian federation
have no independent existence of their own. Parliament can alter their names and
territories without their consent.
The Constituent Assembly members were convinced that a vast country like India
could not be efficiently governed from a single Centre and thought it desirable to
adopt a federal system of government. The diversity of race, religion, and language
also impelled them to go for a federal policy, because it could ensure unity of the
country which assuring autonomy in matters of local importance. it may be observed
that the Indian Constitution does not possess all the features of a typical federation
and makes many deviations. In view of these deviations the critics have challenged
the federal character of the Constitution, and described it as ‘ quasi-federal’. For
example, K.C. Where says: “The Indian Union is a unitary State with subsidiary
federal features rather than a federal State with subsidiary unitary features.” 5 Granville
Austin agrees with this view when he describes the Indian federation as a new kind
of federalism to meet India’s peculiar needs.
* Assistant Professor, Commerce, Government Degree College, Nadha Bhoor Sahaswan,

Budaun (U.P.)
This federal character was given by the framers of the Constitution primarily for
two reasons:
(a) a federal state is more effective than a unitary one when the size of its territory
is as large as India.
(b) a federal state is more effective than a unitary one when diverse groups of its
popu-lation live in a discrete territorial concentration as in India.
For resolving the controversy regarding the true nature of the Indian federal
System, it is desirable to understand as to what is implied by a federal system and
what are its special features. State governments are not agents of the Central
governments nor do they draw their authority from them. On the other hand both
the Central and State governments draw their authority from the Constitution.
The distribution of the tax-revenue between the Union and the States stands as
follows.
(1) Taxes belonging to the Union exclusively: Customs, Corporation Tax, Taxes
on capital value of assets of individuals and companies, Surcharge on Income
Tax, Fees in respects of matters in the Union List.
(2) Taxes belonging to the States Exclusively: Land Revenue, Stamp duty except
in documents included in the Union List, Succession duty, Estate duty, and
Income tax on agricultural land taxes on passengers and goods carried on
inland waterways taxes on lands and buildings, mineral rights.
(3) Duties Levied by the Union but Collected and Appropriated by the States:
Stamp duties on bills of Exchange, etc. and Excise duties on medical and
toilet preparations containing alcohol. (Article 268)
(4) Taxes Levied as Well as Collected by the Union, but Assigned to the States
within which they are levi able:
(5) Taxes Levied and Collected by the Union and Distributed between Union
and the States: Certain taxes shall be levied as well as collected by the Union,
but their proceeds shall be divided between the Union and the States in a
certain proportion, in order to effect on equitable division of the financial
resources. These are: Taxes on income other than on agricultural income (Art
270). Duties of excise as are included in the Union List, excepting medicinal
and toilet preparations may also be distributed, if Parliament by law so provides
(Art 272).
Non-Tax Revenue
Important source of Non-Tax revenues of the Union are the receipts from Railways,
Posts and Telegraphs; Broadcasting; Opium; Currency and Mint; Industrial Commercial
Undertaking of the Central Government relating to the subject over which the Union
has the jurisdiction.
Similarly for the States are: Forests, Irrigation and Commercial Enterprises and
Industrial Undertakings such as soap, sandalwood, iron and steel in Karnataka, Paper
in M.P. milk supply in Mumbai, deep sea fishing and silk in West Bangal.
Grants-in-Aid
The above mentioned sources are not adequate for the States to carry out the
development programmes and the Constitution provides that grants-in-aid shall be
made in each year by the Union to such States as Parliament may determine to be in
need of assistance; particularly for the promotion of welfare of tribal areas, including
special grants to Assam (Art. 275).
Articles 270, 273, 275 and 280 provide for the constitution of a Finance Commission
to recommend to the President certain measures relating to the distribution of financial
resources between the Union and the States, - for instance, the percentage of the net
proceeds of income-tax which should be assigned by the Union to the States and the
manner in which the share to be assigned shall be distributed among the States (Art
280).
Problems in Financial Relations Between the Centre and State of India
1. Vertical Imbalance
Vertical imbalance emerges because of disproportionate alignment of revenue
sources in relation to increasing expenditure obligations by level of government.
There is a situation of growing expenditure requirements and poor yield of revenue
source for states in India.
The process of assigning highly elastic revenue to the center and inelastic taxes
to the states, led to a high degree of concentration in revenue collection. For example
in India the centre collects 59% of total revenue whereas state and local bodies
collect 41% only. Lack of accountability and implementation of populist policies are
the major cause for imbalance in state budgets.
2. Horizontal Imbalance
Vertical regions and states in India differ in resources endowment, level of
development and per capital income. There fore horizontal imbalance occurs between
different units of government at the same level of government in Indian federation.
The resources transfer affected through planning commission and Finance
Commission has miserably failed in correcting the horizontal imbalance. As a result
disparities in per-capita income are increasing.
3. Excessive Dependence on Centre

This situation mainly emerges owing to the existence of vertical imbalance in
resources source and transfer. Very often in Indian federation the taxes which are
assigned to states are generally less elastic and less productive.
More over the centre has virtual monopoly in two sources of revenue like foreign
aid and deficit financing. These sources are not accessible to states. Coupled with
this in as per constitution provision, highly elastic revenue source are under the
jurisdiction of the centre.
4. Eroded State Autonomy

It is usually argued that the framers of our constitution were guided by the
mistaken notion of “strong centre and weak states”. The single party rule at the
centre for the early decades of independence hardened this notion.
5. Overlapping of Functions
A study report of R. Venkataraman shows that a dualism in the central assistance
has developed and there has been certain overlapping of functions of finance commission
and the planning commission.
6. Increasing Debt Burden of State

Our federal financial system has developed a situation in which the states cannot
survive without the central assistance. The use of loans and grants by the state has
resulted in financial dependency and indiscipline on the part of the states. This also
led to a situation of inevitable debt burden on the part of states.
Suggestions for Balanced Fiscal Federalism
1. The number of divisible taxes should be increased to enlarge the resource
base of the state government.
2. To effect purposive and effective transfer of resources a proper co-ordination
between the various agencies making transfers i.e., Finance Commission and
planning Commission is to be done. In order to streamline and strengthen
Central Stage Financial relations these commissions should function in a unified
manner with proper understanding.
3. Adequate steps should be undertaken to narrow down the interstate disparities
by adopting a deliberate pro-stand in favour of backward states.
4. The state should be given more autonomy in financial matters. It is high time
that states be allowed to function without interference from the centre at least
in the areas originally specified by the constitution.
References
1. John Locke, Two treaties on Government, London: 1690.
2. S.K. Chawala, Democracy, Diversity, Stability, New Delhi: Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1998. p.
91.
3. Durga Das Basu, Commentary on the Constitution of India, 7 th Edition, Vol.-: Calcutta:S.C.
Sarkar and Sons, 1965, p.55.
Gender Inequality in India with (Causes, Impact and

Solutions)
Mamta Adhikari*, Hema Mehra** & Harish Chandra***
Gender Inequality
“No society treats its women as well as its men”. That’s the confusion from the
United Nations Development Programme, as written in its 1997 Human Development
Report. Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals
based on their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles
as well as biologically through chromosomes brain structure and hormonal differences.
Gender systems are often dichotomous and hierarchical, gender binary systems are
often dichotomous and hierarchical, gender binary systems may reflect the inequalities
that manifest in numerous dimensions of daily life gender inequality system from
distinctions, whether empirically grounded or socially constructed.
Gender Inequality in India
Some studies have documented that in villages in India, women are often discouraged
to seek education. However recent studies document remarkable success in efforts to
improve girls primary education. However when it comes to secondary education,
girls are still disadvantaged. Moreover, women’s employment rates are still low and
seem to have further declined in recent years. Recent studies also document unequal
access to and control over family resources for Indian women including control over
land and bank accounts as well severe limitations on their geographical mobility.
India ranks 132 out of 187 countries on the gender inequality index-lower than
Pakistan (123), according to the United Nations Development Program’s Human
Development Report 2013.
* Faculty of Economics, Govt. Degree College, Betalghat, Nainital, U.K.

** Faculty of Economics, Govt. Degree College, Gangolihat, U.K.
*** Faculty of Economics, Govt. Degree College, Gairsed, Chamoli, U.K.
Natural Gender Differences in India

There are natural differences between the sexes based on biological and anatomic
factors, most notably differing reproductive roles. Biological differences include
chromosomes, brat structure, and Hormonal differences. There is a natural difference
also in the relative physical strengths (on average) of the sexes.
Wage Discrimination
Wage discrimination exists when work qualified and performs the same work
but one group of workers is paid more than another. Historically, wage discrimination
has favored men over similarly qualified women.
Professional Education and Careers

The gender gap also appeared to narrow considerably beginning in the mid 1960s.
Where some 5% of first year students in professional programs were female in 1965,
by 1985 this number had jumped to 40% n law and medicine and over 30% in
dentistry and business school.
Gender Discriminations in the Medical Field

Although the disparities between men and women appear to be decreasing int
he medical field, gender inequalities still exist as social problems. The pay discrepancy
could not be explained by specialty choice, practice setting work hours, or other
characteristics.
Gender Roles in Parenting and Marriage

Gender roles develop through internalization and identification during childhood.
From birth, parents interact differently with children depending on their sex, and
through this inter action parents can instill different values or traits in their children
on the basis of what is no relative for their sex. This internalization of gender rumors
can be seen through the example of which types of toys parents typically give to
their children “feminie” toys such as dolls often reinforce interaction, nurturing and
closeness, “masculine” toys such as cars or fake gars often reinforce independence,
competitiveness and aggression. Gender roles permeate through out life and help to
structure parenting and marriage, especially in relation to work in and outside the
home.
Cases of Gender Inequality

There are some causes which influence or refute the gender inequality:-
(i) Most theoretical approaches to gender inequality suggest that violence between
women and man plays a role in sustaining inequality. Some also point toward
violence as an initial cause. A recurring issue concerns the degree to which
violence is an expression or result of gender inequality or alternatively is a
cause of inequality. The separate roles of rape, rassment and domestic violence
and their relationships to each other are other critical questions.
Top Ten Countries
The Ten Highest Ranked Countries in Terms of Gender Equality According to

the Gll for 2008, 2011 and 2012.
Country Gll Gll HDI Gll Gll Gll Gll
Rank 2012 Value 2012 Rank 2012 Rank 2012 Value 2012 Rank 2008 Value 2008
Netherland 1 0.045 4 2 0.052 1 0.174
Sureden 2 0.055 7 1 0.049 3 0.212
Denmark 4 0.057 15 3 0.060 2 0.209
Switzerland 4 0.057 9 4 0.067 4 0.228
Norway 5 0.065 1 6 0.075 5 0.234
Findand 6 0.075 21 5 0.075 8 0.248
Germany 67 0.075 5 7 0.085 7 0.240
Slovenia 8 0.08 21 * * * *
France 9 0.083 20 10 0.106 11 0.260
Iceland 10 0.089 13 9 0.099 13 0.279
Source: Human Development Report 2013
Impact and Solutions

Development activity is not a mechanical process. The pace of economic growth
in any country depends to a great extent on people’s desire to develop. If in some
country level of consciousness is low and the and the general mass of people has
accepted poverty as its fate, then their will be little hope for development.
Religious Factors
Religion plays a great role in economic growth. It may give rise to a peculiar
sense of self satisfaction. For example, the Hindu religion encourages faith in fate
and prevents people from working hard. They are educated to remains satisfied
with their a lot and to hate risk and enterprise. The religion gives a higher place to
spirit than matter. In short economic growth is the result of concerted efforts of both
economic and non economic factor. However, the mere presence of one or more or
all of these factors may not ensure that the economy will be in a position to generate
farces that bring about a fast economic growth. Some furthers factors may also be
required that may work as a catalyst for growth.
Problems
The economic development problem is most simply explained by the question
“How do we satisfy unlimited wants with limited resources”
1) A great part of the technological problem today is the research problem and
successful industries are planning not for this year or for the next but they
are planning for the next ten to fifteen years.
2) The main problem in the Indian economic situation is to break the vicious
circle of poverty and the co-existence of the tribal economy, peasant economy
and the corporate economy.
3) Low availability of the capital so we cannot be imported the new techniques.
4) The problem of accounting for the observed diversity in levels and rates of
growth of per capita income across countries and across time.
Remedies
1) The problem of economic growth has been discussed by numerous growth
models.
2) All available resources are fully utilized.
3) The welfare of the people can be increased if these inefficiencies are ruled
out. Some cost will have to be incurred to remove these inefficiencies. If the
cost of removing these inefficiencies of production and distribution is more
than the gain.
References
1. Social Institute and Gender Index: India Profile OECD. Reprived 31 March 2013.
2. Arera (2012). “Gender Inequality, Economic Development and Globalization: a state level
analysis or India. The Journal of developing areas. 46(1) 147-164.
3. Bhittacharya (2013). “Gender Inequality and the sex ratio in three emerging economics.”
Progress in Development Studies 13(2): 117-133.
Co-operative Federalism: The Current Need of Hour
Hemlata Tiwari* & Shambhu Nath Singh**
Introduction
India is a democratic nation; having clear-cut distinction of authorities and
responsibilities of central and state government. In our country state assemblies are
conducted separately from the central government. This system of our government
is different from other countries like USA where state government decide central
government.
India is a big country with lot of geographical and cultural diversification. There
are a number of regional political parties apart from national political parties. There
are several advantages of this two level system of government.
• The state government can understand regional priorities in better way than
central.
• Regional government has better grasp on local public. They can use it for
completion of government projects in that particular region.
• In this type of government structure representative from all the areas of country
are there in government. So the problems of that particular region is highlighted
in better ways.
Apart of the above mention benefits, there are lot of demerits in having two
distinct level of government i.e. central and state government.
India has a lot of cultural, linguistic, regional and geographical diversification
among different states. There is lot of regional disparity among the different parts of
the country which at times leads to dissatisfaction among the citizen This is the
duty of state government to try to resolve the problem if the concerning problem is
related to state. While if some sort of central government intervention is there, then
it depends on central-state relationship.
In a country like India which is a union of states, (29 states and 7 union territories),
it is impossible that a common ruling party is there in central and all the states.
Thus, the need of co-operative federalism arise between center and states.
* Research Scholar, Institute of Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, M.P.
** Assistant Professor, Institute of Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, M.P.
The constitution of India declares our country as a federal. It means here is a

division of power between Center and states as per the procedure mentioned in the
constitution. In this two tier system, the central government has the final authority
in all the matters and in this way India is federal but unitary. The different relations
between Centre and state are as follows:
1. Legislative relations
2. Administrative relations
3. Financial relations
Legislative Relations
Article 245 to 255 is dealing in legislative aspects of center-state relation. In which
they have given power to state governments to make law for their state while central
government has power to make it for their self as well as for states. There are around
100 subjects in union list on which only central government can make legislation.
Same way there are 61 subjects in state list and 52 subjects in concurrent list on
which both center and state can make legislation. On all the subject matters finally,
the central government has the veto powers to take over any subject in any situation.
This power is given by our Constitution to central government.
Administrative Relations
The articles 256 to 263 deals with administrative aspect of center-state relations
in India. In this matter State governments are like sub-ordinates to the Centre. The
Central government use to give direction in this matter to state.
Some matters like railways, central excise, income tax, post and telegraph and so
on are directly administered by the central government.
Financial Relations
The articles 268 to 293 in the Indian constitution deal with the financial aspect of
center-state relation in India. It mainly deals with the imposition and collection of
taxes.
Though there is a clear cut distinction of power among center and state but there
is a need of cooperative federalism between two to accomplish the target of good
governance. This can be possible when both are ready to forget their political identities
and benefits. Both should focus on their duties in their respective areas. In this they
will think about betterment of people which will pave the way towards cooperative
federalism.
Objective of the Paper
1. To study the center-state relation dynamics in India.
2. To explore the benefits of co-operative federalism to Indian economy.
There are lots of issues among center and states which are impeding our national
growth. If we are ready to forget our regional identity and united as a nation then it
will give a big boost to our economy. There are several examples in India where
conflicts arise between center and state due to different ruling political parties at
two places. Several suggestions are given to improve the Center-State relationship.
Some of them are as follows.
• The central government should follow the policy of least interference in the
affairs of the states. It should give some autonomy to the state in financial,
administrative and legislative matters.
• The center should give up the policy of dictating the states but it should
work on the principle of cooperation.
• An Inter-state council may be setup to resolve the issues related to president’s
rule and appointment of governors. The decision of council should be binding
no matter whether these suited to both the parties or not.
• The financial resources of the country should be so re-allocated that the states
became financially less dependent on the center.
Regarding this issue in 1970 Tamil Nadu government has set up a committee
known as Rajmannar committee. It had made many suggestions regarding Center-
State relation, which were not accepted by the central government. Several other
states also raised their voice for power but central government was satisfied with
the system of strong center. Several amendments have done in our constitution for
redistribution of power.
The central government has made the Sarkaria Commission in 1983 to study the
center-State relation. This commission has made some recommendation in its report
in1988, which did make some minor change in existing system of government.
Some of these suggestions got accepeted by the government of that time. However,
states do not get satisfied with this much power as recommended by Sarkaria committee
report. A number of commission and committees have been set up from time to time
to examine the issue of Centre-State relation. They have stressed the need of setting
up active Inter-State-council, as provided under Art 263 of the Constitution.
In the national interest it is very essential that country’s unity must be maintained
at any cost and there should be very harmonious relations between the center and
the states.
For this it is essential that:
(i) Central government, ruling party should always give priority to national interest.
They should win the confidence of state govement that they are fair while
taking decision on any issue.They should act as national leader rather than a
party leader.
(ii) The Center must not interfare in state’s matter by using Constitutional power.
It will give autonomy to the states.
(iii) The Centeral goverment should use its powers under Article 356 very rarely
and exceptionally.
Conclusion
The strong center is the basic requirement to maintain National integrity. To make
progress and development, there is a need of harmonious center-state relationship.There
is a need of both cooperative and competitive federalism in India. The competitive
federalism should be there among the states. So they can compete in healthy atmosphere
for their development. While at the matter of national interest there is requirement
of co-operative federalism. The competitive and co-operative federalism are
complementary to each other as it aims to rebalance the powers between the federal
government and the states that more faithfully adheres to the Constitution.
The central government to make and enforce the rules of competitive federalism
must ensure fair play among different governments. It is also important that the
central government should not compete with the regional and local governments
because by this central government cannot make or enforce the rules of the competition
fairly if the central government is a competitor itself.
Regarding this, there is a recent move taken by our government to replace Planning
Commission with NITI Aayog, a step in right direction. This will provide greater
autonomy to state/Union Territories government in forming and implementing plans
and making center as a ‘facilitator’. This approach has strengthened cooperative and
competitive federalism and has prudently deleted “one-size-fits-all” approach.
The strong center-state relationship will improve GDP growth rate. It will provide
healthy atmosphere to enhance business, attract multi national organizations to set
their operations and outsourcing of work in India. which will improve employment
opportunities and infrastructure devlopment in India. Due to this strong sentiments
will come in Indian equities, which will further attract domestic and foreign investors
to invest in our economy. It will pave the way to enhance foreign exchange reserve
of our country. In this way it will improve our economical development.
References
1. http://www.importantindia.com/10481/centre-state-relations-in-india.
2. http://www.insightsonindia.com/2015/11/04/2-differentiate-between-cooperative-and-
competitive-federalism-are-they-complementary-should.
3. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/the-relation-between-centre-and-state-in-india/
24925/.
4. Kanchan(2016) “Central State Financial Relation in India”. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary
Research (IJIR)Vol-2, Issue-6, 2016ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in.
5. MishraV (2015) “Cooperative Federalism In India: Contests and Contradictions”. Yojana
February 2015.
A Study of Finance Commission in India
Shambhu Nath Singh*
Introduction
The need for the Finance Commission was felt by the British for guiding the
finance of India. The Indian Finance Commission Act was passed to give a structured
format to the Finance Commission of India as per the world standard. The Finance
Commission of India came into existence in 1951. The Finance commission is established
under article 280 of the Indian Constitution of India by the President of India. The
Finance Commission is formed to define the financial relations between the centre
and the state. India possesses a federal structure in which the clear distinction made
between the union and the state functions and sources of revenue. As Fourteen
Finance Commission report says “The higher tax devolution will allow States greater
autonomy in financing and designing schemes as per their needs and requirements”.
Practically, it will give more power to states in determining how they manage and
spend their money. The important key recommendation of the 14th Finance Commission
is the increase in the share of states in the centre’s tax revenue from the current 32
per cent to 42 per cent. This is indeed the single largest increase ever recommended
by a Finance Commission. It shows the real role and importance of Finance Commission
in India.
The Finance Commission
The Finance Commission is required to recommend the distribution of the net
proceeds of the taxes of the Union and States which is commonly known as Vertical
Devolution; and the allocation between the States of the respective shares of such
proceeds which is commonly known as Horizontal Devolution.
Under the provision of Article 280 of the constitution, the President of India
appoints a Finance Commission for the specific purpose of devolution of non-plan
revenue resources. Its primary job is to recommend measures and methods on how
revenues need to be distributed between the Centre and the States.
* Assistant Professor, Institute of Economics & Finance, Bundelkahnd University, Jhansi, U.P.
Apart from its recommendations on the sharing of tax proceeds between the
Centre and the States which will apply for a five-year period beginning 2015-2020,
the Commission has been asked to suggestions on:
1. Pricing of public utilities such as electricity and water in an independent
manner and also look into issues like disinvestment, GST compensation, sale
of non-priority PSUs and subsidies.
2. Measures for maintaining a stable and sustainable fiscal environment consistent
with equitable growth including suggestions to amend the Fiscal Responsibility
Budget Management Acts.
3. With regard to debt-stressed states, the Commission has been asked to suggest
steps for augmenting revenues of states which are lagging.
4. Review the present arrangements as regards financing of Disaster Management
with reference to the funds constituted under the Disaster Management Act,
2005(53 of 2005), and make appropriate recommendations thereon.
In making its recommendations on various matters, the Commission shall generally
take the base of population figures as of 1971 in all cases where population is a
factor for determination of devolution of taxes and duties and grants-in-aid; however,
the Commission may also take into account the demographic changes that have
taken place subsequent to 1971.
Fourteen Finance Commission
Since independence, Fourteen Finance Commission have been submitted their
reports. In earlier context so far 13 Finance Commissions have been appointed Fourteen
Finance Commission:
1. Devolution to States: There is largest States’ share in net proceeds from tax
collections in comparison to 13th Finance Commission i.e. 42% compare to
32%. This is largest change ever in the percentage of devolution. This
recommendation has been accepted by the Government.
2. Big Jump in Tax Share: Compared with 2014-15, the total devolution to states
in 2015-16 will increase by over 45%.
3. Resource Transfer: Tax devolution is the primary route resource transfer to
states.
4. Criteria and Weights for Horizontal Distribution: Population (17.5%),
Demographic Change (10%), Income distance (50%), Area (15%) and Forest
cover (7.5%).
5. NITI Connect: The Government has accepted the recommendations in view
of the spirit of the National Institution for Transforming India (NITI).
6. Grants: Should be distributed to states for local bodies on the basis of the
2011 population data; the grants be divided into two broad categories on the
basis of rural and urban population -constituting gram panchayats, and
constituting municipal bodies.
7. Types of Grants: A basic grant and a performance grant-the ratio of basic to
performance grant be 90:10, with respect to panchayats; and 80:20 in the case
of municipalities.
8. Total Grants: Rs 2,87,436 crore for a five-year period from April 1, 2015, to
March 31, 2020; of this, Rs 2,00,292.20 crore to be given to panchayats and Rs
87,143.80 crore to municipalities.
9. Grant Transfers: For 2015-16, transfers will be to the tune of Rs 29,988 crore.
10. Disaster Relief: The percentage share of states to continue as before and follow
the current mechanism-to the tune of Rs 55,097 crore. After implementation
of GST, disaster relief will be given according to the recommendations of the
Finance Commission.
11. Post-devolution Revenue Deficit Grants: A total of Rs 1, 94,821 crore on account
of expenditure requirements of states, tax devolution and revenue mobilisation
capacity of the states. These will be given to 11 states.
12. Delinking of Schemes: Eight centrally sponsored schemes (CSSes) will be
delinked from support from the Centre; various CSSes will now see a change
in sharing pattern, with states sharing a higher fiscal responsibility.
13. Cooperative Federalism: There are recommendations on cooperative federalism,
GST, fiscal consolidation road map, pricing of public utilities and PSUs, too.
Implementation of the Recommendations
Relatives Shares of Different Heads

Tenth Finance Eleventh Finance Twelfth Finance Thirteen Finance Fourteen Finance
Commission Commission Commission Commission Commission
Total
Transfer Amount % of Amount % of Amount % of Amount (Rs. % of Amount % of
(Rs. crore) total (Rs. crore) total (Rs. crore) total crore) total (Rs. crore) total
1-Shares in
Central
2,06,343 91 3,76,318 86.5 6,13,112 81.1 14,48,096 84.8 39,48,188 88.02
Taxes and
duties
2-Grants- in-
20,300 9 58,587 13.5 1,42,640 18.9 2,58,571 15.2 5,37,354 11.08
aid of which
(a)-Local
5,381 2.4 10,000 2.3 25,000 3.3 87,519 5.1 2,87,436 6.4
Bodies
(b)-
8,000 1.8 2,00,292.20
Panchayats
(c)-
Municipalitie 2,000 0.5 87,143.80
s
Total(1+2) 2,26,643 100 4,34,905 100 7,55,752 100 17,06,676 100 44,85,542 100
Source: Public Finance Text Book

According to Article 272 of the constitution, the recommendations of the Finance

Commission are only recommendatory, it is open to the Union Government to ignore
the recommendation of the Finance Commission in respect of the excise duties and
if it wants to assign any part of the assign duties, it may propose such law as it
pleases. But in the practice the recommendations of the Finance Commission in respect
of the excise duties have been taken by the Union Government as the basis of law to
be placed by before the parliament for the sharing of excise duties.
The commission recommendations fall in the following categories:
I. Those to be implemented by an order of the President.
II. Those to be implemented by the executive order.
III. Those to be examined further.
The recommendations under Articles 270 and 270(1)of the constitution real time
to share in union taxes and duties and grants in aid, respectively, fall in the first
category and necessary orders will be submitted to the President for approval.
The recommendations relating to sharing of profit, petroleum, Debt Relief, Central
Assistance for State Plans and External Assistance Loans will be implemented by
executive orders.
References
1. Report of Fourteen Finance Commission of India.
2. Sinha V C “Public Finance”, (2014), SBPD Publication Agra.
3. Pratiyogita Darpan 2015-16, “Indian Economy”.
4. www.wikipedia.com
5. www.thehindu.com
6. www.google.co.in
Co-operative Movement in India
Ram Krishna Upadhyay* & Rekha Singh**
Cooperative Banks in India have become an integral part of the success of Indian
Financial inclusion story. They have achieved many landmarks since their creation
and have helped a normal rural Indian to feel empowered and secure. The story has
not been smooth and has its share of procedural glitches and woe placed at various
pockets.
India has been a capital starved country and in hunt for capital, small entrepreneurs,
agriculturists and people with no collateral, artisans, petty traders, women and rural
folks, invariably lose out. Cooperative bank were conceptualized to cater to these
very segments. The segment was supposed to serve the largest section of people
who are untouched by commercial banks as these banks can’t venture to the remotest
corners of the country and remain viable there. In short therefore, co-operative banks
were envisioned as the original vehicle for financial inclusion. They were expected
to encourage saving at the grass root level, and make credit available to those unserved
by traditional banks. Because of being local in nature, they were also supposed to
know the local business environment better and thus assist in economic development
of the community.
However, the co-operative banking sector stands at a crossroads today. On the
one hand, they have grown tremendously, albeit in not completely desired fashion,
have developed substantial deposit and credit base, and are, as a group, a strong
force in about half a dozen states; but on the other hand, as a class, co-oeprative
banks are structurally weak. Multiple collapses have been bringing management
inefficiencies to the fore frequently, most co-operative banks are family run businesses
with terrible corporate governance record, political interference and influence is rife,
and the regulatory framework within which they operate does not allow for effective
supervision by RBI. Further, rural co-operative banks are suffering from major problems
related to fund availability and debt quality. In the evolving business environment
wherein banking is increasingly becoming a function of technology and smart operations,
co-operative banks are faced with a two front challenge. Internally, they have to
* Associate Professor and Head, Department of Economics, Kunwar Sing P.G. College,
Ballia (U.P.)
** Assistant Professor, Guru Govind Singh College, Faizabad (U.P.)
radically change how they operate, and externally, they need to compete with new
entities like small finance banks and new age MFIs who have been envisages to
leverage cutting edge technologies to win customers. It is an uphill task for co-
operative banks.
The report of the high powered committee on UCBs, headed by R. Gandhi (2015),
categorized the evolution of post 1966 co-operative banking segment in three phases.
The first one, the growth phase, lasted till 2003 which was marked by tremendous
growth in the number of co-operative banks, number of branches, deposits and advances.
From 1,100 UCBs with deposits and advances of Rs 1.67 billion and Rs 1.53 billion
respectively, in 1966, the segment has grown to over 1579 UCBs and 9722 branches
with deposits of Rs 3.55 trillion and advances of Rs 2.24 trillion.
Second phase of the co-operative banks lasted till 2008 and was marked with
collapse of multiple banks, Madhavpura Mercantile Co-operative Bank being the
most prominent one. Between April 2004 and March 2008, the number of UCBs
declined from 1926 to 1770. Stung by such failure, RBI stopped issuing licenses to
new banks. It also signed MOUs with state governments as well as the central
government to achieve better coordination of regulatory policies and actions, initiating
capacity building initiatives and putting in place measures to bring in efficiency
through adoption of technology. It introduced the Graded Supervisory Action (GSA)
framework in 2003 and classified UCBs into four grades – Grade I, II, III and IV,
depending on their financial conditions. This was further improved by Supervisory
Action Framework (SAF) in 2012 wherein supervisory action was initiated based on
various trigger points such as CRAR, gross NPA, CD ratio, profitability and
concentration of deposits. SAF was reviewed and modified in 2014 by advancing the
trigger points for imposing directions and cancellation of license.
Post 2008, the segment has been in consolidation mode as per R Gandhi report,
which said that “as a result of the new initiatives and sustained efforts by RBI, the
number of financially weak banks in the UCB sector declined. Further, due to
consolidation in the sector on account of closure and merger, the number of UCBs
came down from 1,770 as at end-March 2008 to 1,589 as on March 31, 2014 and
further to 1,579 by end-March 2015.” However, the impact of consolidation was a
substantial increase in deposits and advances of UCBs which increased from Rs
1,398.71 billion and Rs 904.44 billion as of end-March 2008 to Rs 3,551.34 billion and
Rs 2,243.08 billion, respectively, as on end-March 2015.
Advantage UCBs
While expert opinions vary on how co-operative banks have performed or what
is store for them, what they all agree on is that co-operative banks are best suited as
vehicles to achieve financial inclusion. To a reasonable extent, this has been the case
as well. By their very structure and raison d’être, co-operative banks can play a
critical role in this area. And the primary reason for their advantage is their local
nature. Because of being local and known as local, they are more trusted by small
time depositors, helping these banks to mobilize resources from lower and middle-
income groups. Bigger commercial banks struggle to reach these sections of population
which is invariably financially excluded, as they are unable to create that environment
of trust and support. Co-operative banks most often have strong connections with
specific communities, and often draw employees from those communities, which
increases the trust of small savers as well as borrowers. This trust is the most important
ingredient in financial inclusion.
Ratios have Improved but Problems Remain
Over last few years, because of the efforts and focus of RBI on operational efficiency,
UCBs as a group have turned the corner and have become more prudent both in
terms of operational efficiency and capital adequacy. These banks have been maintaining
a higher net interest margin than scheduled commercial banks. For the year 2012-13,
the net interest margin of UCBs stood at 3.35 per cent, up from 3.31 per cent during
previous year. This is also higher than 2.89 per cent during 2006-07. The gross NPAs
came down from 7 per cent in 2011-12 to 6 per cent in 2012-13. Net NPA recorded an
even sharper fall from 1.9 per cent to 1.4 per cent during this period. As for capital
adequacy, the CRAR (capital to risk weighted assets ratio) of UCBs as a group currently
stands at 12.6 per cent. Only five such banks have a CRAR below nine per cent.
Speaking to a national daily, R Gandhi said, “UCBs have gone through various
ups and downs. The latest problem they had was in early 2000. We had to tighten
the regulations and supervision. Now, they have reached a good position.” He also
drove home the point that the provisioning coverage ratio of UCBs had improved
significantly from 52.4 per cent in end-September 2014 to 59.7 per cent as of March
2015.
Operationally, more co-operative banks have started to streamline their operations.
They have increasingly started using the Banking Correspondents (BC), offering “no-
frill” accounts and promoting microfinance activities. These have so far been used
mostly by commercial banks. More importantly, majority of co-operative banks have
taken to computerization and application of IT. And quite many of these banks have
installed a CBS (core banking solution) developed by the National Informatics Centre
(NIC). The NIC’s cooperative core banking solution (CCBS) works on the Software
as a Service (SaaS) model. The software runs from a remote central server, which
individual banks access for their purposes via Internet. NIC hosts the service, besides
providing implementation support. CCBS also integrates other services. It is designed
to help agriculture societies disburse funds from various government schemes like
the rural wage scheme, old age pensions or the mid-day meal scheme directly to
beneficiaries’ accounts. This is a major leap in realizing the mandate of financial
inclusion by these banks.
What is not going to change in times to come is the focus on financial inclusion.
If anything, there will be more focus on the requirement to bring unbanked people
in banking space, for encouraging entrepreneurship at the bottom of the pyramid
and promoting direct transfer of benefits. The role of co-operative banks in these
endeavors is unquestionable and so is their ability to make these programs successful.
But for playing their part well, co-operative banks need massive overhaul. They
need to change their working style, become more efficient and transparent in their
operations, stay clear of regional and local politics and be prudent in credit management.
Obviously, it is not going to be easy and would require extreme discipline, something
that has not been the forte of banking industry in general and co-operative banks in
particular.
The regulatory landscape of co-operative banking has been changing of late.
Malegam Committee and High Powered Committee headed by R Gandhi have provided
valuable insights on how future regulatory structure should evolve. Current regulatory
structure for co-operative banks is quite muddled. Urban cooperative banks are
registered and governed by state governments under the respective Co-operative
Societies Acts of the concerned states. They also come under the Banking Regulation
Act, 1949 and hence they are under RBI jurisdiction as well.
On its part, RBI is gradually allowing more avenues for these banks. For example,
in November 2015, it allowed all cooperative banks that have implemented the core
banking solution in full, to offer Internet banking services to their customers. They
have already been allowed to open branches without restriction with RBI approval.
Also they have been permitted to undertake various activities such as opening
specialized branches, undertaking intra-day short selling in secondary market
transactions in government securities, undertaking ready forward contracts in corporate
debt securities, opening currency chests, acting as PAN service agents and issuer of
Pre-paid payment instruments etc. These businesses would allow much needed boost
in fee-based income.
However, undertaking these activities capacity building. And that is hardly possible
in the cozy family owned environment that most co-operative banks are used to.
The requirement to professionalize can, therefore, not be more emphasized. More
importantly, though, the push for professionalism has to come from inside the system.
UCBs need to not only diversify in new territories but also to new activities and for
that, they need to have good quality of human capital, even at higher expenses. On
their part, regulators need to tighten the leash on the management of these banks by
measures like setting up Board of Management (BoM) in addition to Board of Directors;
election of Board of Directors in accordance with the provisions of the respective
Co-operative Societies Acts; putting BoM and CEO in complete control of RBI etc.
All these measures were suggested by Malegam Committee.
References
1. 2013 Annual Report- www.ncua.gov. National Credit Union Administration. Retrieved 6
September 2014.
2. D. Muraleedharan (2009). Modern Banking: Theory And Practice. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. March
2015.
3. Co-operative Bank customers are eligible to join its parent Co-operative Group.
A Critical Evaluation of Fiscal Relation between Centre

and State
Brajesh*
Introduction
Indian constitution is quite federal and country has three tier government system-
central government, state government and local government. Local government directly
works under state government. Indian Constitution provides financial relation between
center and state. It also provides detailed scheme of distribution of resources between
center and state.
Levying of tax between centre and state is quite clear and there is no ambiguity
in levying the tax by both centre and state. The basis of division is recommended by
Finance Commission. However the present systems of allocation of financial resources
have created a stir in the economy because of the enlargement of duties and
responsibilities.
Distribution of power in the country adopting federal systems defines the financial
relation between the Center and State. The Constitution grants the centre the power
to levy the tax on various items and same way, State has also the power to levy the
taxes on some specified items. The subjects on which the union government has
exclusive power to levy the taxes are:
I. Corporation Tax
II. Income Tax
III. Capital Gain
IV. Railway Fares
V. Custom Duty
VI. Excise Duty
Taxes to be levied by the States
I. VAT
II. Stamp Duty
III. Estate Duty
* Assistant Professor, City Academy Degree College Lucknow, U.P.
IV. Agriculture Income

V. Entry Tax
Levying of tax on Agriculture is the subject matter of State but this power was
not exercised by the state so far because of poor condition of agriculture sector.
In this system of resources distribution, Central government has more centralized
sources of income than states. The most productive sources of revenue in every
federation are with the Centre while State government has most expensive head.
Since State governments are directly responsible for the maintenance of law and
order and carrying on welfare activity such as Education, Road, Health and Medical,
Employment, eradication of Poverty so States have more financial pressure than the
income they earn so finally makes the dependent on the centre for assistance.
Although article 275 of constitution provides for grant in aids to some state in
case of natural calamities like floods and droughts. Article 275 and 282 of the constitution
deal with the question of grant in aids. Grant under article. Grant under article 275
are given to the states in the need of assistance and their quantum is decided by the
finance commission. As against this, Grant under 282 can be for any public purpose
and their quantum is fixed by the central government by its own discretion. This
paper intents to examine in brief
(a) the various sources of revenue of state and centre
(b) methodology of disbursement of revenue collection to states
(c) the problem in disbursement of funds to states
(d) the impact of mismanagement in disbursement
Criteria of Revenue/Tax Devolution
The Fourteenth Finance Commission has Recommended New Horizontal

Formulae for the Distribution of State’s Share in Divisible Pool.
Criteria 13 th Finance Commission 14 th Finance Commission
Population 1971 25 17.5
Population 2011 0 10
Fiscal Capacity/ Income Distance 47.5 50
Area 10 15
Forest Cover 0 7.5
Fiscal Discipline 17.5 0
Total 100 100
There have been some measures in different finance commission to distribute

resources between centre and states. How should the share of different states be
determined? In this regards, Practice of different finance commission has been different.
It is suggested that tax devolution criteria should fulfill the test of progressivity. It is
responsibility of states to provide the certain minimum level of public goods and
social services to citizens within the states so States need to augment its fiscal capacity
and fiscal resources so that certain level of fiscal needs may be fulfilled. If we study
reports of different Finance Commission, The Criteria of Population of states, Per
Capita Income, Revenue Gap, Area, Infrastructures, Forest covers etc have been
considered for tax devolution. Here we are studying different Finance Commission.
• State’s share in the net proceeds of Union tax revenue increased from 32% to
42%. This is largest ever jump in percentage of devolution. In the past, Changes
have ranged between 1to 2% increases.
• Distribution of Grants to States for Local bodies based on 2011population
data (90% weight) and area (10% weight).
• Sharing pattern under various centrally sponsored scheme to undergo a change,
with states sharing higher fiscal responsibility for scheme implementation.
Moreover, Finance commission propose the grant in aids for 5 purposes basically
revenue deficit, disaster relief, local bodies, sector specific schemes and state specific
schemes. These grants in aids cover funds for local bodies like Panchayats, Municipal
Corporation, calamity relief fund, expanding primary education etc.
Transfer Recommended by 14 th Finance Commission (2015-2020)
S.No Particular Amount in Cr
1 Tax Devolution to States 39,48,187
2 Grants to States
A- Revenue Deficit 1,94,121
B- Disaster Relief 55,097
C- Grant to Local Bodies 2,87,436
Total ( A+B+C) 5,37,354
3 Divisible Pool 94,00,444
Percentage of Divisible Pool
4 Tax Devolution to States 42.00
5 Grants to States 5.72
Problems of Federal Finance in India - Some problems exist in federal finance

systems between Centre and States and there is large divergence between the source
of revenue and expenditure among the government. Some states are quite capable to
meet the expenditures from their own sources of revenue while others are depending
on Central.
Role of Finance commission in any Federal System becomes at top but it was
noted that transfer through Finance Commission is only 42% (earlier 32%) of total
share to be contributed to states it means about 58% of transfer are routed through
NITI Aayog ( earlier Planning Commission) and Central government directly so
importance of Finance Commission has been reduced. Regional Imbalances is most
important factor that is to be tackled up to satisfactory level in India. Bihar, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh Etc are backwards states they need
more financial technological support than any other states to bridge the gap of regional
imbalances.
All these problems in the system have considerably eroded independence of the
States and their political and economic power.
Suggestion - Some suggestions should constantly be kept in mind while framing
the policy of Finance Commission. (1)States should be asked area wise requirement
of fund where it is to be spent. Some states are backward in terms of poor social and
economic infrastructure and capacity to develop it vis-à-vis states where there are
abundant resources and facilities. Centre should interfere in this regards. (2) It was
noted that decision regarding disbursement of revenue become political influenced
so it should be avoided. (3) There should be close watch of implementation of
recommendations of Finance commission. (4) There should be biased policy in favor
of Backwards States. (5) Studies should be conducted and research papers also should
be published and analyzed. (6) Previous data should be analyzed for future purpose.
Conclusion
There is ideology that a strong Centre without strong States is not possible and
conceivable. In the system of Federal Finance, on the one hand, the role of States is
considerably increasing in implementation of development plan whether these are
centrally sponsored or by the States, On the other hand, restricted economic power
have been given to States. States are fully responsible for Social Welfare, Health,
Education, Infrastructure, Medical, Agriculture Activities, Trade and many other
programs. Now in the recent, Farmers of many States like Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Tamilnadu and Madhya Pradesh are raising their voice to waive off agricultural loan
because of poor condition of agriculture. Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra Government
waived off agricultural loan of small farmer up to 1 lacs. This waive off loan will
create huge financial pressure on the states. So in the last, it may be stated that
States should be provided more economic resources or tax devolution to fulfill these
development and non development expenditure.
References
1. Government of India,Report of Fourteenth Finance Commission 2015-20.
2. Government of India, report of Thirteenth Finance Commission 2010-15.
3. http://ficci.in/SPdocument/20563/Highlights_14thFinance_Commission_Report.pdf
4. http://www.accountingnotes.net/fiscal-federalism/federal-finance-concept-principles-and-
problems/10087
5. Pariksha Vani 2015.
An Insight into GST in India: A Reform in Indirect Tax System
Shipra Saxena* & Akanksha Avasthi**
Introduction
The word ‘’tax is derived from Latin word ‘taxo’ which means to estimate. A tax
is an enforced contribution, payable to legislative authority. Indian Taxation System
comprises of Direct and Indirect Tax. Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect
tax applicable throughout India which replaced multiple cascading taxes levied by
the central and state governments. It was introduced as The Constitution (One Hundred
and First Amendment) Act 2017 following the passage of Constitution 122nd
Amendment Bill. The GST is governed by a GST Council and its Chairman is the
Finance Minister of India. Under GST, goods and services are taxed at 0%, 5%, 12%
and 18% and 28%. There is a special rate of 0.25% on rough precious and semi-
precious stones and 3% on gold . In addition a cess of 15% or other rates on top of
28% GST applies on few items like aerated drinks, luxury cars and tobacco products.
Touted by the government to be India’s biggest tax reform in 70 years of independence,
the Goods and Services Tax was finally launched on the midnight of 30 June 2017,
though the process of forming the legislation took 17 years (since 2000 when it was
first proposed). The launch was marked by a historic midnight (30 June - 1 July
2017) session of both the houses of parliament convened at the Central Hall of the
Parliament, but which was immediately boycotted by the opposition by staging a
walk out to show their disapproval of the same.
Objectives of Goods and Service Tax (GST)
GST is proposed to fulfill the following objectives:
• GST would help to eliminate the cascading effects of production and distribution
cost of goods and services. This would help to increase GDP and economic
condition of the country.
• GST would put an end to the multiplicity of indirect taxation and streamline
* Assistant Professor, Institute of Management Studies, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, M.P.

** Research Scholar, Institute of Management Studies, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, M.P.
all the indirect taxes which would be beneficial for manufacturers and ultimate
consumers by covering all the shortcomings of existing VAT system and
hopefully serve the economy’s health.
• The Indian market should be integrated into single common market.
Garg (2014) in the article named Basic Concepts and Features of Good and Services
Tax in India analyzed the impact and GST on Indian Tax scenario and concluded
that it will strengthen out free market economy.
Kumar (2014) studied in the article Goods and Services Tax in India: A Way
Forward background, silent features and concluded with the positive impact of GST
on present complex tax structure and development of common national market.
Indirect Taxes Committee of Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI)
(2015) submitted a PPT naming Goods and Service Tax (GST) which stated in brief
details of the GST and its positive impact on economy and various stakeholders.
The Institute of Companies Secretaries of India (ICSI) (2015) published a Reference
on Goods and Service Tax to provide the information on the concept of GST in
details.
The objectives of the paper are:
• To study Goods and Service Tax and its impact on the economy.
• To examine benefits and opportunities of the Goods and Service Tax.
• To know the benefits of the GST to the business and industry, the Central and
State Governments and consumers.
• To study about the Challenges of Introduction of Goods and Service Tax in India.
The Researchers used an exploratory research technique based on past literature
from respective journals, annual reports, newspapers and magazines covering wide
collection of academic literature on GST. According to the objectives of the study,
the research design is descriptive in nature. Available secondary data was extensively
used for the study.
The Benefits of GST
The benefits of GST can be summarized as under:
For business and industry

• Easy compliance : A robust and comprehensive IT system would be the
foundation of the GST regime in India. Therefore, all tax payer services such
as registrations, returns, payments, etc. would be available to the taxpayers
online, which would make compliance easy and transparent.
• Uniformity of tax rates and structures: GST will ensure that indirect tax rates
and structures are common across the country, thereby increasing certainty
and ease of doing business. In other words, GST would make doing business
in the country tax neutral, irrespective of the choice of place of doing business.
• Removal of cascading : A system of seamless tax-credits throughout the value-
chain, and across boundaries of States, would ensure that there is minimal
cascading of taxes. This would reduce hidden costs of doing business.
• Improved competitiveness : Reduction in transaction costs of doing business
would eventually lead to an improved competitiveness for the trade and
industry.
Gain to manufacturers and exporters: The subsuming of major Central and State
taxes in GST, complete and comprehensive set-off of input goods and services and
phasing out of Central Sales Tax (CST) would reduce the cost of locally manufactured
goods and services.
For Central and State Governments
• Simple and easy to administer : Multiple indirect taxes at the Central and
State levels are being replaced by GST.
• Better controls on leakage: GST will result in better tax compliance due to a
robust IT infrastructure. Due to the seamless transfer of input tax credit from
one stage to another in the chain of value addition, there is an in-built mechanism
in the design of GST that would incentivize tax compliance by traders.
• Higher revenue efficiency: GST is expected to decrease the cost of collection
of tax revenues of the Government, and will therefore, lead to higher revenue
efficiency.
For the Consumers
• Single and transparent tax proportionate to the value of goods and services:
Due to multiple indirect taxes being levied by the Centre and State, with
incomplete or no input tax credits available at progressive stages of value
addition, the cost of most goods and services in the country today are laden
with many hidden taxes.
• Relief in overall tax burden: Because of efficiency gains and prevention of
leakages, the overall tax burden on most commodities will come down, which
will benefit consumer.
Impact of GST on Indian Economy
With the implementation of the GST, the following changes are anticipated:
India’s current Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the year 2016-17 is projected at
Rs. 152.51 lakh crore, the GST will bring about a qualitative change. A study done
by National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) explores the impact
on GDP growth due to reduction in direct cost and cost reduction on capital inputs
pegged the improvement in growth rates between 2 and 2.5 per cent. Imports of
Goods and Services will be treated as inter-state supplies and (Integrated Goods and
Service Tax) IGST will be levied on import of goods and services into the country.
The tax revenue in case of SGST will accrue to the State where the imported goods
and services are consumed. Exports will be treated as zero rated supplies. No tax
will be payable on exports of goods or services, however credit of input tax credit
will be available and same will be available as refund to the exporters.
Conclusion
It can be concluded from the above discussion that: GST will bring One Nation
and One Tax market in India. It Provide relief to producers and consumers by providing
wide and comprehensive coverage of input tax credit set-off, service tax set off and
subsuming the several taxes. GST will lead to resource and revenue gain for both
Centre and States through widening of tax base and improvement in tax compliance.
Electronic processing of tax returns, refunds and tax payments through Goods and
Service Tax Network (GSTN) without human intervention, will reduce corruption
and tax evasion. Built-in check on business transactions through seamless credit and
return processing will reduce scope for black money generation leading to productive
use of capital.
Therefore it is necessary on the part of the government to educate, conduct proper
training, continuous seminars and workshops on GST is the need of the hour. Hence,
necessary steps should be taken.
References
1. Empowered Committee of Finance Ministers First Discussion Paper on Goods and Services
Tax in India, The Empowered Committee of State Finance Ministers, New Delhi, 2009.
2. Vasanthagopal, Dr. R. (2011). GST in India: A Big Leap in the Indirect Taxation System.
International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance, 2(2), 144-146 10.
3. Garg Girish. Basic Concepts and Features of Good and Services Tax in India. International
Journal of scientific research and Management. 2014; 2(2):542-549.
4. Kumar, Nitin (2014). Goods and Services Tax in India: A Way Forward. Global Journal of
Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(6), 216-225.
5. Indirect Taxes Committee, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) (2015). Goods
and Service Tax (GST). Retrieved from: http://idtc.icai.org/download/Final-PPT-on-GST-
ICAI.pdf
6. The Institute of Companies Secretaries of India (ICSI) (2015).
7. Referencer on Goods and Service Tax. Retrieved from:https://www.icsi.edu/Docs/Website/
GST_Referencer.pdf
Problems and Prospects of Industrial Sector in India: A Case

Study of Kanpur District
Deepshikha Sonker*
Introduction
India provides an interesting case for the study of the impact of industrial policies
and institutional arrangements upon industrial growth and patterns of industrial
transformation. The two periods, viz. 1951–91 and post 1991 represent different policy
regimes, institutional frameworks, industrial development patterns that make possible
systematic analysis and the generation of hypothesis concerning causal relationships.
Since 1991, Indian policy makers have tried to learn from the East Asian experiences
and they have been under pressure from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
World Bank and other global actors to liberalize and open up the Indian economy to
the world market. Kanpur is one of the major Industrial towns in the country. It was
very famous in the world for manufacturing of clothes and known as Manchester of
Asia. After some time, most of the clothes manufacturing units were closed. But
Currently, Kanpur is very famous for Leather Industry in the world. Kanpur had
been Industrial Empire of JK Group. This group had a number of large industrial
units in the town. Apart from fame for industry, Kanpur is also very famous for
presence of world level institutions in the city viz; IIT, HBTI, CSA University of
Agriculture, National Sugar Institute, GSVM Medical College, Indian Institute of
Pulses Research etc. that could serve as a catalyst for industrial growth in many
more ways.
Kanpur hosts nearly 3,000 industrial units of all sizes producing leather and
leather products, plastic materials, tractor, trolley, utensils, detergents and soaps,
edible oils, hosiery, cloth medicines and chemicals. These units aggregate an annual
turnover of over Rs.50, 000 cores and give employment to more than a lakh people.
The city has traditionally been a centre of leather products. Despite official apathy,
Kanpur has earned a name for itself even abroad in this area.
Industrial development of the particular district, however, depends very much
on the combined efforts by different departments particularly responsible for
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
infrastructure development. The lack of available infrastructure inhibits growth of

industrial activities in the district. The communication facilities though are available
in the district but its operational efficiency is very poor and it is difficult for the
entrepreneurs to have effective communication with their counterparts, customers
and suppliers etc. Despite enormous latent potentials for setting up of various resources
based industries no significant progress could be achieved in the field of industrialization
in the Kanpur District, to say the least.
Goldar (1993) studied employment growth in modern small-scale Industries in
India. The study showed that the employment growth in small-scale sector at 5.45
percent per annum was considerably higher than the employment growth in the
large scale sector.
In order to make the study not only of academic interest but also of practical
utility, the study has following objectives:
1. To study the status of basic infrastructure of the industries in the study area.
2. To study the major challenges and problems before the entrepreneurs in the
study area.
3. To study the prospects of industrial development in the study area.
Hypotheses of the study
To meet the objectives of the study, the following hypotheses are formulated for
empirical testing:
1. H0 – There is no significant impact of cost of machines on turnover and number
of machines used in the study area.
Ha – There is significant impact of cost of machines on turnover and number
2. H0 – There is no significant impact of size of firm on turnover in the study
area.
Ha – There is significant impact of turnover on the size of firm in the study
area.
3. H0 – There is no significant impact of credit policy and demonetization on
the performance of turnover of the firm in the study area.
Ha – There is significant impact of credit policy and demonetization on the
performance of the turnover of the firm in the study area.
1. ToF = a+b1 (Nm) +b2 (Cm) + ut
2. ToF = a+b1 (Sf) +ut
3.ToF = a+b1 (CP )+b2 (Dmn) +ut
Methodology
The study is mainly based on primary data collected through comprehensive
field survey of a selected sample of 250 industrial units of the Kanpur district. The
selection of sample units in the study area has been done by adopting a sampling
design of “two stage purposive sampling” with the selection of industries at the first
stage and industrial units at the second stage with a view to include traditional and
modern industries in the sample. Primary data have been collected through the pre-
tested interview schedule divided into five parts to deal with the various aspects of
industrial problems and their development. The filled questionnaires were thoroughly
scrutinized and processed in computer for drawing out inferences, patterns, and
trends for some concrete conclusions. To make the study more precise and outward
policy oriented, available literature and studies have been consulted and reviewed.
The data are analyzed with the help of tables, charts and graphs. Statistical tool,
viz., Regression is used in the process of data analysis.
Empirical Analysis of the Study
Testing of Hypothesis
Table 1: Relationship Between Turnover, Cost of Machines & No. of Machines
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. 95.0% Confidence Interval for B
B Std. Error p-value Lower Bound Upper Bound
(Constant) 135.727 52.853 2.568 .011 31.403 240.051
1 Cm -.360 .749 -.037 -.481 .631 -1.838 1.118
Nm 4.421 24.637 .014 .179 .858 -44.210 53.051
Dependent Variable: ToF
Sources: Field Survey by the Researcher.
Statistical Software: SPSS.
Statistical Tool: Regression analysis.
The result is insignificant as the p values are -.037 and .014 which indicates that
there are some other important factors i.e. infrastructural facilities, marketing facilities
and govt. policies which are affecting the turnover of the firms.
Table 2: Relationship Between Turnover of the Firms & Sizes of the Firms
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. 95.0% Confidence Interval for B
Coefficients Coefficients
(Constant) 1.417 .116 12.183 .000 1.188 1.646
1
Sf .027 .079 .021 .335 .738 -.130 .183
Statistical Tool: Regression Analysis.
The result is insignificant as the p value is .021 which indicates that there are
some other important factors which are responsible such as infrastructural facilities,
credit policies, marketing strategies.
Table 3: Impact of Credit Policy & Demonetization on the Performances of the

Turnover of the Firms
Unstandardized Standardized
95.0% Confidence Interval for B
Model Coefficients Coefficients T Sig.
(Constant) 142.460 32.563 4.375 .000 78.323 206.597
1 CP -20.510 60.920 -.031 -.337 .737 -140.500 99.480
Dmn 74.123 60.124 .113 1.233 .219 -44.299 192.544

Statistical Tool: Regression Analysis.
Suggestions
 Solution is to be taken for solving the problem lack of infrastructural facilities
in the Kanpur District.
Conclusion
The interesting result is that turnover increases with the uses of more no. of
machines but due to the increasing cost of machines entrepreneurs do not employ
more labour in the units. It was also found in the field that most of the entrepreneur
asked for the subsidized machinery, cheap raw materials and reforms in labour laws.
There are some other important factors such as infrastructural facilities, credit policies,
marketing strategies, human resources, technological advancement, supporting
government policies, labour laws, etc. which affects the turnover of the firms. The
Policy of Demonetization is appreciated by the maximum numbers of entrepreneurs
and they are seeking some positive benefits from the government in terms of subsidies.
The heart of working in the alleviating mode is how the three elements- purpose,
process and people- linked together. It is important to understand these links for
better execution of things, which had been severely lacking in the Kanpur District.
Hence, it is of vital importance to master three individual processes – the strategy
process, the operation process, and the people process – and also the way they work
together as a whole. They are the foundation for effective execution, and are at the
centre of conceiving and executing any strategy. It is these that differentiate between
a leading growth and a laggard growth. Managing this interplay becomes crucial for
growth, including industrial growth, and therefore needs attention at the highest
level in the Kanpur District, on a continuous and ongoing basis to preserve its earlier
status (Manchester of East).
References
1. Annual Report, 2007-08, Reserve Bank of India, Mumbai- 2008, Table 2.18, Pg.68.
2. Census of India, Census 2011, Government of India.
Evolving Nature of Cooperative Federalism in India
Dewendra Pratap Tiwari* & Yogendra Tiwari**
Introduction
There is no denying the fact that the Parliamentary – Federal system that India adopted
was suitable for Indian needs. Granville Austin argued, “The Constituent Assembly, in
fact, produced a new kind of federalism to meet India’s peculiar needs.” But ‘India’s
peculiar needs’ have compounded manifolds thus posing a formidable challenge of enlisting
the desired cooperation from all three – the Centre, the States and the Local – sets of
government. Hence, we attempt to bring to light some thematic issues in the working of
cooperative federalism in India. Indian Constituent Assembly was well aware that federalism
was important to absorb huge diversity but simultaneously gave it a Unitary Bias to
counter cessation tendencies as India was a “Nation in the Making”. This process of
Nation making was boosted by an innovative attribute of Federalism termed as ‘Cooperative
Federalism’ by Granville Austin, which lucidly means cooperation between Union and
States. However, Cooperative Federalism is not new to India; its root can be traced in the
history. Since the ancient period, kingdoms or empires has ruled Indian subcontinent
through a federal policy of non-intervention in local affairs. Hence, chieftains were left
very much alone. Successful monarch Akbar understood diversities of the subcontinent
and hence ruled through a policy of cooperative Federalism. Further disintegration of
Mauryas and Mughals is partly attributed to centralized tendencies of monarchs like
Jahangir and Aurangzeb. Moreover, Revolt of 1857 was also the result of intervention
measures of British like Doctrine of Lapse, etc. Cooperative Federalism was one of the
major instruments used by prominent Vallabhbhai Patel to persuade and cajole 492 princely
states to join Indian union. Under Nehruvian era, State Reorganization Act, leading to the
formation of five zonal councils was an important step towards cooperation. However,
Federalism soon came under threats which can also be witnessed in contemporary times.
Establishment of NITI aayog came at a time when federal concepts are put to test
by the union and state government practices of skewed procedures for allotments. One
of the objectives of NITI aayog is to enhance the cooperative federalism and to pool up
all the plans of the state to make grand plan. In this way the NITI aayog considers
unique needs of each state and to build capacities to meet those needs by its expertise
* Ph.D. in Political Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.
** Assistant Professor, Economics, M.B.P.G. College Chandauli, U.P.
assistance. Niti ayog replaced the 6 decade planning commission on January 1, 2015
putting an end to centralized planning with concept of “One Size Fits All”. The paradigm
shift to cooperative federalism works on bottom-up approach with more participation
from states. The governing council has decided to devolve funds to states which they
can use with more flexibility in line with their requirements for development.
Competitive federalism, mentioned by the Prime Minister should not presumed as
the competing power of states in the case of demand for funds, rather as a competing
nature in lines of development of their state. Cooperative federalism will definitely
deliver better developments when each state works as ‘Team India’ rather than entities
of India.
NITI Aayog
Issues of revenue sharing between the union and the states have always been important
and debatable. If we look at the distribution of net proceeds of taxes between the Centre
and the state, provided for by the Constitution, there appears an upright imbalance
between the powers of taxation apportioned between the Union and the states and the
implementation responsibilities assigned to the states. For example, under Article 282 of
the Constitution, the centre
Gives Plan grants to the states equal to the sum that the state has raised through its
own resources. This means that the already unequal geographical division of the country
in terms of resources, land, and development initiatives can be further accentuated under
the provisions of Article 282. The present government has replaced the planning commission
with National Institute for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog.
The NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India), is a think tank of the
Government of India established on 1 January 2015 as a replacement for the Planning
Commission to provide Governments at the central and state levels with relevant strategic,
directional and technical advice across the spectrum of key elements of policy /
development process (e.g. special attention to marginalized sections who may be at risk
of not benefitting adequately from economic progress, on technology up gradation and
capacity building etc.) In addition, the NITI Aayog will monitor and evaluate the
implementation of programmes.
The NITI Aayog also seeks to foster better Inter-Ministry coordination and better
Centre-State coordination. This is to help evolve a shared vision of national development
priorities and to foster cooperative federalism, as strong states make a strong nation. To
achieve this, NITI Aayog also envisages creation of regional councils comprising of
chief ministers of concerned states / central Ministries to address specific issues and
contingencies impacting more than one state or region.
The reluctantly designed asymmetrical federalism is already a logjam for governance.
Article 370 of the constitution gives asymmetrical status to the state of Jammu and
Kashmir – its own constitution, a title equivalent to prime minister for its chief minister
and a distinct assignment of functional responsibilities. The Article 370 in the constitution
goes with the heading ‘Temporary provisions with respect to the state of Jammu and
Kashmir’ and poignantly, these temporary provisions continue till today. Special provisions
have been assured to the regional tribal majorities in Nagaland and Mizoram under
Articles 371A and 371G. Yet in most of these areas there is a feeling of injustice and
betrayal. Their dissatisfaction at the unilateral decision to take away the option of
withdrawal from the union is reflective of their sense of alienation. The insensitive
response of the Central government towards the demands of subsidies and investments
in infrastructure facilities and other financial assistance further accentuates the distance.
The centralized and unresponsive bureaucratic apparatus is often alleged for ‘step-motherly’
treatment towards the north-eastern states.
The sixth schedule, which covers the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram,
knits another strand of asymmetrical federalism by providing for councils for self-
governments in autonomous districts. The tribes located in these states and the states
themselves are caught in a triangular strife –
I. Limited powers to administer the tribes, inadequate finances, and governor’s
omnipresent intervention;
II. Centralizing political interventions largely under the garb of security; and;
III. The strategically sensitive location of these states on the Indian borders with
China, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar.
Such special provisions for these states are unquestionably positive steps in the
course of building a more responsive federal democracy but the challenges here are:
a. To bring the north eastern community into mainstream politics by increasing the
participation of their elected representatives and opening up the face of north
east to planned development initiatives;
b. To change the unitary mould in which the state-district relations have been casted.
Other than the asymmetrical texture of the Indian federalism, we are also witnessing
strands of multi-level federalism in India. Other than the Centre and the states, the
third tier comprising of Panchayat and municipalities is
Also functional. This tier comprises of 592 District panchayats, 6,321 Block panchayats
and 2, 53,189 village panchayats, which taken together, elect more than 3 million
representatives every five years. Through the 73rd and 74 th amendment, the Centre has
also ensured opportunity for women and dalits to participate in local governance. The
third tier has got constitutional recognition but the debate on distribution of responsibility
and resources is still on. Their position in the federal structure is still ambiguous. They
still are treated as merely an implementing agency of the Union or the State; getting
funds and functionaries is still a herculean task i.e. fiscal ambiguities overshadow any
rational move towards practicing decentralization; politico-electoral meddling is rampant;
the elite bureaucracy still displays the age old condescending attitude towards any form
of interaction with the functionaries of this ‘third tier’; and the locally dominant social
elite bias proves to be a major bottleneck.
The pre-reform vertical competition between the Centre and the States has changed
into horizontal competition among the states to attract investment and resources from
varied sources, national as well as international, which are bound to further accentuate
regional disparities. Since none of the twin processes of globalization and decentralization
can be reversed or even disturbed, the government has to strike a balance in a way that
allows state-level actors also to shape foreign economic relations.
The principle of practicing federalism might be about distribution of powers between

the Centre and the states but the spirit and essence of federalism is about the decentralizing
tendencies of the operating political system. The notional transfer of powers to the state
governments and the continuance of a disciplinary hierarchical political party at the
Centre and the states will be an obstacle to the very principle of federalism. The structural
acceptance of federalism has been somewhat achieved but the progression towards
reconciling internal diversities – regional, fiscal and administrative – within the federal
framework has been obscure. What is required is the resilience to adapt and to
accommodate, structurally and politically, the countless pressures of regional forces and
centralizing endeavors of national political parties. In order to adopt the cooperative
model of Indian federalism, we have to reorient our operational discernments of federalism
so that the present ‘predominantly centralized federal polity’ becomes malleable.
Conclusion
The relation between the centre, the states and the local tiers lies at the heart of
India’s sense of nationhood and is the pre requisite for India’s progress. However a
strong political undercurrent runs through it. Every centre-state and every inter-state
dispute is at its heart, a political dispute. This is the root cause of the problematic
nature of centre-state relations. Such a dispute slowly ripens into an economic one. Bad
politics leads to bad economics. Unless stagnation in the economic field and unbalanced
regional development are not addressed, integration and solidarity in the federal set up
will not be complete. Both Centre and State governments must attend to the task of
preserving our nationhood through constructive cooperative federalism which requires
a great deal of commitment.
India is a beautiful melting pot of diversity. The same needs to be valued and cherished.
And there is not a better way to do than by cooperative federalism. People of several
states sink or swim together and that in the long run, prosperity and salvation are in
innovation and not in division, mutuality and not conflict, cooperation and not competition.
References
1. Aseema Mahajan (2004), ‘The Changing Political Economy of Federalism in India: A Historical
Institutionalist Approach’, India Review, vol. 3, no.1, January 2004, pp.25 -63.
2. Ajay K.Mehra and Gert W. kueck(2003) (eds.), The Indian Parliament – A Comparative Perspective,
Konark Publishers Private Ltd., Delhi.
3. Akhtar Majeed (2010), Clouds over Federalism– The Real Working of the Indian Polity Manak
Publications, New Delhi.
4. A.S. Kabbur (2004), Centre State Relations in India, Trust Books, Delhi.
5. BalveerArora and Douglas V. Verney (1995) (eds.), Multiple Identities in a Single State: Indian
Federalism in Comparative Perspective, Konark Publishers, and New Delhi.
6. B.D. Dua and M.P.Singh (2003), Indian Federalism in the new Millennium, Manohar Publishers,
Delhi.
Co-operative Federalism and GST: Need of the Present
Vishal Dubey*
Introduction
The Centre and States agreed to have concurrent power to tax goods and services.
The Centre let go of its exclusive power to tax manufacture of goods (i.e. Excise)
and provision of services (i.e. Service Tax), and the States gave up their exclusive
power to tax sale of goods (sales tax / VAT). Both the Centre and the States agreed
to share their powers to achieve uniformity and remove compartmentalisation in
indirect taxation and form a common market of 1.3 billion consumers.
Different rates of VAT in States coupled with non-vattable CST (Central Sales
Tax) and broken input tax credit chain in inter-state transactions resulted in tax on
tax (cascading of taxes) leading to multiple tax zones within India. Now under GST,
the same tax rates will be levied on a particular item on its supply concurrently both
by the Centre and State, thereby bringing uniformity in tax. GST will subsume a
number of existing indirect taxes being levied independently by the Centre and State
Governments. These include Central Excise duty, Service Tax, VAT, Purchase Tax,
Central Sales Tax, Entry Tax, Local Body Taxes, Luxury Tax, etc. Such a long list of
taxes with requirements of filing returns and carrying out tedious multiple calculations,
all replaced by one tax with a nationwide common rate on particular items,. The
Constitution of India has also been amended accordingly. This fundamental reordering
of federal fiscal relations for the cause of common good shows the strength and
resolve of the federal structure..
Under the GST regime, the Centre & States will act on the recommendations of
the GST Council. GST Council comprises of the Union Finance Minister, Union Minister
of State for Finance and Finance Ministers of the all the States. 2/3rd of Voting power
is with the States and 1/3rd with the Centre which reflects the accommodative spirit
of federalism. Consensus amongst members has been the guiding principle for taking
decisions in GST Council in all its decisions leading up to GST’s launch on 1 st July
2017, though the Constitution provides for decisions being taken by a 3/4th majority
* Assistant Professor (Economics), G.B. Pant Degree College, Kachhla (Budaun).

of members present and voting. The very fact that there has been no need to resort
to voting to take any decisions taken till now in 18 meetings held so far reflects the
spirit of “One Nation, One Aspiration, One Determination”.
The participation of all States and Centre in the framing of GST laws has led to
the following features in the GST Laws:
1. Harmonisation of GST laws across the country: Even though Centre and
each State legislature have passed their own GST Acts, they are all based on
the Model GST law drafted jointly by the Centre & the States. Consequently,
all the laws have virtually identical provisions.
2. Common Definitions & Common Procedures/Formats : There are common
definitions and procedures, common formats in all laws, even the sections
and subsections in CGST Act and SGST Act are same. UTGST Act provides
that most of the provisions in CGST Act, as stated in Section 21 shall apply to
UTGST Act also.
3. Common Compliance Mechanism: GSTN, a not-for-profit, non-government
company promoted jointly by the Central and State Governments, is the common
compliance portal and the taxpayers shall interface with all states as well as
Centre through this portal.
Joint Capacity Building Efforts
Joint Capacity Building efforts by Centre as well as all the States are being organised
wherein for the first time the training of officers of Centre and State is being conducted
under the auspices of National Academy of Customs, Indirect Taxes and Narcotics
(NACIN). NACIN has formed a Joint Coordination Committee in each State comprising
of Centre, State and NACIN Officers for overseeing Capacity Building efforts.
Joint Trade Awareness & Outreach Efforts
Centre along with the State Government Officials has been organising Joint Trade
Awareness & Outreach programs wherein for the first time the Officers came together
to create GST awareness amongst Trade and other stakeholders.
Cross Empowerment of Officers of Centre as well as States:
Though GST will be jointly administered by Centre and State, for ensuring ease
of doing business, but the individual taxpayer will have a single interface with only
one Tax Authority either Centre or State. In order to encourage cooperation and
harmonise the decisions under both the Acts, the officers appointed under the SGST
Act or the UGST Act shall be authorised to be the proper officer for the purposes of
CGST Act and vice versa.
The implications, concerns and business prospects in future as a result of GST
implementation on 01 July 2017 are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Future Implications, Concerns and Business Prospects
Sl.no. Implications Concerns Business Prospects
Multiplicity of slabs may lead Freedom from state
1 Universal and uniform taxation
to disputes over classification. hegemony of raising taxes.
Multiple registrations in
2 Overall lower tax burden Transparency in taxes.
different states.
End of inspector-raj and truck queues at Confusion over working of Ease of doing business as
3
state borders GST and its filing. only one tax to account.
Input tax credit will lower the
Lower taxes will raise revenues and may Apprehension over existing
4 incidence of taxation than
increase GDP by 2 percent. stocks
headline taxation.
Fears of anti-profiteering may Automated process means
5 Less scope for evasion will raise revenues.
unleash inspector-raj less babudom.
Source: Prepared from http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/india-say-

hello-to-gst-biggest-ever-tax-reform-comes-into-efect/articleshow/59391199.cms
GST Rates
Tax Rates has been decided under GST and have been divided under five slabs,
as shown in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 2: GST Rates on Goods
Exempt 5% 12% 18% 28% 28%+Cess
Food grains Coal Juices-Fruit,
Capital Goods Small Cars
Milk Jaggery Sugar Tea & Coffee Vegetable Industrial Air-
(1%-3% Cess)
Cereals Drugs & Medicine Milk Beverages intermediaries Conditioners
Hair- Oil Soap Luxury Cars
Salt Edible Oil Bio-Gas Fuel Refrigrators
Toothpaste (15% Cess)
Indian Sweets Fertilizers
Source: http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/india-say-hello-to-gst-biggest-
ever-tax-reform-comes-into-effect/articleshow/59391199.cms
Table 3: GST Rates on Services

Exempt 5% 12%-18% 28%
Works Contract
Goods Transport
Education Rail Tickets (Other than Business Class Air Travel
Cinema Tickets
Sleeper Class)
Health Care Telecom Services
Betting and
Economy Class Air Tickets
Residential Accomodation Financial Services GamblingHotel
Lodges with Tariff
Hotel Lodges with Tariff Cab Aggregators
Restaurant Services above Rs. 5000.
Below Rs. 1000
Selling Space for
Hotel Lodges with Tariff
Advertisement in Print Media
between Rs. 1000 and Rs. 5000.
Source: http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/india-say-hello-to-gst-biggest-ever-tax-
reform-comes-into-effect/articleshow/59391199.cms
Revenue Sharing Under GST

CGST, SGST and IGST are parts of Goods and Service Tax that are applicable
after the implementation of GST. To maintain the federal structure of the constitution
GST would be levied in two parts-CGST and SGST. CGST will go to the centre while
SGST would go to states. In case of sale of goods and services from one states to
another states IGST would be applicable-one part of it would go to central government
while the other part would go to states.
Conclusion
India has unanimously passed a landmark Constitutional amendment to implement
the GST which should result in a common market for domestic indirect taxes and a
long list of indirect taxes is replaced by a single GST with harmony. GST is expected
to be transparent, simple and corruption-free. It is expected to end tax-terrorism and
inspector-raj. It ends the era of multiplicity of taxes, confusion making India independent
of the effect of cascading taxes. GST intends to transform India into a true economic
union, with the aim of ‘One Nation, One Tax, One Market’. The free movement of
goods and services will give fillip to employment opportunities and give consumers
a wider choice and better prices.
It will end the middlemen interference at state borders, free up internal trade,
improve the ease of doing business and expand the tiny tax base. The free movement
of goods and services will give fillip to employment opportunities and give consumers
a wider choice and better prices. This economic integration will not only boost economic
growth, but also bind the nation better. It is an idea whose time has come and
would not have materialised but for the spirit of co-operation displayed by the Centre
and the States. Indeed, GST in India in its conception, enactment and implementation
is an example of real ‘co-operative federalism’ at work, in tune with the unique
character of India – ‘Unity in Diversity’
The move will replace more than a dozen levies with a new goods and services
tax. That should help reduce the immense power India’s myriad middlemen wield
at state borders, free up internal trade, make it easier to do business and widen the
country’s tiny tax base. While India already boasts one of the world’s fastest growing
major economies, architects of the reform say it will stoke efficiency and growth by
creating a common market of 1.3 billion consumers.
References
1. Economic times. com, “India, say hello to GST! Biggest-ever tax reform comes into effect”,
July 01, 2017 retrieved htttp://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/india-
say-hello-to-gst-biggest-ever-tax-reform-comes-into-effect/articleshow/59391199.cms
2. Sudhir, SNV (2017), “GST example for cooperative federalism : Nirmala Sitaraman”, July
08, 2017 retrieved at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/gst-example-
for-cooperative-federalism-nirmala-sitaraman/articleshow/59503260.cms
Black Money-Size and Impact on Economy
Sharad Chandra Srivastava*
Black Money refers to that money which is not fully legitimate property of the
owner. It is normally received in terms of cash from economic activities. i.e. Individuals
who received it must hide it, spend it on for the fulfillment of their needs. According
to National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP) defines-
“Black Money is the aggregate of incomes which are taxable but not reported to
authorities.”
Black money can be described by various terminologies like unaccounted income,
black income, black wealth, underground wealth, and at economy level it is known
as black economy, parallel economy or shadow economy. In the nut shell, all these
terms refer to an income on which ideally one should have paid tax but tries to
evade it by various means. In a common parlance, black money refers to the money
which is generated through illegitimate means or by bypassing taxation system.
Size of Black Economy
While there is no official estimate of quantum of black money in India or abroad,
a 2010 World Bank Report on shadow economies estimated it at 31 per cent of GDP
of 162 countries with India’s estimate pegged at 20.7 per cent of GDP. There has
been other estimates which have placed size of India’s parallel economy at higher
levels including a recent FICCI report which has estimated it to as high as 75 per
cent of GDP. As per a study conducted by Chandan Sharma, black economy as a
percentage of GDP is quite substantial in India. However, on a positive note, study
also indicates that fiscal reforms in important areas in 1990s helped in reducing the
size of the black economy.
Specifically, it was as large as 64% of the reported GDP in 1970s, in terms of
current market value it was 280 billion Indian rupees. The size had gone down to
44% in 1997, but increase to 7000 billion rupees in value terms. More importantly, it
has been constantly around 50% of GDP in the last two decades. In the last year of
* Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Sciences & Humanities, I.E.T, Sitapur Road
Lucknow (U.P)
analysis, 2013, it was 52% of GDP, which is around 60000 billion in Indian currency,
while in terms of U.S. dollar, it was 957 billion.
According to the 3rd report published in May, 2012, Swiss National Bank estimates
total deposits by various countries. Her also, India tops the chart, again reinstating
the fact that a huge sum of black money is finding its way out of the country.
Table 1: Huge Sum of Black Money is Finding its Way

Country Money Deposited
INDIA $ 1,456 billion
RUSSIA $ 470 billion
UK $ 390 billion
UKRAINE $ 100 billion
CHINA $ 96 billion
Source: 2012 Report by Swiss National Bank
According to a report released by Global Financial Integrity (GFI) in December

2012, India is among the top 10 developing countries in the world with a black
money outflow of $1.6 billion (Rs. 8,720 crore) in 2010. Total outflow of black money
from India since independence until 2010 was $232 billion, generally in the form of
corruption, bribery and kickbacks. In the post-reform period of 1991-2008, deregulation
and liberalization accelerated the outflow of illicit money from the Indian economy.
Reasons for Black Money’s Existence
The black economy in developing countries, such as India, is apparently large
due to the inefficiency in the tax system and regulation. Black or parallel economy is
generated by maintaining out of books transactions or two parallel books of accounts.
Under reporting of production figures also contributes to black money. It is also
generated by illegitimate ways such as drug trafficking, weapons trading, terrorism,
and selling counterfeit or stolen goods. The foremost reason for the existence of
black money is corruption in every field of society. Another major reason which
forces innocent and honest people into illegal acts is that our country is plagued
with many retrograde practices. One example is that if somebody wishes to conduct
an all white transaction of selling a land in India, he will have a settle for a price
which is approximately 40% lower than the market rate. The reason is that in a land
deal, a significant proportion of amount is settled in cash as this has become the
norm over time .Apart from this, black money also continues due to “Demonstration
Effect” as in modern world,
Impacts of Black Money on Indian Economy
The flow of black money can seriously affect the entire economic system of India.
Some important impacts are discussed here:
1. Less Tax for the Government–Many times, the Indian Government has failed
to collect the estimated amount of tax from the people of our country and for
this, credit has to go to the black money driven underground economy. Recently,
a report was submitted to the Finance Ministry of India that divides the spread
of black money in different sectors like real estate, mining, telecom etc. The
study, headed by NIPFP chief P.Kavita Rao, explains how illicit wealth is
likely to exceed 10% of GDP.
2. Uncontrollable Inflation-When black money is out in the market, the amount
of money in the system is higher than the Government expects. This causes
the prices of commodities to increase to a level beyond normal. This is a
direct result of people having more money offering more money on specific
items
3. Leads to Mass Poverty–The distribution of wealth and income in our country
have been severely affected by the growth of black economy. The common
people get affected indirectly in so many ways. The tax evaders are keeping
the money away from the deserved.
4. Lack of Technology–Due to the existence of black money, India is facing the
problem of shortage of capital. This has the direct impact on the up gradation
of technology in all sectors.
5. Impact on Growth by moving investments on Gold, Stones and Jewellery–
People who are looking to turn black money into white money are largely
investing in precious metals like Gold and other jewelry. There are people
who believe that almost 70% of the total gold investment in our country is
black money This flow of underground money has caused Indian economy to
stall on its growth.
6. Corruption-While corruption creates black money in the economy, it can also
be a result of the growing underground market. People with black money are
able to bribe the administrators and politicians to get what they want.
7. Inflated Real Estate –When people with deep pockets are ready to pay more
for a piece of land, the price of surrounding land also tends to increase; thus
artificially inflating the prices of an entire area. A piece of land as this helps
in converting their black money to legal money.
8. Transfer of Indian Funds Abroad to Safe Heavens–The black money generated
in India is kept in foreign tax havens. For this, money has to be transferred
from India to other countries through secret channels.
CONCLUSION
Black money is a threat which absolutely brings down the economy of the nation.
When the problem of black money is discussed various reasons for generation of
black money is analysed from the view of the nation and corrupt officials. No analysis
touches the requirement of a man at the subsistence level. Abolition of black money
is impractical it can only be minimized. More than economic measures India needs
to adopt measures to eradicate poverty and punish the corrupt, irrespective of the
position they have in the society. Poverty leads to corruption.
Mostly salaried peoples are affected and taxed by government, and it has been
observed that government has failed to control raising prices of all commodities.
Common people living a dreadful life due to shooting prices of essential items and
the price rise of petrol also pushing the inflation which may also gives an opportunity
to create black money. The price risk has hit the poor man below the belt. Everyone
wants to make money to live a decent living. Government is unable to cater to the
needs of the people.
The question that comes to one mind is from where we generate money to face
the price rise. Every rich man is living a luxurious and a powerful life. Citizens start
adopting corrupt practices to earn money and one method is not to pay taxes. There
is need to change the frame of mind of the people and they have to understand that
they are the lonely rationale for people to make black money.
References
1. N. Vittal: Corruption in India: The Roadblock to national prosperity: 2003: New Delhi: Academic
foundation: at p. 167.
2. Attiya Waris and Laila Abdul Latif: Black Money Whitening Law: A study from Bangladesh:
Volume 9: 2013: (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281370662_Black_money_whitening_
law_A_study_from_Bangladesh).
3. Dr. B.D. Karhad: Efforts towards bringing back the overseas black money: Indian streams research
Journal: Volume 2: Issue III: April 2012: at p. 1.
4. Ne. Thi. Somashekhar: Development and Environmental Economics: 2003: New Delhi: New Age
International Publishers: at p. 619.
5. M. Chandrappa: Tax evasion and black money in India: Causes and Remedies: International
Journal of Management Research and Review: Volume 6: Issue 10: Article No. 2: at p. 1376.
6. Dr. Shalini Kapur: Impact of Black Money on Indian Economy: International Journal of Engineering
technology Science and Research: Volume 2: Issue 9: September 2015: at p. 69.
7. Dr. Devendra Vishwakarma: Effects of Black money on Indian Economy: International Journal of
Research in Finance and Marketing: Volume 6: Issue 2: February 2016: at p. 205.
8. Riyaz Ali et al: Black Economy: A serious Threat: International Research Journal of Management
Science and Technology: Volume 5: Issue 6: 2014: at p. 84.
9. Agarwal CA Lalit Mohan (2012). edit. White Paper On Black Money. Journal of Securities
Academy & faculty for e-education, Vol.72.
10. Guru Arpit; Kahanijow Shruti. The black money income: Need for amendment in DTAA&ITEA,
International Journal of Applied Research, 2010, 4(10).
Pivotal Role of Women in Ensuring Food Security Issues in

India
Rukmani*
Introduction
Food Security also means that the people who produce our food are able to earn
a decent, living wage growing, catching, producing, processing, transporting, retailing,
and serving food.
At the core of food security is access to healthy food and optimal nutrition for
all. Food access is closely linked to food supply, so food security is dependent on a
healthy and sustainable food system.The food system includes the production,
processing, distribution, marketing, acquisition, and consumption of food.A healthy,
sustainable food system is one that focuses on Environmental Health, Economic Vitality,
and Human Health & Social Equity. The figure 1.1 clearly shows this relationship.
Figure 1.1
M. S.Swaminathan (2013), About 900 million men, women and children around
the world are malnourished. Nearly two billion suffer from iron deficiency and anemia
particularly women, pregnant women.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Pauri Campus, H.N.B. Garhwal University

(Central University), Garhwal, Uttarakhand.

The main objectives of this research are as follows:
• To understand the concept of food security.
• To access the role of women in food security.
• To explore the challenges in ensuring food security.
• To suggest the measures to overcome these challenges.
Type of Research: The present study is descriptive in nature. The objectives of
the study have been clearly defined at the beginning of the study.
Data Collection: This research mainly relies on secondary data. Secondary data is
collected from various researches, surveys and studies conducted by various government
and non government organizations.For the clear and simple representation of data;
percentage, bar graphs, venn diagram and various figures have been used.
Role of Women in Food Security
Women’s involvement in agricultural production varies from country to country,
crop to crop and task to task. In Southeast Asia, women provide up to 90 per cent of
the labor for rice cultivation.Women are also found in agricultural wage labour.
Women likewise assume significant roles in forestry, planting and caring for seedlings
and gathering forest products for fuel, fodder and food. With most rural areas dependent
on fuel wood, women arealmost always the ones responsible for gathering fuel wood
that is used not only for cooking but also for food processing and other basic needs
such as warmth, light and boiling water for drinking.
Small-scale fisheries, which provide more than 25 per cent of the world’s fish food
catch, depend on women’s contributions. In most parts of the world, women in fishing
communities catch fish with netsand traps and by baiting and diving. They raise fish
and crustaceans; make and repair nets and traps; assist men with launching and beaching
operations, sorting and gutting the haul; and process and market their catch.
Challenges Faced in Ensuring Food Security
Table 1.1 : Trends in the Per Capita Intake of Calorie, Protein and Fatby the
Poor and Rich Households in India
(Per capita per day)
Calorie (kcal) Protein (gms) Fat (gms)

Year (TE)
Poor Rich Poor Rich Poor Rich
1698 2747 48 77 17 48
1983
1987-88 1754 2791 50 80 19 52
1993-94 1544 2327 42 65 20 52
1670 2756 45 73 22 71
1999-00
1757 2636 44 66 23 53
2004-05
1754 2819 48 85 29 71
2009-10
Source: Estimates of Anjani Kumar et al., 2012
Table 1.2: Growth Rate and Yields of Food Grain, Oilseeds and Pulses
(Percent per annum)
Production Yields
Crop Groups/ Crops
1986-87 to 1996-97 to 1986-87 to 1996-97 to
1996-97 2007-08 1996-97 2007-08
Food grains 2.93 0.93 3.21 1.04
Cereals 3.06 0.97 3.36 1.19
Coarse cereals 1.19 1.53 3.66 2.25
Pulses 1.32 0.36 1.49 -0.02
Oilseeds 6.72 1.99 3.32 1.49
Rice 3.06 1.02 2.37 1.22
Wheat 4.09 0.65 2.93 0.34
Source: As in S.Mahendra Dev, and A. Sharma, 2011. There being filled trend rates based on CACP, 2009.
India is expected to become the most populous country in the world by 2025,
feeding the population is likely to beone of the serious challenges that the country
will face in the coming decades. India scores somewhat more in the category of
‘availability’ than in the other two ‘affordability’ and ‘quality and safety’ categories.
Conclusion & Suggestion
Women are farmers in the majorityregions of the developing countries, playing
key roles in the production of the major food staple crops- maize, rice and wheat.
Generally man controls the production of the cash crop, or mechanized large scale
cash production. This is not to say women do not play animportant part, men control
the crop, make the decision and accrue the revenue, but the use of women’s labour
is as high as that of men’s. Women are universally responsible for food preparation
for their families and engaged in various stages and steps of processing this food.Thus,
women food producers must be central to the focus of policy making because they
comprise a largeproportion of small-scale and subsistencefarmers and play multiple
essential rolesin food security.
Suggestions
• Partner with NGOs for Holistic Development: If FoodBanks and NGOs which
work in fields such as education, skills training, behaviour change, hygiene,
etc. come together, the model that emerges is much more sustainable and
holistic for the beneficiaries. This enables the poor to come out of the vicious
cycle and become self-sustained and independent.
• Equal Access to Resources and Land Ownership: Equal access to resources
and land ownership to women can act as an important motivating factor to
practice agriculture wholeheartedly.
References
1. FAO Report (2015), “The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2015”.
2. Learner, Michele (2006), “Budgeting for Justice” URL:http://www.bread.org/learn/background
-papers/2006/budgeting-for-justice.html
3. Levin, C. E., D. G. Maxwell, M. Armar-Klemesu, M. T. Ruel, S. S. Morris, and C. Ahiadeke
(1999), ‘Working Women in an Urban Setting: Traders, Vendors, and Food Security in Accra’,
FCND Discussion Paper No. 66. International Food Policy Research Institute: Washington,
DC.
Centre State Relation in the Tax Reform Period: GST as a

Game Changer
Dinesh Yadav* & Anup Kumar**
Introduction
The central state relations are crucial in the preservation and for the very existence
of federal system. In a Country like India, having linguistic diversity, cultural variation,
economic disparity etc. The central pillars of federal finance are efficiency, uniformity,
economy, autonomy and sufficiency. The most important aspect of fiscal federalism
is the division of resources and functions between different levels of governments.
The National Development Council, Planning Commission and Finance Commission
should be streamlined with objectivity and efficiency to strengthen the impulse of
Indian fiscal federal relations. Implementing the Goods and Service Tax (GST) will
pose the biggest challenge in the Centre, state fiscal relations, former governor of
the Reserve Bank of India YV Reddy said “In Goods and Services Tax, the major
new challenge is that so far Centre used to levy its tax, the state used to levy its tax,
the jurisdiction was clear. today after this (Constitutional) amendment, the tax powers
virtually cross each other. They have to agree on rates, the categories to be excluded.
Tax powers are based on the recommendations of the GST Council. Now the Centre
and states have to together determine the tax rates, and they also have to work
together in implementation…so we have serious problem for the first time”.
Objectives
1. To find the major financial problem between centre and states in India.
2. To access the major committees related to centre state financial relations and
his recommendations.
3. To find the role of GST as a strengthening financial relation between centre
and states.

** Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, U.P.
Problems: Financial Relations between the Centre and State
The main problems related to financial relations between centre and states are
following:
1. Mounting Vertical Imbalance: Vertical imbalance emerges because of
disproportionate alignment of revenue sources in relation to increasing
expenditure obligations by level of government. There is a situation of growing
expenditure requirements and poor yield of revenue source for states in India.
2. Horizontal Imbalance: Various regions and states in India differ in resources
endowment, level of development and per capital income. Therefore horizontal
imbalance occurs between different units of government at the same level of
government in Indian federation. The resources transfer affected through
planning commission and Finance Commission has miserably failed in correcting
the horizontal imbalance. As a result disparities in per-capita income are
increasing.
3. Excessive Dependence on Centre: This situation mainly emerges owing to the
existence of vertical imbalance in resources source and transfer. Very often in
Indian federation the taxes which are assigned to states are generally less
elastic and less productive. As a result, with the passage of time states in
India have become more and more dependent on centre for financial help.
The matter sometimes becomes worse for states ruled by a particular political
party different from the one in the centre.
Reforming Centre-State Relations Committees and Model Formulation
Some of the major recommendations made by different committees and teams
are as under:
Gadgil Formula: The Gadgil formula is named after Shri Dhananjay Ramchandra
Gadgil, a social scientist and the first critic of Indian planning. It was evolved
in 1969 for determining the allocation of central assistance for state plans in
India. Gadgil formula was adopted for distribution of plan assistance during
Fourth and Fifth Five Year Plans. The Gadgil formula was formulated with
the formulation of the fourth five-year plan for the distribution of plan transfers
amongst the states. The objective was to formulate a model which would
help the Central Government to share its resources for equal and balanced
growth in the states. The National Development Council (NDC) approved the
following formula:
1. Special Category states like Assam, Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland
were given preference. Their needs should first be met out of the total
pool of Central assistance.
2. The remaining balance of the Central assistance should be distributed among
the remaining states on the basis of the following criteria: 60 per cent on
the basis of population; 10 per cent on the basis of tax effort, determined
on the basis of individual State’s per capita tax receipts as percentage of
the State’s per capita income; 10 per cent on the basis of per capita state
income, assistance going only to States whose per capita incomes are below
the national average; 10 per cent on the basis of spill-over into the fourth
plan of major continuing irrigation and power projects; 10 per cent for
special problems of individual states.
Reasoning behind the given weights:
i. Population: In a country like India, population acts as an apt measure to
represent the requirements of the people because a major portion of the
population lives below the poverty line. This proposition was also supported
by the empirical data which showed a negative correlation between population
of states and their per capita income.
ii. Tax Effort: This is an important factor to measure the potential of the state as
far as its own resources are concerned. This relative measure incentivizes the
states to undertake measures to increase their own potential through various
tax measures.
iii. State per Capita Income: A problem regarding unequal development amongst
the states was faced in the earlier plans because of larger states with their
large plans were able to get a larger share of resources from the centre. This
led to increased inequalities amongst the states. Therefore, to make the
distribution fairer to the smaller states with a lesser than national per capita
average income were given extra share in the resources.
Modified Gadgil Formula - The formula was modified on the eve of the
formulation of the Sixth Plan. The 10 percent indicator for ongoing power
and irrigation projects was dropped and the share of per capita income was
increased to 20 percent, to be distributed to those states whose per capita
incomes were below the national average. The modified Gadgil formula
continued for the Sixth and the Seventh Plans.
Gadgil-Mukherjee Formula - The National Development Council (NDC) meeting

held in 11, 1990; discussed and approved a New Revised formula. The new
revised formula is popularly known as Gadgil-Mukherjee formula after the
name of then deputy chairman of Planning commission and the current President
of India Shri Pranab Mukherjee. The new revised formula as approved by
NDC is given in the following table.
GST intends to transform India into a true economic union, with the aim of
‘One Nation, One Tax, One Market’. The free movement of goods and services
will give fillip to employment opportunities and give consumers a wider
choice and better prices. This economic integration will not only boost economic
growth, but also bind the nation better. It is an idea whose time has come
and would not have materialised but for the spirit of co-operation displayed
by the Centre and the States. Indeed, GST in India in its conception, enactment
and implementation is an example of real ‘co-operative federalism’ at work,
in tune with the unique character of India – ‘Unity in Diversity’ “The key to
the successful implementation of the GST will be cooperation - between the
Centre and the States, among the States, and between the governments and
the businesses.”
Conclusion
The GST is not a game-changer unless it is applied to a comprehensive base at
moderate rates. There are many other important design features that will impact the
overall goodness and simplicity of the tax. The governments must now constructively
engage with the other significant stakeholders, including taxpayers. Centre-state
negotiations should give way to consultations with those most affected by the tax.
The spirit of co-operative federalism has thus helped remove compartmentalisation
of powers to tax. The Constitution of India has also been amended accordingly. This
fundamental reordering of federal fiscal relations for the cause of common good
shows the strength and resolve of the federal structure.
References
1. Anushuya Pal, Narwal Karam (2014). ‘Indian Indirect Tax Systems: Reforms and Goods
and Services Tax’ Advances in Management 7.7 (Jul 2014): 9-14.
2. Pannu SPS (2015). ‘The Biggest Tax Reforms in India: Since from Independence’ Business
Today, Nov, 28, 2015, New Delhi.
3. Pinki, Kamna Supriya, Verma Richa (2014), “Good and Service Tax – Panacea For Indirect
Tax System In India”, “Tactful Management Research Journal”,Vol. 2, Issue 10, July 2014.
Feminization of Poverty: Role of Law and Economics
Divya Dwivedi*
“One of the ironies of our rapidly developing and increasingly progressive world
is that poverty continues to remain widespread and rampant, and the vulnerable
population seems to have grown ever more vulnerable and Women seem to be the
centre of exploitation. In this Research paper I have tried to explore and understand
first the Rhetoric and of law, economics and poverty and then the different ways in
which law is implicated on Socio-economic inequalities faced by women in this country,
with special focus on Labour Legislations and how law and Economics together can
provide a better understanding of the women welfare.”
The very beginning of the most recent report by expert group submitted and
published by the Government of India planning commission, states that “Growth is
not the sole objective of economic policy. It is necessary to ensure that the benefits of growth
accrue to all sections of the society.”
The relationship between gender and poverty is a complex and controversial
topic that is now being debated more than ever before. Although much policymaking
has been informed by the idea of feminization of poverty, the precise nature of the
nexus between gender and poverty needs to be better understood in policymaking.
The difficulty originates from the different shapes and forms gender inequalities and
poverty take depending on the economic, social and ideological context. Though
Indian economy has been one of the leading performers globally in recent years but
the problem that this research tries to focus is on inclusive growth. Inclusive growth
means growth with equal opportunities. Inclusive growth focuses on creating
opportunities and making the opportunities accessible to all. Growth is inclusive
when it allows all members of a society to participate in and contribute to the growth
process on an equal basis regardless of their individual circumstances.’ 1
Women play a pivotal role in the overall progress of a country as they constitute
half the human resources of a nation. The economic wealth of a country is seriously
depleted if about half of the nation’s human resource is neglected. Much attention
* Assistant Professor of Law, Amity Law School Lucknow (AUUP), B.A LL.b (Hons.) Dr.
Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University, LL.M. (International Trade and Investment
laws) National Law University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
has been drawn to the feminization of poverty in recent years. The UNDP’s Human
Development Report (1995) postulates that more than 70 percent of the world’s poor
are women. It has been established through various studies that women work longer
hours to attain the same level of welfare as men do, and that poverty is more likely
to be chronic for women and transient for men.
It is interesting to note that growth has not necessarily led to positive gender
outcomes. Maternal deaths account for 15 percent of deaths of women in the
reproductive age group, and literacy levels among women are 54.2 percent versus
the figure of 75.9 percent for males.15 The low sex-ratio is another cause for concern.
Punjab, for instance, has alarmingly low juvenile female sex-ratios of 798 girls per
1000 boys. Labour force participation rates for women are much lower at 22.7 percent,
compared to 51.6 percent for men. On gender development, India has an index value
of 0.594 and ranks 114 among 155 countries, again in the lowest quadrant’ India is
one of the few countries which has remained on track with regard to reducing income
poverty, and is also likely to achieve targets for enrolment in primary education,
combating HIV/AIDS, and access to improved water sources. However, the country
is lagging behind in gender parity in education, infant mortality, and maternal mortality
rates. 2. According to the Human Development Report, of the 1.3 billion people
worldwide who live in poverty, 70 percent are women. Deprivation’s gender dimension
is evident from gender inequalities that exist in the sex ratio, child infanticide, literacy
rates, health and nutrition, access to productive resources, etc.
Let’s just analyze the instances of development in the field of education, Sarva shiksha
abhiyan (SSA) launched in 2001-2002, as a follow up to the National Policy on Education
(1986) is the largest programme ever initiated on literacy. It aims at universalizing
elementary education by bridging all gender and social gaps at elementary level education.
SSA intends to make the education system responsive to the needs of the girls through
targeted intervention (pull factor to enhance access and retention of girls) and generate
community demand for girls’ education through training and mobilization. Apart from
it other schemes such as Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education
(EGS and AIE), National Program for Education of Girls for the Elementary Level (NPEGEL),
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) were launched in order to bridge the gaps of
gender parity in Indian education system.
Understanding the Rhetoric of Women, Law and Poverty
To speak of “Indian women” is to obscure the diversity of women living in
India. As Chandra Talpade Mohanty has argued, the positing of the category of
‘’women’’, and particularly, of ’ ‘Third World women”, sets up a false homogeneity. 3
Speaking of law is similarly problematic. First, there is the problem that the legal
regulation of women is, in many respects, based on the assumption of the homogeneity
of women. With the exception of personal laws, which recognize women as members
of different religious communities, law tends to posit women as a “coherent group
with identical interests and desires”4 and to speak of the role of law in women’s
poverty is thereby to speak of the broader dilemmas - of the role of law in regulating
women’s lives, and of the role of law in rural development - dilemmas that can be
explored at multiple levels. The Indian Constitution formally guarantees women’s
equality,” Moreover, the women’s movement in India has successfully campaigned
since the late 1970s for legislative and judicial reform to remove legal obstacles to
women’s equality, and to guarantee women the right to equal participation in social,
economic, and political life. For over a decade, Indian feminists have struggled for
law reform in the areas of rape, dowry, sati, and prostitution, and much legislative
reform has been brought ‘about as a result. In many respects, women in India have
achieved formal equality in law. But there remain important dimensions of social
and familial life in which such formal equality has not been guaranteed. There do
exist various family law related matters, where women still lie behind, as in India
personal laws govern the matters related to marriage, divorce, maintenance, and
succession.
In this work, I will be focussing on the Legal regulations of women in Labour
Market
Despite the proliferation of laws intended to guarantee women’s rights, there lies an
enormous gap between formal equality rights and the substantive inequality that continues
to characterize women’s lives in India. Women lack access to effective enforcement
mechanisms. Women may not be aware of their legal rights; they may face too many
social pressures within their families and communities to make a claim for their rights;
and they may lack economic, geographic, and even political access to the legal system. 5
The ‘’Directive Principles of State Policy of the Indian Constitution” provide for the
protection of women workers.” 6 There are special provisions in various labour laws
protecting and promoting the rights of women.” However, these labour laws are facing
the problem of under enforcement. Here it is important to look at the difference between
regulations of organized and unorganized sectors. As the Report on the Status of Women
in India described: The difference between these two is not functional, as between agriculture,
industry and services because these functions can be found in both the sectors. The real difference
between them lies in the organization of productive relations, the degree of penetration of public
control and regulation, and recognition by data-collection agencies and scientific investigators 7.
More recently, a government study on the status of women reported that “approximately
90 per cent of women workers are engaged in the unorganized sector. Of these over 80
per cent are in agriculture and allied occupation. In the organized sector, women constitute
only 13.3 per cent of all employees. 8 Though the functioning of organized sector can’t
be said to be perfect but the focal area of concern is labour regulations in unorganized
sector as majority here doesn’t have access to or knowledge of laws and rights conferred
upon them.
A brief review of two of the most significant labour laws enacted to protect and
promote the particular interests of women workers will illustrate the continuing gap
between formal and substantive rights. The Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 (MBA) provides
many rights and leaves to the women undergoing pregnancy. The Act prohibits the
employer from discharging a woman during her maternity leave, or otherwise changing
her conditions of employment.” Within the unorganized sector, women often are
unable to work at the same place of employment for the required qualifying period.
Moreover, as Faith Herndon has argued: Perhaps the greatest weakness of the Act
lies in its extremely limited response to the problem of widespread discrimination
that women workers face during and after their pregnancy. It is a common practice
among employers to refuse to hire pregnant women, to demote or terminate women
if they become pregnant, and to deny them promotion and pay raises. 9 Labour laws
specifically provide for creches for children of working mothers in factories and on
plantations.”10 However, these laws are rarely enforced, and in many work sites,
particularly in the unorganized sector, women are actively discouraged by their
employers from bringing their children.” The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (ERA)
provides for equal pay for equal or similar work.” The ERA further prohibits
discrimination in the recruitment of workers.” However, the practice of paying women
lower wages for equal or similar work persists. Firstly, the ERA does not impose a
duty on employers to evaluate whether the work of women and men is of a similar
nature, nor does it establish any institutional procedure by which such evaluations
would be made.” Further, women continue to be employed in lower paying occupations.
As the National Perspective Plan for Women has observed: ‘’In the economy, women
are concentrated in occupations which are usually at the lowest rung of the ladder.
In most occupations, they are involved in the more arduous and less skilled areas of
work.?” Since their work is not equal or similar to that being performed by men,
there is no violation of the Act. In fact, this approach has been expressly adopted by
the Supreme Court.
Conclusion
In this research paper I have tried to look forward towards certain labour legislations
which continue to reinforce women inequality in all terms social and economical
law and economics together can reasonably find solutions to women’s struggles to
overcome their subordination. It seems that law is both at the same time, a site of
oppression and also a site of struggle. So it is important for educated diaspora to
come forward and not only think but act on issues affecting social and economic
well being of a women.
References
1. “Understanding poverty in India” Report by Asian Development Bank, 2011
2. Supra note 1.
3. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial
Discourses” in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres, eds., Third
World Women and the. Politics of Feminism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991)
51 at 56.
4. Joanna Liddle and Rama Joshi, Daughters of Independence: Gender, Caste and Class in
India (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1986).
5. Brenda Cossman and Ratna Kapur, “Women and Poverty in India: law and social change”
Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, Vol. 6, p. 278, 1993
6. Indian Constitution, Articles 39 and 42
Water: A Fundamental of Economy
Jay Prakash Kant*
Introduction
The now famous proclamation that water should be treated “as an economic
good” originated in the Dublin Conference (ICWE 1992). Like many such proclamations,
it has the virtue of being sufficiently vague to allow agreement, while leaving the
implied operational content—over which there may be strong disagreement—unstated.
The proclamation was a compromise between those, mainly economists, who wanted
to treat water in the same way as other private goods, subject to allocation through
competitive market pricing, and those who wanted to treat water as a basic human
need that should be largely exempted from competitive market pricing and allocation.
To further complicate matters, there is an important distinction in economics between
the true “economic” value of a good and its “financial” value. The two values rarely
correspond, and as will be argued, for water the divergences are exceptionally complex
and important. Thus it does not follow from the declaration that water is an economic
good that should be allocated by competitive market prices that reflect only financial,
not necessarily economic values.
That water usually is an economic good follows directly from the definition of
economics as “the science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between
ends and scarce means which have alternative uses” (Robbins 1935). Water meets
these requirements: it serves a multiplicity of ends (ranging from drinking and bathing,
through irrigation, to waste disposal), and thus satisfies the condition of “alternative
uses.” In many cases, water is scarce in the sense that it cannot fully satisfy all its
alter-native uses simultaneously. But nearly everything we need to worry about is
“an economic good” in this sense—that is why we have to worry. With his definition,
Lord Robbins established the foundations of what has since been described as the
“Imperial Science” of economics. But the important question is not whether water is
an economic good or not, but what kind of economic good it is. We believe that it is
both a public and a private good. If this is correct then the true “economic” value of
water will differ from its “financial” value—i.e., the value based only on market
prices—as any competent economist will recognize. How precisely will it differ? The
* CIHM Chandigarh (Chandigarh Administration), Punjab.
answer to this question lies in two separate but interrelated domains or universes of
discourse: values and facts. In the debate over water as a private or public good, the
differences between values and facts are easily defined. First, in terms of values, the
proponents of water as a private good contend that water is just like any other
good, that its production allocation should be determined by the overriding value of
consumer’s sovereignty— i.e., by the amount that people are “ready, willing, and
able to pay” for it. Similarly, narcotics, tobacco, and alcohol are “unsocial” goods,
priced (or controlled) at levels well in excess of the prices that would prevail in a
free market. But even in these cases of conflicts over values, rational people can
reach agreement in terms of relative quantities. No one would deny provision of
safe drinking water to a poverty-stricken village that could not pay full costs, or
advocate draining wetlands so that water could be obtained for swimming pools
and golf courses. On the other hand, most advocates of water as a public good
would agree that after a basic level of service—of drinking water, for example—is
attained; additional supplies could properly be allocated by market forces. Or, in the
case of food, once a nation achieves a certain level of prosperity, market forces
supplemented by directed poverty alleviation programs may be more efficient ways
to help poor people than general subsidies on food. Conflicts over values often
depend on situation specific facts. Unfortunately, dogmatists often control the discussion
simply by virtue of their very single-mindedness. However, even if everyone agrees
on values, there can be rational disagreements on facts
The Economic Analysis of Different Values
The difference that different values can make to the interpretation of the same
facts may be illustrated from an interesting, pro-market paper by Briscoe (1996).
Since Briscoe presents the basic economics needed for both sides of the discussion in
a clear and simple way, this part of his paper is quoted below at considerable length.
The idea of “water as an economic good” is simple. Like any other good, water
has a value to users, who are willing to pay for it.
Welfare is Maximized when:
• Water is priced at its marginal cost, and
• Water is used until the marginal cost is equal to the marginal benefit.
So far so good, but what actually do we mean by “benefits” and “costs,” how are
these dealt with in different water-using sectors, and what are the implications?
Facts: Public Failure and Market Failure
Given the generally dismal record of the public sector in this field, one must
sympathize with anyone who is interested in alternative institutional arrangements
for water management. Many have understandably turned to economic instruments,
market systems, and prices as an alternative on the persuasive grounds that the
market works so spectacularly well in a host of other areas of economic activity. But
even if one accepts the value of consumer’s sovereignty without qualification, water
is unfortunately a field beset with the classic problems of market failure. In this
section, we first examine the rationale for privatization, the approaches that can be
followed, and their appropriateness. We then turn to the question of market failure—
a critical problem in the debate about the role of economic instruments in the
management of water resources.
Privatizing irrigation systems
In the public sector truly, “the road to hell is paved with good intentions.” While
there are some notable exceptions to the rule, the public sector has generally performed
miserably in all forms of water management—whether in irrigation, or in domestic
and industrial water supplies, or in protecting resources and environmental quality.
The book on public failure has not yet been written in any sense comparable with
the elegance and rigor of the works on market failure.
Volumetric Pricing
The potential benefits of volumetric pricing or quasi-volumetric pricing (achieved,
for example, by a crop tax related to consumptive use) are obvious. This is the most
forthright way to link water use benefits with costs and the value of services provided.
By setting volumetric prices equal to opportunity costs, water is efficiently allocated,
static allocative efficiency gains are reaped, and deadweight losses are avoided.
Water Markets
Water markets most commonly operate locally to allow agricultural water suppliers
and consumers to include the opportunity cost of water in their management decisions.
Usually, this involves trading water among similar uses (for example, the sale or exchange
of irrigation ‘turns’ in a rotational system), or sale of water by the owner of a tube
well to nearby farmers. The price governing in such local markets encourages diversion
to higher-value uses. It should be noted that water markets can coexist with extreme
levels of subsidy—for example where there is no charge for the irrigation water that
farmers trade, or where there is subsidized power supply to the wells that provide
water to local farmers. The costs associated with water markets are those transaction
and physical system costs necessary for water markets to efficiently operate.
Tradable Water Rights
Tradable water rights allow the formal transfer of water entitlements among users,
and as such are more likely to involve inter-sectoral transfers than the local water
markets described above. While water markets can function in the absence of formal
water rights, tradable water rights require a much more specific definition of the
entitlement. As in the case of water markets, while tradable water rights are likely
to result in (inter-sectoral) reallocation of water from lowto high-value uses, there is
no guarantee, in the absence of other charging mechanisms, that the costs of providing
the service will be recovered. (Indeed, the failure to recover costs simply increases
the potential price and incentive to trade.) Which of these privatization options is
best? Again there is no simple answer to this question, but some aspects are clear.
Conclusion
Toward Improved Water Resources Management
A forthcoming study of the “Support Systems” required for sustainable water
resources management indicates the complexity of the institutional arrangements
required for sustainable, productive water use. The study, of a project in Colorado in
the western USA, also shows that such arrangements do indeed allow the rational
allocation of water among competing uses through market mechanisms.
First, Colorado has a strict system of water rights. These rights are based on the
doctrine of “prior appropriation,” the first in use, the first in right. Maas and Andersen
(1978) have argued that this system of rights constitutes an inequitable and inefficient
system of water allocation. Nevertheless (and of crucial interest here) the system is
legally enforced and transparent, and provides all users, favored or otherwise, with
information for planning their operations. Second, while there is an active market
for water in Colorado, transactions are firmly embedded in a legal and administrative
structure that carefully regulates external effects. The office of the State Engineer
consists of professional engineers, hydrologists, and others who investigate all technical
aspects of proposed new developments and reallocations of water. Third, each of the
seven water basins in Colorado has its own specialist Water Court, which only deals
with water issues, and adjudicates all water disputes. Thus a person who feels that
he or she is to be adversely affected by a water transaction can lodge a suit in these
courts and the court can draw on the expert advice of the office of the State Engineer
to advise on the facts of the case. Absent these basic pre-requisites—the norm in
most developing countries—the more extreme variants of privatization, such as full
water pricing and unregulated market allocations, are likely to do more harm than
good. But our position can be stated more positively, and to do this we define a
necessary and sequential set of preconditions for the beneficial introduction of market
forces into the allocation of water, namely that:
• The entitlements of all users under all levels of resource availability are defined
and include specified assignments to social and environmental uses
• Infrastructure is in place to deliver the defined entitlements
References
1. Barkley, P., and D. Seckler. 1972. Economic growth and environmental decay: The solution
becomes the problem. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc.
2. Briscoe, J. 1996. Water as an economic good: The idea and what it means in practice. Paper
presented to World Congress of ICID, Cairo, Egypt.
The Feminization of Poverty
Shweta Varshney*
Introduction
The “feminization of poverty” means that women have a higher incidence of
poverty than men, that their poverty is more severe than that of men and that poverty
among women is on the increase. Feminization of poverty describes a phenomenon
in which women represent disproportionate percentages of the world’s poor. UNIFEM
describes it as “the burden of poverty borne by women, especially in developing
countries”. The feminization of poverty is not only a consequence of lack of income,
but is also the result of the deprivation of capabilities and gender biases present in
both societies and governments. This includes the poverty of choices and opportunities,
such as the ability to lead a long, healthy, and creative life, and enjoy basic rights
like freedom, respect, and dignity. Women’s increasing share of poverty is related to
the rising incidence of lone mother households.
The Causes of the Feminization of Poverty
Several factors affect the feminization of poverty, and these factors place women at
high risk of poverty. Though low income is the major cause, there are many interrelated
facets of this problem. Poverty is multidimensional, and therefore economic, demographic,
and socio- cultural factors all overlap and contribute to the establishment of poverty.
As women disproportionately earn less income than men, they are deprived of basic
education and health care which eventually passes on from one generation of women
to the next, leading to a perpetual feminization of poverty. Persistent gender discrimination
in the labor force does not allow the majority of women quality work.
Consequences of Feminization of Poverty
Homelessness
Homelessness or Extreme poverty, carries with it a particularly strong set of risks
for families, especially children. Compared to children living in poverty but having
homes, homeless children are less likely to receive proper nutrition and immunization.
* Faculty in PC Bagla College, Hathras (U.P.)
Hence, they experience more health problems. Homeless women experience higher rates
of low-birth-weight babies, miscarriages, and infant mortality, probably due to not having
access to adequate prenatal care for their babies. Homeless families experience even
greater life stress than other families, including increased disruption in work, school,
family relationships, and friendships.
Lack of child nutrition: Lack of child nutrition female children by born get little
nutrition. Because parents always take care male children and they always look after
his/her little male child and also concern about his nutrition.
Feminist perspective on poverty: Finally, recent decades have witnessed the feminization
of poverty, or the significant increase in the numbers of single women in poverty alone,
primarily as single mothers. In the last three decades the proportion of poor families
headed by women has grown to more than 50 percent. This feminization of poverty may
be related to numerous changes as increases in unwanted births, separations, and divorces
have forced growing numbers of women to head poor households. Meanwhile, increases
in divorced fathers avoiding child support coupled with reductions in welfare support
have forced many of these women-headed households to join the ranks of the underclass.
Further, because wives generally live longer than their husbands, growing numbers of
elderly women must live in poverty. Feminists also attribute the feminization of poverty
to women’s vulnerability brought about by the patriarchal, sexist, and gender-biased nature
of Western society, which does not value protecting women’s rights and wealth.
Deprive from basic rights: Being poor & less educated there are not well treated in
our society most of the people of our society neglect them and they don’t want to give
them proper respect.
Finding
Feminization of poverty is not only national crisis; it is also one of the obstacles for
the overall national development. In this study the causes and consequences of Feminization
of poverty has been explored. For Feminization of poverty various factors play an important
role. From this study, female persons don’t do everything because of society, religion,
and some parents. Actually they provide some roles, like female persons don’t do or
don’t go out outside the home for everything; even also for education. In this study we
found some sectors are responsible. So, government and other organization should take
some proper stapes to stop poverty specially for women. Poverty affects too many
Bangladeshi individuals, families, and communities. It is a serious problem that challenges
the efforts of government agencies, politicians, educators, faith communities.
Recommendation
1. Increase women education 2. Increase social security 3. Create employment
opportunity 4. Free from mental bondage 5. Create positive attitude & mentality towards
women 6. Increase the participation on man in household works 7. Increase the roles of
media 8. Being self-reliant 9. Ensure the right of property 10. Women empowerment 11.
Stop the violence against women
Personal Evaluation
As a developing country we have to live with different kind of problems. Feminization
of poverty is one of the major problems of the county. The causes which are mentioned
above are most highlightable. The effect of this problem is also very dangerous. It’s mainly
hindering the psychological growth of children, deprive from basic rights, lack of women’s
nutrition, decline in national income, increase social crimes, decline the importance of
women’s opinion, increase unemployment, rise in women trafficking, less participation in
workforce. It’s also disturbing the society. However, this problem can be solved by adopting
some pragmatic steps. Being self-reliant, increase women education, increase social security,
create employment, opportunity, and ensure the right of property, free from mental bondage,
creates positive attitude & mentality towards women. Women empowerment, increase the
participation on man in household works, increase the roles of media, stop the violence
against women are some ways of solving this problem. Besides the government should
come forward with effective steps to reduce this problem.
“A bird can’t fly with one wing; similarly a nation cannot develop without the welfare
of women”
References
1. Moffitt, R. (1998). The effect of welfare on marriage and fertility: What do we know and what
do we need to know. In R. Moffitt (Ed.), Welfare, the family, and reproductive behavior: Research
perspectives. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences Press.
2. Findlay, J. and R. E. Wright. 1996. “Gender, poverty and the intra-household distribution on of
resources.” Review of Income and Wealth 42:335-351.
3. Fisher, G. M. 1992. “The development and history of the poverty thresholds.” in Social Security
Bulleti n, vol. 55.
4. McLanahan, S. S., A. Sorenson, and D. Watson. 1989. “Sex differences in poverty, 1950- 80.”
Signs 15:102-22.
5. Bumpass, L. L., & Sweet, J. (1989). Children’s experience in single-parent families: Implications
of cohabitation and marital transitions. Family Planning Perspectives, 21, 256–260.
About Indian Economy Growth Rate & Statistics
Sunil Kumar Singh*
Introduction
India has emerged as the fastest growing major economy in the world as per the
Central Statistics Organization (CSO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF). The
Government of India has forecasted that the Indian economy will grow by 7.1 per
cent in FY 2016-17. As per the Economic Survey 2016-17, the Indian economy should
grow between 6.75 and 7.5 per cent in FY 2017-18. The improvement in India’s economic
fundamentals has accelerated in the year 2015 with the combined impact of strong
government reforms, Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) inflation focus supported by benign
global commodity prices.
India’s consumer confidence index stood at 136 in the fourth quarter of 2016,
topping the global list of countries on the same parameter, as a result of strong
consumer sentiment, according to market research agency, Nielsen. Moody’s has affirmed
the Government of India’s Baa3 rating with a positive outlook stating that the reforms
by the government will enable the country perform better compared to its peers
over the medium term.
Market Size
India’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 7 per cent year-on-year in October-
December 2016 quarter, which is the strongest among G-20 countries, as per Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Economic Survey of India,
2017. According to IMF World Economic Outlook Update (January 2017), Indian
economy is expected to grow at 7.2 per cent during FY 2016-17 and further accelerate
to 7.7 per cent during FY 2017-18.
The tax collection figures between April 2016 and January 2017 show an increase
in Net Indirect taxes by 16.9 per cent and an increase in Net Direct Taxes by 10.79
per cent year-on-year, indicating a steady trend of healthy growth. The total number
of e-filed Income Tax Returns rose 21 per cent year-on-year to 42.1 million in 2016-17
(till 28.02.17), whereas the number of e-returns processed during the same period
* New Colony Ram Nagar, Etawah, U.P., India.

stood at 43 million. Corporate earnings in India are expected to grow by over 20 per
cent in FY 2017-18 supported by normalization of profits, especially in sectors like
automobiles and banks, while GDP is expected to grow by 7.5 per cent during the
same period, according to Bloomberg consensus.
India has retained its position as the third largest startup base in the world with
over 4,750 technology startups, with about 1,400 new start-ups being founded in
2016, according to a report by NASSCOM. India’s labour force is expected to touch
160-170 million by 2020, based on rate of population growth, increased labour force
participation, and higher education enrollment, among other factors, according to a
study by ASSOCHAM and Thought Arbitrage Research Institute. India’s foreign
exchange reserves stood at US$ 366.781 billion as on March 17, 2017 as compared to
US$ 360 billion by end of March 2016, according to data from the RBI.
Recent Developments
With the improvement in the economic scenario, there have been various investments
leading to increased M&A activity. Some of them are as follows:
• NITI Aayog, Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion (DIPP) and
Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) launched an “India Innovation Index”
in line with the Global Innovation Index (GII) to rank states based on innovation
by capturing innovation data from all Indian states and updating them regularly.
• The Union Cabinet, Government of India, has approved the Central Goods
and Services Tax (CGST), Integrated GST (IGST), Union Territory GST (UTGST),
and Compensation Bill.
• The Union Cabinet has approved a memorandum of understanding (MoU)
between India and United Arab Emirates (UAE), aimed at enhancing cooperation
in the field of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) between the two countries,
and thereby providing an opportunity for the Indian SMEs to improve and
innovate further.
• Indian merchandise exports registered a growth of 17.48 per cent year-on-
year in February 2017 at US$ 24.49 billion, according to the data from Ministry
of Commerce & Industry
• Retail price inflation for February 2017 was reported at 3.65 per cent, compared
to 5.26 per cent a year ago, as per CSO.
• India’s industry output grew 2.74 per cent year-on-year in January 2017, led
by a good performance in the capital goods sector which registered a 10.7 per
cent year-on-year growth.
Government Initiatives
The Government of India announced demonetization of high denomination bank
notes of Rs 1000 and Rs 500, with effect on November 8, 2016, in order to eliminate
black money and the growing menace of fake Indian currency notes, thereby creating
opportunities for improvement in economic growth. In the Union Budget 2017-18,

the Finance Minister, Mr. Arun Jaitley, verified that the major push of the budget
proposals is on growth stimulation, providing relief to the middle class, providing
affordable housing, curbing black money, digitalization of the economy, enhancing
transparency in political funding and simplifying the tax administration in the country.
India’s unemployment rate has declined to 4.8 per cent in February 2017 compared
to 9.5 per cent in August 2016, as a result of the Government’s increased focus
towards rural jobs and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (MGNREGA) scheme. The Government of Maharashtra has set a target to double
farm income by 2022 through measures like large scale micro irrigation, water
conservation, expansion of formal cash credit coverage, crop insurance and agriculture
diversification, as per Mr. Vidyasagar Rao, Governor of Maharashtra.
Numerous foreign companies are setting up their facilities in India on account of
various government initiatives like Make in India and Digital India. Mr. Narendra
Modi, Prime Minister of India, has launched the Make in India initiative with an
aim to boost the manufacturing sector of Indian economy, to increase the purchasing
power of an average Indian consumer, which would further boost demand, and
hence spur development, in addition to benefiting investors. The Government of
India, under the Make in India initiative, is trying to give boost to the contribution
made by the manufacturing sector and aims to take it up to 25 per cent of the GDP
from the current 17 per cent. Besides, the Government has also come up with Digital
India initiative, which focuses on three core components: creation of digital
infrastructure, delivering services digitally and to increase the digital literacy. Some
of the recent initiatives and developments undertaken by the government are listed
below:
• Finance Minister Mr. Arun Jaitley has stated that start-ups incorporated after
March 31, 2016, can avail a three-year tax holiday in the first seven years of
their existence, instead of five years, and reduced the tax rate for enterprises
with a turnover up to Rs 50 crores (US$ 7.68 million) to 25 per cent instead of
the earlier 30 per cent.
• The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) has launched a Simplified Performa
for Incorporating Company Electronically (SPICE), aimed at providing speedy
services for incorporation to bring ease of doing business in the country on a
par with global norms.
• The Government of India has unveiled a new Urban Development strategy
for the next 20 years, aimed at development of rural and urban areas, providing
housing for the urban poor and ensuring gender equity in the country among
other objectives.
• The Government of India has raised Rs 30,000 crore (US$ 4.61 billion) through
disinvestment proceeds, the highest amount raised via stake sales, and further
aims to meet the disinvestment target of Rs 56,500 crore (US$ 8.68 billion) for
the year, as per Mr. Neeraj Gupta, Secretary, Department of Investment and
Public Asset Management (DIPAM).
• The Government of India along with its investment promotion agency, Invest
India, is in discussion with around 300 Indian and foreign companies to
channelize investments worth US$ 62 billion, which will help create over 1.7
million job opportunities in India.
• The Union Cabinet, Government of India, has approved Rs 10,000 crore (US$
1.53 billion) initial corpus for the Fund of Funds for Start-ups (FFS) established
in June 2016.
• The Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India,
has approved the construction of 1, 17,814 affordable houses for the urban
poor and will provide an assistance of Rs 1,816 crore (US$ 279 million) under
the Prime Minister’s Awas Yojana (Urban).
Under the Digital India initiative numerous steps have been taken by the
Government of India. Some of them are as follows:
• The Government of India plans to revamp two of its digital initiatives, the
United Payment Interface (UPI) and Unstructured Supplementary Service Data
(USSD), to enable consumers to easily make transactions digitally, with or
without an Internet connection, and thereby strengthen its push towards making
India a digital economy.
Road Ahead
According to The World Bank, the Indian economy will likely grow at 7 per cent
in 2016-17, followed by further acceleration to 7.6 per cent in 2017-18 and 7.8 per
cent in 2018-19. Demonetization is expected to have a positive impact on the Indian
economy, which will help foster a clean and digitised economy in the long run,
according to Ms Kristalina Georgieva, Chief Executive Officer, and The World Bank.
India is expected to be the third largest consumer economy as its consumption
may triple to US$ 4 trillion by 2025, owing to shift in consumer behavior and expenditure
pattern, according to a Boston Consulting Group (BCG) report; and is estimated to
surpass USA to become the second largest economy in terms of purchasing power
parity (PPP) by the year 2040, according to a report by PricewaterhouseCoopers.
Also, the Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi has stated that India has become the
world’s fastest growing large economy, and is expected to grow five-fold by 2040,
owing to a series of policy measures.
References
1. www.rbi.org
2. ministry of rural development
Assessment of Climate Induced Vulnerability in the

Bundelkhand Region, India: An Application of Indicator Based
Approach
Surendra Singh* & Alka Singh**
Introduction
The degree of climate induced vulnerability in the tropical countries like India is
higher with low adaptive capabilities, solely dependent on farming in the rural parts,
lack of non-farm employments and complex social structure of the society (IPCC,
2014b). Monsoon rainfall misleading to the farmers with higher variability during
the monsoon rainfall even in the high yield area, and more than 60 percent cropped
area is rainfed (Goswami et al., 2006 and IMD, 2015). Temperatures reached up to
the threshold level. These features of the Indian farming sector motivated to investigate
the degree of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capabilities in the most backward
region that is Bundelkhand region part of Uttar Pradesh. Bundelkhand region comes
under semi-arid agricultural zone. Studies claimed that agriculture in the semi-arid
areas particularity exposed to the impact of climate change due to scarcity of the
water resources (Kavi Kumar, K. S., and Jyoti P., 2001b;Giertz et al., 2006 andGbetibouo,
G and Ringer, C., 2009). Further, in the semi-arid regions of Asia would increase at
least 10 percent of water use for agriculture due to an increase in temperature of 10C
(Fisher et al., 2002). Efforts to offset declining surface water availability due to increase
in precipitation variability will be hampered by the fact that ground water recharge
will decrease considerably in already water- stress regions like, Bundelkhand, where
vulnerability is often exacerbated by the rapid increase in population and water
demand. In Bundelkhand region, farmers also have to contend with other extreme
natural resource challenges and constraints such as poor soil fertility, pests- crop
disease, and a lack of access to improved seeds. These challenges are usually aggravated
* Senior Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar

University, Lucknow, U.P.
** Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University,
Lucknow, U.P.
by periods of prolonged droughts/floods and are often particularly severe during El
Nino events (IPCCa, 2014).
Data Sources and Study Area
The present study is based on the field survey data, collected during May, 2015
from the two districts of Bundelkhand region part of Uttar Pradesh, viz., Jhansi and
Jalaun1. The reason behind for the selection of these two districts is, Jhansi is well
developed in terms of soil quality, water resources, accessibility of credit, road
connectivity, rural electrification and market accessibility. On the other hand, Jalaun
has under developed district with the lowest accessibilities of these extension services.
Further, by using proportionate sampling method, 100-100 samples from the both
districts are collected. Jhansi and Jalaun consists 10 Tehshils (five Jhansi & five Jalaun).
So, from the all ten Tehshils, five- five total ten blocks are selected in the second
step. Further, one- one village from each block is selected in the third step. Finally
20-20 samples from the each village based on the social, agro and demographic
characteristics are collected. Total 200 samples are collected.
Estimation Method
The indicator based approach is used in a specific set or combination of indicators
(proxy indicators) and measures the vulnerability by computing indices, average or
weighted averages for those selected variables or indicators. The suitability of this
approach is that it can be applied any scale, such as household, district and at
country level(Malone L. E. and Engle L. N., 2011). The Indicator based approach
consists of three core elements, viz., exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity
(McCarthy et al., 2001). The present study estimates climate vulnerability index by
using Iyenger and Sudharshan (1982) methodology.
Results and Discussion
The farmer’s responses on climate induced exposure, sensitivity and their adaptation
strategies to reduce the degree of exposure and sensitivity in the Jalaun and Jhansi
districts. In both districts (Jalaun and Jhansi), more than 90 percent farmers are exposed
from the climate induced events, viz., kharif season become more-hotter, increase in
frequencies of droughts events and decline in rainfall. Further, due to back-to-back
drought years, water resources (both surface and ground) level has declined over
the last 10 years.
Table 1: Climate Vulnerability Index

District Block Major Components
Exposure Sensitivity Adaptive Capacity Climate Vulnerability
Index
Orai 1.030 4.090 9.624 14.743
Jalaun
Konch 0.989 3.995 9.769 14.754
Jalaun 1.005 5.692 6.714 13.410
Madhavgarh 1.131 3.960 2.653 7.744
Kalpi 1.275 3.512 10.356 15.143
Jhansi Badagaon 1.035 3.527 5.166 9.728
Mauranipur 1.061 2.290 2.915 6.266
Moth 1.100 3.537 1.724 6.361
Garotha 1.197 2.598 3.021 6.816
Tahroli 1.055 3.546 2.025 6.626
Jalaun 1.086 4.250 7.823 13.159
Jhansi 1.090 3.099 2.970 7.159
Source: Estimated from Field Survey Data
Apart from these findings, study also reveals some interesting feature of vulnerability
at the community level from field survey data. The major findings are follows;
Conclusion & Policy Prescription
The study has made an attempt to investigate the nature, magnitude and
determinants of vulnerability in the Bundelkhand. Farmers have extremely exposed
from the climate change. Increase in temperatures, variability & decline in rainfall
during Kharif season during the last ten years created agricultural crisis. Traditionally,
farmers in this region had grown mainly food grains to sustain livelihoods. However,
back-to-back drought episodes, the all types of water resources (surface and ground
water) became dried. Therefore, it is no longer possible to maintain traditional varieties
of crops, which are more water consumptive. Farmers have applying differential
adaptation measures to cope and reduce the degree of exposure and sensitivity like,
switch to non-farm employment activities, improved irrigation facilities, use of early
maturing varieties and consulting with Kisan Call Centre. However, the coverage of
these differential adaptation measures very limited. Therefore, less crop diversification,
high dependency on agriculture and lack of non-farm employment opportunity increases
the degree of sensitivity. For policy intervention prospective, government as well as
farmers by using the community participation principle should conserve water resources
(surface as well as ground water). Less water consuming and high temperatures
tolerant horticultural plants can be introduced in the small and marginal farms. It is
observed that farmers have planted trees surrounding the fields. It has a resilient
strategy to mitigate the adverse impact of climate change. However, in the Jalaun
district only 51 percent farmers adopted this. Therefore, it should be expanded more
with differential plantation.
References
1. Gbetibouo, G and Ringer, C. (2009), “Mapping South African Farming Sector Vulnerability
to Climate Change and Variability: A Sub-national Assessment, IFPRI Discussion Paper
00885, pp.1-12.
2. Giertz S., Diekkruger B., Jaeger A., Schopp M. (2006), “An Interdisciplinary Scenario Analysis
to Assess the Water Availability and Water Consumption in the Upper Oum Catchment in
Benin, Advance Geoscience, Vol. 9, No. 1, p.11.
3. Goswami B.N., V. Venugopal, D. Sengumpta, M.S. Madhusoodanan, Prince K. Xavier (2006),
“Increasing Trend of Extreme Rain Events Over India in a Warming Environment”, Science,
Vol. 314, No. 5804, pp. 245-250.
A Study on Financial Administration of Centre and State in

India
Saurabh Maheshwari* & Farhat Yaqub**
India to be a “Union of States”. In effect, India is a federation consisting of one

National or Union Government and a number of Governments of the federating
units such as the states and the Union Territories.
In such a composite polity, it is essential that the financial resources should be
divided between the Union Government and the government of the federating units.
The Finance Commission of India was formed on 22nd November, 1951. The
Finance Commission has been provided for by the Indian constitution as part of the
scheme of division of financial resources between the two different sets of governments.
• The role Finance Commission in India is to act as an instrument to divide
proceeds of divisible taxes between the states and the Union government
or in cases of taxes that are collected by the centre but the proceeds of which
are allocated between the states, to determine the principles of such allocation.
• The Finance commission of India also determines the principles of governing
the grants-in-aids of the revenues of states out of the consolidated fund of
India. It is an important function of the Indian Finance Commission.
• Thirdly the commission has the duty of considering any matter referred to
the commission by the President in the interest of sound finance.
The President under Article 280 lays the recommendations of the finance commission
before each House of the Parliament with an explanatory note as to the action to be
taken on the recommendations.
It should be noted that chapter XII, Article 280 of the Indian constitution do not
exhaust the entire gamut of financial relations between the Union and the States.
The Finance Commission distributes of proceeds of Income tax between the union
and the states. But, taxes on the emoluments of the central government are attributable
only to the union territories.
* H.No. 31 gali no. 10, Mahendra Nagar, Aligarh, U.P.

** Assistant Professor, Ch. Pooran Singh Degree college Sikandra Rao, Hathras, U.P.
Under Article 280 (C), the President may refer any matter to the Finance commission
in the interest of “sound finance.” Till now the President of India has asked the
commission to make recommendations on the principles governing distribution of
the net proceeds of estate duty in respect of property Tax on Railway fare and excise
duties on sugar and tobacco etc. The President also sought recommendations on the
rates of interest, and terms of repayment of loans to the various states by the government
of India.
Till now, fourteen Finance Commissions have made their recommendations. They
focus on the financial relations between the State government and the
Centralgovernment. These recommendations steadily increase share of the state
governments in the proceeds of the income tax. They also increased gradually the
amount of grants-in-aids to be given to the states. As a result the states now enjoy
considerable degree of financial autonomy so necessary for the proper functioning
of the federation.
The Chairman of the Fourteenth Finance Commission is Dr. Y.V. Reddy. He
previously held the prestigious position of the Governor of Reserve Bank of India
(RBI). The Fourteenth Commission has given more importance on demographic
transition. It has also recommended that the government of coastal states should get
appropriate share of taxes collected from the production of minerals of territorial
waters.
The Finance Commission as an autonomous body has served a splendid purpose.
In as complex a polity as India is, it acted as an agency to bring about co-ordination
and co-operation that is so important in the working of a federal system
In a federal set up, the effective working of the whole system is fundamentally
contingent upon perfect understanding, co-operation and coordination between the
federating units of the government.In addition to text books on the subject of Public
Finance I have been able to review following studies so as to develop an insight on
the subject relating to various aspects of the financial relations between Union
government and State governments in India.
In an Article, “Does the Indian Tax Policy Have a Rationale”, K.B.K. Rao has
observed that in spite of the numerous changes the Indian tax structure could not
acquire the requisite stability with revenue stability.
Adolph Wagner is of the view that the level of government expenditure changes
according to the given historical situation, economic situation and economic structure
and development. For example, he relates public expenditure with population growth
and transportation needs.
Peacock and Wiseman, in a very popular study examine the time pattern of public
expenditure there are other aspects of the developments of public expenditures, such
as the time pattern of public expenditure growth which seems to be equally significant.
G.S. Lall in his look Public Finance and Financial Administration in India has
very lucidly explained Union State fiscal relations in India, problems which may
arise with the working of fedral finance, how these problems can be solved and
what basic principles should be observed so as to avoid any conflict, to what extent
Indian federal system has been able to avoid conflicts, to what extent distribution of
financial resources between Union government and States i.e. federating units is
correct, Author has also explained at length the general Principles of financial
Administration, how budgets are prepared, what is the role of legislature in the
preparation of the budgets how budgets are executed and what is the role of Audit
in the system of government accounts etc.
H.L. Bhatia in his book Public Finance has discussed very elaborately both the
theoretical and applied aspects of public finance in the context of the Indian institutional
framework. The authority also examines Indian federal finance, public debate in
India and also other related aspects of the India public finance
D.T. Lakdawal in his book Union State Financial Relations has very critically
analyzed the working of federal finance in India and has also reviewed the
recommendations of various Finance Commissions.
The federal Constitution must provide such as in-built mechanism that the federal
harmony and co-ordination is continuously maintained. The prime cause of
misunderstanding or suspicion in federal countries is usually on account of some
unsatisfactory financial arrangement between the federating units of the government.
It is, therefore, important to define precisely the financial powers of the different
layers of government. A satisfactory arrangement of transfer of resources must also
be evolved so that federal relations are not disturbed.
Under the Indian Constitution, the tax powers of both the Union and State
governments are specifically indicated. The Union list consists of taxes on income
other than agricultural income, customs duties, corporation tax, taxes on capital values
of the assets of individuals and companies, estate and succession duties on non-farm
property, excise duties except on alcoholic, liquors and narcotics, taxes on railway
fares and freights, terminal taxes on goods or passengers, taxes on transactions in
stock exchanges and future markets and rates of stamp duty on bills of exchange
etc., taxes on sale or purchase of land, advertisements in newspaper; taxes on inter-
State sales and any other tax not specifically mentioned in either the Union or State
list of taxes
The State list of taxes includes such taxes as land revenue; taxes on agricultural
incomes; taxes on lands and buildings; succession duties on agricultural lands; taxes
on mineral rights subject to any limitations imposed by the Parliament; taxes on the
entry of goods into local area for consumption or sale; excise duties on alcohol,
opium etc., taxes on sale and purchase of goods other than newspapers; taxes on
advertisements other than advertisements in newspapers; taxes on consumption and
sale of electricity; taxes on passengers or goods carried by road or inland waterways;
capitation taxes; taxes on luxuries including entertainments, betting and gambling;
vehicles tax and taxes on animals and boats etc. Apart from these sources of revenues,
the States can also undertake borrowings from the Union Government, from the
Reserve Bank of India and from the market after due permission of Union government.
The major part of State revenues consists of relatively less elastic tax sources.
However, the expenditure responsibilities of the States are quite large. The development
expenditure of states includes such items as social and community services like
education, public health, scientific research, housing, social security and welfare,
relief against natural calamities, general economic services, agriculture, allied services,
industry and minerals, water and power development etc. The non-development
expenditure of States includes such items as administrative services, pensions, interest
payments, on borrowings etc.
As the Constitution of India has assigned wide functions to States that involve
heavy expenditure, they are faced with ever-increasing demands from the general
public. That creates financial stringency and budgetary deficits and naturally states
seek that their financial resources should be reasonably augmented so that they can
fulfill the varying requirements of the people.
An essential feature of all the federal constitutions is the distribution of sovereign
powers between the Union government and the Constituent units. It requires distribution
of financial powers between the Union and Constituent Units. In the distribution of
function and sources of revenue between the Union and states in India, the principle
of economy, administrative convenience and efficiency remained as the guiding force
It is also considered that a federal system is likely to work satisfactorily if it
provides for: (i) fiscal autonomy and independence for the Union and its Constituent
Units in their respective spheres; (ii) adequacy of the financial resources according
to the respective needs with built-in-elasticity and flexibility; (iii) equity; (iv) economy;
and (v) flexibility. To make the Indian federal system workable we have demarcated
the areas, for expenditure and revenue, both for the Union government and the State
governments. There is no overlapping either of the functions to be discharged or of
taxing powers.
To make the system operational, we have also provided in the Constitution, for
the appointment of Finance Commission after every five years so as to resolve any
dispute, if arises between the Union government and the State Governments in the
distribution of resources. We have also provided for tax sharing and grants so as to
supplement the resources needed by the States.
References
1. “The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951”. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
2. The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act,Act No. 33 of 1951. Retrieved on 2017-07-22.
3. “Reports of the Finance Commissions of India”. Retrieved 2014-07-10.
4. “Terms of Reference of the Fourteenth Finance Commission”. Retrieved 2014-07-10..
5. B.S. Grewal, Centre State Financial Relations in India, Punjabi University, Patiala, 1975.
6. P.K. Bhargava, Essays on Indian Public Finances, Chugh Publications, Allahabad (India), 1978.
7. SanjayaBasu, “The Step Child for Too Long (State Finances)”, The Economic Times, 26th April,
1993.
8. KalyanRaipuria, “Financial Transfers to States – Issues and Outlook”, Economic and Political
Weekly, December 5, 1992.
9. K.B.K. Rao, Economic and Political Weekly, December 5, 1992.
Convergence in Fiscal Behavior and Sustainability of Federal

Transfers
Swati Jain*
In the federal structure there are obvious reasons for different levels of economic
and fiscal outcomes. Economic outcomes can be specified as the level of net state
domestic product, per capita income, availability of socio-economic infrastructure,
living standard, poverty ratios, public and private investment and employment structure
and many others. Fiscal outcomes can be specified as states own revenue and capital
resources, states development and non development expenditures, deficit and debt
levels, tax effort and fiscal discipline and many others. It has been established
theoretically and empirically that Government expenditure and receipts are one of
the major determinants of economic as well as fiscal outcomes. (Bajpai & Sachs:
1999; McCarten: 2001; Rao 2002; Rao and Singh: 2007).
Fig. 1a: State Level Divergences During 1991-2010

Size of a federation or a particular state, i.e population, is one of the most important
determinants of fiscal behavior. The two graphs 2 (1a and 1b) exhibit a comparative
picture of the selected states in the pre and post reform period. It can be observed
that while population share have changed marginally, NSDP share have changed
substantially. Moreover share of government expenditures have declined across states
in the post reform period. Low income states have observed an increase in population
* Assistant Professor, Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

share with decline in NSDP share and constant expenditure shares. On the contrary
high income states observed a reverse trend with decline in expenditure share.
Fig. 1b.State level Divergences in 2010-16
When the expenditure level is analysed with respect to revenue resources, it is

evident that expenditures levels have been much higher than states own resources
and dependence upon central transfers therefore becomes crucial not only in terms
of managing the fiscal balance but ensuring the required standards of public services.
As government expenditures are much higher than allocated or transferred funds,
the obvious result is substantial portion of borrowing utilized for fulfilling the committed
expenditures. It has stated repeatedly that in order to get larger fund transfer and
soften the budget constraint, these governments continue to engage into increasing
unproductive expenditures and avoid additional resource mobilization. (RBI: 2016;
MOF:2015).
Now the argument for sustainability is that controlling the revenue and fiscal
deficit levels is creating a pressure on state governments to repress their expenditure
levels. Abdon, A et.al (2014) have reviewed, analysed and tested, in the context of
OECD and Asian countries, that due to the rising fiscal pressures, revenue expenditures
and non developmental expenditures contract slowly and rather they have a better
resilience as compared to capital expenditures and developmental expenditures. During
2005-06 to 2014-15 many of the fiscal indicators have been largely at the same level
across states, for instance, interest payments/revenue expenditures, non-development
expenditure/aggregate disbursements and states own tax revenues/revenue
expenditures (RBI:2015; 2016). On the contrary, performance indicators, such as, States
Own Non Tax Revenue/Revenue Expenditure, RD/GFD, Capital outlay/GFD and
net lending/GFD shows huge disparities. These indicators actually explain the
endogeneous factors why sub-national fiscal performance does not appear to be
sustainable and various fiscal management practices needs to be explored by the

state government. The lower contribution of states own non tax revenues (which are
mainly in form of user charges for public provisions made by the state government
and state public sector entities) to finance the increasing revenue expenditures of the
state is one of the major cause of worry for fiscal sustainability at sub-national level.
This also leads lower level of services for the population of the state. Basu (2002) in
a panel study of 16 states, contructs a governance index based on public provisions
of socio economic infrastructure and explains how lower levels of services have
affected the GSDP growth at state level.
Capital outlay to Gross Fiscal Deficit ratio is another indicator which shows whether
states are utilizing their annual borrowings for expansion of infrastructure provisions
and capital formation in the state. This in turn may lead to high growth of the private
sector in the provisions of goods and services as well as investment in the state.
Centre State Relations and Procyclical Fiscal Behaviour
Since the adoption of new economic policy in 1991, Indian economy is observing a
gradual transformation from the centre dominated quasi-federal system4 to the market
preserving federal system5. In fact, the market based new economic policies have led
to significant “decentering” in the centre-state economic relations (Gent: 2003). However,
the persistence of the already existing intensive regional disparities still requires equity
based transfers but will again strengthen fiscal centralization. Similarly, the need to
impose greater fiscal discipline on the states to maintain macroeconomic stability also
implies fiscal centralization. In fact, a more cooperative and collaborative scheme of
fiscal restructuring will ensure that conditionalities imposed by the central government
do not result in compression of expenditure on essential public services like health
and education especially on the part of the poor states (Rao & Chakraborty,2006). Sub-
national governments often rely on narrow and sensitive revenue streams, have limited
access to credit markets, and may be subject to the manipulation of intergovernmental
transfers, all of which combine to make sub-national fiscal policy inherently and
systematically pro-cyclical. If spending by sub-national governments is pro-cyclical,
the need to offset this spending pattern imposes an additional burden on fiscal policy
at the federal level. Moreover, pro-cyclical actions by the federal government could
affect the cyclical behavior of sub-national jurisdictions through intergovernmental
transfers, amplifying rather than mitigating the pro-cyclicality of sub-national fiscal
policy. According to explanations proposed by Perotti (2007); Kraay&Serven (2013)
there are evidences of budget rigidities and the tendency to adopt a pro-cyclical stance,
especially during “good times”, being a main source of the deficit bias of fiscal policy
in both emerging and developing countries. Given the procyclicality of fiscal policy at
centre, it is assumed that due to the existence of vertical fiscal imbalance states tend
to have high deficits and hence procyclical fiscal behavior.
Although, there is a presence of hierarchical federal structure which imposes
hard budget constraints upon state governments, the distinction of authority and
accountability have diminished across levels of government. At the same time,
institutions and policies, which have softened budget constraints or created expectations
of softening, have complicated macroeconomic management, distorted state-level debt
financing decisions, encouraged states to make bad inter-temporal budget choices,
and contributed to major distortions in sub-national public expenditure composition
(McCarten: 2001). The 13th and the 14th Finance Commission have restructured the
transfers and devolution formula for minimizing the vertical as well as horizontal
imbalances and moving towards cooperative federalism. Fiscal capacity/Income
distance7, Fiscal discipline8, enlargement of divisible pool, adoption and compensation
of GST, autonomy in utilization of funds, and easy access for market borrowings, etc
are the few instruments adopted by the Commissions to achieve the above stated
objectives. The question which can be raised here that merely allocating a larger
share of divisible pool and autonomy in utilisation of funds will not be converted
into improvement in NSDP growth employment opportunities and basic living amenities
for the population unless the state governments are improving their absorption capacity
and governance. With the implementation of 14th Finance Commission recommendations,
there has been a quantum jump of 60 percent in federal transfers immediately in
2014-15 while share in central tax revenues went up by 6.5 percent only. Lower
growth in the latter is continuing for the later two years and federal transfers are
showing a declining trend. Further for the 2015-16 revised estimates all have shown
a negative change followed by a moderate budgeted increase for the year 2016-17.
As the state level the federal transfer increase has not been reflected in the substantial
increase in social expenditures or capital outlay in majority of the states.
In order to make the cooperative federalism work, more institutional reforms are
required to eliminate the possibility of manipulation by ad hoc political bargaining
or by welfare-reducing strategic behaviour by the governments at different levels.
One least discussed has been the quasi-judicial status for the Inter-State Council by
the Second Administrative Reform Commission (2005-09) and the Commission on
Centre-State Relations (2010) and second is a permanent status to the Finance
Commission.
References
1. Arnelyn Abdon, et. al,(2014): “ Fiscal Policy and Economic Growth in Developing Asia,
Asian Development Bank, Working Paper Series No.412.
2. Bajpai, Nirupam, and Jeffery D. Sachs. (1999). Progress of Policy Reform and Variations at
the Sub-National level in India. Development Discussion Paper No. 730, Harvard Institute
for International Development, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
3. Basu, Sudip. (2002). Does Governance Matter? International Economics Department at
University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
4. Gent, J.-E. (2003). Political Economy of India’s Fiscal and Financial Reform. In A. O. Krueger
& S. Z. Chinoy (Eds.), Reforming India’s External, Financial and Fiscal Policies (pp. 157–
170). Standford: Stanford University Press.
5. Kraay A & Serven, L (2013) Fiscal Policy as a tool for Stabilisation in Developing Countries,
Background Note for World Development Report 2014.
6. McCarten, W (2001) the challenge of fiscal discipline in Indian states, in J Rodden, G
Eskeland, J Litvack, eds, Decentralisation and Hard Budget Constraints, MIT Press.
Agricultural Risk Management: A Case Study of Crop

Insurance in Ujjain District
Javaid Ahmad Mir*
Introduction
Cultivators face a numerous production risks related to weather conditions, market
situation and diseases and pest. All such risks affect the income stability and welfare
of farm owners (Xiu et al 2012). Uninsured risk leaves poor farmers vulnerable to
serious or even catastrophic losses from negative shocks. These shocks forces farmers
to undertake counter strategies to manage these risks and accommodate the loss of
income and assets, thus lowering risk means income earned (Pan, 2008; Haile, 2007;
Dercon, 1996). In low income or less developed economies like India, loss of welfare
associated with a farm risk and foregone profitable opportunities have been found
to be substantial (Elbers et al 2007).
To reduce such risk, farmers depend on a combination of self insurance and
informal risk sharing mechanism (Mcpeak, 2006). In many developing countries,
however, informal risk sharing among kin and families has serious limitation due to
the problem of covariate (systemic) risk within such networks (Meze-Hausken et al.,
2009). Such strategies remain ineffective, when an entire or most of the community
is hit by systemic risks such as drought (Meze-Hausken et al., 2009; Ellis, 1998).
Moreover informal actions come at high opportunities costs such as diversification
in to activities are less productivity but hedging risk (Meze-Hausken et al, 2009).
Agricultural insurance is one of the most useful and important risk management
strategies for farmers to manage risks associated with agricultural activities (Xiu et
al 2012). It is seen as a key financial tool to mitigate risk or stabilize farmers’ income
and improve their reliance to financial hardship from poor harvests.
Agricultural insurance in India begin with the introduction of crop insurance
scheme on H-4 cotton in 1972 by General Insurance Department Of Life Corporation
of India. Within the next few decades government of introduced a number of agricultural
insurance programs such as Pilot Crop Insurance Scheme (PCIS) 1979. Comprehensive
Crop Insurance Scheme(CCIS) 1985, Experimental Crop Insurance Scheme(ECIP) 1997,
National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) 1999 2000, modified national agricultural
* Senior Research Scholar, UGC NET Economics, DAVV Indore (M.P.)
insurance scheme (MNAIS) 2010-11, Pilot Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme
(WBCIS)2007-08 etc.
Objectives
1. To analyze the nature of crop insurance in the study
2. To the factors that affect the farmers’ decisions to take crop insurance plan.
3. To suggestion policy measures for further improvements in these schemes
Methodology
The data used in this study is cross sectional data obtained from a sample of 125
farmers collected from 2 zones (Badnagar and Ujjain) of Ujjain district, Madhya Pradesh.
Data was collected in February-march 2017. A schedule questionnaire was used to
collect the required data. The paper is a part of series of papers on agricultural
sector of Ujjain district.
Data Description
Madhya Pradesh is one of the most important agricultural state with three fourth
of its population dependent on rain-fed agricultural as a major source of livelihood
and being highly prone to climatic variations such as drought, hailstorms, extreme
temperature and unseasonal rains.
Factors Affecting Farmers’ Decisions to Participate in Crop Insurance Schemes
The data used in this study is cross sectional data from a sample of 100 farmers
collected from 2 regions of ujjain district(Badnagar and Ujjian). Farmers’ interest to take
up a crop insurance plan is expected to be influenced by variables such as age, location,
gender, education, family size, farm size, ownership, experience, and off-farm business
(if any). For Heckman estimation process, we considered the selection variable ‘dependent
ratio’ that was expected to influence farmers’ interest of taking a crop insurance plan
out of total 125 farmers, farmers (84%) were having crop insurance for the current years
while only 16 respondents did not have any insurance plan mainly due to unawareness
about current crop insurance schemes. 89 percent farmers (were willing to have crop
insurance plan as they deemed it necessary to manage unwarranted changes in weather
and market conditions. While respondents 11 % were not interest to take a crop insurance
plan in near future. 20 percent farmers stated that insurance makes them feel secure
while 39.2 percent of respondents indicate that getting cash after a bad harvest attracts
them to take insurance plan, 10.4 indicated other reasons such as ‘recover from shocks’
‘minimizing disasters’ etc.
Farmers’ Interest in Participation of Crop Insurance and Intensity
A summary description of data used in the household regression is presented in
table 1 the Heckman model estimates of the determinants of farmers’ interest or willingness
in crop insurance participation and the intensity of crop insurance in the study area.
Table 1: Summary Statistics of Variables Used in the Heckman Model Results
Variables Mean Standard Deviation Maximum Minimum
Gender 0.74 0.434 1 0
Age 42.43 11 76 24
Education 5.78 3.9 12 0
Family size 8.27 3.84 13 3
Farm size 16.02 31.83 85 2
Experience 27.34 8.44 50 10
Off farm income 0.78 0.873 1 0
Total off farm income 2458 1938 13500 0
It is clear from the table 2 that education was found to have a strong positive
effect on the farmers’ interest in crop insurance that is those who attain more education,
prefers to take crop insurances to minimize the loss, in case of a bad harvest or bad
market conditions. Higher educated farmers have better understanding of crop
insurances and are ready to meet institutional challenges. The implication is that
skill and knowledge obtained from higher level of schooling can lead farmers to
better understand the benefits of crop insurance as compared to the counterparts.
Location was found to have no significant relationship with either willingness to
take crop insurance or having crop insurance. Gender, farm ownership, and having
off-farm work were significantly related farmers’ willingness to take crop insurance
at 10% level of significance. Farm ownership was inversely related with intensity
and interest of crop insurance in the study area.
Suggestions
• A proper monitoring of the whole procedure can help to address such complains.
Digitalization of crop insurance procedure can be a method to avoid such
problems.
• compensation should be according to the crops cultivated by the famers and
not to the size of land.
• Case proper training of moral values should be imparted to the officials.
Table 2: Heckman model
Heckman Model (likelihood method) Heckman Model (two step method)
Variables Selection Equation Outcome Equation Selection Equation Outcome Equation
O.635 0.593 0.604 0.434

Location
-0.046 -0.033 -0.048 -0.052
-0.191 0.087* 0.085* -0.045**

a
Gender
(0,141) -0.051 -0.081 -0.041
-0.014 -0.19 -0.010** -0.032

Age
-0.403 -0.907 -0.034 -0.209
0.016 0.213 0.000*** 0.02

Education
-0.349 -0.097 -0.049 -0.098
0.379 0.053 0.043** 0.022**

Family size
-0.328 -0.02 -0.265 -0.024
0.051* 0.287 0.061* 0.045

Farm size
-0.141 -0.033 -0.048 -0.306
0.051 -0.012 -0.073* -0.084*

b
Farm ownership
-0.002 -0.075 -0.002 -0.076
-0.121 -0.441 -0.121 -0.060**

Farming experience
-0.046 -0.147 -0.043 -0.146
0.239 0.231 0.063* 0.079*

c
Off-farm-income
-0.329 -0.47 -0.023 -0.147
-0.073 -0.035 -0.046 -0.09

Total off-farm-income
-0.128 -0.005 -0.129 -0.028
4.542 -7.902 4.102 3.432

Constant
-2.326 -1.987 -1.867 -1.132
0.236
(IMR)λ
-0.521
Wald χ2 ( P = 0) 7.232
N=125
*, **, *** represents 1%, 5% and 10% of significance level respectively Values in parentheses are robust
standard error. a measured by dummy variables where 0 indicates female, 1 indicates male, b measured by
dummy variables where 1 represents self owned, 2 indicates leased land and 3 represents jointly
cultivated land. c measured by dummy variable, where 0 represents no and 1 represents yes.
References
1. AIC, www.aicofindia.org, Agricultural Insurance Company of India Ltd, Bhopal, 2016.
2. Bishu, K.G. (2014) Risk management and potential cattle insurance in Tigray, northern
Ethiopia, PH.D thesis University College CORK.
A Study of Inclusive Growth and Women Ownership among

SMEs in India
Ganesh Kumar*
Introduction
In India, the key strategy of economic development has become ‘inclusive growth’
since eleventh five year plan The objective of twelve five years plan is also faster,
more inclusive and sustainable growth. Inclusiveness in the economy refers to equal
distribution of benefits of economic growth in all people specially disadvantage group
of society. Inclusiveness involves four attributes: opportunity, capability, Access and
security. Inclusive growth is necessary for sustainable development and social justice
like India where 600 million people living in rural area, 26.93 crore people are poor
(planning commission 2011-12) and 24.7 million people are unemployed (NSSO, 2011-
12). In the above scenario SME’s (Small and Medium Enterprises) play very important
role in socio-economic development of Indian economy on account of their inherent
advantages like low capital requirement, high employment generation, decentralization
of industrial activity, utilization of locally available resources and widening of
entrepreneurial base. The growth rate recorded by the sector has normally been
higher than the industrial sector as a whole.
India’s MSME (Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise) sector has recorded more
than 10 percent growth in recent years despite the economic slowdown. MSME’s
contribute nearly eight percent to the national GDP, employing over eight crore people
in nearly four crore enterprises and accounting for 45 percent of manufacturing output
and 40 percent of export from India.
SME’s is the largest source of employment after agriculture, SME sector in India
enable lakhs of men, women and children living in urban slums, upcoming town,
remote villages and isolated hamlets to use indigenous knowledge, cultural wisdom
and entrepreneurial skills for the sustenance of their lives and livelihoods. Apart
from contributing to national income, SME’s are instruments of inclusive growth,
touching the lives of most vulnerable, the most marginalized, viz women, minorities,
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. For many families, it is the only source of
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, U.P.
livelihoods. For others, it supplements family income. Thus instead of taking a welfare
approach, this sector seeks to empower people to break the cycle of poverty and
deprivation.
Different segments of the SME’s sector are dominated by different social groups.
Women are mostly found in the unregistered sector-food processing enterprises,
manufacturing enterprises and weaving and often work part time in family enterprises.
Women and small children roll bidis, make agarbattis, do zari and sequin work for
meagre wages. Muslims in large number are found in the unorganized weaving
sector and in powerlooms. STs produce handicrafted article and are involved in
sericulture. In the North-East of India most women engage in weaving.
Inclusive Growth defined in the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) as a “Growth
process which yields broad-based benefits, and ensures equality of opportunity for
all”, “inclusive growth” stands for “equitable development” or “growth with social
justice”, which have been always the watchwords of development planning in the
country. There is now a genuine and widespread recognition about the adverse social
consequences of rising inequalities in the recent high growth phase, which do not
seem to be mitigated through the so called “trickle down” mechanism. With the
rural-urban divide, regional divide, and rich–poor divide becoming glaring, “inclusive
growth” has been high on the policy agenda.
The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) aimed at achieving faster and more inclusive
growth. The Twelfth Plan (2012-17), as indicated in its Approach paper of November
2011 focuses on continuing the momentum, and pursuing faster, sustainable and
more inclusive growth.
In India SME’s are located in every state. The higher no. of SME’s are in
geographically large states like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and comparatively lower no. of SME’s are in small
states like Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh. But the per enterprises population
is the higher in small states like Assam, Tripura another important feature is that
very low per enterprises population are in comparatively more developed states
such as Kerala, Goa, and Punjab. But it is quite evident that traditionally large industries
be it Cement, Coal, Iron, Textile or even modern industries related to IT are situated
in only urban centers and comparatively richer states, that leads to regional divide
on the one hand we have cities like NCR, Chennai, Mumbai, Pune etc. and other
hand we have no industries zone like North-East, Bihar, U.P, Haryana etc. Only
alternative to being inclusiveness thus is promoting SME’s.
Definition of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in India
There are several definitions of the term small and medium enterprises (SME’s)
varying from country to country and varying between the sources reporting SME
statistics. The commonly used criteria at the international level to define SME’s are
based on number of employees, total net assets, sales and investment level. If
employment is the criterion to define, then there exists variation in defining the
upper and lower size limit of a SME.
In India the MSME development Act 2006 defines MSME’s. According to the Act,
MSME’s are classified into : (a) enterprises engaged in the manufacturing or production
of goods pertaining to any industry specified in the first schedule to the Industries
(Development and regulation) Act 1951, and (b) enterprises engaged in providing
services. Enterprises are defined based on their investment in plant and machinery
(for manufacturing enterprises) and on investment in equipment for enterprises
providing services.
The number of SMEs has increased steadily in India from 67.87 lakhs in 1990-91
to 510.57 lakhs in 2014-2015.Success seems more attractive as it has been achieved in
the era of liberalization where the policy has not been very conducive to SME’s. The
number of persons employed in SMEs has risen from 158.34 lakhs in 1990-91 to
1171.32 lakhs in 2014-2015s. However, much of the labour absorption has taken place
in the unorganized/informal enterprises.
Role of SMEs for Social Upliftment
Ownership by Gender of owner
Table 1: Percentage Distribution of Enterprises by Gender of Owner in Rural

and Urban Areas.
Female Male
Rural 15.27 84.73
Urban 12.45 87.55
All 13.72 86.28
Source : Fourth All India census of MSME 2006-07.
Ownership by Social Category
Table 2: Percentage Distribution of Enterprises by Social Group of Owner in

Rural and Urban Areas
SC ST OBC Others
Rural 10.20 4.02 43.67 42.11
Urban 5.45 1.92 33.82 58.81
All 7.60 2.87 38.28 51.26
Source: Fourth All India census of MSME 2006-07.

Per Unit Employment
Table 3: Distribution of Enterprises, Employment and Average Employment per

Enterprises by Area
No. of working Enterprises (lakhs) Employment (lakh) Per Enterprises Employment
Rural 7.07 36.82 5.20
Urban 8.57 56.27 6.57
All 15.64 93.09 5.95
Sources: Fourth All India Census of MSME 2006-2007
Conclusion
Small and Medium Enterprises sector has emerged highly vibrant and dynamic
sector of the Indian economy over the last five decades. SMEs not only play crucial
role in providing large employment opportunities, but also help in industrialization
of rural and backward areas, thereby reducing regional imbalances and assuring
more equitable distribution of national income and wealth. This sector contributes
enormously to the socio-economic development of the country.
The study shows that in India SMEs are located in every States. The higher
numbers of SMEs are in geographically large States like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,
Tamil Naidu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and comparatively lower numbers
of SMEs are in Small States. They have more opportunity to increase the share of
women owned enterprises as a whole. The paper shows that the pattern of ownership
by socially backward groups is true, both in rural and urban areas. It is true that the
OBCs have a large presence in SMEs in India. SMEs certainly can help in inclusive
growth if Government prepares such a policy package for SCs and STs with making
credit available at very low rate of interest and especially with no guarantee
requirements.
References
• Annual Report(2012-13), Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, Government of
India, 2012-13
• Bala Subrahmanya, M.H. (2004), ‘Small Industry and Globalization: Implications, Performance
and Prospects’, Economic and Political Weekly, Volume XXXIX, No.18, pp 1826-1834.
• Dixit, A. and Pandey, A.K (2011), ‘SMEs and Economic Growth in India: Cointegration
Analysis’, The IUP Journal of Finance of Economics, Vol. IX, No.2, pp.41-59.
• Fourth All India Census Report of MSME (2006-2007), Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium
Enterprise, New Delhi. http://www.dcmse.gov.in.
• Prime Minister Task Force Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise (2010). Ministry
of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise, New Delhi.
• Reserve Bank of India (2012-13), Hand book of Statistics on Indian Economy, 2012-13.
• Lohana, Sarika: ‘Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises for Inclusive Growth’(2014), Published
by New Century Publications, New Delhi.
• Srinivas K.T (2013): ‘Role of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in Inclusive Growth’.
International Journal of Engineering and Management Research, Vol. 2, No. 2.
Goods and Services Tax a New Chapter in Centre State

Financial Relation
Aditi Pandey*
Federalism is a form of government in which sovereignty or political power is

divided between the Centre, State and local government, so that each of them within
its own sphere is independent of the other.
After independence India adopted federal structure because there were regional,
social, cultural and climatic differences and same financial social and legal rules and
regulations could not be applied. For example e.g. Agriculture in India is differs in
terms of soil, climate, rainfall and productivity. Production of two hectares land in
Punjab and Haryana may equal production of 30 hectares in Rajasthan. Similarly, festivals,
dresses, customs of each place/city differ. But for some cases nationwide uniformity
also needed like defence, foreign affairs, atomic energy etc. This situations leads to the
emergence of such governing institution that can suitably be adjusted to different
administrative and financial system. The constitution of India came into force in 1950
according to which India was made a Union of States. According to Article 246 of the
constitution there was three fold distribution of legislative and financial powers between
the Centre and States i.e. Union list, State list and Concurrent list.
The Union government or Parliament of India has the exclusive powers to make
laws as enumerated in list 1 in the 7th schedule of the constitution. It includes nearly
97 subjects such as defence, atomic energy, foreign affairs, citizenship, railway, national
highways, airways, shipping, banking and other important issues of national level.
The State list includes 66 items in which legislature of any State has exclusive
powers to make any law. It consists of public sector, police administration of justice,
public health, education, agriculture, irrigation and other such issues.
There are 47 items in the Concurrent list. This includes criminal law, bank ruptcy,
labour disputes, price control, economic and social planning and more important
social and rural development.
Article 280 of the constitution was created to make provisions to facilitate suitable
arrangement to meet the financial needs of states/local governments. Thus Finance
* Department of Economics, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, U.P.
Commission under was created. Under the provision of the constitution the finance
commission had to be appointed on the expiry of every 5 years or earlier. The Finance
commission makes recommendations on matters related to the share of income tax
and other taxes to be assigned to the states as well as distribution of taxes among
them. It also recommends the payments of grants in aid to states. It also solves any
kind of disputes between two states or centre and states.
Despite such sound and explicit federal financial structure the problems arise
because of following:
The existing tax system has failed to tax uniformity and a lot of evasion has
been possible due to some complicated regime this leads to distortions and
misallocation of resources. It shifts the resources from high efficiency sector
to low tax rate sectors which adversely affects growth rate and. In present
time production based value added tax system exists there a severe problem
in the economy where producing states generate more income as compared
to consuming states. This gives rise the revenue inequality. Moreover different
states having different tax structure so there is variation in product prices.
This may leads to fiscal imbalance, these imbalances could be a Horizontal
imbalance or Vertical imbalance. When the fiscal imbalance is measured between
the governments at the same level it is called Horizontal Fiscal imbalance
and when fiscal imbalance between Centre and States it is called vertical
fiscal imbalance.
To Tackle with all these Problems, India Introduced the Goods and Services Tax
The introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) is likely to be a very significant
step in the field of indirect tax reforms in India. The GST is a destination-based
single tax on the supply of goods and services from the manufacturer to the consumer
and is one indirect tax for the entire country. The goods and services tax (GST) Bill
was passed unanimously in the Parliament in August, 2016 reflecting faith in cooperative
fiscal federalism in the pursuit of reforms. After ratification by a majority of states
and assent of the President, it was enacted as Constitution (One Hundred and First
Amendment) Act, 2016
The GST can be called largest tax reform in India, paving the way for a single
national market by merging several central and state taxes. It is also expected to
make Indian products more competitive in both domestic and international markets
and also attract large inflows of foreign direct investment than before in view of the
stability it will impart to the tax regime. At the same time, it is likely to be transparent
and easier to administer. Thus, the GST has the potential to raise India’s growth
trajectory over the medium-term.GST will replace multiple taxes such as central value
added tax (CENVAT), central sales tax, state sales tax and octroi tax. A common base
and common rates across goods and services and similar rates across states and
between Centre and states will facilitate better tax administration, improve tax
compliance, alleviate cascading or double taxation while also ensuring adequate tax
collection from inter-state sales.
Table 1: Taxes Subsumed Under GST

Central level State level
1. Central Excise Duty 1. State Value Added Tax
2. Duties of Excise (Medicinal and Toilet Preparations) 2. Entertainment Tax (other than the tax levied by
the local bodies)
3. Additional Excise Duty 3. Central Sales Tax (levied by the Centre and
collected by the States)
4. Service Tax 4. Octroi and Entry tax
5. Additional Customs Duty commonly known as 5. Purchase Tax
Countervailing Duty
6. Special Additional Duty of Customs 6. Luxury tax
7. Cesses and surcharges in so far as they relate to supply of 7. Taxes on lottery, betting and gambling
goods or services
8. Taxes on advertisements
9. State Cesses and surcharges in so far as they
relate to supply of goods and service
Note: GST would apply to all goods and services (including tobacco and tobacco products), except
Alcohol for human consumption. GST on five specified petroleum products (Crude, Petrol, Diesel,
Aviation Turbine Fuel & Natural gas) would be applicable from a date to be recommended
by the GST Council. Source:
GST and Centre-State Financial Relations

Fiscal powers between the Centre and the States were clearly demarcated in the
Constitution with almost no overlap between the respective domains. The Centre had
the powers to levy tax on the manufacture of goods (except alcoholic liquor for human
consumption, opium, narcotics etc.) while the States have the powers to levy tax on
sale of goods. In case of inter-State sales, the Centre had the power to levy a tax (the
Central Sales Tax) but, the tax collected and was retained entirely by the originating
States. As for services, it is the Centre alone that is empowered to levy service tax.
Since the States are not empowered to levy any tax on the sale or purchase of goods in
the course of their importation into or exportation from India, the Centre levies and
collects this tax as additional duties of customs, which is in addition to the Basic
Customs Duty. This additional duty of customs (commonly known as CVD and SAD)
counter balances excise duties, sales tax, State VAT and other taxes levied on the like
domestic product. Introduction of GST would require amendments in the Constitution
so as to concurrently empower the Centre and the States to levy and collect the GST.
The assignment of concurrent jurisdiction to the Centre and the States for the
levy of GST would require a unique institutional mechanism that would ensure that
decisions about the structure, design and operation of GST are taken jointly by the
two. For it to be effective, such a mechanism also needs to have Constitutional force.
Benefits of GST will be evaluated with time. Some likely benefits of GST are
following:
Since Goods and Services Tax is a single tax so it will increase the certainity
and ease of doing business which will improve the overall investment climate
in the country.It will prevent cascading of taxes which will increase the
manufacturing activity and thus generating employment. Uniformity in tax
structure will facilitate transparency in tax administration.It will provide higher
revenue also.Higher revenue could be utilized for more investment in real
and virtual infrastructure which is the need of the hour.However GST till
date as envisaged is likely confused.Most businessmen and industrialist as
well as policy makers are not very clear. This confusion needs to clarified at
the earliest otherwise the very purpose of GST will be defeated.
Impact of GST on Finance Commission
Though after the implementation of GST there is a single indirect tax on supply
of goods and services but role of Finance commission is still remain important. Only
distribution of net tax revenue from Centre’s tax pool to states is administered by
Goods and services tax. Grants in-aid, collection of state taxbuoyancy and elasticity
data and distribution related functions are performed by the Finance Commission.
With GST system is changed but role of the Finance Commission is not over. Future
will only tell whether the constitutional authority of Finance Commission will be
undermined or whether GST rates would also be reviewed, modified, scrapped through
Finance Commission itself.
References
1. Chandrasekhar, C P Erroneous Understanding of Macro Economic Challenges by C.P.
Chandrasekhar.
2. Jain Bimal, GST law and analysis by Bimal Jain.
3. Lekhi R.K., Public Finance And Taxation.
4. Reserve Bank of India, GST, A Game changer, Reserve Bank of India.
5. Singh S.K., Public Finance in theory and Practice.
6. Srivastava S.N., Indian Tax Structure : S.N. Srivastava.
Make in India: A Tool of Women Empowerment
Anubha Chaturvedi*
Introduction
On September 25, 2014 the Government of India launched the ambitious “Make
in India” scheme. The campaign Make in India is a major national programme designed
to facilitate investment, foster innovation, enhance skill development, protect intellectual
property and build best in class manufacturing infrastructure. The aim is to take a
share of manufacturing in GDP from stagnant 16% currently to 25% by 2022, as
stated in manufacturing policy, to create 100 million jobs by 2022. The major objective
behind the initiative is to focus on 25 sectors of the economy for job creation and
skill enhancement. Make in India is the key to revitalization of Indian economy. The
initiative aims to correct the composition of Indian GDP which is the root cause of
recession. Currently India’s GDP is heavily titled in favor of service sector.
Major objective of this scheme focuses on 25 sectors. These sectors are automobiles,
textile and garments, biotechnology, wellness, defence, manufacturing, mining, food
processing, media and entertainment, IT and BPM, pharmaceuticals, renewable energy,
roads and highways, railways, thermal power, oil and gas, space, leather, aviation,
construction automobile components, chemicals and electronic system. The scheme
also aims to provide employment opportunities for the people of India. Since the
contribution of manufacturing sector to GDP is around 16%, lowest compared to
other two prime sectors of any economy i.e. agriculture and service sector. And to
complete the above objectives of the scheme a huge amount of investment is needed.
So the Prime Minister has urged both local and foreign companies to invest in India.
Women constitute almost half of the total population of the country. In India, as
per 2011 census, women account for 586 million and represent48.46% of the total
population. And for their effective participation, effort should be in place to improve
their socio-economic condition simultaneously. Women’s empowerment is seen as
pillar of holistic approach towards establishing new patterns and process of
development. Because, the women are both the agent and the target of development
process. Empowerment of women is specially the process of upliftment of economic,
social and political status of women,the traditionally underprivileged ones, in the
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics University of Allahabad, Allahabad, (U.P.)

society. Empowerment is a multidimensional concept and relates to the social attainment,
economical participation and political participation. Amartya Sen defined empowerment
as the process by which powerless gain greater control over the circumstances of
their lives. It includes both control over resources (physical, human, intellectual and
financial) and over ideology (beliefs, values and attitudes)
Political participation of women viewed as one of the proven strategies for the
empowerment of women. Panchayat being the nearest form of government to the
people can play instrumental role in their empowerment by ensuring effective
participation of them. The 73rdconstitutional amendment ushered in a major change
in the history of Panchayats making provision for the reservation of women.
Social attainments of women is viewed as when they are free to take decisions
regarding themselves and are not bound to do according to others directions. Social
freedom is when they are free to take decisions about their education, employment
and many other important aspects of life.
Economic empowerment is the capacity of women and men to participate in,
contribute to and benefit from growth processes in ways which recognize the value
of their contributions, respect their dignity and make it possible to negotiate a fairer
distribution of the benefits of growth. Economic empowerment increases women’s
access to economic resources and opportunities including jobs, financial
services,property and other productive assets, skills development and market
information.
To enhance the entrepreneurship among women the essential programmes are as
follows:
Women Empowerment through Skill Development
The National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015 envisions
skill development as a vehicle for women’s empowerment. To impart skills to women,
the government has taken steps like the Skill Development Initiative Scheme under
Directorate General of Employment and Training developing over 10,000 training
providers under which 12.6 lakh woman have availed benefits. There are 402 women
ITIs and 1134 women wings in ITIs, which provide training to 1, 41,907 women
annually. Furthermore, vocational training schemes for women are being run by 10
Regional Vocational Training Institutes (RVTIs). The government has proposed to
open 8 more. Given below aresome of the policy provisions for skill development
with a special focus on women.
National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015
The national policy on skill development highlights that in order to improve the
productivity of economy, participation of women in labour force needs to be improved.
Below are the major takeaways policies.
This policy provides a roadmap for skill development, including the setting up
of Ministry of Skill Development and convergence of skill development initiatives of
other Ministries. It also outlines various interventions that the government must
take up to catalyze skill development for women.
The government of India is implementing several schemes on skill development.

Given below are some of the schemes which have a special focus on women’s skill
development
Deen Dayal Upadhyay Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-KVY)
DDU-GKY, the erstwhile Aajeevika Skills, is the skill training and placement
program of the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) carried out as part of the
National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM).
The programme provides funding support for placement linked skilling projects
ranging from INR 25,696 per person to over INR 1 lakh. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu have been recognized as Resource States under the scheme as they have
successfully implemented skilling programmes.
The scheme has special focus on womenand outlines provision to improve quality
of impact amongst women beneficiaries-
• Improving Coverage- The scheme mandates that 1/3rd of the seats would be
covered by women. Gram Panchayats will have to undertake special efforts
to improve participation of women under the programme by conducting special
counseling sessions. To enhance coverage, the upper age limit for women has
been revised up to 45, as against 35 years.
• Setting up of migration support centres (MSC)-MSCs to look after the needs
of the vulnerable population, especially women. They will be set up both
inside the state, as well as outside the state in areas where a large number of
DDUKVY trainees have been placed. Funding for this is provided to the State
Rural Livelihoods Mission (SRLM) which may take it up on its own or with
the support of the PIA.
Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
The STEP program is a Central Sector Scheme of Ministry of Women and Child
Development under which training is provided to poor and marginalized women in
traditional trades to improve employability. The scheme is intended to benefit women
who are in the age group 16 and above. Under the programme, grants-in-aid are
provided by the central government to societies, voluntary organizations, and
cooperatives providing skills in sectors ranging from agriculture to hospitality.
Training courses under STEP would primarily be of 3 months or 6 months duration,
with total assistance per beneficiary at Rs. 18000 and Rs. 28000 respectively. The
maximum number of beneficiaries per project will not exceed 200.
As of February, 2015, a total funding of Rs. 400.21 lakhs was released under the
scheme. Amongst the states, Manipur received the maximum funding under the
scheme, followed by Madhya Pradesh and Assam. A total of 24,037 women beneficiaries
have been impacted under the scheme.
With limited participation in the workforce, the potential of women remains
untapped. Effective implementation of the envisioned skill development interventions
is needed to make them key stakeholders in development. Key Sectors under STEP
Agriculture
Horticulture
Food Processing
Handlooms
Tailoring and Stitching
Women Empowerment through Access to Financial Services
Some of the initiatives taken by India’s leading banks to support women
entrepreneurs to increase entrepreneurship among women are valuable. Such as,
Bhartiya Mahila Bank encourages women entrepreneurs by extending financial support
to womenentrepreneurs intending to start their own venture. The bank offers a collateral
free loan of up to INR 1 crore, covered under the Credit Guarantee trust for Micro
and Small Enterprises(CGTMSE).under the Mudra loan scheme, state bank of India
has come forward to extend loans to help women entrepreneurs in West Bengal who
are engaged in various handicraft activities. State Bank of Mysore has introduced 2
specified schemes for women entrepreneurs. These are Annapurna scheme and Shree
Shakti.PNB has also launched special programmes for women entrepreneurs.
International French Bank BNP Paribas, in its Global Entrepreneurialism Report
revealed that India has the maximum number of women entrepreneurs in percentage
terms @ 49%, leaving behind countries like Honk Kong and France! With the rising
number of women entrepreneurs in India, there seems to be a growing opportunity
for all.
Conclusion
The schemes related to Skill Development and providing financial services to
women will help to empower women economically. There will be positive effect of
skill development programme because this will supply skilled labour force to achieve
the target of Make in India programme to increase the share of manufacturing sector
in GDP from currently 16% to 25%. There will be trained women labour force whose
productivity level would be much higher than earlier. This will boost the production
of manufacturing sector on one side andon the other hand will empower women
economically. Hence, Make in India scheme of GOI will certainly prove to be a
crucial tool for the empowerment of women in India.
References
1. Duflo E. (2011) Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development, National Bureau of
Economic Research, Cambridge
2. Kadam, R. N. (2012). Empowerment of Women in India- An Attempt to Fill the Gender
Gap. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 2(6), 11-13.
3. Deshpande, S., and Sethi, S., (2010). Role and Position of Women Empowerment in Indian
Society. International Referred Research Journal, 1(17), 10-12
4. Government of India, Ministry of Finance ; Economic Division New Delhi Economic Survey
2016-17.
Indoor Air Pollution and Women Health Issues with

Special Reference of E-waste
Darshana Kumari*
Introduction
As early as several centuries ago the famous Greek and father of medicine
Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.) was aware of the adverse effects of polluted air and the
damage of living in damp housing. Poor indoor environmental quality is an important
health risk worldwide. Numerous health risks have been identified in homes. Hazards
in indoor environments include biological and chemical contaminants as well as the
effects of physical agents.
Table 1: Some of the Source and Potential Health Effects of Indoor Air
Pollutants
Pollutant Indoor Sources Potential Health Effects
Cigarettes, wood stoves, fireplaces, aerosol Eye, nose and throat irritation,
Respirable particles, Asbestos sprays, dust, textile, deteriorating respiratory infections and
insulation bronchitis, lung cancer
Earth-derived construction materials,

Radon Lung cancer
groundwater
Sanding or open-flame burning of lead Nerve disorders, damage of

Lead
paint, house dust kidney; growth retardation
House dust, dust mites, pets, poorly Coughing, shortness of breath,

Biological organisms and other maintained air conditioners, moist allergic rhinitis, asthma, influenza,
organic pollutants structures, insects, pollen, animal saliva, myalgia, hypersensitivity
bacterial endotoxins and fungal materials pneumonitis, digestive problems
Main sources of indoor pollution include combustion sources (oil, gas, kerosene,
coal, wood and tobacco products), volatile organic compounds, building materials
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad

(asbestos), carpets, house cleaning and maintenance, central heating and cooling system
and humidification devices, lack of ventilation, too much humidity, water infiltration
or leakage, carbon monoxide and other gases, radon and other noxious agents.
E-waste: Old electronic equipments that have outlived their useful life are
categorized as e-waste. On an average, in India, in case of mobile phones the useful
life goes upto 2 years. In case of PCs, it may go upto 5 years. The life of these
equipment is extended due to reasons such as upgrade, repair and reuse, donation
to charity, etc.
E-Waste
Classification and Composition
E-Waste is categorized by the government India under the broad class of hazardous
waste. Within e-Waste, there are several categories such as Large and small household
appliances, electrical and electronic toys and sporting equipment, tools, computers
and related equipment etc. Electrical and Electronic equipment contains metallic and
non metallic elements, alloys and compounds such as Copper, Aluminium, Gold,
Silver, Palladium, Platinum, Nickel, Tin, Lead, Iron, Sulphur, Phosphorous, Arsenic
etc. If discarded in the open, these metals can cause a severe environmental and
health hazard.
NFHS-4
The data given in National Family Health Survey-4 (2015-16) that the women
using clean fuel for households are only 43% in India till 2016, and 53% of women
are suffering from Anemia, which is very dangerous for the adolescent girl, pregnant
women and lactating mothers too. Means to say that Anemia affects badly women
health and indirectly its affects the whole human .we find that lead is a major cause
for anemia.
Suggestions and Action for the Management of Indoor Air Pollution and E-Waste
Prevention
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rates indoor pollution among
the top environmental health risks. For this reason, it is important to assess the air
quality of workplaces and homes. The indoor air levels of many pollutants may be
2-10 times higher than outdoor levels. These levels of indoor air pollutants are of
particular concern because most people spend as much as 90% of their time indoor.
Preventive measures should be directed toward identifying indoor air sources
that may be possible causes and reduce exposure to biological contaminants with
immediate health benefits. Many types of adjustments could improve environmental
conditions. There are two main strategies for reducing indoor air pollutants in homes
and buildings.
Source Control and Ventilation

When possible, source control is the most effective strategy. Examples of source
control include adjusting combustion appliances to reduce emissions, having smokers
smoke outdoors instead of indoors, and switching from pressed wood products to
wood or alternatives to avoid formaldehyde emissions. Some forms of indoor air
pollution are harder to eliminate at the source so dilution is the next best option.
This is why fresh ventilation is key for homes and buildings. General ventilation
may occur naturally or mechanically such as through an HRV or ERV system.
Ban smoking: Don’t smoke or allow others to do so in your home or car.
Eliminate Odors, don’t Mask them: Find the source of bad smells and clean it
up. Where appropriate, use a box of baking soda in the area instead of air fresheners,
which cost more and can contain VOCs and phthalates.
Make your Cleaning Count: Dust furnishings regularly with a damp rag or an
electro statically charged duster. Vacuum often, ideally with allow-emissions vacuum.
Control Critters: Seal cracks and crevices and put food away. You’ll be less apt
to attract pests and need to use pesticides. To minimize your exposure to pet dander,
banish pets from sleeping areas and upholstered furniture.
Management of E-Waste
Sustainable Product Design
Hazardous waste can be minimized at product design stage by keeping the further
mentioned steps: (1) Rethink the product design i.e. some efforts should be made to
design a product with a fewer amount of hazardous content. (2) Use of renewable
materials and energy i.e. using biobased plastics made from plant- based chemicals
not from petrochemicals. (3) Use of non-renewable materials that are safer i.e. many
materials can be used which are non-renewable; thereby designers could ensure the
product is built for re-use, repair and/or upgradeability.
Volume Reduction
It includes the techniques that separates hazardous portion of waste from non-
hazardous portion and thereby reducing the volume. There are two techniques to
reduce waste-stream volume one is segregation of wastes i.e. waste which contains
different types of metals, it can be treated separately so that the metal value in the
sludge can be recovered and second is concentration of waste i.e. it increases the
possibility that after concentration material can be recyclable or reusable. Methods
of waste concentration are gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse
osmosis, freeze vaporization.
Recovery and Reuse

This technique is capable of eliminating waste disposal costs, reduce raw material
costs. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available which can be
adopted to reclaim a waste material. These are reverse osmosis, electrolysis,
condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration, centrifugation etc.
Responsible Bodies for E-Waste Management
Industries
Industries can adopt their own policies while handling E-Waste. Industries must
design clean electronics with longer lifespan, that are safe and easy to recycle and
will not pose threat to workers and the environment with hazardous chemicals.
Manufacturers should take complete life cycle responsibility for their products and,
once they reach the end of their useful life, they should take their goods back for re-
use, safe recycling or disposal.
Citizen
Donating electronics for reuse to various organizations. E-Waste should never be
dumped with garbage. Update the older electronics items rather than buying new
equipment. Return your equipment to the manufacturer when you have finished
with it.
Government
Setting up regulatory agencies coordinating with the regulatory functions of
government authorities pertaining e-waste in each state. Government should make
strict laws on disposal and management of e-waste by both public and private
institutions. Existing laws should be reviewed periodically. In this regard government
of India implemented e-waste management and handling rule 2016.
Conclusion
It is our duty to protect the environment and improve the air quality via indoor
Environment Control System and Air-Cleaning equipment. Research and awareness
have to be done in this field to control Indoor air pollution. Women are more vulnerable
to Indore pollution across the world in general and developing countries in particular.
The challenge is becoming more and more serious for Indian women who are already
under severe health stress. The need of the our is the urgent and effective
implementation and monitoring of E-waste management rules and awareness in society.
References
1. Human Development Report 2016, UNDP.
2. Zuskin, Bouhuys and Beck (1978) “Hair sprays and lung function”, Lancet 2: 1203
3. Hopke and Rossner (2006) “Exposure to airborne particulate matter in the ambient, indoor,
and occupational environments”, Clin Occup Environ Med 5: 747-71
The Feminisation of Poverty in India
Kusum Nair* & Hemlata Sanguri**
Factors Responsible for the Feminisation of Poverty

The non economic factors affecting women after globalisation is the limited access
to decision making power, education and health facilities. The economic factors are,
the loss of income earning activities and the opportunities to have a hold over natural
and productive resources. 70 % of the women work in the agriculture and allied
occupations. They work as supplementary and marginal workers. More number of
these women has lost their jobs due to mechanisation of agriculture and is forced to
manage their families with inadequate food and other basic facilities. The excess
agricultural labourers always turn to the industrial sector by migrating to the nearby
towns and cities and take up low paying jobs. In the new places, they have to deal
with higher cost of living and irregular job opportunities.
Greater modernisation of the industries has resulted in increasing demand for the
skilled workers. But most of the women workers are unskilled. Therefore the migrated
workers are not absorbed by the industries. Even those women workers who were
employed by the industries earlier are replaced by the skilled men workers instead of
retaining them by upgrading their skill.
The tribal women are dependent on forest or hill resources, such as, water, fruits,
fodder and fuel which had been available to them free of cost. But after globalization,
the tribal women are forced to migrate from their place of livelihood due to the conversion
of the forest and hilly areas into national parks or multipurpose river projects or
industrial. or tourist projects. In the new environments they live without security or
regular income.
The fisher women are also driven away from their place of livelihood due to
tourism activities. The rapid expansion of prawn farms has led to severe shortage of
salt which is the basic input for sun drying of fish. Big contractors have now monopolised
the fish trade. Therefore, fisher women’s retail trade is harmed due to the supply of
fish at a higher rate by the middle men.
* Department of Sociology, D.B.S. College, Kanpur, U.P.

** Department of Sociology, D.B.S. College, Kanpur, U.P.
Due to higher export of raw cotton, women engaged in handloom sector are forced
to turn to low paying activities like hawking and vending which are very tedious.
The down fall of traditional industries, such as the hand loom, cashew and coir
industries due to the competition from the large scale industries has aggravated
unemployment problem of women workers. Women handle much of the activities in
the food processing industries. The reduction of subsidy to the agricultural sector has
deepened the food security crisis. Further reduction in subsidy for food security, would
mean that, 25 million children and mothers would not receive enough food, without
the supplementary feeding schemes, 10 million poor would not find employment with
the scrapping of food for work programme and 200 million people who live below
poverty line would find it very difficult to meet the basic food requirement of the
family. All these factors will affect women more because, satisfaction of the hunger of
the family members has always been the primary duty of mothers.
The entry of the corporate sector even in the retail business in fruits and vegetables
has spoiled the economic survival of the vendors who happened to be mostly women.
Even in the health sector employment of nurses on contractual basis has driven them
from nursing job and they have to take up low paying jobs as home nurses. The new
economic policy has introduced privatisation of education. Therefore education, at
present, especially higher education is totally commercialised. As a result, poor women’s
efforts to achieve social and economic empowerment through education and employment
are hampered.
Suggestions to Solve the Problem of Feminisation of Poverty
Self employment opportunities should be increased through micro credit programmes.
The self help groups should be utilised to empower women by imparting knowledge
in financial, marketing and management skills, so that small, enterprises can be profitably
run by women. Women should have access to welfare facilities like education, training
and health.
Gender consideration should be given in the areas such as agricultural research,
credit schemes, and welfare facilities in the industries (like crèches day care centers).
Women should be trained in the new technologies in agriculture, fishing and small
industries instead of throwing then out of jobs.
The food security measures should concentrate not only on more production but
also on better distribution. The government should also ensure that macro policies
related to subsidies, taxes and credit do not destroy micro units run by women. Integrated
approach to farm and non farm employment and value addition to agricultural activities
is needed to enhance income of the poor. The existence of the problem of feminisation
of poverty indicates that the current GDP growth rate of 8.5% is not a gender inclusive
growth. To rectify this problem, the 11thplan calls for gender balancing and calls for
immediate review of the macro policies of the nation. But more than gender balancing,
gender inclusion in the growth process through investment on women’s development
(on their health, education training and employment) is the need of the hour. Otherwise
the benefits 8.5% growth will bypass women and aggregate their problems.
Conclusion
The overall effects of feminisation of poverty on women are hunger, mal nutrition,
reproductive disorders and anemia and also lower share in the family resources. Hence,
they suffer a setback in their health status. It is often forgotten that women need more
nutrition during adolescence, pregnancy and breast feeding. A comprehensive gender
analysis of the effects of globalisation, shows that the globalisation and the restructuring
process have left women as victims of capitalist patriarchy and women workers are in
the first firing line in terms of economic transition and crisis. Therefore it is expected
that the administrators of the globalised programmes should have a sympathetic
understanding of the ill effects of the market economy on women. Women are the
managers of household and hence their economic wellbeing is the basic requirement
for the welfare of the family, the society and the nation.
References
1. Chen, Martha (1995), “A matter of survival: women’s right to employment in India and Bangladesh”,
in Nussbaum, Martha; Glover, Jonathan, Women, culture, and development: a study of human
capabilities, Oxford New York: Clarendon Press Oxford University Press, pp. 37–61, ISBN
9780198289647.
2. Pearce, Diana (1978). “The feminization of poverty: women, work, and welfare”. Urban and Social
Change Review, special issue, Women and Work. Boston College. 11 (1–2): 28–36. Pdf. Archived
4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
3. Sen, Amartya (2001). ”Many Faces of Gender Inequality”. Frontline. 18 (22). Archived from
the original on 4 August 2011.
Contribution of Nabard in Rural Economic Development of

Uttar Pradesh
Anukrati Srivastava*
Introduction
India has been a welfare state ever since her independence and the primary
objective of all the governmental endeavors has been the welfare of its millions.
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state of the country. The state has a low level of
urbanization. In spite of its rich and large natural resources U. P still belongs to the
category of backward states with low per capita income and slow rate of growth. A
well-developed financial infrastructure is an essential requirement for promoting
economic activities in any economy. Thus, it becomes necessary to know the role
played by NABARD in rural development of U.P.
Objective
To determine the contribution of NABARD towards the rural economic development
of U.P with reference to the impact of the various schemes of NABARD and, also the
benefit availed through microfinance of NABARD in rural development and
improvement of life of rural people.
Rural Development
World Bank defined rural development as “a strategy designed to improve the
economic and social life of specific group of people or rural poor”. Generally, it is
said that rural development means development of rural areas through extension of
irrigation facilities, expansion of electricity, improvements in the technique of cultivation,
educational and health facilities etc.
Overview of Economy of U.P. State
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous State of the country. The State has a population
of 19.98 crore as per 2011 census and a land area of 2.41 lakh sq. km. Nearly 68.8 per
cent population of U.P. resides in rural area spread over 97942 inhabited villages. It
is important to mention here that the strength of work force in UP state is 23.7%, out
* Research Scholar, Institute of Management Studies, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.

of which 65.9% are farmers and 5.6% are industrial workers. The economy of Uttar
Pradesh entirely depends on agriculture.
Resource Base
U.P. has a rich resource base, except in the case of minerals. Most parts of the
state receive good amount of rainfall, mostly concentrated in the monsoon period
Thus, in terms of soil, rainfall and climate the state has a comparative advantage in
agriculture. In spite of its rich and large natural and human resources U.P. still
belongs to the category of backward states with low per capita income and slow
rates of growth. The rapid growth in the state has been constrained by several factors
like low levels of public and private investment over the plan period, infrastructural
bottlenecks, institutional weaknesses and appropriate policy environment.
About NABARD
The Committee to Review Arrangements for Institutional Credit for Agriculture
and Rural Development (CRAFICARD) set up by the RBI under the Chairmanship
of Shri B Sivaraman in its report submitted to Governor, Reserve Bank of India on
November 28, 1979 recommended the establishment of NABARD. The Parliament
through the Act 61 of 81, approved its setting up. NABARD is set up as an apex
Development Bank with a mandate for facilitating credit flow for promotion and
development of agriculture, small-scale industries, cottage and village industries,
handicrafts and other rural crafts.
Functions of NABARD
1. Credit functions
2. Developmental and promotional functions
3. Supervisory and regulatory functions
This research study is based on various schemes of NABARD. The main emphasis
is on the impact of these schemes on various parameters selected for rural development.
These schemes are linked with the development process. For this research, Secondary
data is collected from newspapers, magazines, Journals, reports published by various
ministries and NABARD. Data is analyzed using percentage and average increase or
decrease over a time.
Hypothesis (Null and Alternative)
Ho: NABARD contribute towards rural economic development of Uttar Pradesh
Ha: NABARD do not contribute towards rural economic development of Uttar
Pradesh
Parameters or Factors which Contribute to Economic Development and are Taken
Under Study
a. Agriculture
b. Infrastructure development
c. Small scale industries
d. Employment
e. Women empowerment
Limitations
i.) Research will be mainly based on secondary data.
ii.) Research does not include role of other public-sector banks and private banks
in rural areas.
Contribution of NABARD
1. The Rural Infrastructure Development Fund created in 1995 with NABARD,
supports infrastructure creation in 36 sectors encompassing various activities
related to Agriculture and allied Sectors including, Social Sectors and Rural
Connectivity Sector. As on 31 March 2015, 67,624 projects have been sanctioned
to Uttar Pradesh under RIDF. Total RIDF loan sanctioned and disbursed
amounted to Rs.18476.00 crore and Rs.13214.73 crore respectively.
2. NABARD has been providing refinance facilities to the Commercial bank,
Regional Rural Bank and Cooperative banks in the State. The refinance support
extended to the banks during the last two years is as under:
Sr No Particulars Disbursement (Rs Crore)
2013-14 2014-15 % growth
1 Refinance - LT 800.44 1781.22 122.53
2 Refinance-ST 7684.41 8720.00 13.48
Total Refinance 8484.85 10501.22 23.76
3 Direct Refinance to CCB 144.34 665.30 360.93
Grand Total 8629.19 11161.52 29.35
3. NABARD continued to support the Rajiv Gandhi Mahila Vikas Pariyojana

(RGMVP), a special initiative of Rajiv Gandhi Charitable Trust (RGCT), for
promotion, credit linkage and federating of SHGs in select districts of UP, in
association with participating banks and implementing NGOs.As on 31.3.2015
there were 79,675 women SHGs promoted under this programme of which,
29,525 were credit linked. Further, 3,263 cluster level organizations and 100
block level organizations were also set up under the programme.
4. Grant Support sanctioned and released to Anchor NGOs under Women Self-
help group scheme
Grant Sanctioned (` in lakh 1140.00 1190 1290 1290

Promotional Grant released (` in lakh) 146.52 164.18 200.77 199.97
No: of Self-help groups to be promoted 11400 11900 12900 12900
No: of Self-help groups promoted and Savings linked 6551 7901 9052 11865
No: of Self-help groups Credit linked 912 1523 1864 2139
From the above table, it can be interpreted that: -

a) Grant sanctioned under WSHG scheme increased by ? 150 lakh i.e 13.16 percent.
b) Similarly promotional grant released increased by ? 53.45 lakh i.e 36.48 percent.
c)The number of self- help groups promoted and Savings -linked have increased by
5314.
d)Number of self- help group promoted and credit – linked have shown an increase
by 1227.
Conclusion
It is rightly said that ‘India is a rich country inhabited by poor?. So, when we
talk about the poor population of our nation we find that most of the poor population
resides in rural areas as compared to urban population. Thus, it becomes imperative
to find out ways by which the standard of living of the rural masses can be improved.
Finance plays an important role in the process of development. And when we talk
about rural finance the role played by NABARD cannot be neglected as it is the
apex bank which controls the rural finance structure of our country. It contributes
towards the development of rural India.It can be concluded after analysing the data
that NABARD is contributing towards the economic development of rural poor in
the area of agriculture, generation of employment opportunities, infrastructural
development, women empowerment in Uttar Pradesh. But, not much has been done
towards the development of cottage and small-scale industries. Thus, it has become
imperative on the part of authorities related with NABARD that they should concentrate
their efforts towards this direction.
References
• Bandyopadhyay S.C. (2010); Rural banking, 1st Ed; New Delhi: Macmillan Publishers India
Pvt. Ltd;(pp. 42 - 45)
• Annual Report of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development for the Years
2014- 15,2015-16,2016-17.
• Reports on Status of Microfinance in India published by NABARD for the years 2013-
14(pp.183), 2014-15(pp. 239) ,2015-16(pp. 241),2016- 17(pp. 261)
An Empirical Analysis of Fiscal Deficit, Money Supply and

Inflation in India
Vishal Sharma*
Introduction
Achieving overall macro economic stability calls for harmonisation of monetary
and fiscal policies. Otherwise, the inconsistent behaviour of some of the macro economic
variables would have a negative impact not only on other variables butal soon the
over all economy. Indeed, it shows that during the last few decades many developing
countries like India have experienced growth in money supply and rapid increase in
the price level. The monetarists argue that the problem is mainly widening government
deficits that result inincreasing money supply, which in turn causesinflation. In fact,
the high government deficits financed by sales of bonds exert upward pressure on
the interest rates. Since the monetary authorities usually conduct monetary policies
by controlling interest rates rather than money supply, they have to increase money
supply to stabilise the interest rate. As a result, higher government deficits cause
increase in money supply and ultimately produce a higher rate of inflation in the
economy. According to Friedman, the leading monetarist, monetary authorities can
control the inflation rate, especially in the long run, by controlling money supply.
Deficits canlead to inflation, but only to the extent they are monetised. However,
Miller argued that government deficits are generally inflationary innature, irrespective
of whether the deficits aremonetised or not. He stated that deficit finance produces
inflation even if not monetised. It is possible through private monetisation and/or
crowding out. Indeed, non-monetised deficitslead to higher interest rates. Higher
interest rates would crowd out private investment and reduce the growth rate of
real output with a given money supply, resulting in a higher price level.
This paper made an attempt to examine the dynamic relationship between Fiscal
Deficit, Inflation and Money Supply in India during the period 1980-81 to 2014-15
within a framework of Vector-Autoregressive (VAR) approach.In this paper we have
used broad money (M3) as a proxy variable for money supply and Consumer Price
Index (CPI) for inflation.
* Junior Research Fellow, Department of Economics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.

i. To study the growth pattern of fiscal deficit, money supply and inflation in
India
ii. To examine the long run as well as short run relationship between fiscal
deficit, money supply and inflation.
iii. To analyze the direction of causality among fiscal deficit, money supply and
inflation.
Hypothesis of the Study
i H0 = There is no significant relationship in the long run among the variables.
H1 = There is a significant relationship in the long run among the variables.
ii. H0 = Money supply does not have significant impact on fiscal deficit.
H1 = Money supply have significant impact on fiscal deficit.
iii. H0 = Inflation does not have significant impact on fiscal deficit.
H1 = Inflation have significant impact on fiscal deficit.
Data Source and Research Methodology
This paper made an attemptto examine the dynamic relationship between Fiscal
Deficit, Inflation and Money Supply in India. In this paper we have used broad
money (M3) as a proxy variable for money supply and Consumer Price Index (CPI)
for inflation.This study is based on secondary data. The required data of the defined
variables have been taken for the period 1980-81 to 2014-15. The time series data of
all variables are collected from official website of RBI.
Methods of Data Analysis
The objectives of the study are being examined empirically by using Augmented
Dickey-Fuller (ADF) testto determine the properties of stationary of theunivariate
time series data in order to avoid spurious regression andJohansen Co-integration
technique is employed to examine the long run relationship among the analysed
variables. Further,Vector Auto-Regressive(VAR) modeland Granger Causality model
are employed to examine the direction of causality among the variables.
Empirical Analysis
As per the above methodology, analysis starts by determining the stationary
properties of the univariate time series to avoid spurious regressions. For unit root
tests, Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test isapplied for all the variables by taking
null hypothesis as ‘presence of unit root’ (i.e. presence of non-stationary) against the
alternative hypothesis ‘series is stationary’.
Table: 1 Results of Unit Root Test
Fiscla Deficit
Level 1st Diff 2nd Diff

Model
t-stats p-value t-stats p-value t-stats p-value
Intercept -0.99 0.74 -5.64* 0.00 -9.04* 0.00
Intercept & Trend -3.03 0.13 -5.62* 0.00 -8.89* 0.00
Money Supply
Level 1st Diff 2 nd Diff
Model
Intercept -1.07 0.92 -2.47 0.13 -6.62* 0.00
Intercept & Trend -3.75* 0.03 -2.58 0.28 -6.75* 0.00
Inflation
Level 1 st Diff 2nd Diff
Model
Intercept -3.41* 0.01 -7.70* 0.00 -9.18* 0.00
Intercept & Trend -5.41* 0.00 -7.62* 0.00 -9.08* 0.00
(* 5% level of significance, Mackinnon (1999) one-sided p-value)
Table: 2 Results of Johansen Co-integration Method
Trace Value Maximum Eigen Value
Hypothesized
Eigen value Trace Stats p-value** Maximum Eigen Stats p-value**
No. of CE(s)
None* 0.44 30.34 0.04 19.49 0.08
At most 1 0.24 10.85 0.22 9.39 0.25
At most 2 0.04 1.45 0.22 1.45 0.22
* denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 5% level of significance,

**Mackinnon-Haug-Michells (1999) p-value)
Table 3: Lag Length Selection
Lag LL LR Df P FPE AIC HQIC SBIC
0 41.7454 0.000016 -2.49970 -2.45447 -2.36093*
1 294.906 28.749 9 0.002 0.000013 -2.75082 -2.56982 -2.19573
2 310.011 30.209* 9 0.000 8.4e-06* -3.19297* -2.87632* -2.22156
(*denotes 5% level of significance)
Table 4: Granger-Causality Analysis

Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
D2(LnFD) D2(LnM3) D2(LnINF)
D2(LnFD) - 9.669* 7.871*
D2(LnM3) 1.410 - 0.006
D2(LnINF) 4.703 0.797 -
(*denotes 5% level of significance)
Conclusion
It has been witnessed that over the years particularly in the lastdecade not only
burden of fiscal deficit has increased but alsomounting inflation rate. As far as
moneysupply is concerned, annual growth rate of money supply hasremained more
or less constant. However, money supply in absoluteterms has increased. This paper
has attempted to establish the long-run dynamic relationship between fiscal deficits,
money supply, and inflation in the Indian context during the period 1980-81 to2014-
15. The test for stationary using Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test proved that
thevariables used in this study are non-stationary in their level forms.The study has
employed Johansen Co-integration technique to examine the long run relationship
between the variables and found no evidence for the long run relationship. Using
the Vector Autoregressive (VAR) technique, the present study finds that both money
supply and inflation influence the fiscal deficit, which fails to support the proposition
of monetarist. This implies that, in India, the central government adjusts its expenditure
to inflation at a faster rate so as to maintain real expenditure at the planned level,
but on the other hand revenue collections lag behind. Thus, inflation results in a
larger fiscal deficit, leading to a further increase in money supply and the price
level.Therefore, results obtained from empirical analysis shows that the important
variables which are responsible for mounting fiscal deficit in India are money supply
and inflation. In order to reduce the burden of fiscal deficit, policy-makers and
academician should focus on these two macro-variables i.e. money supply and inflation.
References
1. Ahking, F.A., and S.M. Miller, 1985: ‘The Relationshipbetween Government Deficits, Money
Growth, and inflation’, Journal of Macroeconomics, Vol. VII, No. 4.
foRr vk;ksx dh laLrqfr;ksa dk Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk ij izHkko
fot; cgknqj ;kno *
fdlh ns”k dh la?kh; O;oLFkk esa foRr vk;ksx vkfFkZd dY;k.k ds fy, jh<+ dk dke djrh gS D;ksafd dsUnz
esa vyx rFkk jkT; esa vyx&vyx ljdkjsa gks rh gSa A ;g foRr vk;ksx gh fdlh la?kh; ns”k dh vkfFkZd
fodkl esa egrh Hkwfedk fuHkkrh gSA Hkkjr dh la?kh; O;oLFkk esa lafo/kku ds vuqPNsn 280 esa foRr vk;ksx ds
xBu dh O;oLFkk gSA blds rgr~ jk’Vªifr izR;sd ikWp o’kZ ds ckn ;k vfr vko”;d gks rks blds iwoZ foRr
vk;ksx dk xBu dj ldrk gSA vc rd Hkkjr esa 14 foRr vk;ksxksa dk xBu gks pqdk gSA vktknh ds le;
ns”k dh vFkZO;oLFkk tks ttZj gks pqdh Fkh mldks lq/kkjusa esa foRr vk;ksx dk gh gkFk gSA bl izi= esa ;g
crkus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gS fd dSls vkt foRr vk;ksx ds ek/;e ls ns”k dh vFkZO;oLFkk fodflr vFkZO;oLFkk
esa lfEefyr gksus dh vksj vxzlj gSA
lafo/kku ds vuqPNsn 280¼3½ ds vUrxZr foRr vk;ksx fuEukafdr ckrksa ds lEcU/k esa jk’Vªifr dks viuh
laLrqfr nsrk gS&
1- Lafo/kku ds vUrxZr dsUnz rFkk jkT;ksa ds chp forfjr fd;s tkus okys djksa dh fuoy izkfIr ds cWVokjs
ds lEcU/k esa laLrqfr djukA
2- Hkkjrh; lesfdr fuf/k esa ls jkT;ksa dks fn;s tkus okys lgk;rk vuqnku ds fl)kUr dks r; djukA
3- jkT;ksa ds foRr vk;ksxksa dh laLrqfr;ksa ds vk/kkj ij jkT;ksa ds lesdu fuf/k dks c<+kus ds mik;ksa ds
lEcU/k esa lq>ko nsuk ftlls iapk;rksa rFkk uxj ikfydkvksa ds lalk/kuksa dh deh dks iwjk fd;k tk
ldsA
4- lqn `<+ foRr ds fgr esa vU; fo’k; ftl ij jk’Vªifr foRr vk;ksx dh laLrq fr izkIr djuk pkgs]
laLrqfr nsukA
lwpukFkZ 1951 ls ysdj vc rd fofHkUu for vk;ksxksa ds dk;Zdky rFkk muds v/;{kksa dk fooj.k uhps
rkfydk esa fn;k x;k gS&
02 tuojh 2013 dks pkSngosa foRr vk;ksx ds v/;{k ,oa lnL;ksa ds uke dh ?kks’k.kk dh xbZA pkSngosa
foRr vk;ksx ds v/;{k MkW- ;kxk os.kqxksiky jsM~Mh ds vykok pkj lnL;& izks0 vfHkthr lsu] lqJh lq’kek
ukFk] MkW- ,e0 xksfoUnk jko] MkW- lqfnIrks eaMy gSaA
* lgk;d v/;kid] vFkZ”kkL=] jktdh; LukrdksRrj egkfo|ky;] exjgkW ] fetkZiqjA

14osa foRr vk;ksx usa viuh fjiksVZ jk’Vªifr dks lkSai nh gS ftldh vf/kdka”k O;oLFkk;sa ikfyZ;kesaV us
Lohdkj dj fy;k gSA foRr vk;ksx usa foHkktu ;ksX; lEHkj.k esa ls cgqr cM+h ek=k esa jkT;ksa dks jktLo
gLrkUrj.k dh flQkfj”k dh gSA tgkW 11okW foRr vk;ksx esa dsUnzh; djksa esa ls jkT;ksa dks fn;s tkus okys
vUrj.k dh jkf”k 29-5 izf r”kr] 12okW esa 30-5 izfr”kr] 13okW esa 32-0 izfr”kr rFkk 14osa foRr vk;ks x esa
42-0 izfr”kr fd;k x;k gS rFkk dsUnz ljdkj ds ldy jktLo izkfIr ls jkT;ksa dks gLrkUrfjr fd;s tkus okys
jktLo dh Åijh lhek dks 38-0 izfr”kr ls 39-5 izfr”kr dj fn;k x;k gSA
11okW] 12okW ,oa 13okW foRr vk;ksx usa cWVokjs dk vk/kkj rFkk Hkkj dk rqyukRed v/;;u rkfydk ds
ekè;e ls fd;k tk jgk gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1
foRr vk;ksx dk uke v/;{k izLrqfr o"kZ le;kof/k
izFke foRr vk;ksx ds0lh0 fu;ksxh 1953 1952&1957
f}rh; foRr vk;ksx ds0 laFkkue 1957 1957&1962
r`rh; foRr vk;ksx ,0ds0 pUnk 1961 1962&1966
prqFkZ foRr vk;ksx ih0ds jkteUuj 1965 1966&1969
iape foRr vk;ksx egkohj R;kxh 1969 1969&1974
NBkW foRr vk;ksx ds0 czºekuUn jsM~Mh 1973 1974&1979
lkrokW foRr vk;ksx Tks0,e0 lsyV 1978 1979&1984
vkBokW foRr vk;ksx okbZ0ch0 pkOgk.k 1984 1984&1989
uokW foRr vk;ksx ,u0ds0ih0 lkYos 1987 1989&1995
n” kokW foRr vk;ksx ds0lh0 iUr 1994 1995&2000
X;kjgokW foRr vk;ksx ,0,e0 [kqljks 2000 2000&2005
ckjgokW foRr vk;ksx lh0 jaxjktu 2004 2005&2010
rsjgokW foRr vk;ksx fot; dsydj 2009 2010&2015
pkSWngokW foRr vk;ksx okbZ0 oh0 jsM~Mh 2013 2015&2020
rkfydk la[;k 2
vk/kkj Hkkj
11okW 12okW 13pkW
tula[;k ¼1971½ 10 25 25
izfr O;fDr vk; ls nwjh 62-5 50 47-5
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dj iz;kl 5-0 7-5 &
dj vuq”kklu 7-5 7-5 &
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mYys[kuh; gS fd 1971 ds ckn fu;qDr lHkh vk;ksxksa us fcuk viokn ds 1971 dh tula[;k dks viuh
dlkSVh dk vk/kkj cuk;k gSA jkT; {ks=Qy dks loZizFke 10osa foRr vk;ksx us ykxw fd;k] rdZ Fkk fd jkT;
dk {ks=Qy ftruk vf/kd gksxk ukxfjdksa dks ,d fuf”pr ekud lsok miyC/k djkus dh iz”kklfud ykxr
mruh gh vf/kd gksxhA 13osa foRr vk;ksx usa ,sls jkT;ksa dks ftudk dqy {ks=Qy esas fgLlk 2 izfr”kr ls de
gS mUgsa 2 izfr”kr U;wure fgLlk nsusa dh laLrqfr dh gS ftlesa izeq[k :Ik ls xksok] gfj;k.kk] fgekpy izns”k]
dsjy] ef.kiqj] es?kky;] fetksje] iatkc] ukxkyS.M] flfDde] f=iqjk] mRrjk[k.M gSaA 13osa foRr vk;ksx us
izfr O;fDr vk; ls nwjh dh txg jktdks’kh; {kerk nwjh dks fy;k gSA bl vk;ksx us jktdks’kh; {kerk nwjh
ds fy, gfj;k.kk ds izfr O;fDr jktLo ls ¼tks fd xksok ds ckn vf/kdre gS½ vU; jkT;ksa dh izfr O;fDr
jktLo dh nwjh Kkr djrs gSaA gfj;k.kk ,oa xksok dks NksM+dj fiNys rhu o’kksZa dh dj vk;&jkT; ldy
?kjsyw mRikn] Kkr djds izR;sd jkT; dh izfr O;fDr jktLo dh x.kuk djrs gSaA egkjk’Vª dh izfr O;fDr
vk; gfj;k.kk ls FkksM+h de gSA blfy;s rhuksa ds lEcU/k esa vk;ksx us 100 :i,s izfr O;fDr jktLo vf/kdkj
iznku fd;k gSA
bl izdkj ls vkdfyr izfr O;fDr jktLo izkIr vf/kdkj dks ge 1971 dh tula[;k ls xq.kk djds dqy
gLrkarj.k esa jkT; dk fgLlk Kkr dj ldrs gS] tks fd 14osa foRr vk;ksx esa 47-5 izfr”kr gSA
13osa foRr vk;ksx usa dsoy jktdks’kh; vuq”kklu dks fy;k gS] dj iz;kl dks NksM+ fn;k gSA blds fy;s
17-5 izfr”kr Hkkj fn;k gSA
13osa foRr vk;ksx us 1706676-00 djksM+ :i;s dqy gLrkarj.k dh flQkfj”k dh gSA mlesa 5 lokZf/kd
gLrkarj.k ikus okys jkT; bl izdkj gSa & ¼i½ mRrj izns”k& 312140 djksM+ :i;s] ¼ii½ fcgkj& 177997 djksM+
:i;s] ¼iii½ if”pe caxky& 172944 djksM+ :i;s] ¼ iv½ e/; izns”k& 116593 djksM+ :i;s ¼ v½ vka/kz izns”k&
114198 djksM+ :i;s gSA gLrkarj.k esa 5 lcls de fgLlk ikus okys jkT; ¼ vi½ xksok& 4379 djksM+ :i;s]
¼vii½ flfDde& 4525 djksM+ :i;s] ¼viii½ fetksje& 8805 djksM+ :i;s] ¼ix½ v:.kkpy izns”k& 9103 djksM+
:i;s ¼x½ es?kky;& 9842 djksM+ :i;s gSA
mijksDr ls ge dg ldrs gSa fd foRr vk;ksx dh laLrqfr;kW iz”kaluh; gSa rFkk vFkZO;oLFkk ds fy, vfèkd
izHkkoh gksaxhA dqy gLrkarj.k esa vf/kd fiNM+s jkT;ksa tSls& mRrj izns”k] fcgkj] e/; izns”k] jktLFkku dks
vfèkd fgLlk feyuk fodkl dk Li’V lans”k ns jgs gSaA fiNys 10 o’kksZa ls fopkjk/khu oLrq ,oa lsokdj dk
ykxw gksuk ns”k dh vkfFkZd vktknh dh vksj ladsr ns jgk gS tks fd iz/kkuea=h dh nwjxkeh lksp dk ifj.kke
gSA gekjk ns”k vc fodflr ns”kksa esa “kkfey gksus ls dsoy pan dne nwj jg x;k gSA
lanHkZ
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5- izfr;ksfxrk niZ.k vfrfjDrkad % 2015&16] 2016&17A
Hkkjr esa foRrh; la?kh; ‘kklu iz.kkyh dk voyksdu
iwue cktis;h*
fo”o Hkj esa jk’Vªh; ljdkj ,oa {ks=h; ljdkj ds laca/kksa dh izd`fr ds vk/kkj ij ljdkj dks nks Hkkxks a esa
oxhZd`r fd;k x;k gS&,dy o la?kh; ljdkjA
,dy ;k ,dkRed ljdkj og gS ftlesa ns”k dh leLr “kfDr;ka dsUnzh ; ljdkj esa fufgr gksrh gSA
tcfd la?kh; ljdkj og gS ftlesa ns”k dh leLr “kfDr;k¡ lafo/kku }kjk dsUnz ljdkj ,oa {ks=h; ljdkj esa
foHkkftr gksrh gS] nksuksa vius vf/kdkj {ks=ksa dk iz;ksx Lora=rkiwoZd djrs gSA fczVsu] Ýkal] tkiku] bVyh]
csfYt;e] ukosZ vkfn esa ljdkj dk ,dkRed Lo:i gS tcfd vesfjdk] fLoVtjyS.M] dukMk] :l] czkthy
vkfn esa ljdkj dk la?kh; ekWMy gSA
la?k “kklu “kCn dks ySfVu “kCn *Qks,M~l ls fy;k x;k gS ftldk vfHkizk; laf/k ;k le>kSrk gS] bl
rjg la?k “kklu ,d u;k jkT; gS] ftls fofHkUu bdkbZ;ksa ds chp laf/k ;k le>kSrs ds rgr fufeZr fd;k x;k
gSA Hkkjr ds lafo/kku esa la?kh; ljdkj O;OkLFkk dks viuk;k x;k gSA lafo/kku fuekZrkvksa us la?kh; O;oLFkk
dks nks dkj.kksa ls viuk;kA ¼i½ ns”k dk c`gn vkdkj ¼ii½ lkekftd&lkaLd`frd fofo/krkA oSls lafo/kku esa
dgha Hkh la?k “kCn dk iz;ksx ugha fd;k x;k gSA blds LFkku ij lafo/kku dk vuqPNsn 1 Hkkjr dks jkT;ksa ds
la?k ds :i esa ifjHkkf”kr djrk gS ftlls nks ckrsa mHkjdj lkeus vkrh gS %&
1- Hkkjrh; la?k jkT;ksa ds chp lgefr dk izfrQy ugha gSA
2- jkT;ksa dks ;g vf/kdkj ugha gS fd os Lo;a dks la?k ls i`Fkd dj lds QsMjs’ku la?k gS D;ksafd og
vfoHkkT; gSA
Hkkjr dh la?kh; O;oLFkk dukMkbZ ekWMy ij vk/kkfjr gSA ftlesa dsUnz dks vf/kd ‘kfDr nh x;h gSA
lafoèkku ds Hkkx XI, XII esa vuqPNsn 245&293 rd dsUnz jkT; laca/kh dh ppkZ dh xbZ gS ftlesa Hkkx XIII
esa vuqPNsn 268&293 rd dsUnz&jkT; foRrh; laca/kksa dh ppkZ dh xbZ gSA
la?kh; O;oLFkk ljdkj dh cgqLrjh; iz.kkyh dk |ksrd gSA foRrh; la?kokn la?kh; <kaps ds Hkhrj O;;
dh ftEesnkfj;ksa ds foHkktu] jktdks’kh; dk;ksZa] varjljdkjh gLrkUrj.k dh O;oLFkk vkSj jktdks”kh; lac a/kksa
ls fuiVrk gSA fdlh Hkh vPNh jktdks’kh; la?kh; O;oLFkk dk y{; izHkko”kkyh] dq”ky rFkk lalk/kuksa dk
U;k;iw.kZ vkoaVu djuk ,oa ljdkj esa fofHkUu Lrjksa ds chp ftEesnkfj;ka rFkk ,d fLFkj la?kh; iz.kkyh dh
fn”kk esa dk;Z djuk gSA
* izoDrk] xka/kh uxj] gfjftUnj uxj] dkuiqj] m-iz-A

yxHkx 70 o’kksZa esa vDlj jkT; dsUnz ij lkSrsyk O;ogkj djus dk vkjksi yxkrs jgs gS fo’ks”kdj vxj
jkT; fo’ks”k esa dsUnz ls fHkUu jktuhfrd ny dh ljdkj gksA dsUnz esa lRrk:<+ ny }kjk foi{k “kkflr jkT;ksa
ds fy, ;kstuk,a] Q.M] vuqnku o vU; eqn~nksa ij ysVyrhQh o ykijokgh ds vkjksi yxrs jgs gSA jkT;ksa ds
e/; Hkh lalk/kuksa ds caVokjs o vkiwfrZ ds laca/k esa >xM+s vke ckr gS fo’ks”kdj vxj nksuksa jkT;ksa esa vyx&2
nyksa dh ljdkj gksA
Hkkjrh; la?kh; iz.kkyh esa dj c¡Vokjk %& Hkkjrh; lafo/kku esa ‘kklu ds fofHkUu Lrjksa ij dj lacaèkh
vf/kdkjksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k gSA bl izdkj ljdkj esa VSDl vkSj ‘kqYd yxkus ds vf/kdkjksa dks rhu Lrj
ij ckaVk x;k gS] dsUnz ljdkj] jkT; ljdkjs] vkSj LFkkuh; fudk;A
• fuxeksa vkSj futh vk; ¼d`f’k vk; dks NksM+dj½ ij dj yxkus dk vf/kdkj T;knkrj dsUnz ljdkj
ds ftEes gSA
• vizR;{k dj ds ekeys esa dsUnz ds ikl mRiknu vkSj fofHkUu lsokvksa ij lsok “kqYd yxkus dk vfèkdkj
gS] tcfd jkT; ljdkjksa dks oLrqvksa ij fcØh dj rFkk dqN vkSj dj yxkus dk vf/kdkj izkIr gSA
dsUnz ljdkj }kjk yxk, tkus okys dqN djksa esa lhek “kqYd] dsUnzh; mRikn “kqYd] fcØh ,oa lsok
“kqYd “kkfey gSA
• jkT; ljdkjksa dks fcØh dj LVkEi M~;wVh] jkT; vkcdkjh “kqYd] Hkw&jkTkLo] euksjatu dj ,oa is”kk
dj olwyus dk vf/kdkj gksrk gSA jkT; ljdkjksa }kjk olwys tkus okys fcØh dj dk LFkku 2005 ls
ewY;of/kZr dj ;kfu oSV us ys fy;k FkkA
• LFkkuh; fudk;ksa dks lEifRr;ksa ij dj] mlds bykds esa izos”k djus okyh oLrqvksa ij izos ”k dj
¼pqaxh½] cktkjksa ij dj rFkk tykiwfrZ] ukys vkfn ds bLrseky ij lsok “kqYd olwyus dk vf/kdkj
fn;k x;k gSA
dsUnzh; dj iz.kkyh olwys x;s jkTkLo dk forj.k %& fofHkUu dkj.kksa ls dsUnz vkSj jkT;ksa ds dj
vfèkdkjksa ,oa O;; ftEesnkfj;ksa ds chp vlarqyu iSnk gksrk gSA bl vlar qyu dks larq fyr djus ds fy,
izR;sd ik¡p lky esa ,d foRr vk;ksx dk xBu fd;k tkrk gS tks dsUzn ljdkj vkSj jkT; ds chp foRrh;
lalk/kuksa ds caVokjs dh vuq”kalk djrk gSA blesa ls egRoiw.kZ fgLlk dsUnzh; dj iz.kkyh ls laxzghr jkTkLo
dk gksrk gSA orZeku le; esa] lHkh dsUnzh; djksa ls tek jktLo ¼midkj] izHkkj ,oa dsUnz “kkflr izns”kksa ds
djksa rFkk dsUnzh; dj olwyh esa vkbZ ykxr ds cjkcj jkf”k dks NksM+dj½ dks lk>s vkSj forj.k ;ksX; dsUnzh;
dj jktLo ds :i esa j[kk tkrk gSA ,d vizSy 2015 ls vfLrRo esa vk;s 14oas foRr vk;ksx us forj.k ;ksX;
dsUnzh; dj jkTkLo dk 42% fgLlk jkT;ksa dks izfriw.kZ nsus dh flQkfj”k dh gS] tcfd “ks’k jkf”k dsUnzh ; ctV
ds fy, j[kh tkrh gSA
Hkkjr esa VSDl&th0Mh0ih0 vuqikr ,oa djksa dh izxfr’khyrk%& ns”k dk VSDl th0Mh0ih0 vuqikr
,d egRoiw.kZ lwpdkad gS] tks ;g crkus esa enn djrk gS fd ljdkj us vFkZO;oLFkk ds vkdkj dh rqyuk esa
fdruk dj jkTkLo bdV~Bk fd;k gSA VSDl th0Mh0ih0 dk vuqikr ;fn Å¡pk gksxk rks blls ljdkj dks cxSj
m/kkjh vius ctV esa vf/kd [kpZs dks “kkfey djus dk ekSdk feysxkA gkykafd dbZ o’kksZa dh mPp fodkl nj
ds ckotwn Hkkjr dk VSDl th-Mh-ih- vuqikr de jgk gSA
Hkkjr ds dj <k¡ps dk nwljk igyw ;g Hkh gS fd blesa izxfr”khyrk ugha gSA ;g dj <kapk miHkksx vFkok
vk; dh n`f’V ls vkuqikfrd rkSj ij mPp vk; lewgksa dh rqyuk esa fuEu vk; lewgksa ij vf/kd cks> Mkyrk
gSA vkSj bl izdkj bls izfrxkeh ekuk tkrk gS D;ksafd ,d gh oLrq ds bLrseky ds fy, vehj vkSj xjhc nksu ksa
dks gh leku VSDl pqdkuk iM+rk gSA nwljh izR;{k djksa dks izxfr”khy le>k tkrk gS] D;ksafd ;s dj nkrk dh
Hkqxrku dh {kerk ls tqM+k gksrk gS vkSj ;fn djnkrk dh dj ;ksX; vk; c<+rh gS rks VSDl dh vkSlr nj Hkh
c<+rh gSA Hkkjr esa dsUnz ,oa jkT;ksa }kjk bdB~Bk fd, x;s dqy djksa esa vizR;{k djksa dh fgLlsnkjh 60 Qhlnh
ls vf/kd gS ftlls ;g lans”k tkrk gS fd ;gk¡ dk dj <kapk iwjh rjg izfrxkeh gSA
dj lq/kkj
chrs o’kksZa esa dj lq/kkjksa] [kkldj vizR;{k dj iz.kkyh dh fn”kk esa ljdkj }kjk dbZ igy dh xbZ gS]
rkfd Hkkjr vf/kd ls vf/kd dj vuqdwy cus rFkk ns”k dh dj iz.kkyh dh tfVyrk [kRe dh tk,A fQygky
oLrq ,oa lsok dj ¼th0,l0Vh0½ ds :i esa ,d egRoiw.kZ lq/kkj fd;k x;k gSA ;|fi lHkh jkT;ksa esa 2005 rd
fcØh dj ds cnys oSV ykxw dj fn;k x;k Fkk] blds ckotwn oSV ds vykok vusd vizR;{k dj yxk, tk
jgs FksA blls djksa ds iz.kkyh izHkko lkeus vk, Fks] tgk¡ ,d oLrq ij mlds mRiknu ls [kqnjk fcØh rd dbZ
ckj dj yx tkrk FkkA blds ifj.kkeLo:i mRiknksa ij djksa dk ?kVd c<+ tkrk Fkk vkSj mudh dhersa c<+
tkrh FkhA blds lkFk gh fofHkUu jkT;ksa vkSj dsUnz ljdkj }kjk yxk;s x;s vusd izdkj ds VSDl ds dkj.k
dj pksjh dh laHkkouk izcy gks tkrh FkhA
30 twu e/;jkf= 12 cts ls th0,l0Vh0 ykxw gks tkus ds ckn ,slk ekuk tk jgk gS d th0,l0Vh0 ls
vizR;{k djksa ds tfVy tky ls futkr feysxh vkSj th0,l0Vh0 us ,dy vizR;{k dj dk LFkku fy;k gSA
;g ,d oSV ds leku gh vizR;{k dj gSA blds ykxw gksus ls djksa ds izikrh izHkkoksa ls futkr feysxhA bls
isVªksfy;e] tSlh dqN oLrqvksa dks NksM+dj yxHkx T;knkrj oLrqvksa vkSj lsokvksa ij yxk;k x;k gSA T;knkrj
oLrqvksa ,oa lsokvksa ij ekud nj yxkbZ xbZ gSA egRoiw.kZ oLrqvksa vkSj vko”;d lkefxz;ksa ij de nj yxkbZ
xbZ gSA xSj egRoiw.kZ tSls foykflrk okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp nj yxkbZ xbZ gSA th0,l0Vh0 ykxw gksus ds lkFk
gh dsUnz ,oa jkT; ljdkjksa ds chp dj laca/kh vf/kdkjksa dk O;kid nk;jk de gks x;k gSA D;ksafd dsUnz ,oa
jkT; ljdkjsa oLrqvksa ,oa lsokvksa ds mRiknu ,oa fcØh ij vizr;{k dj yxk ldh gSA
,slh mEehn dh tk jgh gS fd vc tc th-,l-Vh- ykxw gks x;k gS rks dj iz.kkyh vklku ,oa rdZlaxr
gks tk,xh vkSj blds vuqikyu esa enn feysxhA lkFk gh ;g Hkh egRoiw.kZ gS fd ljdkj izR;{k dj c<+kus
ds fy, dqN dne mBk,] rkfd Hkkjr ds dj <kaps dh izxfr’khyrk c<+kus esa enn fey ldsA
lanHkZ lwph
1- v[rj ethn] DykmM vkW oj Qs MjfyTe&n jh;y ofdZax vkQ n bf.M;u ikW f ylh] ubZ fnYyh] ekud ifCyds” ku]
2010A
2- vt; ds esg jk vkSj xVZ MCY;w Dosd ¼laikfnr½ n bf.M;u ikfyZ;kesUV , dEisjsfVo ilZifDVo] fnYyh] dks.kkdZ ifCy”klZ
izk0fy0 2003A
3- vlhek egktu % n psftax ikfyfVdy ,dukWeh vkW Q QsMfytEe bu bafM;k , fgLVksfjdy bfLV~V~;w’ku vizksp] ba fM;k
fjC;w o”kZ 3 vad 1 tuojh 2004 i‘0 25&63A
4- oh0Mh0 nqvk vkSj ,e0ih0 flag ¼la0 2003½ bafM;u QsMfyTe bu n U;w feysfu;e] ubZ fnYyh] euksg jA
5- tkW u fduflM ¼laikfnr½ QsMfyTe ] yanu lsi ifCyds’ku fy0 2011A
6- ,e0ih0 flag ] js[kk lDlsuk ¼2013½ QsMjykbftax bafM;k bu n ,i vkQ Xykscykbts”ku] fnYyh izkbeA
7- v:.k tsVyh 8 tuojh 2017 http//wwwfinancialxexpress.
d`f”k dk O;olk;hdj.k
izHkkdkUr feJ *
d`f’k Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk dh ,d etcwr jh<+ gSA d`f’k vkSj mlls lEcfU/kr {ks=ksa dk Hkkjr ds ldy
?kjsyw mRikn eas yxHkx 16 % dk ;ksxnku gS tcfd yxHkx 58 % vkcknh viuh vkthfodk ds fy, d`f’k ij
fuHkZj gSA tgka d`f’k vkfFkZd thou dk vk/kkj o jkstxkj dk izeq[k lzksr gS ogha fons”kh eqnzk vtZu dk l”kDr
ek/;e Hkh gSA
vFkZO;oLFkk ds nh?kZdkyhu fodkl dh n`f’V ls d`f’k dk cgqr vf/kd egRo gSA d`f’k ij 58 % vkcknh dh
fuHkZjrk ds dkj.k d`f’k thfodksiktZu dk izeq[k lk/ku gSA ysfdu d`f’k dks ?kkVs dk lkSnk ,oa cksf>y cukdj
ge csjkstxkjh vkSj vlarks’k dks c<+kok ns jgs gSa bldk vuqeku blh ckr ls yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd fiNys
15 o’kksZ esa yxHkx 3 yk[k fdlku vkRegR;k dj pqds gSaA vr% orZeku oS”ohdj.k ds ;qx esa d`f’k dk O;olk;hdj.k
,d vfuok;Z okLrfodrk gSA fodkflr ,oa fodkl”khy ns”kkas esa vFkZO;oLFkk dh rst xfr u;h rduhd ls
ifjp;] cktkj foLrkj] cktkj mnkjhdj.k] uxjhdj.k] [kk| dh rst h ls c<+ rh ekax] fdlkuks a dh ?kVrh
la[;k] d`f’k esa <akpkxr lqfo/kk;sa vkSj ljdkjh d`f’k uhfr;ka vkfn ,sls rRo gS tks d`f’k ds O;olk;hdj.k esa
lgk;d gSA izfr;ksfxrk esa cus jgus gsrq ;g vko”;d gS fd d`f’k oLrqvksa esa xq.koRrk gks vkSj ;g rHkh lEHko
gS tc d`f’k {ks= dks ,d O;oLkk; ds :i esa fodflr fd;k tk;A d`f’k ds O;olk;hdj.k dh ,d izfØ;k gS
ftlesa fdlku fcØh ds mn~ns”; ls d`f’k dk;Z djrk gS vkSj lkFk gh LFkkuh; cktkjksa ds LFkku ij cM+s cktkjksa
esa d`f’k oLrq;sa fcØh gsrq rS;kj gksrh gSA
Lora=rk ds ckn ls gh d`f’k fodkl ij tksj fn;k tk jgk gSA ns”k ds izFke iz/kkuea=h tokgj yky usg:
us d`f’k ds fodkl ds fy, cM+h d`f’k ifj;kstukvksa] QfVZykbtlZ] isLVhlkbM+ vkSj d`f’k fo”ofo|ky;ksa dks
LFkkfir fd;k blh nkSj esa lkeqnkf;d fodkl dk;ZØe ds rgr jk’Vªh; foLrkj lsok fodflr dh x;h rFkk
Hkwfe lq/kkj dk;ZØe dk lw=ikr fd;k x;k ftlls fdlkuksa dks mudk ekfydkuk gd izkIr gqvkA vk;kr
izfrLFkkiu uhfr ds tfj;s vkS|ksfxd fodkl dks izksRlkfgr fd;k x;kA d`f’k <kaps ,oa flapkbZ esa dqN fuos”k
fd;s x;s] fdUrq d`f’k dh mRikndrk esa fcuk [kkl c<+ksRrjh ds d`f’k {ks= esa o`f) gqbZA ns”k ds vUnj 1965 esa
gfjr Økafr vkus ds ifj.kkeLo:i ns”k esa igyh ckj [kk| mRiknu dh fodkl nj 3-5 %] tula[;k o`f) nj
2-3% ls vf/kd gks x;hA gfjrØkfUr ds QyLo:i ge fons”k ls vk;kfrr ugha] oju] ns”k esa mits vuktksa
dk Hkkjh ek=k esa cQj LVkWd rS;kj dj ldsA d`f’k esa fodkl dk eq[; dkj.k mRikndrk eas o`f) FkhA ;g ogh
nkSj Fkk tc iatkc] gfj;k.kk ,oa if”peh mRrj izns”k ds fdlku [ksrh ls le`) gq;sA blh nkSj esa d`f’k dks
cksf>y dk;Z u ekudj ykHknk;d dk;Z le>k tkus yxkA [kk|kUu esa vkRefuHkZjrk ds ckn esa bl pj.k esa
nky ,oa frygu ds fy, ,d fe”ku dh “kq:okr gqbZ ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i frygu esa izHkko”kkyh c<+ksRrjh
* izoDrk] fdlku ih0 th0 dkyst] cgjkbpA

gq ; hA bl vof/k 1980&85 ds nkS j ku d` f ’k fodkl nj 5-9 %] ldy ?kjs y w mRikn dh fodkl nj

5-4% ls vf/kd gks x;hA blh n”kd esa d`f’k eas ljdkjh fuos”k c<+kus] fdlkuksa dh vk; esa o`f) djus] vukt
dk mRiknu c<+kus] d`f’k dks ykHknk;d cukus ,oa d`f’k dks O;kolkf;d ekWMy ds rkSj ij fodkflr djus ds
fy, egRoiw.kZ iz;kl fd;s x;sA igyk eq[; iz;kl d`f’k <kaps dk iqufuZekZ.k ,oa d`f’k dk vk/kqfudhj.k dj
fdlkuksa dh vk; esa o`f) dh tk; rFkk nwljk O;olkf;d Qlykas ¼ljlksa] fry vylh] xUuk] pqdUnj] twV]
esLrk] dikl] pk;]dgok vkfn½ ds mRiknu esa o`f) djds d`f’k vk; dks vf/kdre djuk gSA
Hkkjr ljdkj us 28 tqykbZ 2000 dks jk’Vªh; d`f’k uhfr dh ?kks’k.kk dhA bl uhfr dk mn~ns”; ^^Hkkjrh;
d`f’k dh O;kid Nqih gq;h fodkl laHkkoukvksa dk iwjk ykHk mBkuk] d`f’k fodkl dks izksRlkfgr djus ds fy,
xzkeh.k vk/kkj lajpuk dks etcwr cukuk] ewY; lao/kZu dks izksRlkgu nsuk] d`f’k O;olk; ds fodkl dks rs t
djuk] xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa jkstxkj ds volj iSnk djuk] fdlkuksa rFkk d`f’k Jkfedksa ,oa muds ifjokjksa ds fy,
,d mfpr thou Lrj dh O;oLFkk djuk] xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ls “kgjh {ks=ksa dh vksj iyk;u jksduk rFkk vkfFkZd
mnknhdj.k ,oa Hkwea.Myhdj.k ls iSnk gksus okyh pqukSfr;kssa dk lkeuk djuk gSA** bl mn~ns”;ksa dh izk fIr ds
fy, dbZ ixMafM;ksa dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gS tSls d`f’k dk /kkj.kh; fodkl] [kk| ,oa iks’kkgkj lqj{kk] izk S|ksfxdh
dk fodkl ,oa gLrkUrj.k d`f’k ds fy, izksRlkgu] d`f’k esa fuos”k] laLFkkRed lajpuk;sa tksf[ke izca/ku rFkk
izca/ku lq/kkjA fdlkuksa vkSj d`f’k {ks= ds fy, dk;Z;kstuk dk lq>ko nsus ds fy, o’kZ 2004 esa Mk0 ,e0,l0
LokehukFku dh v/;{krk esa xfBr jk’Vªh; d`f’k vk;ksx us fnlEcj 2004] vxLr 2005] fnlEcj 2005] vizSy
2006 rFkk vDVwcj 2006 esa viuh varfje fjiksVZ izLrqr dh FkhA bl fjiksVZ esa dgk x;k fd ljdkj dks lHkh
d`f’kxr mitksa ds fy, U;wure leFkZu ewY; ?kksf’kr djuk pkfg, rFkk ;g Hkh lqfuf”pr djuk pkfg, fd
fdlkuksa dks fo”ks’kr% o’kkZ vk/kkfjr d`f’k okys {ks=ksa esa U;wure leFkZu ewY; mfpr le; ij izkIr gks ldsA
d`f’kxr mitksa ds ewY;ksa esa gkssus okys mrkj&p<+koksa ls fdlkuksa dks lqj{kk ds fy, dsUnz ,oa jkT; ljdkjksa ds
lkFk&lkFk foRrh; laLFkkuksa }kjk fu;fU=r ekdsZV fjLd LVscykbts”ku Q.M ds xBu dks vk;ksx us dgk gS]
blh ds lkFk lw[ks ,oa o’kkZ lEcU/kh vkinkvksa ls fdlkuksa dh lqj{kk ds fy, ,xzhdYpj fjLd Q.M dh laLrqfr
Hkh vk;ksx us dh gSA ljdkj ds bu iz;klksa os ckotwn Hkh d`f’k dk leqfpr fodkl ugha gks ldk gSA vkfFkZd
leh{kk 2006&07 ds vuqlkj 2001 ds ckn ls d`f’k ds vlUrks’ktud fu’iknu ds fy, bl {ks= dh lajpukRed
detksfj;k¡ ftEesnkj gSA ;s lajpukRed detksfj;ka&lkoZtfud fuos”k dk de Lrj vlarqfyr moZjd mi;ksx]
chtks ds cnyko dh fuEu nj vkfn gSA d`f’k ds O;olk;hdj.k dh izfØ;k esa cgqr lkjh pqukSfr;ksa dk lkeuk
djuk iM+sxkA ftuesa izeq[k :i ls d`f’k esa fuos”k forj.k dks c<+kuk] xSj d`f’k {ks= esa jkstxkj ds volj iznku
djuk] xkaoks esa vk/kkjHkwr lajpuk dk fodkl djuk] muds mRiknks dk lgh ewY; fnykuk] cktkj esa iawth
fuos”k vkSj u;s voljks ls mRiUu gksus okys ykHkksa dks lk>k djus esa d`’kd leqnk;] d`f’k fo”ks’k :i ls NksVs
vkSj lhekUr fdlkuksa dks “kkfey djuk vkfn gSA
d`f’k ds O;olk;hdj.k esa ljdkj us fujUrj iz;kl fd;s gS ysfdu d`f’k dk dksbZ ,slk ekWMy fodflr
ugha dj ik;s gS ftlls fdlkuksa dks d`f’k esa jkstxkj vFkok ykHk dk y{; fn[kkbZ nsA ;g gekjh uhfrxr
vlQyrk gS blesa vkSj vf/kd lq/kkj fd;s tkus dh vko”;drk gSA d`f’k dks O;olkf;d rkSj ij ykHknk;d
cukus esa fuEu lq>koksa dks djuk gksxkA
• ljdkj }kjk xz keh.k tudY;kdkjh ;ks tuk;sa tSls xz keh.k lM+d] xz keh.k fo|q rhdj.k] cktkjksa esa
O;kid fuos”k ls d`f’k dks ykHknk;d cuk;k tk ldrk gSA
• Hkwfe LokLF; lq/kkj ds fy, Hkwfe eas lef’V ,oa O;f’V iks’ kdksa }kjk vkSj Hkwfe dh HkkSfrdh ,oa lw{e
tSfodh mUur djuh gksxhA
• d`f’k fcy dh lqfo/kk NksVs o e>ksys dks fj;k;rh nj ij miyC/k djkuh pkfg, rkfd mUur cht
jklk;fud [kkn rFkk d`f’k midj.k Ø; dj ldsA
• oSKkfud Kku vkSj tehuh Lrj ij blds dk;kZUo;u ds chp vUrj dks mRiknu ds Lrj ij vkSj
Qly mijkUr [ksrh ds Lrj ij de djuk gksxkA
• ns”k esa flapkbZ lqfo/kkvksa dk i;kZIr fodkl fd;k tkuk pkfg, rkfd d`f’k vf/kd mit nsus okyh
fdLeksa dk iwjk ykHk mBk ldsA
• fdlkuksa dks Hkwfe flapkbZ lqfo/kkvksa rFkk d`f’k midj.kks ds vkSj csgrj iz;ksx djus ds fy, izf”k{k.k
fn;k tk;A
• fofHkUUk {ks=h; iz;ksx”kkykvksa eas Hkwfe dh fdLe tkuus ds fy,] Hkwfe laj{k.k ds fy, d`f’k e”khujh dk
csgrj iz;ksx tkuus ds fy, rFkk fofHkUu chekfj;ksa dks jksdus ds fy, nokb;ks dk irk yxkus gsrq
vkSj vf/kd vuqla/kku fd;s tkus dh vko”;drk gSA
• Hkwfe lq/kkj dkuwuksa dk dM+kbZ ls ikyuA
• d`f’k vkxrksa dks le; ij miyC/k djkukA
• Qly chek dks c<+kok nsukA
• mPPk mRikndrk izkIr djus okys fdlkuksa dks izksRlkgu nsukA
fu’d’kZ ds rkSj ij dgk tk ldrk gS fd xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk dks etcwrh iznku djus ds fy, d`f’k dk
O;olk;hdj.k csgn t:jh gSA vkSj blds fy, d`f’k dks ,d O;olkf;d ekWMy dh rjg ljdkjh rkSj ij is”k
fd;k tk;A fdlkuks dks bl ckjs eas vk”oLr djus dh t:jr gS fd d`f’k Hkh ,d O;olk; gS vkSj blesa
vkfFkZd ykHk dh vlhe laHkkouk;sa gSA blds fy, tgk¡ fupys Lrj ij fdlkuksa dks O;kolf;d [ksrh gsrq
lqfoèkk;s miyC/k djkus ,oa izksRlkfgr djus dh t:jr gS ogh ljdkj }kjk flapkbZ izf”k{k.k] lalk/ku miyCèkrk]
“kks/k vuqla/kku esa enn ls gh [ksrh dks Qk;ns dk lkSnk cuk;k tk ldrk gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1. Bhalla, G.S. and G. Singh (2001), Indian Agriculture: Four Decades of Development, Sage Publications
India Private Ltd. New Delhi.
2. Datt and Sundaram (2014) Indian Economy, S. Chand and Company Private Limited, New Delhi.
3. Mishra and Puri (2014) India Economy, Himalya Publishing House, New Delhi.
4. Economic & Political Weekly, fofHkUu laLdj.k
5- dq: {ks= ] fofHkUu laLdj.k
6- ;ks tuk] fofHkUu laLdj.k
7- Economic Times, lekpkj i=
8- fctusl LVSMMZ] lekpkj i=
9- Economic Survey 2011-12
[kknh % vk/kqfud Hkkjr ds fuekZ.k dh rkdr
izeksn dqekj ;kno *
vkt ge rsth ls ,d vk/kqfud jk’Vª ds fuekZ.k ds ckjs esa ckr dj jgs gSaA tgka ,d vksj gekjs fy,
cqfu;knh lqfo/kkvksa] oSKkfud] Hkkoukvksa] rduhdh “kfDr] lSU; “kfDr] dykRed mRd`’Vrk vkSj mu lHkh fofoèk
ladk;ksa tks fd vk/kqfudrk dh igpku gS] dks fodflr djuk t:jh gS] ogha vkxs c<+ jgh gekjh ekSfyd
{kerkvksa dh igpku djuk mlls Hkh T;knk t:jh gSA ,d jk’Vª ftu rRoksa ls cuk gS] mlds izfr og _.kh
gksrk gSA ;gka rd fd lfn;ksa ds fczfV”k “kklu ds ckn Hkh geus ,d jk’Vª ds :i esa lkQ rkSj ij thou thus
dh viuh lkaLd`frd vkSj ikjaifjd fof”k’V igpku dks cuk, j[kkA egkRek xka/kh us “kh?kz gh ;g le> fy;k
Fkk fd gekjk Hkfo’; tehuh Lrj ij gekjh eq[; rkdr esa fufgr gS vkSj dgk fd ;g vk;kfrr ewY;ksa dh uhao
ij ugha cuk;k tk ldrk gSA
Hkkjr esa fczfV”k lkezkT;okn ds e/; esa lky 1920 esa xka/kh th us Lons”kh vkanksyu esa [kknh dks jk’Vªokn
ds ,d jktuhfrd gfFk;kj ds :i esa “kq: fd;kA bls vktknh dh iks”kkd ds :i esa ?kksf’kr dj mUgksaus bls
Hkkjr ds fy, vkRefuHkZjrk dk “kk”or izrhd cuk fn;kA blds ek/;e ls mUgksaus vaxzstksa dks ;g n”kkZ;k fd
Hkkjr vius cycwrs ij fVd ldrk gS] lkFk gh Hkkjrh;ksa esa ;g xoZ Hkjk fd os vius nSfud thou ds rkus&ckus
ls vius Lo;a ds thou dks le`f) dh cqukbZ ds fy, Lora= gSA [kknh vkSj xzkeks|ksx mRikndrk jk’Vªokn ds
HkO; lzksr cu x, vkSj Hkkjr us nqfu;k dks fn[kk fn;k fd gekjk lekt fof”k’V :i ls xzkeh.k turk ds
iz;klksa vkSj ;ksxnku ij vk/kkfjr gSA bl izdkj [kknh dsoy diM+s dk VqdM+k u jgdj] ;g “kkafr dk vxznw r
vkSj gekjh Lora=rk ,oa jk’Vªh; vfLrRo dk izrhd cu x;kA
vktknh ds ckn] Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk dsohvkbZlh vf/kfu;e 1956 ds rgr [kknh vkSj xzkeks|ksx vk;ksx
¼dsohvkbZlh½ dks ,d lkafof/kd fudk; ds :i esa LFkkfir fd;k x;k FkkA ;g ,d jk’Vª dks vkRefuHkZj cukus
okyh “kfDr ds izfr ,d J)katfy FkhA fo”kky ekuo lalk/ku ls ;qDr ysfdu vkfFkZd lalk/kuksa ls eg:e ,d
jk’Vª ds :i esa Hkkjr dks viuh lkewfgd ekuo “kfDr vkSj izfrHkk dks mi;ksxh jk’Vªh; oLrqvksa ds mRiknu ds
fy, lapkfyr djuk Fkk] ogha O;fDrxr :i ls yksxksa dks vkthfodk dekus vkSj le`) gksus esa lg;ksx djuk
FkkA blds en~nsutj Hkkjr dHkh Hkh [kknh vkSj xzkeks|ksx dks izksRlkfgr djus dh vkdka{kk ls mÙke dqN vkSj
ugha viuk ldrk FkkA
[kknh dk mRiknu nqfu;k esa vc rd dk lcls cM+k xzkeh.k mRikndrk dk;ZØe gS] ftlesa gtkjksa ifjokj
fcpkSfy;ksa ;k tfVy foi.ku ra= ds ipM+s esa Qals fcuk vius mRikn dks lh/ks miHkksDrk rd igqapkrs gSaA ;g
* izoDrk] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] igyoku xq:nhu egkfo|ky;] yfyriqjA

xzkeh.k leqnk; dks muds esgur dk mfpr Hkqxrku djrk gS ogha miHkksDrkvksa dks muds iSls dk lgh ewY;
vnk djrk gSA ,d jk’Vª ds fy, fuLlansg ;g fojklr dks vewY; laifÙk gSA
fo”kky usVodZ e”khujksa esa “kkfey 5000 ls vf/kd laLFkk,a vkSj 3-20 yk[k ls vf/kd lw{e m|eh Hkkjr
esa dsohvkbZlh ds dk;ZØeksa vkSj mn~ns”;ksa dks ykxw dj jgs gSA [kknh vkSj xzkeks|ksx {ks= lkykuk [kknh ,oa
xzkeks|ksx mRikn ls 40]000 djksM+ #i, ls vf/kd vftZr djrk gS] ftldk 40 izfr”kr [kknh xfrfof/k;ksa ds
rgr vkthfodk ds :i esa xzkeh.k leqnk; ds ikl okil pyk tkrk gSA
,sls le; esa tc nqfu;k tyok;q ifjorZu ds nq’izHkkoksa vkSj vkS|ksxhdj.k ds fojklr ls dkcZu mRltZu
dks ysdj xaHkhjrkiwoZd ppkZ dj jgh gS] rc Hkkjr dks nqfu;k ds le{k flaFksfVd oL= m|ksxksa }kjk i;kZo j.k
dks igqapus okys uqdlku ij vi;kZIr v/;;u ds cjDl [kknh m|ksx ds “kwU; dkcZu mRltZu ds fodYi dks
j[kuk pkfg,A diM+s ds 60 vjc fdyksxzke ¼dsth½ ls vuqekfur oSf”od okf’kZd oL= mRiknu ds vk/kkj ij
blds fy, ÅtkZ vkSj ikuh dh vuqekfur vko”;drk Øe”k% 1]074 vjc fdyksokV ?kaVk fctyh ¼;k 13-2
djksM+ esfVªd Vu dks;yk½ vkSj 6&9 [kjc yhVj ikuh dh vko”;drk gSA dqy dkcZu mRltZu ds 1@20 Hkkx
ds lkFk flaFksfVd oL= m|ksx lokZf/kd xzhu gkml xSl mRltZdksa esa ls ,d gSA
dsohvkbZlh dh fofHkUu ;kstukvksa ds rgr mRiknd xfrfof/k;ksa esa ,d djksM+ ls vf/kd yksx yxs gq, gSaA
[kknh dh xfrfof/k eq[; :i ls efgykvksa ij vk/kkfjr gS vkSj 80 izfr”kr ls vf/kd dkjhxj efgyk,a gSaA
[kknh ds xzkeks|ksx dk;ZØe esa efgykvksa dh fgLlsnkjh 30 izfr”kr gSA
ogha] [kknh gkFk ls dkrk vkSj cquk tkrk gS] bldh mRiknu izfØ;k esa fctyh dk mi;ksx ugha gksrk gSA
;g iwjh rjg ls tSfod vkSj dkcZu U;wVªy gSA oL= m|ksx esa Hkfo’; ds /kkxs ds :i esa [kknh dks ,d ls vfèkd
ek;uksa esa izfrf’Br LFkku fn;k tkuk pkfg,A ekuuh; iz/kkuea=h us eu dh ckr dk;ZØe esa Bhd gh dgk Fkk
fd ^^ge Hkkjr ds xkaoksa esa [kknh xzkeks|ksx usVodZ LFkkfir djuk pkgrs gSaA [kknh ds ikl yk[kksa yksxksa dks
jkstxkj nsus dh {kerk gSA**
fo”ks’kdj dkjhxjksa ds fgr esa] ekuuh; iz/kkuea=h dk [kknh ls tqM+ko dk egRo jk’VªfuekZ.k esa bl {ks = dh
tks egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gks ldrh gS] mls n”kkZrk gSA ekuuh; iz/kkuea=h us gky gh esa ,d ukjk fn;k Fkk ^^vktknh
ds igys [kknh QkWj us”ku vkSj vktknh ds ckn [kknh QkWj QS”ku**A mUgksaus vkxs dgk] ^^gesa fuf”pr rkSj ij
[kknh ds mi;ksx dks c<+kok nsuk pkfg,A de ls de [kknh dk ,d diM+k [kjhnsaA tc vki [kknh [kjhnrs
gSa rks] fdlh ,d xjhc ifjokj ds ?kj esa le`f) dk nh;k tykrs gSaA** bl vihy ds ckn fiNys o’kZ [kknh
diM+s vkSj ifj/kkuksa dh fcØh esa 29 izfr”kr dh o`f) ns[kh xbZA ;g :>ku vc Hkh tkjh gSA
diM+s ds :i esa [kknh us vk/kqfud lekt dh cnyrh vko”;drkvksa dks le>k gS vkS j vkt gtkjksa
mRiknu dsUnzksa esa mi;ksxdrkZ dh t:jrksa ds vk/kkj ij fofHkUu vuqikr esa lwrh] ikWyh,LVj] flYd ,oa vU;
lkexzh dh rkdr ds la;kstu ls fefJr diM+ksa dk mRiknu fd;k tk jgk gSA
,d /kkxk] ,d jk’Vª vc ubZ VSx ykbu gSA [kknh ls [kknh Hkkjr ds :i esa czkaM cny pqdk gSA dsohvkbZlh
us Jhuxj esa 5 ebZ ls 5 twu] 2016 rd ,d /kkxk] ,d jk’Vª VSx ykbu ds rgr ,d izn”kZuh dk vk;kstu
fd;kA vktknh ds ckn vkradokn izHkkfor tEew&d”ehj esa bl rjg dk ;g igyk vk;kstu FkkA blesa ns”k
Hkj ls 198 [kknh laLFkkvksa }kjk rS;kj mRiknksa dks iznf”kZr fd;k x;k ftuesa ls 56 tEew&d”ehj ls gh FksA
blesa vk, ,d yk[k vkxarqdksa vkSj 2 djksM+ #i;s ls vf/kd dh fcØh us bl vk;kstu dks lQy cuk fn;kA
ebZ 2016 esa dsohvkbZlh us d”ehj esa iaiksj ds ikl 25 pj[kksa vkSj 5 dj?kksa ds lkFk ,d bdkbZ “kq: dh Fkh
vkSj tEew ftys ds uxjksVk xkao esa vkradokn ls izHkkfor ifjokjksa ds fy, uSifdu flykbZ ifj;kstuk dh Hkh
“kq:vkr dh] ftlesa 296 efgykvksa dks jkstxkj fn;k x;kA
oSf”od QS”ku ifjn`“; esa “kkunkj izos”k djrs gq, dsohvkbZlh us varjk’Vªh; QS”ku fMtkbuj fjrq csjh dks
vk;ksx dk lykgdkj fu;qDr fd;k tks [kknh jsMhesM oL=ksa esa cgq QS”ku fMtkbu vkSj “kSfy;ksa esa dyk dks
viukus ds laca/k esa vkSj ns”k vkSj ns”k ls ckgj [kknh dks c<+kok nsus ds ckjs esa lq>ko nsaxhA
bl i`’BHkwfe esa] dsohvkbZlh ij xjhc vkSj xzkeh.k turk dks mRiknd jkstxkj ls tksM+us dh ,d egrh
ftEesnkjh gSA Hkkjr esa xzkeh.k fodkl ds fy, dsohvkbZlh dks ,d ek/;e ds :i esa fofo/krkiw.kZ xzkeh.k
m|eksa] ftuesa [kknh lcls vf/kd egRoiw.kZ m|e gS] dh jpuk djus] izpkfjr djus] izksRlkfgr djus vkSj
cuk, j[kus dh cgqr cM+h ftEesnkjh lkSaih xbZ gSA
eSaus ges”kk ekuk gS fd pj[kk] gekjs vKkr lSfudksa ds Lekjd dh rjg] vKkr xzkeh.k turk] ftUgksaus
jk’Vªfirk ds vkg~oku ij vkRefuHkZjrk vkSj Je dh xfjek ds vius jkLrs dk pquko fd;k Fkk] dk ,d Lekjd
gSA vfgald Lora=rk vkanksyu esa iSny flikgh ds :i esa lwr dkrus okys lHkh yksx nLrkostksa esa ntZ ugha
gks ik, gSa ;k mu lHkh dks ;kn j[k ikuk eq efdu ugha gS] ,sls esa tc ge pj[ks dk t”u eukrs gSa] rks
izrhdkRed :i esa mUgsa J)katfy vfiZr djrs gSaA bl n`f’Vdksa.k ls ns[kus ij eq>s fo”okl gS fd Lojkt ds
bl izrhd dks jkt/kkuh ds izeq[k LFky ij LFkkfir djuk dHkh u Hkwyus okyh pht dks fujarj /;ku esa cuk,
j[kus dk cgqr gh mfpr rjhdk FkkA
pj[ks ds egRo dks /;ku esa j[krs gq,] oekZ lkxkSu ls fufeZr 30 QqV yEckbZ] 17 QqV Å¡pkbZ] 9 QqV
pkSM+kbZ okys 4 Vu otuh nqfu;k ds lcls cM+s pj[ks dks dsohvkbZlh us ubZ fnYyh fLFkr bafnjk xka/kh va rjkZ’Vªh;
gokbZ vM~Ms ds Vh&3 ij LFkkfir fd;k gSA ;gka nqfu;k Hkj ls vkus okys yk[kksa yksxksa dks ,d iy Bgjdj
bls fugkjus vkSj Hkkjr ds bl ,sfrgkfld izrhd dh iz”kalk djus dk volj feysxkA
ubZ fnYyh esa fLFkr varjkZ’Vªh; gokbZ vM~Mk ok;q {ks= ds fy, gekjk izos”k }kj gS vkSj vkdk”k ds bl
izos”k }kj ij pj[ks dh mifLFkfr] gesa 1924 esa Lojkt ds fy, egkRek xka/kh ds vkg~oku dh ;kn fnykrh gS]
ftlds ckn Lora=rk ds fy, gekjh vkdka{kk dks ia[k yxs FksA
dsohvkbZlh ds eq[; fe”kuksa esa ls ,d xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa jkstxkj ds volj iSnk djuk gSA ih,ebZthih us
viuh LFkkiuk ds ckn ls ns”k esa 2 yk[k ls vf/kd jkstxkj ds volj iSnk fd, gSaA dsohvkbZlh dh jkstxkj
;kstukvksa ds fy,] eq[; ;ksxnkuksa esa ls ,d xzkeh.k yksxksa dk “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dks jksduk gS] ftlls
Lons”kh izfrHkk dks xzkeh.k {ks= esa le`) gksus ds fy, izksRlkfgr fd;k tkrk gSA
blds vykok dsohvkbZlh }kjk pyk, tk jgs fofHkUu dk;ZØeksa vkSj igyksa esa] vk;ksx ds v/;{k ds rkSj
ij esjh orZeku vkdka{kk chekj xzkeks|ksxksa dks iquthZfor djuk] fcØh nksxquh djuk vkSj dkjhxjksa dks mPp
ikfjJfed iznku djus ds fy, ,d ra= fodflr djuk gSA ge dsohvkbZlh esa Hkh lkSj ÅtkZ ls cqukbZ bdkb;ksa
dks pykuk pkgrs gSa ftlls fd “kkjhfjd Je ij fuHkZjrk dks de fd;k tk ldsA cqudjksa dh chek ds nk;js
esa ykuk] mUgsa LokLF; lsokvksa ds ,d fo”oluh; usVodZ esa “kkfey djuk] muds “kSf{kd {kerk dks c<+kuk vkSj
thou dh oSf”od eq[;/kkjk esa mUgsa ,oa muds iz;klksa dks igpku fnykuk] gekjs lokZf/kd izfrf’Br mn~ns ”;
gS] ftUgsa ge orZeku esa dsohvkbZlh ds rgr vkxs c<+k jgs gSaA
ekuo bfrgkl esa fodflr lcls vf/kd fVdkÅ lkekftd&vkfFkZd ekWMyksa esa “kkfey lHkh [kknh vkSj
xzkeks|ksx rsth ls vk/kqfud Hkkjr vkSj vk/kqfud nqfu;k ds fy, viuh mPp izklafxdrk lkfcr dj jgs gSaA
lanHkZ lwph
1- vkfFkZd losZ{k.k] ubZ fnYyhA
2- Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk ,d n`f’Vdksa.k] izks 0 ,l0,u0 ykyA
3- Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk] nRr ,oa lqUnjeA
4- Hkkjrh; vFkZO ;oLFkk] vfrfjDrkadA
5- dq: {ks= A
6- vktdyA
7- ;kst ukA
xzkeh.k d`f”k lk[k esa ^fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk* dh leh{kkRed v/;;u
jru yky *
izLrkouk
Hkkjr ,d fodkl”khy d`f ’k iz/kku ,oa xzzk eksa dk ns ”k gS ] o’kZ 2011dh tux.kukuq lkj ;gka dh 68-84
izfr”kr tula[;k vkt Hkh xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa gh fuokl djrh gSA d`f’k xzkeh.k vFkZoLFkk dk vk/kkj LrEHk gksus
ds lkFk gh xz keh.kkas dk eq[; O;olk; Hkh gS ftlesa yxHkx 52 iz fr”kr yksxksa dks izR;{k&vizR;{k :i ls
jkstxkj izkIr gSA pawfd gekjs ns”k dh yxHkx 68-84 izfr”kr vkcknh xkao esa jgrh gS blhfy, tc rd xzkeh.kkas
ds thou Lrj esa lq/kkj ugha gksxk rc rd ns”k esa iwjh rjg ls le`f) ugha vk ldrh vkSj bl lae`f) dh /
kqjh gS fdlkuA tc rd [ksrh djus okys fdlku] le`) ugh gksxsa rc rd ns”k dh laiw.kZ lae`f) dh dYiuk
v/kwjh jgsxh D;ksafd tc fdlku [kkn] cht] ikuh] d`f’k midj.k vkfn ds fy, fdlh ij vkfJr u gksdj
vkfJr gksxh rks muesa [ksrh ds izfr mRlkg jgsxk blh mRlkg dks dk;e j[kus ds fy, ljdkj dh vksj ls
le;≤ ij fofHkUu ;kstuk,a pyk;h x;hA 2 gkyk¡fd bu ;kstukvksa ls fdlkuksa dk iwjh rjg HkykA ugha
gks ik;k fdlku vius fglkc ls tc pkgs rc [ksrh ls lacf/kr vk/kkjHkwr lqfo/kk,a izkIr dj ldsA blds fy,
mUgsa iwath eqgS;k djkus dh t:jr Fkh ,slh iwath tks lLrs O;kt nj ij fey lds vkSj fdlku viuh lqfoèkk
ds vuqlkj ml iwath dks vnk;xh dj ldsa bl eqís ij fujarj fopkj pyrk jgk vkSj o’kksZ ds iz;kl ds ckn
;g iwath feyh fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ds :i esaA
vktknh ds ckn ns”k ds izFke iz/kku ea=h iafMr tokgj ykHk usg: us dgk Fkk fd ^tc rd fdlku
tqlgky ugh gksaxs rd rd ns”k o lekt dk iw.kZ fodkl ugh gks ldrk*A usg: th ds bl ea= dks dsUnz
ljdkj us viuk;k* dsUnz ljdkj dh fpark dk dsUnz fcUnq [ksr vkSj [ksfrgj jgsA bl fpark dk fujkdj.k ds
fy, gh fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk ¼vxLr 1998 esa “kq: dh x;h blls fdlkuksa dks vR;Ur de C;kt njkasa
ij vYidkyhu lLrk _.k eqgS;k djk;k tk jgk gS]le; ij Hkqxrku djus okys d`’kdksa dks ek= 4 izfr”kr
dk C;kt nsuk gksrk gSA fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ns”k ds lHkh okf.kfT;d cSadksa] jk’Vªh;d`r cSadksa] rFkk xzk eh.k cSadksa
ds ek/;e ls fn;s tkrs gSaA lkFk gh cSadksa ds }kjk fn;s x, ;s _.k izkFkfed ds nk;js esa vkrs gS] blds vykok
tksf[keksa dks mudh rRdkfyd t:jrksa ds fy, le; ij foRr miyC/k gks jgk gS vkSj os lwn[kksjksa ds tky
ls cp x, gSa ftlls mudk thou Lrj Hkh Å¡pk gks jgk gSA
* vfLlVsUV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] jktdh; dkW yst] Qjhniqj] cjsyh] m-izA
mn~ns”;
• ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa ds rgr lkoZtfud {ks= dh xzkeh.k “kk[kkvksa }kjk iznRr _.kksa dk v/;;u djuk
• xzkeh.k d`f’k lk[k ls lEcfU/kr leL;kvksa ,oa pqukSfr;ksa dk v/;;u djuk
• xzkeh.k d`f’k lk[k ds rgr fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk dk leh{kkRed v/;;u djuk
• foRrh; laLFkkvksa }kjk fn, x, xzkeh.k d`f’k lk[k dk v/;;u djuk
‘kks/k fof/k
“kks/k dk;Z eq[; :i ls f}rh;d lead ij vk/kkfjr g]S f}rh;d lead dk ladyu lkoZtfud izkys[k ds
ek/;e ls fd;k x;k gS] blds vykok tujy isij] losZ] baVjusV] Vsyhfotu rFkk iqLrdksa ls rF; fy;s x;s
gS aA
ifjdYiuk
“kks/k v/;;u gsrq fuEufyf[kr ifjdYiuk,¡ yh x;h gSa&
• fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ rFkk jkstxkj ds e/; _.kkRed lglEcU/k gksrk gSA
• fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ rFkk jkstxkj ds e/; /kukRed lglEcU/k gksrk gSA
• fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk lwn[kksjksa ds paxqy ls eqfDr fnykus es lgk;d ugha gksrk gSA
• fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk lwn[kksjksa ds paxqy ls eqfDr fnykus esa lgk;d gksrk gSA
dk;Z{ks=
fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ;kstuk dk leh{kkRed v/;;u djus ds fy, dk;Z {ks= Hkkjr dks pquk x;k gSA
vkj-ch-vkbZ- ,oa ukckMZ dh igy ls vk;k fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ
njvly ljdkj dh vksj ls reke rjg dh ;kstuk,a pyk,a tkus ds ckn Hkh lwn[kkjks dk tky VwV ugha
jgk Fkk D;ksafd fdlkuksa dks dbZ pj.kksa esa iSls dh t:jr iM+rh gSA dHkh cht ds fy, rks dHkh [kkn ds fy,]
,sls es os viuh iwjh mit cspus ds ckn Hkh lwn[kksj dk C;kt ugha pqdk ikrsA bl leL;k dks ns[krs gq,
ljdkj us losZ djok;k] losZ esa ;g ckr lkeus vk;h fd ;fn ,slh O;oLFkk dh tk, ftlls fdlkuksa dks
Qlyokj iSlk fey lds fQj D;k Fkk]A ljdkj us 1998&99 esa fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ nsus dks ?kks’k.kk dhA
bldh ftEesnkjh laHkkyh] vkj0ch0vkbZ0 ,oa ukckMZ us bl ;kstuk esa fdlkuksa dks mldh tksr ds vk/kkj ij
_.k miyC/k djk;k x;k mUgsa ftrus :i;s dh t:jr gS mruk :i;k cSasd ls vklkuh ls fey tk jgk gSA
fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ dk mís”; cSfdax O;oLFkk ls fdlkuksa dks leqfpr vkSj ;Fkkle; ij ljy ,oa vklku
rjhds ls vkfFkZd lgk;rk fnykuk gS rkfd [ksrh o t:jh midj.kks dh [kjhn ds fy, forh; vko”;drkvksa
dh iwfrZ gks ldsA
O;fDrxr nq?kZVuk chek ;kstuk

ftu fdlkuksa ds ikl ds0lh0lh0 dkMZ gksrk gS mUgsa O;fDrxr nq?kZVuk chek dk ykHk iznku fd;k tkrk
gSA ;g ;kstuk ns”k ds lHkh fdlku ØsfMV /kkjdksa dh ewy ;k LFkk;h v{kerk dks “kkfey djrh gSA blesa 70
o’kZ rd dh vk;q ds lHkh dkMZ/kkjdksa dks “kkfey fd;k x;k gSA ;fn dkMZ/kkjh dh nq?kZVuk ds dkj.k e`R;q gks
tkrh gS rks muds ifjtuksa dks 50]000 :- ,oa LFkk;h iw.kZ v{kerk dh fLFkfr esa Hkh 50]000:&iznku fd;s tkrs
gSaA blds vykok ;fn nks vax ;k nksuks vka[k ;k ,d vax rFkk ,d vka[k [kks tkus ij Hkh ifjtuksa dks 50]000
: nsus dk izko/kku gS blh rjg ,d vax ;k ,d vka[k [kjkc gks tkus ij dkMZ/kkjh dks 25]000 : nsus dk
izko/kku fd;k x;k gS ftu ekeyks esa okf’kZd izhfe;e Hkjk tkuk ,d o’kZ dh vo/kh ds fy, izHkkoh gksrk gSA
rhu o’kZ dh vof/k okys chek ds ekeys chek izhfe;e izkfIr dh frfFk ls rhu o’kZ rd gksxkA
fdlkuksa dks lLrh nj ij _.k
dsUnz ljdkj ekStwnk ctV esa fdlkuksa dks lLrh O;kt nj ij _.k eqgS;k djkus dh ?kks’k.kk dh gSA o’kZ
2011&12 ctV esa dsUnz ljdkj us ?kks’k.kk dh gS fd tks fdlku le; ij _.k pqdk,axs mUgsa flQZ pkj
Qhlnh O;kt nj ij _.k miyC/k djk;k tk,xkA orZeku ifjos”k esa T;knkrj [ksfrgj fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ
ls _.k ys jgs gSa] blls fdlkuksa dks cgqr Qk;nk fey jgk gS fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ dk lcls cM+k Qk;nk ;g
gqvk fd xk¡o ls lwn[kksjh izFkk [kRe gks x;h gSA
fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ls Lojkstxkj
oxZ _.k lhek dh Lohd`fr ¼:i;s esa½ cksNRrh; “krsZ
1 50 gtkj rd 100 izfr”kr] Qly ca/kd
2 50 gtkj ls 1 yk[k rd Qly ca/kd rFkk Hkwfe dk ca/kd
vFkok r`rh; i{k dh xkjUVh ij
3 1 yk[k ls rhu yk[k rd Qly ,oa Hkwfe dk ca/kd gksuk vko”;d
fofHkUu cSadkas }kjk tkjh fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ dh izxfr
rkfydk 1% lEiw.kZ ns’k esa cSad }kjk tkjh ds lh-lh- ,oa Lohd`fr jkf’k
,tsalh@cSad dkMZ tkjh ¼yk[k esa½ Lohd`fr jkf”k ¼djksM+ esa½
1998-99 1999-00 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 1998-99 1999.00 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
dksvkWijsfVo cSd 1.58 35.95 17.43 28.12 29.59 9.75 7606 10719 10642 4111
{ks=h; xzkeh.k cSad 0.06 17.3 19.50 17.74 19.96 6.20 - - 01032 11468 11516 4127
okf.kfT;d cSad 6.22 13.60 53.13 55.83 68.03 - - - 39940 50438 69518 -
;ksx 7.84 51.34 90.06 1.69 117.58 15.95 - - 57678 72625 291676 8238
Lkzksr% vkfFkZd losZ{k.k] 2007&08 ,oa 2012&13

fu”d”kZ
pawfd xkao esa jgus okys T;knkrj yksxksa ds ikl dqN u dqN [ksrh dk dke gksrk gS] ,sls esa fdlku [ksr h
ds fy, fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ls _.k ysrs gSa vkSj le; ij cqokbZ] tksrkbZ djds u flQZ i;kZIr mRiknu izkIr
djrs gSa cfYd mit cspdj vius ifjokj dk thfodksiktZu Hkh dj jgs gSA fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ us xkaoksa esa
py jgs lkgwdkjh izFkk dks [kRe dj fn;k gSA vc dsUnz ljdkj us le; ij _.k pqdkus ij flQZ pkj Qhlnh
C;kt nj ij _.k nsus dh ?kks’k.kk djds xzkeh.k tuthou dks vkfFkZd lao`f) iznku djus dk dke fy;k gS]
bu lc ldkjkRed ifjorZuksa ds ckotwn Hkh xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa xzkeh.k cSadksa ds foLrkj xzkeh.k xjhcks a rd cSafdax
igqap lqfuf”pr djus gsrq O;kid iz;kl dh vko”;drk gSA 51 izfr”kr lhekUr d`’kdksa ds vk; _.k izkfIr
ds dksbZ lzksr ugha gSA ;g t:jh gS fd xzkeh.k {ks= ds fu/kZu o detksj oxksZ dks cSadksa ls tksM+k tk; ;Fkk “kh/
kz _.k iznku djus ds fy, izHkkoh dne mBk, tk;A d`f’k lk[k dh lQyrk xzkeh.kksa esa {ks=ksa esa rHkh lqfuf”pr
dh tk ldrh gS tc ge d`f’k lk[k ls lacfU/kr xzkgdksa dks foRrh; f”k{kk eqgS;k djkdj blls mudkas foRrh;
mRiknksa dks le>us esa enn feysxh vkSj buls gksus okys tksf[ke vkSj ykHk dk fo”ys’k.k Lo;a dj ldsxsA ;fn
foRrh; laLFkkvksa dks fu’Bk vkSj mRlkgiwoZd ykxw fd;k x;k rks blesa dksbZ lUnsg ugha fd xzkeh.k fodkl dh
fn”kk esa d`f’k lk[k ,d mRizsjd ds :i es dke djsxk vkSj xzkeh.kksa dks cpr] _.k fuos”k] isa”ku chek bR;kfn
ds ykHk ls voxr djsaxs] cl vko”;drk bl ckr dh gS fd _.k O;oLFkk ds cSafdax iz.kkyh dks ljy dj
fn;k tk; rkfd budk ykHk Hkkjr ds lHkh oxksZ dks fey lds rHkh lQy xzkeh.k Hkkjr dh dYiuk dh tk
ldrh gSA
lq>ko
• fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ dh O;kt nj 4 izfr”kr dh tkuh pkfg,A
• _.k vof/k ¼12 ekg dh vof/k½ dks c<+k;k tkuk visf{kr gSA
• Qlyh; _.k ds lkFk d`f’k vk/kkfjr dqVhj m|ksxksa ds fy, Hkh fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ ds ek/;e ls
_.k Lohd`r fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
lanHkZ
1- nUÙk] :nz ,oa lqU nje% ds -oh-,e- ¼2012½ Hkkjrh; vFkZ O;oLFkk] ,l- pUnz ,.M lUl dEiuh fyfeVs M] ubZ fnYyh]
i` ’B&320
2- feJ % ,l- ds- ,oa iqjh oh-ds ¼2014½ Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk] fgeky; ifCyf”kax gkml] ubZ fnYyh i`- & 372
3- yky- ,l-,u% Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk ,oa lkaf[;dh; losZ{k.k] f”ko ifCyf”kax gkml] bykgkckn i`- 120
4- lakf[;dh; Mk;jh ¼2010&11½%la[;kfd; funs”kky;] mRrjk[k.M] i`- 310
MkW- vEcsMdj dk Hkkjrh; eqnzk ds izfr vkfFkZd fpUru
jkefd’kksj lkxj *
lEiUUk ifjokj esa tUe ysdj jk’Vª ds fgr esa ;ksxnku djuk egRoiw.kZ dk;Z ugha gS ftruk fd lk/kkj.k
ifjokj esa tUe ysdj foijhr ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa jk’Vª ds fgr ,oa ekuo dY;k.k ds fy, egRoiw.kZ gSA ,slh gh
izfrHkk ds /kuh Fks] Hkkjr jRu ckck lkgso MkW- Hkhe jko vEcsMdjA ftUgksaus firk jkethjko ldiky vkSj ekrk
HkhekckbZ dh dks[k ls 14oha lUrku ds :Ik esa&14 vizSy 1891 dks e/; izns”k ds bUnkSj dh egw Nkouh esa tUe
fy;kA MkW0 vEcsMdj us viuk thou Hkkjr dh jk’Vªh; ,drk] v[k.Mrk] nfyr] “kksf’kr lekt ds lexz
fodkl] ukjh lekt ds mRFkku] Jfedksa ds dY;k.k ds lkFk&lkFk Hkkjrh; eqnzk ds izfr vkfFkZd fpUru Hkh
fd;k gSA mUgksaus vFkZ”kkL= ds {ks= esa &izkoye vkWW Q :ih] fgLVªh vkWQ bf.M;k] djsUlh vkWQ cSfda x rFkk
boksY;w”ku vkWQ izfoaf”k;y Qkbuasl bu fczfV”k bf.M;k] tSls egku xzUFkksa dh jpuk djds ;g fn[kk fn;k fd
og ,d egku ns”k HkDr] egku f”k{kkfon] i=dkj] ys[kd] egku lkekftd&dzkfUrdkjh] egku bfrgkldkj]
lafo/kku f”kYih vkSj jk’Vªusrk ds vfrfjDr egku vFkZ”kkL=h Hkh FksA muds vkfFkZd fpUru dks cgqr de lkeus
yk;k x;k gSA
vFkZ”kkL=h ds :i esa MkW- vEcsMdj ds ;ksxnku dh vksj cgqr de fo}kuksa dk /;ku x;k gSA vf/kdrj
yksx mUgsa lafo/kku fuekZrk ds :i esa tkurs gSaA vFkZ”kkL=h ds :i esa Mk0 vEcsMdj ds ;ksxnku dks dsoy ,d
ys[k ;k ys[kka”k ls vkaduk lwjt dks nhi fn[kkus ds leku gksxkA iz[;kr vFkZ”kkL=h Jhfuokl vEchjktu us
vFkZ”kkL= ds {ks= ls jktuhfr vkSj lekt lq/kkj ds {ks= esa vUrj.k dks vFkZ”kkL= dh Hkkjh {kfr crk;k FkkA
muds vuqlkj vxj ckck lkgsc jktuhfr vkSj lekt lq/kkj ds {ks= esa ugha vkrs rks vkt nqfu;k Hkj esa fnXxt
vFkZ”kkL=h ds :Ik esa tkus tkrsA o’kZ 1947 rd jktuhfr ds {ks= esa ckck lkgo dh O;Lrrk dkQh pje ij
igq¡p pqdh FkhA fQj Hkh mudk eu vFkZ”kkL= ds {ks= dks vkxs c<+kus dk FkkA mlh o’kZ mUgksusa izkcye vkWQ
:ih ds la”kksf/kr laLdj.k dh Hkwfedk esa vFkZ”kkL= ds {ks= esa o’kZ 1923 ds ckn ds ifjorZuksa dks ys dj iqLrd
dk nwljk [k.M+ ;Fkk”kh?kz rS;kj djus dk Hkjld iz;kl fd;k] ijUrq jktuhfrd ftEesnkjh vf/kd c<+ tkus
ds dkj.k iwjk ugha dj ldsA dksyfEc;k fo”ofo|ky; esa v/;;u djrs le; ckck lkgc ds ikl 29 fo’k;
Fks ftudk lh/kk lEcU/k vFkZ”kkL= ls FkkA ;gha ls mUgksaus boksY;q”ku vkWQ ifCyd QkbZusUl dh mikf/k izkIr
dh FkhA yUnu Ldwy vkQ bdksukfeDl ls izkCye vkWQ :Ik;k % bV~l vksfjtu ,.M bV~l lksY;w”ku ij Mh-
,l-lh- dh mikf/k gsrq “kks/k izcU/k fy[kk FkkA
ckck lkgc dk vkfFkZd fpUru Fkk] fd ns”k esa vkS|ksxhdj.k dk fodkl gks] fdlkuksa dk mRiknu c<+s]
etnwjksa dh etnwjh c<s+] deZpkfj;ksa dks losru vodk”k fn;k tk;] chekj iM+us ij mudks vkfFkZd lgk;rk
miyC/k djk;h tk;s] fdlh Hkh ns”k dk fcuk vkS|ksxhdj.k ds fodkl lEHko ugha gSA vkS|ksxhdj.k] vkèkqfudhdj.k
* vflLVsUV izksQslj] jktdh; jtk ih-th- dkW yst] jkeiqj m-iz-
dk ,d fgLlk gSA ckck lkgc tehnkjh izFkk ds f[kykQ Fksa] D;ksafd tehankjh izFkk tkfr O;oLFkk ls tqM+h Fkh
ftlesa etnwjksa vkSj fdlkuksa dk “kks’k.k gksrk FkkA os i;kZIr osru ds i{k/kj Fks] mudk ekuuk Fkk fd ;fn
yksxksa dks i;kZIr osru feysxk rks os Hkz’Vkpkj tSlh cqjkb;ksa ls cp tk;saxsA t:jreUnksa dks ukSdjh feysxh rks
mudk vkfFkZ d fodkl gksxkA efgyk vkS j yM+f d;ksa dks LoLFk vkfFkZ d bdkbZ cuk;k tk;s ftlls mudk
lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd fodkl rFkk izfr’Bk dks cy feysxkA ngst nsus ds ctk; ckfydkvksa dh i<+kbZ fy[kkbZ
ij iSlk [kpZ djds ,d LoLFk vkfFkZd bdkbZ cukvks ftlls fd os viuk LokcyEoh thou O;rhr dj ns”k
vkSj lekt ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa ;ksxnku ns ldrh gaSA ckck lkgsc Mk0 Hkhejko vEcsMdj dh vkfFkZd lksp
us Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd fodkl eas egÙoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk;h gSA mUgksaus ns”k ds yksxksa dks fons”kksa esa fufeZr lkexzh
¼oLrqvksa½ dk fojks/k fd;k vkSj Lons”kh lkexzh ds mi;ksx ij cy fn;k rkfd ns”k dh eqnzk ns”k okfl;ksa dh
vkfFkZd fLFkfr dks etcwr dj ldsA ckck lkgc us is;ty] d`f’k] fctyh ds vfrfjDr fofue; eqnzk ds fy,
ns”k ds dsUnzh; cSad ¼Hkkjrh; fjtoZ cSad½ ds fy, LorU= LkaLFkk cukus esa Hkh dkQh ;ksxnku fd;k gSA
ukscsy iqjLdkj izkIr vFkZ”kkL=h Jh veR;Zlsu us 2007 esa vius ,d O;k[;ku esa Mk0 Hkhejko vEcsMdj
dh xq:rk dks Lohdkjrs gq, dgk Fkk] **vEcsMdj th vFkZ”kkL= ds {ks= esa esjs tud gSaA os nfyrksa “kksf ’krksa ds
lPps vkSj tkus&ekus egkuk;d gSaA mUgsa vkt rd tks Hkh eku&lEeku feyk gS os mlls dgha T;knk ds
vfèkdkjh gSa] tcfd muds thou vkSj O;fDrRo esa fookn ;ksX; dqN Hkh ugha gS tks mudh vkykspuk esa dgk
tkrk gS] og okLrfodrk ds ,d ne ijs gSaA vFkZ”kkL= ds {ks= esa mudk ;ksxnku cgqr gh “kkunkj gS] blds
fy, mUgsa lnSo ;kn j[kk tk;sxkA**
ckck lkgsc us Hkkjrh; eqnzk ds izfr ,slk vkfFkZd fpUru fn;k gS ftlls vkt ds ifjizs{; esa ns”k ds
vkfFkZd fodkl dks xfr fey jgh gSA gekjs iz/kkuea=h Jh nkeksnj nkl ujsUnz eksnh th us 8 uoEcj 2016 dks
uksVcUnh esa 500 vkSj 1000 dh eqnzk dks cUn djds &dkyk/ku] Hkz’Vkpkj vkSj dkykcktkjh dh jh<+ rksM+dj
ckck lkgc ds liuksa dks lkdkj djus dk iz;kl fd;k gSA ckck lkgc dk ekuuk Fkk fd *ns”k ls dkyk/ku
vkSj Hkz’Vkpkj [kRe djuk gS rks izR;sd nl o’kZ ds vUrjky ij ns”k dh eqnzk dks cny nsuk pkfg,A** mUgksaus
Hkkjr ds xjhc ls ysdj m|fe;ksa rd lHkh ds fy, vkfFkZd fpUru fn;k gSA Mk0 vEcsMdj ds fpUru us
vkfFkZd fodkl ds Hkh igyqvksa dks Nqvk gSA ckck lkgsc dks vFkZ”kkL= dk firkeg dgsa rks dksbZ vfr”k;ksfDr
ugha gksxhA mUgksaus&f”k{kk] LokLF;] chek] Je “kfDr] xksoa”k] i”kqikyu] U;wure etnwjh] d`f’k] flapkbZ fdlku
fgr] fctyh] ikuh] C;ktnj dks de djus vkSj eqnzk fofu;e dks vius vkfFkZd fpUru esa “kkfey fd;k gSA
o’kZ 1946 esa vf[ky Hkkjrh; Lrj ij Hkwfe lq/kkj dh vko”;drk ij tksj nsrs gq, MkW- ch- vkj- vEcsMdj
lkgc us dgk Fkk] **Hkwfe forj.k esa vlekurk ds dkj.k lekt dh cgqr cM+h tula[;k dks NksVh tksrksa ls
dke pykuk iM+rk gS] ftlds ifj.keLo:Ik ,d vksj tgk¡ Je”kfDr dk nq:i;ksx gksrk gS] ogha nwljh vksj
cgqr cM+h Je”kfDr fuf’dz; iM+h jgrh gSA** blh fy, ckck lkgc&d`f’k] m|ksx] chek] cSad vkfn dk lEiw.kZ
jk’Vªh;dj.k pkgrs FksA os Hkwfe lq/kkj ds O;kid leFkZd FksA mudk er Fkk fd ljdkj leLr d`f’k ;ksX; Hkwfe
dks vf/kxzfgr dj mls mfpr vkdkj ds QkeksZa esa foHkkftr dj] d`f’k mRiknu dk leqfpr vuqikr esa lekt
ds lHkh lnL;ksa ds chp leku forj.k gks blls lektkfFkZd lekurk dh LFkkiuk dks cy feysxkA ckck lkgc
Mk0 Hkhejko vEcsMdj us dkyZ ekDlZ dh vis{kk cq) dks bl fy, viuk;k] D;ksafd cq) us tkfr O;oLFkk ij
lokfy;k fu”kku yxkrs gq, lekurk vk/kkfjr lekt dk liuk ns[kk Fkk] tcfd dkyZ ekDlZ lekurk dks
thou ds vkfFkZd i{k ls vkxs ugha ns[krs FksA
vxLr 1925 esa fczfV”k ljdkj us Hkkjr dh eqnzk iz.kkyh dk v/;;u djus ds fy, *jk;y deh”ku vkWu
bf.M;u djsalh ,.M QkbZusUl* dk xBu fd;k FkkA bl vk;ksx esa fgLlk ysus ds fy, nqfu;k ds 40 tkus&ekus
fo}kuksa dks vkefU=r fd;k x;k Fkk] muesa ckck lkgc Mk0 Hkhejko vEcsMdj Hkh ,d FksA tc ckck lkgc
vk;ksx ds le{k mifLFkr gq, rks ogk¡ ekStwn izR;sd lnL; ds gkFk esa muds }kjk fy[kh x;h iqLrd] *boksY ;w”ku
vkWQ ifCyd QkbZusUl bu fczfV”k bf.M;k* dh izfr;k¡ FkhaA bl vk;ksx us viuh fjiksVZ o’kZ 1920 esa izdkf”kr
dh FkhA bl fjiksVZ dh vuq”kalkvksa ds vk/kkj ij dqN o’kkZsa ckn Hkkjrh; fjtoZ cSad dh LFkkiuk dh x;h FkhA
vkj- ch- vkbZ- dh vfHkdYiuk] fu;ekuqns”k] dk;Z”kSyh vkSj :ijs[kk Mk0 ch- vkj- vEcsMdj dh “kks/k iqLrd]
izkWCye vkWQ :i;k ij vk/kkfjr gSA ml le; mudk ys[ku dk;Z vFkZ”kkL= tSls xEHkhj fo’k; dks ysdj py
jgk FkkA
vkt gekjs ns”k dh ljdkjsa &Mk0 vEcsMdj dk Hkkjrh; eqnzk ds izfr vkfFkZd fpUru dks ykxw dj jgh
gSaA ftldh ljkguk fons”kksa esa Hkh gks jgh gSA gekjk ns”k mudh lsokvksa dks ;qxksa&;qxksa rd Lej.k djrk
jgsxkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- xkSM] izse ukjk;.k] Mk- vEcsMdj] lR; izsehuxj] ckjkoadh] 1995] i`- la- 23&24
2- vk;Z] vej flag ] vktknh dh igyh yM+kbZ mQZ ckck lkgc dk thou la?k’kZ] vk;Z Hkou fryd uxj] jkeiqj] viz Sy
1996] i`- la0 35&36
3- xkSre] vjfoUn dqekj] Mk0 vEcs Mdj] Hkkjrh; izcq) lkekU; Kku] Hkkjrh; ckS) egklHkk ¼iathd‘r½ jkeiqj] 2005]
i`- la0 28&29
4- ckS)] xtsUnz flag ] Hkkjr jk’Vª dks Mk0 vEcsMdj dk ;ksxnku /kEe lans”k LEkkfjdk& 2006&07] Hkkjrh; CkkS) egklHkk
[kqtkZ] cqyUn”kgj ¼m0iz0½] i`- la0 127&128
5- Lkksu dj] ewypUn] D;k ekDlZ ds ;gk¡ tkfr leL;k Fkk lek/kku gS\ vEcsMdj cq) fe”ku] izcq) fcgkj] vizS y twu
2009] vad&2 i`- la0 17
6- ckS )] jkts” k dq ekj] cks f/klRo ckck lkgc Ml0 vEcs Mdj&,d egku O;fDrRo] vEcs Mdj cq) fe”ku] izcq) fcgkj]
vizSy&twu&2009] vad&2] i`- la0 39&41
7- lksu V ds HkkLdj] rFkkxr cq) ds vFkZ” kkL= dk iz Hkko dkyekDlZ ds fopkjksa ij gqvk] cgqtuks a dk cgq tu Hkkjr]
jsaxjiqjk] djksy ckx ubZ fnYyh] vad&7] 01 ekpZ 2009] i`- la0 75
8- v”kksd] ch0ih0] Mk0 vEcsMdj ,oa muds vkfFkZd fopkj] Mk0 vEcsMdj ekg vk;kstu lfefr vkW Q bf.M;k] fodkl
uxj] y[kuÅ] vizSy 13] 2011] i`- la0&22&23
9- lkjLor] ek/kokuUn] Hkhejko vEcsMdj] *fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa vxz.kh Hkkjrh; iq:’k*] dfiy izdk”ku] fiykuh ¼jktLFkku½
2011] i`- la- 86&89
oL= fu;kZr % mEehn Hkjs Mxj ij lko/kkuh dh t:jr
uhjt dqekj dq’kokgk*
Hkkjr esa dikl dh [ksrh vkSj diM+k m|ksx dk vkilh laca/k cgqr xgjk gSA bl xgjs laca/k us gh Hkkjr
ds diM+k m|ksx ij 1947 esa rc lcls tcjnLr vlj Mkyk tc ns”k dk foHkktu gqvkA lky 1947 rd ns”k
esa dqy 394 diM+k feysa Fkha] ftuesa ls foHkktu ds ckn ikfdLrku ds fgLls esa dsoy 14 feysa xbZ] tcfd
mlds ikl dikl mRiknu dqy {ks= dk 40 izfr”kr fgLlk pyk x;kA Hkkjr ds diM+k m|ksx ds fy, og
lcls cM+k >Vdk Fkk D;ksafd dikl blds fy, izeq[k dPpk eky Fkk vkSj fons”kh eqnzk ds vHkko esa Hkkjr
viuh t:jr ds eqrkfcd i;kZIr dikl dk vk;kr dj ikus dh fLFkfr esa ugha FkkA ns”k us bl pqukSrh dks
Lohdkj fd;k vkSj Hkkjr fiNys lkr n”kdksa esa dikl dk fo”o dk lcls cM+s mRiknd vkSj fu;kZrd ns”k esa
“kkfey gks x;kA
Hkkjr esa dikl ds mRiknu dh dgkuh dekscs”k lQyrk vkSj izxfr dh dgkuh jgh gSA tgka 70 ds n”kd
rd ns”k dikl dk vk;kr djrk jgk] ogha bl n”kd ds e/; ls] tc ljdkj us iapo’khZ; ;kstuk ds ek/;e ls
mRiknu c<+kus vkSj gkbfczM fdLeksa dh cqokbZ ij [kkl tksj nsuk “kq: fd;k] rc ls /khjs&/khjs ns”k dikl ds
mRiknu ds ekeys esa vkRefuHkZj gks x;kA blds ckn ls 90 ds n”kd ds dqN vkf[kjh o’kksZa dks NksM+ nsa rks ns”k
T;knkrj o’kksZa esa dikl dk fu;kZrd gh cuk jgk gSA Qjojh 2000 esa chVh dkWVu dh “kq#vkr ds ckn ls ;hYM
esa Hkh tcjnLr c<+ksrjh gqbZ vkSj dbZ o’kksZa ls 300 fdxzk izfr gsDVs;j ij fLFkj ;hYM 2005&06 esa 472 fdxzk izfr
gsDVs;j vkSj 2013&14 rd 566 fdxzk izfr gsDVs;j rd igqap xbZA vktknh ds ckn ls yxkrkj dikl dh [ksrh
ds jdcs esa Hkh c<+ksRrjh gksrh jgh vkSj mRiknu esa HkhA tgka 1947&48 esa dqy 44 yk[k gsDVs;j esa dikl dh [ksrh
gks jgh Fkh] og 2014&15 esa ;g c<+dj fjdkWMZ 1-28 djksM+ gsDVs;j gks xbZA bl nkSjku dikl dk mRiknu Hkh
23 yk[k xkaBksa ¼,d xkaB = 170 fdyksxzke½ ls c<+dj 3-80 djksM+ xkaBksa rd igqap x;kA
blesa djhc 100 vjc MkWyj ns”k dk ?kjsyw VsDlVkby m|ksx gS tcfd 40 vjc MkWyj dk fu;kZr gksrk
gSA Hkkjrh; VsDlVkby vkSj viSjy m|ksx nqfu;k Hkj esa phu ds ckn nwljs uacj ij gS] vkSj fiNys 10 o’kksZa
esa 10&11 izfr”kr pØo`f) nj ls c<+ jgk gSA ysfdu yach vof/k esa “kkunkj fn[k jgh dikl dh [ksrh ds ;s
vkadM+s njvly u rks dikl dh [ksrh dh lgh rLohj is”k djrs gSa vkSj u gh VsDlVkby vkSj diM+k m|ksx
dhA rLohj dk nwljk igyw ;g gS fd ns”k esa dkWVu dh [ksrh vkSj VsDlVkby dk m|ksx] nksuksa vHkwriwoZ ladV
ls xqtj jgs gSaA
dikl ds mRiknu esa c<+ksrjh ds lkFk fiNys dqN o’kksZa esa ns”k dk dikl fu;kZr yxkrkj ?kV jgk gSA
njvly dkWVu dh varjk’Vªh; dhersa yxHkx 55 o’kksZa ds lcls fupys Lrj ij gSa ftlds dkj.k Hkkjrh;
* lgk;d vkpk;Z@ izoDrk] Hkwxksy foHkkx] lq[knso flag yodq”k egkfo|ky;] ccs:] ckank ¼m0iz0½A
dikl varjk’Vªh; cktkj esa izfrLi)kZ ugha dj ik jgkA m/kj dikl vk;kr ij 2014 esa phu ds dbZ rjg dh
cafn”ksa yxkus ds ckn ls yxkrkj 3 lkyksa ls dikl ds ?kjsyw nke Hkh fupys Lrjksa ij py jgs gSaA urhtru
dikl ds fdlku nkyksa vkSj lks;kchu tSlh nwljh Qlyksa dh vksj :[k dj jgs gSa] tgka mUgsa csgrj fjVuZ
gkfly gksus dh laHkkouk gSA blls ns”k esa dikl dh [ksrh dk jdck de gks jgk gSA dikl dk jdok lky
nj lky djhc 8 izfr”kr fxjdj 2015&16 ds nkSjku 1-18 djksM+ gsDVs;j jg x;k] tks 2002&03 ds ckn
jdcs esa vkbZ lcls cM+h fxjkoV gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1 Hkkjr esa dikl dh [ksrh

lky {ks=Qy mRiknu ;hYM
¼yk[k gsDVs;j esa½ ¼yk[k xkaBsa½ ¼fdxzk@gsDVs;j½
2000&01 85-76 140 278
2004&05 87-86 243 470
2008&09 94-06 290 524
2013&14 119-60 398 566
2015&16* 118-81 352 504
*vuqe kfur
lzksr % dikl lykgdkj cksMZ
VsDlVkby lsDVj esa bl fuos”k dk egRo le>us ds fy, ;gka ds feyksa dh rqyuk fodflr ns”kksa vkSj
Vs DlVkby ,DliksVZ es a vkxs nwljs ns ”kksa ls djuk lehphu gksxkA T;knkrj] Vs DlVkby feys a iq jkuh vkSj
vizklafxd gks pqdh e”khuksa ij py jgh gSaA bldk urhtk mRikndrk vkSj xq.koÙkk esa dHkh ds rkSj ij lkeus
vk jgk gSA fodflr ns”kksa esa tgka 10&15 lky iq jkuh e”khuksa dh feysa gSa] ogha Hkkjrh; feyksa esa 60&75
izfr”kr e”khusa 25&30 lky iqjkuh gSaA Hkkjr esa tgka dsoy 18&20 izfr”kr dj?ks vkWVkseSfVd gS] ogha gkaxdkax
vkSj vesfjdk esa 100 izfr”kr] dukMk esa 99 izfr”kr] LohMu esa 92 izfr”kr] ukWosa esa 83 izfr”kr] Msu ekdZ esa 76
izfr”kr] vkWLVªsfy;k esa 70 izfr”kr] ikfdLrku esa 60 izfr”kr vkSj phu esa 45 izfr”kr e”khusa vkWVkse SfVd gSaA
tkfgj gS fd oSf”od cktkj esa izfrLi)kZ cus jgus ds fy, Hkkjrh; feyksa dk thoksZ)kj vkSj rduhdh vixzs Ms”ku
vifjgk;Z gS vkSj bl fn”kk esa ,d vkSj dne mBkrs gq, ns”k ds VsDlVkby vkSj viSjy m|ksx ds lkeus dks
pqukSfr;ka gSa] muesa Jfed dkuwuksa dh Hkh cM+h Hkwfedk gSA ,d vksj tgka etnwjh ds ?kaVs] ifjfLFkfr;ka cxSjg
dks ysdj Hkkjrh; feyksa esa fookn dh fLFkfr cuh jgrh gS] ogha Jfedksa dh dq”kyrk c<+kus ds fy, izf”k{k.k
m|ksx dh izkFkfedrk esa dgha ugha gSA bldk urhtk ;g gqvk gS fd Hkkjr esa etnwjksa dh mRikndrk nqfu;k
ds nwljs dbZ ns”kksa ds eqdkcys dkQh de gSA tgka Hkkjr esa vkSlru ,d etnwj nks dj/ks ij dke djrk gS]
ogha tkiku esa ;g vkSlr 30 dk vkSj vesfjdk esa 60 dk gSA vxj ,d vesfjdh dfeZd dh mRikndrk dks 100
eku fy;k tk,] rks fczVsu ds ,d dfeZd dh mRikndrk 51] tkiku esa 33 vkSj Hkkjr esa 13 gSA ljdkj us Je
dkuwuksa esa cnyko djrs gq, etnwjksa dks gj g¶rs 8 ?kaVs vfrfjDr dke djus dh O;oLFkk dh gSA
ljdkj us m|ksxksa ds foLrkj vkSj ubZ rduhdsa ykus ds fy, xkjesaV fuekZrkvksa dks 10 izfr”kr vfrfjDr
lfClMh nsus dk Hkh ,syku fd;k gSA ;s vfrfjDr lfClMh iqjkuh VsDuksykWth vixzsMs”ku QaM ¼Vh;w,Q½ ds
rgr igys ls nh tk jgh 15 izfr”kr ds vykok gksxh] ysfdu ;s dsoy rHkh nh tk,xh tc bldk nkok djus
okyh daiuh ^laHkkfor jkstxkj* iSnk djus esa lQy gksxhA
vesfjdk] dukMk ;k LohMu dh ckr NksM+ nsa] ysfdu tc ikfdLrku] ckaXykns”k vkSj fo;ruke varjkZ’Vªh;
cktkjksa esa Hkkjrh; VsDlVkby m|ksx dks pqukSrh ns jgs gksa] lkQ gS fd pqukSrh tfVy gSA egaxs Je ds dkj.k
phu dh nkosnkjh FkksM+h detksj iM+h gS] ysfdu bldk Qk;nk Hkkjr dks ugha fey jgk gSA dSysaMj o’kZ 2015
ds nkSjku ckaXykns”k ls vesfjdk dks gksus okyk viSjy fu;kZr 12 izfr”kr c<+dj 5-4 vjc MkWyj gks x;k] ogha
fo;ruke us blesa 14 izfr”kr dh c<+ksrjh ntZ dh vkSj 10-6 vjc MkWyj dk fu;kZr fd;kA bl nkSjku Hkkjr
ds fgLls esa dsoy 8 izfr”kr dh o`f) vkbZ vkSj mldk vesfjdk fu;kZr 3-4 vjc MkWyj rd igqap ldkA
Lis”ky iSdst dh ?kks’k.kk djrs le; VsDlVkby ea=ky; us tks izLrqrhdj.k fn;k] mlesa Hkh ;g Lohdkj fd;k
x;k fd ckaXykns”k vkSj fo;ruke vesfjdk dks gksus okys diM+k fu;kZr esa Hkkjr dks ihNs NksM+ pqds gSA
ljdkj Lis”ky iSdst ds rgr VsDlVkby lsDVj ij lkykuk 400&500 djksM+ #i;s [kpZ djsxh vkSj mls
mEehn gS fd blls fu;kZr esa 7 vjc MkWyj lkykuk dh c<+ksrjh gksxhA ysfdu bl ljdkjh iSdst dk ,d
vkSj igyw Hkh gSA tgka m|ksx txr us bldk mRlkgiwoZd Lokxr fd;k] ogha dbZ fey ekfydksa us blds
fojks/k esa ekspkZ Hkh [kksy fn;k gSA rfeyukMq] rsyaxkuk vkSj vka/kz izns”k ds dbZ fey ekfydksa us iSdst ds fojksèk
esa g¶rs ds ,d ;k nks fnu fey can j[ksA mudk vkjksi gS fd cM+h daifu;ka dikl dh dkykcktkjh dj jgh
gSa vkSj vuqfpr “kqYdksa vkSj djksa ds dkj.k mUgsa dikl dk vk;kr djuk cgqr egaxk iM+ jgk gSA ,slh ifjfLFkfr;ksa
es a muds fy, feys a pyk ikuk eqf”dy gSA bu fey ekfydks a dk dguk gS fd mUgsa varjkZ’Vªh; cktkj esa
;wjksih; la?k vkSj phu tSls izfrLi)kZ ns”kksa ds ,sls mRikndksa ds lkFk ekspkZ ysuk iM+ jgk gS] ftUgsa “kqYd eqDr
uhfr;ksa ds dkj.k lLrk dikl miyC/k gSA ,sls esa muds mRikn egaxs gks tkrs gSaA n fgUnw esa rsyxkauk fLifuax
,aM VsDlVkby feYl ,lksfl,”ku ds usrkvksa ds gokys ls ;g vkjksi yxk;k x;k gS fd cM+h daifu;ksa vkSj
dkjksckfj;ksa us 50 yk[k xkaBsa dikl dh dkykcktkjh dj j[kh gS] ftlds dkj.k NksVs fey ekfydksa dks Åa ph
njksa esa dikl [kjhnuk iM+ jgk gSA VsDlVkby m|ksx ds m)kj ds fy, cukbZ tkus okyh uhfr;ksa esa bl rjg
ds vkjksiksa ij Hkh leqfpr /;ku nsus dh t:jr gSA
ubZ jk’Vªh; diM+k uhfr ds elkSns ds eqrkfcd 2024&25 rd diM+k fu;kZr dks 300 vjc MkWyj rd
igqapkus vkSj 3-5 djksM+ u, jkstxkj iSnk djus dk y{; j[kk tk ldrk gSA lky 2015&16 esa Hkkjr dk
VsDlVkby fu;kZr 36-25 vjc MkWyj jgk] tks 2014&15 ds eqdkcys 2-1 izfr”kr de gSA ,sls esa vxys 9 o’kks Za
esa fu;kZr dks yxHkx lok vkB xquk djus dk y{; gS tcfd bl lsDVj esa vkus okyk jkstxkj nksxquk gks
tk,xkA blesa dksbZ “kd ugha fd ;s vfr egRokdka{kh y{; gS vkSj bUgsa gkfly djus ds fy, dsoy cM+s Lrj
ij ugha] cfYd NksVh&NksVh mu ckrksa ij Hkh ljdkj dks dne mBkus gksaxs tks VsDlVkby lsDVj ds fy,
vojks/k dk dke dj jgs gSaA jsfVax ,tsalh bdjk ds eqrkfcd Hkkjr dk VsDlVkby lsDVj <kapkxr dfe;ksa dk
f”kdkj gS] tgka diM+s cukus dh bdkb;ka QSfczd cukus dh bdkb;ksa ls nwj gSa vkSj QSfczd cukus dh bdkb;ka
lwr cukus vkSj dikl dh [ksrh ds bykdksa ls dkQh nwj gSaA ,sls <kaps ls ,d vksj tgka vafre mRikn dh
dhersa c<+rh gSa] ogha fMyhojh dk dqy le; Hkh c<+ tkrk gSA
m|ksx ds tkudkjksa ds eqrkfcd ckaXykns”k ds fu;kZr cktkj esa csgrj djus ds ihNs ,d izeq[k dkj.k ogka
cM+h eSU;qQSDpfjax bdkb;ksa dk gksuk gSA Hkkjr esa tgka vkSlru gj bdkbZ esa 150 yksx dke djrs gSa] ogha
ckaXykns” k esa ;g la[;k 600 gSA bldk urhtk ;g gks rk gS fd fu;kZ r ds cM+s vkMZj feyus ij Hkkjrh;
fu;kZrdksa dks Hkh fons”kh eSU;qQSDpfjax bdkb;ksa dh “kj.k esa tkuk iM+rk gSA
VsDlVkby dh Hkkjrh; dgkuh esa pqukSfr;ka rks gSa] ysfdu mEehnksa dh jks”kuh Hkh gSA reke detksfj;ksa
vkSj dfe;ksa ds ckotwn Hkkjr VsDlVkby ds varjkZ’Vªh; eap ij ,d cM+k f[kykM+h gS vkSj la;qDr jk’Vª dh
dkWeVsªM fjiksVZ ds eqrkfcd 2014 esa bVyh] teZuh vkSj ckaXykns”k dks ihNs NksM+dj phu ds ckn nwljk lcls
cM+k fu;kZrd jgk gSA Hkkjr us bl lky VsDlVkby fu;kZr esa 17-5 izfr”kr dh c<+ksRrjh ntZ dh Fkh] tcfd
lsDVj dh oSf”od o`f) nj egt 4-7 izfr”kr FkhA ;g vkadM+k Hkkjrh; VsDlVkby lsDVj dh van:uh “kfDr
dks lkfcr djus ds fy, dkQh gSA ysfdu ckaXykns”k vkSj fo;ruke tSls ns”kksa dh pqukSrh dks utjvankt Hkh
ugha fd;k tk ldrkA cl t:jr gS m|ksx txr dh {kerk vkSj ljdkjh uhfr;ksa ds chp rkyesy fcBkus
izfrLi)kZ dk rHkh 2024&2025 esa 300 vjc MkWyj fu;kZr dk y{; gkfly fd;k tk ldrk gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- vkS|ksfxd Hkw xksy] vkj0lh0 pUnukA
2- uxjh; vf/kokl Hkwxksy] izks0 vkj0 lh0 frokjhA
3- Hkkjr Hkwxksy] vYdk xkSreA
4- Hkkjrh; Hkwxksy vfrfjDrkad] Mh0 vkj0 [kqY yjA
5- izf r;ks fxrk niZ .k] vfrfjDrkadA
6- dq: {ks= A
7- ;kst ukA
8- diM+k lykgdkj cksMZ] ubZ fnYyhA
9- vkfFkZ d vf/kokl los Z{k.kA
dugj flapkbZ ifj;kstuk % xk¡oksa ds vfLrRo ij iz’u fpUg
le’ksj cgknqj *
^^dksbZ ifjorZu tks fdlh dks gkfu ugha igq¡pkrk] rFkk dqN yksxksa dks ¼muds Lo;a ds vuqeku esa½ Js’Brj
cukrk gS] vko”;d #i ls lq/kkj le>k tkuk pkfg,A**&oh0 ijsVks
c<+rh gqbZ tula[;k fleVrs gq, lk/ku ds cy tgk¡ ekFks ij lkQ&lkQ fn[kkbZ ns jgs gSa ogha ij lkèkuksa
ds vuqdwyre iz;ksx dh dlkSVh pqukSrh cuh gqbZ gSA vkt ds vk/kqfud ;qx es euq’; cgqr “kh?kzrk ds lkFk
mUufr ds iFk ij vxzlj gks jgk gSA cM+s cM+s dy dkj[kkus] ck¡/k] Å¡ps edku vkfn lc curs pys tk jgs gS aA
uSfrdrkoknh] vkn”kZoknh ekuoh; ewY;ksa dks rkd ij j[krs gq, ge brus vf/kd vkfFkZd vkSj HkkSfrdrkoknh
gks x;s gSa ;k bls bl #i esa dgsa fd HkkSfrdrkoknh fodkl dh ygj esa ge brus eneLr gks x;s gSa fd
okLrfod ewY;ksa dks igpkuuk vc csekuh lk yxus yxk gSA
1950 esa] ;kuh vktknh ckn ds igys n”kd esa ;kstukdkjksa us vge fu.kZ; ^jk’Vª fuekZ.k* ds fl)kUr ds
vk/kkj ij fy,A bles ;g ekuk x;k fd dqN yksxksa dks fodkl dh dher t#j pqdkuh gksxh ysfdu ;g bl
ek;us esa ykHkizn Hkh gksxk fd fodkl ds Qk;ns lc rd igq¡p tk;saxsA tc fodkl ds Qk;ns cgqla[;d rd
igq¡pus esa ukdke jgs rks ;g utfj;k cnydj jk’Vªh; fodkl dk gks x;kA blesa vkfFkZd rjDdh bl vk”kk
ds lkFk izkFkfedrk dh Js.kh esa j[kk x;k fd blds tfj;s lHkh ukxfjdksa rd fodkl ds ykHk igq¡p tk,axsA 1
*Hkkjr ,d [kkst* esa usg# us bl ckr dh t#jr ij tksj fn;k Fkk fd vkS|ksxhdj.k ,d yksdrkaf=d
<k¡ps ds rgr gh fd;k tk,A bles lkE;oknh rkuk”kkgh vkSj i¡wthoknh “kks’k.k ds fy, dksbZ txg ugha gksu h
pkfg,A ,slk djus ds fy, Hkkjr dks mlds va/kfo”oklksa vkSj #f<+okfnrk ls ckgj fudyuk gksxk] ijEijk,a
cnyuh gksaxh vkSj [kqn dks vk/kqfud cukuk gksxkA blh fopkj/kkjk us mUgsa cM+s ck¡/kksa vkSj m|ksxksa dks vk/kqfud
Hkkjr ds rhFkZ ?kksf’kr djus ds fy, izsfjr fd;kA 2
vktkn Hkkjr ds usrkvksa us lkekftd rkus&ckus dh dHkh Hkh mis{kk ugha dh cfYd mudh lksp ;g jgh
fd lkoZtfud {ks= ds tfj, vkfFkZd mUufr dks ubZ Å¡pkb;ksa ij ykdj os lkekftd cjkcjh dj ik,axsA os
bl ckr ls izHkkfor jgs fd jkT; }kjk izsfjr rduhdh fodkl ds tfj, os csjkstxkjh] xjhch vkSj vf”k{kk dh
leL;k ls futkr ik tk,axs rFkk ,sls fodkl dk Qk;nk gj Hkkjrh; rd igq¡p tk,xkA mUgsa bl ckr dk
vUnktk rks Fkk fd bl nkS jku dbZ leL;kvksa dk lkeuk gks xk ogha mUgsa bl ckr dk Hkjkslk Hkh Fkk fd
leL;k,a vLFkk;h gkasxh vkSj vUrr% blls lHkh dk Hkyk gh gksxkA 3
foLFkkiu dh leL;k] blh mUufr ls mRiUu gqbZ ,d leL;k gSA ufn;ksa esa vusd ck¡/k cuus ds dkj.k
cgqr ls yksxksa dks viuk ?kj&ckj NksM+dj vU;= tkuk iM+kA ck¡/k cuus ls] unh dk ikuh tks cg vkrk gS]
* vflLVsaV izks Qslj] vFkZ”kkL=] lkfo=h ckbZ Qqys jktdh; LUkkrdksRrj egkfo|ky;] pfd;k] pUnkSyh] m-izA
mlesa yksxksa dk ?kj] tehu tk;nkn lc Mwc tkrk gSA lkyksa ls tks yksxksa dk ?kj gqvk djrk Fkk] vc oSK kfud
mUufr ds c<+us ls mUgsa og NksM+dj tkuk iM+rk gSA oSls rks ljdkj mUgsa nwljh txg ?kj ,oa tehu nsdj
mudh enn djrh gS] fdUrq T;knkrj ekeyksa esa ;g mu yksxksa dh ihM+k ds lkeus fVd ugha ikrhA ljdkj
ds }kjk vusd enn ds ckn Hkh foLFkkfirksa dks vusd d’V >syus iM+rs gSa] vkf[kj viuh Hkwfe ls fcNM+us dk
nnZ vlekU; gksrk gSA4
ikxu vkSj dugj unh ds laxe ij cu jgs dugj flapkbZ ifj;kstuk ,d ckj fQj foLFkkiu vkSj Mwc dh
dgkuh fy[kus tk jgk gSA bl ifj;kstuk ds Mwc {ks= esa u dsoy mRrj izns”k ¼nq)h rglhy½ ds xk¡o cfYd
NRrhlx<+ vkSj >kj[k.M ds lhekorhZ xk¡o Hkh vk jgs gSaA ljdkj dh rjQ ls tkjh vfHklwpuk ds vuqlkj
mRrj izns”k ds 11 rFkk NRrhlx<+ ,oa >kj[k.M ds pkj pkj xk¡o ifj;kstuk dh tn esa vk jgs gSaA tcfd
ifj;kstuk ds tkudkjksa dh ekus rks vdsys NRrhlx<+ esa f=lwyh] rseuk] lsfy;k] lYokgh] ekudjh] t;uxj]
lsekjok] lksukoy] xqvknk vkSj nqxk: ljh[ks dqy 39 xk¡o izHkkfor gks jgs gSaA “kadk,a rks ;gk¡ rd O;Dr dh
tk jgh gSa fd ck¡/k dk ikuh rks ljxqtk rd igq¡p tk,xkA vr% ifj;kstuk ds izHkko esa vkus okys mu reke
[kq”kgky vkfnoklh xk¡oksa dk vfLrRo vc lekIr gks tk,xk vkSj os bfrgkl cudj jg tk,axs rFkk vkfnoklh
xqeukeh esa dgha [kks tk,axsA
foLFkkiu dk iz;kstu
mRrj izns”k ds lksuHknz tuin dk nq)h rglhy lw[kk {ks= ds vUrxZr vkrk gSA ;gk¡ ds fuokfl;ksa esa
T;knkrj tula[;k vkfnokfl;ksa dh gSA bl {ks= dh lqfo/kk ds fy, lqxokeku xk¡o ds ikl ikxu vkSj dugj
unh ds laxe ij ck¡/k cuk;k tk jgk gSA bl unh ij 3-24 fdeh yack vkSj 39-90 ehVj Å¡pk ck¡/k cuuk
izk;ksftr gSA ftldh dqy laHkj.k {kerk 0-158 ,e,,Q gSA bldk mn~n s”; 27898 gsDVs;j es ls 26075
gsDVs;j Hkwfe ij joh ,oa [kjhQ dh Qly ds fy, flapkbZ lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djkuk gSA blds fy, 121-10
fdeh eq[; ugj rFkk 150 fdeh yEch NksVh ugj dk fuekZ.k izk;ksftr gSA ifj;kstuk dk mn~ns”; 122500
fefVªd Vu vfrfjDr [kk|kUu mRiknu djuk gS] tks 108 xk¡oksa ds 15845 ifjokjksa ds 87000 tula[;k dks
ykHk igq¡ pkuk gSA5 dugj tyk”k; dks fjgan ck¡/k ls tksM+s tkus dh izcy laHkkouk gSA vxj ,slk gks x;k rks
ck¡/k dh Å¡pkbZ 52-90 ehVj gks tk;sxhA ck¡/k dh Å¡pkbZ c<+us ls mRrj izns”k] NRrhlx<+ vkSj >kj[k.M ds
lfEefyr #i ls 4131-5 gSDVs;j ¼ftlesa 980 gSDVs;j taxy lfEefyr gS½ Hkwfe dks Mwcus dk lkeuk djuk
iM+sxkA6 oSls ,d xSj izekf.kd vuqeku ;g Hkh gS fd Mwc {ks= 2000 oxZ fdeh dk gksxk vkSj 80 xk¡o blds
izHkko {ks= esa vk,axsA blh vuqeku ds eqrkfcd rdjhcu ,d yk[k xzkeh.k vkfnoklh vkcknh ges”kk ds fy,
viuh iq”rSuh tehuksa ls mtM+ tk,xhA 7
ifj;kstuk ij ,d utj
fdlh Hkh ifj;kstuk ls ykHkkfUor gksus okys gksa ;k ifj;kstuk dh otg ls ihfM+r tulewg dSls vk”oLr
gksa fd mldk fuekZ.k gksuk gh gSA dugj flapkbZ ifj;kstuk dk f”kykU;kl 6 vDVwcj 1976 dks rRdkyhu
eq[;ea=h ukjk;.k nRr frokjh }kjk fd;k x;k FkkA ml le; Mwc {ks= ds vUrxZr vkus okys rFkk viuh
tehu [kksus okys fdlkuksa ls oknk fd;k x;k Fkk fd lHkh fdlkuksa dks 5&5 ,dM+ d`f’k Hkwfe rFkk izR;sd
ifjokj ds ,d lnL; dks ljdkjh ukSdjh nh tk;sxhA dsUnzh; ty vk;ksx }kjk vuqefr feyus ds ckn izHkkfor
vkfnoklh ifjokjksa ds losZ dk dke “kq# dj fn;k x;kA lu~ 1982 bZ0 rd ifj;kstuk dks iwjk djus dk y{;
j[kk x;kA ek= ik¡p fdlkuksa dks eqvkots dk rFkk 80 izfr”kr dks izfrdj dk Hkqxrku fd;k x;kA pw¡fd
ifj;kstuk vUrjkZT;h; gksus ds dkj.k >kj[k.M vkSj NRrhlx<+ ds tyeXu {ks= dk isap Q¡lk rks 1989 esa
ck¡èk dk dk;Z cUn dj fn;k x;kA 8 lu~ 2002 esa >kj[k.M ljdkj }kjk ifj;kstuk dks lgefr fey x;hA
lkFk gh 2007 esa nq)h fo/kkulHkk lhV ls thrs clik fo/kk;d ds vFkd iz;kl ls vUrr% 2010 esa NRrhlx<+
ljdkj ls Hkh vuqefr fey gh x;hA 15 tuojh 2011 dks iwoZ eq[;ea=h ek;korh }kjk iqu% f”kykU;kl fd;k
x;kA vUrfje #i ls 12 uoacj 2012 dks mRRkj izns”k ljdkj ds flapkbZ ea=h f”koiky flag ;kno }kjk ,d
ckj fQj vk/kkjf”kyk j[kh x;hA9 lik ljdkj 2017 ds fo/kkulHkk pquko esa vius fjiksVZ dkMZ ds #i es bls
fn[kkuk pkgrh FkhA blfy, rekke fojks/kksa dk neu djrs gq, pquko iwoZ ifj;kstuk dks iwjk djus dk y{;
j[kkA orZeku Hkktik ljdkj Hkh lRRkklhu gksrs gh lacfU/kr foHkkx ls izxfr vk[;k ek¡xhA fQygky ck¡/k dk
eq[; dk;Z viuh iw.kZrk dh vksj gSA
foLFkkiu dh izfØ;k ls mits loky
fodkl ds ftl Øe esa euq’; us ftu miknkuksa dks fodflr fd;k Fkk vk/kqfud vkS|ksfxd fodkl us
fiNyh rhu “krkfCn;ksa esa lcdks lesV dj ,d ,slh fn”kk ns nh ftlesa flQZ “kfDr”kkyh euq’; gh ldwu ls
jg ldrk gSA dgk tkrk gS fd ;wuku ds Lo.kZdky es izR;sd ;wukuh ukxfjd ds LokfeRo esa djhc 18 xqyke
FksA blls ml lekt dh okLrfodrk dh dYiuk dh tk ldrh gSA 10
foLFkkiu dh iwjh izfØ;k dks le>krs gq, v#U/kfr jk; dgrh gSa]^^yk[kksa yk[k foLFkkfirksa dk vc dksbZ
otwn ugha gSA tc bfrgkl fy[kk tkrk gS os blesa ugha gksrsA vk¡dM+ksa es Hkh ughaA mues ls dqN yksx rhu
ckj vkSj pkj ckj foLFkkfir gq, gSaA ck¡/k ds fy,] pk¡nekjh ds bykds ds fy,] nwljs ck¡/k ds fy,] ;wjs fu;e
dh [kku ds fy,] fctyh ifj;kstuk ds fy,A ,d ckj os yq<+duk “kq# djrs gSa rks fQj #dus dh dksbZ txg
ugha gksrhA buesa ls cgqr cM+h la[;k vkf[kjdkj gekjs cM+s “kgjksa dh ifjf/k ij >ksiM+ifV~V;ksa esa [ki tkrh
gS] tgk¡ ;g lLrs fuekZ.k etnwjksa dh cgqr cM+h HkhM+ esa cny tkrh gS ¼tks vkSj T;knk ifj;kstukvksa ij dk;Z
djrh gS ftlls vkSj T;knk yksx csn[ky gksrs gSa½A lgh gS fd mudk lQk;k ugha fd;k tk jgk gS] exj eSa
nkok djrh gw¡ mudh fjgkbl dk Lrj FkMZ jkb[k ¼ukth dsai½ ds fdlh ;kruk f”kfoj ls cnrj gSA os dSnh
ugha gSa] ysfdu os eqfDr ds eryc dh ,d nwljh gh ifjHkk’kk nsrs gaSA** 11
ck¡/k ds lacU/k esa ,d izHkkfor xzkeh.k ds “kCn]^^ge ck¡/k ugha pkgrs( lPpkbZ ;g fd gesa ck¡/k dh t#jr gh
ugha gSA vius cPpksa dks [krjs esa Mkydj geus lfn;ksa ls ftu taxyksa dks cpk;k gS os mls u’V dj jgs gSa vkSj
ftlds fy, os gekjh mitkÅWa iSr`d tehu pkgrs gSa] ftUgsa ikuh dh t#jr gS muds fy, ;g m|ksx gSA**12
dugj flapkbZ ifj;kstuk dk foLFkkfirksa ij iM+us okyk izHkko
ifj;kstuk ds fuekZ.k ls tgk¡ ,d lewg dk thou Lrj mUur gksxk ogha ij ,d lewg og Hkh gS ftldk
foLFkkiu fd;k tk jgk gS vkSj mudh thou uS;k fdl vksj yxsxh dqN Hkh dguk tYnckth gksxhA ykHkkFkhZ
lewg fnu nqxquk&jkr pkSxquk rjDdh djsxas rks izHkkfor leqnk; dks vius vkidks iquLFkkZfir djus es o’kkasZ
le; yx tk;sxk] ;fn lc dqN Bhd jgk rksA foLFkkiu dh ekj >syus okyksa dks ekuks iSjklwV ls fdlh }hIk
ij mrkj fn;k x;k gks vkSj lqlaxfBr thou;kiu dh pqukSrh feyh gksA foLFkkiu dk foLFkkfirksa ij iM+us
okys izHkko fuEukafdr gSa %&
• ,d vuqeku ds vuqlkj rdjhcu ,d yk[k isM+] 2500 dPps ?kj] 200 iDds ?kj] 500 dq,a] djhc 30
Ldwy vkSj dqN vU; bekjrsa Mwc {ks= es vk,axhA vkt ;s vkadMs+ vkSj Hkh c<+ x, gksaxsA 17
• ifj;kstuk ls lacfU/kr xzke lHkkvksa dks fo”okl esa fy;k tkuk pkfg, Fkk rkfd os LoLFk eu%fLFfr
ls foLFkkiu dks rS;kj gks ldsa] ij ,slk ugha gqvkA myV fojks/k izn”kZu djus okys vkfnokfl;ksa ij
iz”kklu dh vksj ls ccZjrkiw.kZ neudkjh dk;Zokgh dh x;h tks v{kE; vkSj fuUnuh; gSA
• vkfnokfl;ksa dks foLFkkiu ds ,ot esa vkoklh; IykV] eqvkotk vkSj vU; dbZ lqfo/kk,a fey ldrh
gSa( ysfdu mUgsa edku Lo;a cukuk gksxkA lkFk gh ftanxh xqtj clj dk tfj;k u;s fljs ls r;
djuk gksxkA
foLFkkiu uhfr ds lacU/k esa dqN lq>ko
foLFkkiu ls igys fuEu fcUnqvksa ij fopkj vo”; djuk pkfg, %&
• fdlh Hkh ifj;kstuk ds fy, Hkwfe vf/kxzg.k fd;k tk;] ij vf/kxzg.k ls iwoZ izHkkforksa dks fo”okl
esa fy;k tkuk pkfg,A rkfd os LoLFk eu ls foLFkkiu dks rS;kj gks ldsa vkSj izkIr eqvkotk iSdst
dk ;kstukc) rfjds ls lnqi;ksx dj vius vkidks iquLFkkZfir dj ldsA
• izR;sd o’kZ yk[kksa dh la[;k esa bafnjk vkokl vkSj yksfg;k vkokl t:jeanksa dks cuokdj fn, tkrs
gSaA D;k foLFkkfir vkfnokfl;ksa dks bl Js.kh dk ykHk fn;k tkuk U;k;laxr vkSj rdZlaxr ugha
gS \ tcfd foLFkkfirksa es ls nks&frgkbZ yksx vuqnkfur vkokl ikus dh “kr&izfr”kr ;ksX;rk /kkj.k
djrs gSaA
milagkj
jk’Vª dh le`f) ds fy, ifj;kstukvksa dk fuekZ.k ,oa vkS|ksfxd fodkl vifjgk;Z gSA ck¡/kksa vkSj m|ksxksa
ds fy, foLFkkiu vkM+s ugha vkuk pkfg,A yksxksa dks :f<++okfnrk ds HkWoj ls ckgj vkuk pkfg,A ysfdu bl
ckr dk lnSo /;ku j[kuk gksxk fd izHkkfor yksxksa ds dY;k.k ,oa Hkkoukvksa ls le>kSrk drbZ ugha gksuk
pkfg,A ge fdlh Hkh leqnk; dks csgrj cuk,a ysfdu foLFkkfirksa dks ys’kek= Hkh ihM+k vkSj vlqj{kk eglw l
ugha gksuk pkfg,A ty] taxy vkSj tehu dh xksan es cSBs vkfnokfl;ksa dks ckj&ckj foLFkkiu dh ekj >syus
ds dkj.k gh “kk;n uDlyoknh fopkj/kkjk ij Hkh vadq”k ugha yx ik jgk gSA ljdkjsa vkfnokfl;ksa dk Hkjks lk
thrus esa ukdke jgh gSaA vkf[kj R;kx vkSj cfynku vkfnokfl;ksa ds fgLls esa gh D;ksa vkrh gSaA vr% mUufr
ds fy, m|ksx vkSj ck¡/k cuus pkfg,] fdUrq mlds lkFk&lkFk gesa foLFkkiu dh leL;k dks xaHkhjrk ls gy
djuk gksxkA gekjk iz;kl gksuk pkfg, fd foLFkkfirksa dks vf/kd ls vf/kd lqfo/kk,a izkIr gks ldsaA
lanHkZ
1- hindi.indiawaterportal.org/node/47813
2- QukZaMht okYVj] 1993] *fodkl dh dher* lsfeukj] ¼,u 412] fVlacj½ i`’B la[;k 19-25-
3- Vyasulu, Vinod 1998. The South Asian Model. Paper presented at the International Conference on. Colonialism to
Globalisation: Five Centuries After Vasco da Gama. Indian Social Institute: New Delhi. February 2-6. (mimeographed)
i;kZoj.k ,oa lrr fodkl % en~ns vkSj pqukSfr;k¡
va’kw ik.Ms; * ,oa vfHk”ksd jk; **
çLrkouk
i;kZoj.k dk vk”k; i`Foh ds tSo txr dks vko`r djus okys HkkSfrd ifjos”k ls gSA tSo txr dh izk.kok;q
i;kZoj.k gh gSA blhfy, glZdksfoVl us fy[kk gS fd ^î;kZoj.k lEiw.kZ oká ifjfLFkfr;ksa vkSj mudk thoèkkfj;ksa
ij iM+us okyk izHkko gS tks tSo txr ds fodkl dk fu;ked gSA**
i;kZoj.k “kCn îfj* rFkk ^vkoj.k* “kCnksa dk ;qXe gSA îfj* dk vFkZ gS&^pkjksa rjQ* rFkk ^vkoj.k* dk vFkZ
gS&^?ksjk* vFkkZr~ izd`fr esa tks Hkh pkjksa vksj ifjyf{kr gS ;Fkk& ok;q] ty] e`nk] isM+&ikS/ks rFkk izk.kh vkfn
lHkh i;kZoj.k ds vax gSaA
Hkkjrh; i;kZoj.k ¼laj{k.k½ vf/kfu;e] 1986 dh /kkjk&2¼d½ ds vuqlkj& i;kZoj.k esa ok;q] ty] Hkwfe]
ekuoh; izk.kh] vU; tho&tUrq] ikS/ks] lw{e thok.kq vkSj muds e/; fo|eku vUrlZEcU/k lfEefyr gSaA
lkekftd&vkfFkZd fodkl dh og izfØ;k] ftlesa i`Foh dh lgu”kfDr ds vuqlkj lkekftd rFkk vkfFkZd
fodkl orZeku vkSj Hkfo’; dh ihf<+;ksa ds fy, fodkl ds lkFk&lkFk i;kZoj.k dk laj{k.k dj fujUrj fodkl
dh vksj vxzlj gksuk lfEefyr gS] lrr fodkl dgykrk gSA
lrr fodkl dk mn; izkd`frd lalk/kuksa dh lekfIr ds dkj.k vkfFkZd fØ;kvksa rFkk mRiknu iz.kkfy;ksa
ds /khes ,oa cUn gks us ds Hk; ls gq vk gSA izkd`frd lalk/kuksa dh lekfIr ds dkj.k vkfFkZd fØ;kvksa rFkk
mRiknu iz.kkfy;ksa ds /khes ,oa cUn gksus ds Hk; ls lrr fodkl dh tkx`fr dk mn; gqvkA lrr fodkl
“kCn dk iz;ksx igyh ckj IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources)
us viuh fjiksVZ ^fo”o laj{k.k j.kuhfr* esa fd;k FkkA 1987 esa WCED (World Commission on Environment
and Development) us ‘Our Common Future’ uked fjiksVZ esa bldh dk;Z i)fr dh O;k[;k dh ftls U.N.O.
}kjk Lohdkj fd;k x;k gSA blds vuqlkj lrr fodkl og fodkl gS ftlds vUrxZr Hkkoh ihf<+;ksa ds fy,
vko”;drkvksa dh iwfrZ djus dh {kerkvksa ls le>kSrk fd;s fcuk orZeku ih<+h dh vko”;drkvksa dks iwjk
fd;k tkrk gSA iks’k.kh; fodkl dk izeq[k rRo lUrqfyr fodkl gS] ftlls lekt ds lHkh oxksZ dks leqfpr
ykHk izkIr gks ldsA fodkl dk mn~ns”; lHkh oxksZa gsrq de ls de fuEufyf[kr rhu /;s;ksa dks iwjk djuk gS&
* ,y,y0,e0] fof/k fo|ky;] gs0u0c0 x<+oky ¼dsUnzh; fo”ofo|ky;½ Jhuxj] mRrjk[k.M] MkW -ch-th-vkj- ifjlj ikSM+h]
x<+o ky&mRrjk[k.M
** “kks/k Nk=] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] gs0u0c0 x<+oky ¼dsUnzh; fo”ofo|ky;½ Jhuxj] mRrjk[k.M] MkW -ch-th-vkj- ifjlj ikSM+h]
x<+o ky&mRrjk[k.M
1- lekt ds lnL;ksa dks i;kZIr vkSj csgrj thou iks’kd lkexzh iznku djukA
2- vR;Ur mRd`’V thou gsrq visf{kr thou dh lkekftd n”kkvksa dk fuekZ.k vkSj lq/kkjA
3- ekuo leqnk;ksa dks v/khuLFkrk dh fLFkfr ls mckj dj ldkjkRed vkRe&izn”kZu dh Hkkouk fodflr
djukA4
lrr fodkl ds mn~ns”; dh iwfrZ gsrq fuEufyf[kr rhu izeq[k eqn~nksa ij fo”ks’k cy fn;k x;k gS&
1- ikfjfLFkfrdh rU= dh fLFkjrk vkSj fØ;k’khyrk Hkax u djuk&
tSo lalk/kuksa dk laj{k.k] fofHkUu ikfjfLFkfrdh rU=ksa ,oa iztkfr;ksa dk nh?kZdkfyd mi;ksxA
2- jk’Vªh; vkfFkZd fodkl dh uhfr dks okrkoj.kijd cukuk&
i;kZoj.kijd fu;kstu] okrkoj.k ¼ikfjLFkSfrdh rU=½ dh fo|eku fLFkfr dk vkadyu] fodkl dk;ksZa
dk i;kZoj.k ij iM+us okys izHkko dk vk¡dyuA
3- leqUur izkS|ksfxdh dk fujUrj fodkl&
i;kZoj.k fuokjd] vif”k’V fuokjd vkSj lqj{kkRed izkS|ksfxdh dk fodklA
laoS/kkfud micU/k
Hkkjr ds lafo/kku fuekZrkvksa us lafo/kku dk izk:i rS;kj djrs le; ,oa la”kks/kuksa ds ek/;e ls fodkl
ds lkFk&lkFk i;kZoj.k dk laj{k.k gsrq eq[; laoS/kkfud mica/k izko/kku micfU/kr fd;s gaS&
vuq PNsn&19¼1½¼g½] vuq PNsn & 21] vuqPNs n& 47] vuqPNsn& 51 A¼ g½] vuq PNs n& 48A] vuq PNs n&253]
vuqPNsn&32 o 226] vuqPNsn&249] 250 o 252 lIre~ vuqlwph ¼vuqPNsn &246½ & lwph&1 & la?k lwph&
izfof’V&13] lwph&2 & jkT; lwph& izfof’V&14] izfof’V&15] izfof’V&16] izfof’V&17 lwph&3 & leorhZ
lwph& izfof’V&17] izfof’V&17¼d½] izfof’V&17¼[k½A
i;kZoj.k lEcfU/kr Hkkjrh; oS/kkfud fo/kk;u
1- i;kZoj.k ¼laj{k.k½ vf/kfu;e] 1986
2- ty ¼iznw’k.k fuokj.k vkSj fu;a=.k½ vf/kfu;e] 1974
3- ty ¼iznw’k.k fuokj.k vkSj fu;a=.k½ fu;e] 1975
4- ty ¼iznw’k.k fuokj.k vkSj fu;a=.k midj½ vf/kfu;e] 1977
5- ok;q ¼iznw’k.k fuokj.k vkSj fu;a=.k½ vf/kfu;e] 1981
6- ok;q ¼iznw’k.k fuokj.k vkSj fu;a=.k½ fu;e] 1982
7- Hkkjrh; ou vf/kfu;e] 1927
8- ou ¼laj{k.k½ vf/kfu;e] 1980
9- ou ¼laj{k.k½ fu;e] 1981A
10- oU; tho ¼laj{k.k½ vf/kfu;e] 1972

11- jk’Vªh; i;kZoj.k vfHkdj.k vf/kfu;e] 1995A
i;kZoj.k vkSj nkf.Md fof/k
 Hkkjrh; n.M lafgrk] 1860 ds v/khu izko/kku
1- /kkjk&277 & Ykksd ty L=ksr ;k tyk”k; dk ty dqyf’kr djukA
2- /kkjk&278 & ok;qe.My dks LokLF; ds fy, vik;dj cukukA
 n.M izfØ;k lafgrk] 1973 ds v/khu izko/kku
v/;k;&10 & /kkjk&133 ls 144 rdA
oU;thou ¼lqj{kk½ vf/kfu;e ¼1972½ dh dfe;k¡
 blesa LFkkuh; yksxksa ds laj{k.k ds mik;ksa dks lfEefyr ugha fd;k x;k gSA
 dbZ i”kq&lkefxz;ksa ¼ck?k] phrs dh [kky½ ds LokfeRo ds lVhZfQdsVksa dh vuqefr gS ftlls voS/k
O;kikj gksrk jgrk gSA
 vijk/kh dks nh tkus okyh ltk vf/kd dM+h ugha gSA blesa 3 lky dh dSn ;k 25]000 :i;s dk
tqekZuk ;k nksuksa dk izko/kku gSaA
ou ¼laj{k.k½ vf/kfu;e ¼1980½ dh dfe;k¡
 bl vf/kfu;e esa LFkkuh; vkfnokfl;ksa dh Hkkxhnkjh dks iwjh rjg ls utj&vankt fd;k x;k gSA
 ou&fu;a=.k ds vf/kdkj iwjh rjg ls dsUnz ljdkj ds ikl dsfUnzr dj fn;s x;s gSaA cgqr ckj dsUnz
ljdkj ds fy, ;g eqf”dy gksrk gS fd fdlh jkT; ds lqnwj {ks= esa voS/k xSj&okfudh dk;Z dk irk
yxkdj mls jksd ldsA
iznw”k.k lacU/kh vf/kfu;eksa dh dfe;k¡
 iznw’k.k }kjk i;kZoj.k dks gksus okys uqdlku ds fglkc ls vijk/kh dks nh tkus okyh ltk cgqr de
gS A
 eqdn~ek nk;j djus dh izfØ;k vius vki esa gh cM+h tfVy] yach pyus okyh rFkk [kphZyh gksrh gSA
vDlj i;kZoj.k ls tqM+s eqdneksa esa dbZ tfVy rduhdh “kCnkoyh o iz.kkfy;ksa dk o.kZUk gksrk gS
ftUgsa le> ikuk vke yksxksa ds fy, cgqrksa ds fy, dfBu gksrk gSA
 NksVh vkS|kSfxd bdkb;ksa ds ikl vDlj mruk /ku ugha gksrk fd os eg¡xs midj.k yxkdj iznw’k.k
dk fu;U=.k dj ldsaA blds fy, vf/kfu;e esa NksVh bdkb;ksa dks “kks/ku gsrq dqN jkf”k dk _.k
iznku djus dk izko/kku gksuk pkfg,A
 i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ds vf/kfu;eksa dks dkjxj cukus esa vke turk dh Hkkxhnkjh lcls vf/kd mi;ksxh
fl) gks ldrh gSA vr% vke turk dks i;kZoj.k lacU/kh Kku] psruk rFkk f”k{kk nh tkuh pkfg,A
lrr fodkl ,oa U;kf;d izfrfØ;k

 csYykSj flVhtUl osyQs;j Qksje cuke ;wfu;u vkWQ bf.M;k 5 uked okn esa U;k;kewfrZ Jh dqynhi
flag us Li’V fd;k gS fd & ^^gesa ;g dgus esa dksbZ fgpfdpkgV ugha gS fd iks’k.kh; fodkl dk
fl)kUr ikfjfLFkfrdh rU= rFkk fodkl ds e/; lUrqyudkjh ifjdYiuk gS rFkk bls ikjEifjd
vUrjkZ’ Vªh; fof/k dh ek¡x ds :i esa Lohdkj dj fy;k x;k gS ;|fi nwljs vko”;d y{k.kksa dks
vUrjkZ’Vªh; fof/k fo”ks’kKksa }kjk vfUre :i fn;k tkuk “ks’k gSA**
 ,e0 lh0 esgrk cuke Hkkjr la?k ¼rkt iznw’k.k½ 6 uked okn esa mPpre U;k;ky; us iks’k.kh; fodkl
ds fl)kUr dks ekU;rk nh rFkk iks”k.kh; fodkl ds fl)kUr ds lkFk&lkFk iwoZ psruk ;k iwoZ lkoèkkuh
;k iwoZladsr ds fl)kUr rFkk iznw’kd Hkqxrku djs] fl)kUr dh Hkh ppkZ dhA
fu”d”kZ
fu’d’kZr% ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd iks’k.kh; fodkl uohu vkyksd esa fodkl dks iqu%ifjHkkf’kr ,oa mlds
iqu% ewY;kadu dh lrr tkjh izfØ;k gSA bldk vH;qn; ,oa fodkl 1970 ,oa 1980 ds n”kd esa iw.kZ:is.k
iYyou ,oa iq’iu gqvk gSA iks’k.kh;] /kkj.kh;] lrr vkfn fofHkUu ukeksa ls tkus okyh lrr fodkl fo/kk esa
i;kZoj.k dh ladYiuk ds vH;qn; dk chtkjksi.k ekuoh; fodkl ds lkeatL; ds lkFk gh izkjEHk gks x;kA
^î;kZoj.k ,oa fodkl ijLij fojks/kh gSa ,oa i;kZoj.k dsoy /kuh ns”kksa dh leL;k gS** fodkl”khy ns”kksa esa
HkzkfUr;k¡ O;kIr FkhaA ekuo i;kZoj.k ,oa fodkl 7 dh ladYiuk fodflr gqbZ vkSj vUrr% i;kZoj.k ,oa fodkl 8
dh ;kstuk cukdj fodkl ,oa i;kZoj.k ds ikjLifjd lEcU/kksa esa O;kIr HkzkfUr;ksa dks nwj fd;k x;kA ;g ekuk
x;k fd iznw’k.k i;kZoj.k dsoy mRifRr LFkku dks gh izHkkfor gh ugha djrk cfYd bldk oSf”od ifj.kke Hkh
gksrk gSA orZeku le; esa bl ckr dh vko”;drk gS fd lEiUu jk’Vª fodkl”khy ns”kksa ds fodkl esa lg;ksx
nsdj i;kZoj.k iznw’k.k dks fuokjus esa lgk;rk iznku djsaA bl izdkj ge dg ldrs gSa fd orZeku le; esa
dkuwu fuekZrkvksa] iz”kkldksa ,oa U;k;rU= }kjk lrr fodkl dh vo/kkj.kk dks cgqr gh o`gn~ ekuk x;k gSA
euq’; dk eq[; y{; [kq”kh gS vkSj lrr fodkl ds fl)kUr dk y{; orZeku ds lkFk&lkFk Hkfo’; dh ih<+h
ds fy, [kq”kh vkSj vf/kd [kq”kh] lcls vf/kd [kq”kh gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- vks>k ,e0 ds0] 2013&14] *ikfjLFkfrdh ,oa i;kZoj.k]* lIre~ laLdj.k ckSf)d izdk”ku] bykgkckn
2- Hkkjr dk lafo/kku] 2014] *^v’Ve~ laLdj.k**] lsUVªy ykW ifCyds”kUl] bykgkckn
3- dqekj iznhi] 2007] i;kZoj.k iznw’k.k] fMLdojh ifCyf”kax gkml] ubZ fnYyh
4- mik/;k;] t; t; jke 2006] i;kZoj.k fof/k] f}rh; laLdj.k] lsUVªy ykW ,tsUlh] bykgkcknA
Hkkjr esa la?kh; foÙk O;oLFkk dh leL;k,¡
losZ’k dqekj flag *
Hkkjrh; lafo/kku us la?kkRed iz.kkyh dh O;oLFkk dh gSA tgk¡ la?kkRed iz.kkyh gksrh gS ogk¡ dsUnz rFkk
jkT;ksa ds ijLij laca/kksa dh O;oLFkk dh tkrh gSA Hkkjrh; lafo/kku us dsUnz rFkk jkT;ksa esa rhu izd kj ds lacaèkksa
dh O;oLFkk dh gSA ¼1½ fo/kk;h lEcU/k ¼2½ iz”kklfud lEcU/k ¼3½ foÙkh; lEcU/k izR;sd la?kkRed lafo/kku
;g O;oLFkk djrk gS fd foÙk ds lEcU/k esa la?k ljdkj ,oa bdkbZ ljdkjsa ijLij Lora= jgsA muds ikl
vius mÙkjnkf;Roksa dk fuokZg djus ds fy, i;kZ Ir foÙkh; lk/ku gksa A jkT;ksa ds fo/kk;h vkSj iz”kklfud
izkfèkdkj dk;e j[kus ds fy, mudh foÙkh; Lora=rk dks vko”;d ekuk tkrk gS] ysfdu bu la?kh; fl)kUr
dk iwjh rjg ikyu fo”o ds fdlh la?kkRed lafo/kku esa ugha fd;k tk ldk gSA dsUnz rFkk jkT;ksa ds chp
foÙkh; laca/kksa dh O;k[;k lafo/kku ds Hkkx&12 ds v/;k;&1 esa dh x;h gSA foÙkh; {ks= esa Hkh la?k rFkk jkT;ksa
ds e/; foÙkh; lk/kuksa dk foHkktu fd;k x;k gSA Hkkjrh; lafo/kku esa ;g foHkktu 1935 ds vf/kfu;e esa
fd;s x;s foHkktu ij vk/kkfjr gSA orZeku foHkktu ds vuqlkj dqN dj dsoy jkT; ljdkjksa dks lkSis x,
gSA la?k ljdkj dks la?k lwph esa vafdr lHkh fo’k;ksa ij dj yxkus dk vf/kdkj fn;k x;k gSA jkT;&ljdkjs a
vius }kjk yxk, x, djks dks Lo;a ,df=r djrh gS vkSj Lo;a gh viuh vko”;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ds fy, ml
/ku dks O;; djrh gSA ijUrq la?k ljdkj }kjk yxk, lHkh dj la?kh; ljdkj u rks Lo;a ,df=r djrh
gS vkSj u gh lHkh djksa ds /ku dks Lo;a O;; djrh gSA foÙkh; #i ls dsUnz jkT;ksa dh vis{kk vf/kd “kfDr”kkyh
gksrk gSA jkT;ksa dh fodkl ;kstuk,¡ iwjh rjg ls dsUnz ij vk/kkfjr gksrh gSA dksbZ Hkh jkT; dsUnz ds foÙkh;
lgk;rk ds fcuk fdlh Hkh dk;Z dks ugha dj ldrkA
Hkkjrh; lafo/kku ds vuqPNsn 264 ls 296 esa dsUnz rFkk jkT;ksa ds foÙkh; laca/kksa dk mYYks[k gSA laf o/kku
fuekZrkvksa us fdlh dBksj fl)kUr dks ykxw u djds yphysiu ds rRoksa dk lekos”k fd;k gSA lafo/kku esa
cnyrh gqbZ ifjfLFfr;ksa ds vuqd wy foÙk fLFkfr ij fopkj djus vkS j la ”kks /ku ,oa ifjorZu ds fy, foÙk
vk;ksx dh LFkkiuk dk micU/k fd;k x;k gSA
vuqPNsn 266 ds vUrxZr Hkkjr dh lafpr fuf/k rFkk izR;sd jkT; dh lafpr fuf/k dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA
vkdfLed fuf/k rFkk jkT;ksa dks fn, tkus okys djksa rFkk “kqYdksa dks NksM+dj Hkkjr ljdkj dks izkIr lHkh
jktLo ml jkT; ljdkj }kjk gqafM;k¡ fuxZfer djds vfxzeksa }kjk fy, x, lHkh m/kkj rFkk m/kkjksa ls ml
ljdkj dks izkIr lHkh /kujkf”k;ksa dh ,d lafpr fuf/k curh gS] ftls Hkkjr dh lafpr fuf/k ds #i esa tkuk
tkrk gSA mlh izd kj fdlh jkT; ljdkj dks izkIr lHkh jktLo] ml ljdkj }kjk gqafM;k¡ fuxZfer djds
mèkkj vFkok vfxzeksa }kjk fy, x, lHkh m/kkj rFkk m/kkjksa ls ml ljdkj dks izkIr lHkh /kujkf”k;ksa dh ,d
lafpr fuf/k curh gS ftls jkT; ds lafpr fuf/k ds #i esa tkuk tkrk gSA
* vfl0izks0] vFkZ”kkL=] jktdh; ckfydk egkfo|ky;] lsokiqjh] okjk.klhA
vuqPNsn 280 ds vUrxZr foÙk vk;ksx dk xBu jk’Vªifr djrk gSA foÙk vk;ksx ,d laoS/kkfud laLFkk
gS bldk dk;Zdky ik¡p o’kZ dk gksrk gSA foÙk vk;ksx esa ,d v/;{k ,oa pkj lnL; gksrs gSa bldk v?;{k
,slk O;fDr gksrk gS ftls lkoZtfud dk;kZs ds ckjsa esa vPNh vuqHko gksA
foÙk vk;ksx ds izeq[k dk;Z
1- djksa ds lHkh c¡Vokjs vkSj dsUnz ,oa jkT;ksa ds chp djksa dk lgh fu/kkZj.kA
2- dsUnz ,oa jkT;ksa dks iznku dh tkus okyh lgk;rk jkf”k dk fu/kkZj.kA
3- uxj ikfydkvksa] iapk;rksa ds fy, fu;fer jkf”k ,oa lalk/kuks dk fu/kkZj.kA ;g flQkfj”k jkT;
foÙk vk;ksx dh laLrqfr ds vk/kkj ij dh tk;sxhA
4- ,sls dk;Z tks jk’Vªifr }kjk Hksts tk;saA
igyk foÙk vk;ksx ds-lh- fo;ksxh dh v/;{krk esa 22 uoEcj 1951 dks xfBr gqvk] pkSngosa foÙk vk;ksx
dk xBu ,d tuojh 2013 dks fjtoZ cSad dss iwoZ xouZj okbZ-oh- jsM~Mh dh v/;{krk esa gqvkA blus 16
fnlEcj 2014 dks viuh fjiksVZ jk’Vªifr dks lkSihA 14osa foÙk vk;ks x ds fjiksVZ ij ljdkj us dgk fd
fodkl esa jkT;ksa dk flQZ jksy gh ugha gksrk cfYd cgqr vge Hkwfedk gksrh gSA mUgksaus dgk fd xjhcksa ds chp
vPNs ls iSls [kpZ djus] xjhch nwj djus] bUÝkLVªDpj rS;kj djus esa [kpZ fd;k tk;sxkA detksj <+k¡ps okys
11 jkT;ksa dks jktLo enn dh tk;sxhA mUgksaus dgk fd uxj fuxe dks fodkl ;kstukvksa dks vf/kd foÙkh;
vf/kdkj nsus ds fy, dsUnz izfrc) gSA mUgksaus dgk fd uhfr vk;ksx dk xBu ljdkj us blh vo/kkj.kk ds
vk/kkj ij dh gSA
foÙk vk;ksx us dsUnzh; djksa esa jkT;ksa dh fgLlsnkjh c<+kdj 42 izfr”kr djus dk lq>ko fn;k gSA ;g
fQygky 32 izfr”kr gSA 14osa foÙk vk;ksx dh fjiksVZ esa dj gLrkarj.k lacU/kh lq>ko ykxw gksus ij jkT;ksa dks
2014&15 ds 3-48 yk[k djksM+ :i;s vkSj 2015&16 esa ;g 5-26 yk[k djksM+ :i;s izkIr gksxsaA fjiksVZ esa dgk
x;k gS fd T;knk dj gLrkarj.k ls jkT; ljdkjksa dks viuh t:jrksa vkSj vfuok;Zrkvksa ds eqrkfcd ;kstukvksa
ds foÙkiks’k.k vkSj fMtkbu esa vf/kd Lok;Ùkrk feysxhA
vk;ksx dk lq>ko gS fd 2015&2016 dh vof/k esa jkT;ksa ds jktLo vkSj O;; dk lEHkkfor vkdyu djus
ds ckn 11 jkT;ksa ds ?kkVsa dks iwjk djus ds fy, 1-94 yk[k djksM+ :i;s dk vuqnku fn, tkus dh flQkfj”k
dh gSA fjiksVZ esa dgk x;k *jkT;ksa dks T;knk gLrkarj.k ds dkj.k dsUnz dk jktdks’kh; nk;jk blh vuqikr esa
de gksxkA* ,d fopkj gS fd T;knkrj lalk/ku dk izokg dj jktLo ds gLrkarj.k ds :i esa gh gksuk pkfg,A
la?kh; foŸk dh leL;k,¡
• Hkkjrh; la?kh; foŸk iz.kkyh ,slh gS fd blesa izkUrksa ds ikl foŸkh; lgk;rk ds fy, dsUnz dh vksj
ns[kus ds vfrfjDr dksbZ gy ugha gSA blds vfrfjDr lgk;rk] _.k o vuqnkuksa ds :i esa vkrh gSa
tksa izkUrksa ds fy, gkfudkjd gSA dsUnz ls izkIr dqy foŸkh; lgk;rk dk 70% _.k ds :i esa rFkk
dsoy 30% vuqnku ds :i esa vkrk gSA dqN fo”ks’k Js.kh ds izkUr gSa tSls tEew&d”ehj] vle vkSj
vU; mŸkj iwohZ izkUr tgka _.k&vuqnku dk vuqikr 10%90 dk gksrk gS le; ds lkFk&lkFk ljdkj
ds dk;Z c<+ x;s gS rFkk izkUrksa ds lk/ku lhfer jgs gSaA
• orZeku dj foHkktu esa dsUnz ljdkj ds ikl ykspnkj ,oa vf/kd dj vk; nsus okyh djksa dh ensa gaS
tcfd jkT; ljdkjkss dks csykspnkj ,oa de dj jktLo iznku djus okys djksa dh enksa dks iznku
fd;k x;k gSaA
• le;≤ ij jkT; ljdkjksa dh vksj ls ekax dh tkrh jgh gS fd fuxe dj dks vk;dj esa lfEefyr
fd;k tkuk pkfg,] ftlls jkT; ljdkjksa dh vk; lk/kuksa esa o`f) gks ldsA
• dsUnz ljdkj jkT; ljdkjksa dks muds vkfFkZd fodkl ds dk;ksZa dks iwjk djus ds fy, vuqnku lgk;rk
nsrh gS ijUrq tc ls vuqnku lgk;rk nsuk “kq: fd;k gS rc ls fujUrj bl jkf”k dh ek=k esa deh
gks jgh gSA
• dsUnz rFkk jkT;ksa ds e/; vlUrqyu ls tqM+h vUrjkZT;h; vlUrqyu dh leL;k Hkh gSA Lo;a jkT;ksa
dh vk; ,oa mldh vk; lajpuk esa fo”kky vUrj gSA os jkT; tks vkS|ksfxd o`f) ls fodflr gks x;s
gS] fcØh dj ls vf/kd vk; izkIr djus esa lQy gSA nwljh vksj os jkT; tks eq[;r% d`f’k ij vkèkkfjr
gS vk; dh n`f’V ls dkQh ihNs gSA
• foŸk vk;ksx ,d v)ZU;kf;d laLFkk gS ftls jkT;ksa dh foŸkh; vko”;drkvksa dk lgh&lgh tk;tk
ysuk pkfg,] djksa ds foHkktu rFkk vuqnkuksa ds forj.k esa U;k; djuk pkfg, ijUrq bl lEcU/k esa
foŸkh; vk;ksx vlQy jgsa gSaA
• ;kstuk vk;ksx ,oa foŸk vk;ksx dh flQkfj”kksa ij dsUnz ls jkT;ksa ds vUrj.k ls la?kh; bdkb;ksa ds
chp *{kSfrt vlUrqyu* de ugha gqvk gSa vkSj lp rks ;g gS fd mudh izfr O;fDr vk;ksa esa vlekurk,a
c<+ jgha gSA
• izkUrksa ds ctVh; ?kkVksa dks lekIr djus ds fy, foŸk vk;ksax }kjk lg;rk vuqnku dh flQkfj”k
djus ds lEcU/k esa eq[; dfBukbZ izkUrksa ds ctVh; iwokZuqeku dh tk¡p ls lEcfU/kr gSA blds fy,
oS/kkfud dj&iz;kl dks Bhd ls i<+us rFkk O;; esa ferO;;rk dh vko”;drk gSA
• dsUnz ls izkUrksa dh vksj lk/kuksa ds LFkkukUrj.k dk /;kuiwoZd fujh{k.k ;g n”kkZrk gS fd foŸk vk;ksx
dk lkis{k egRo rsth ls ?kV jgk gSA iap o’khZ; ;kstukvksa ds izHkko ds v/khu] izkUrksa ds lkekftd
,oa fodkl dk;ksZa esa O;; dh cgqr o`f) gqbZ gSA izkUrksa ds lk/ku vf/kdrj ykspghu gksus ds dkj.k
izkUrh; ctV esa vUrjky c<+ jgk gSA
fu”d”kZ
bl le; ns”k dk rsth ls vkfFkZd fodkl djds mls ,d bdkbZ ds :i esa lqn`<+ cukus dh vko”;drk
gS] ;g vko”;d gS fd dsUnz o jkT;ksa ds foŸkh; lEcU/k lg;ksx iw.kZ gksA dsUnz o jkT;ksa ds foŸkh; lEcU/k ds
fu/kkZj.k esa fuEu y{;ksa dks /;ku esa j[kuk pkfg,&
1- izR;sd bdkbZ dks vf/kdre lEHko ek=k esa vkRefuHkZj cukuk rkfd og vius nkf;Roksa dk fuokZg
lqpk: :i ls dj ldsA
2- izR;sd jkT; ds fodkl dk ,slk Lrj izkIr djus ds fy, leqfpr ,oa i;kZIr lqfo/kk,a miyC/k gks] tks
fd lkekU; jk’Vªh; Lrj ls vf/kd de u gksA
3- jk’Vªh; ,drk] {ks=h; fgrksa vkSj jkT;ksa dh Lok;Ÿkrk dks lUrqfyr :i esa cuk, j[kk tk;sA
4- vis{kkd`r fiNM+s jkT;ksa dks ;FkklEHko vkSlr Lrj ij ykuk rkfd vkfFkZd fodkl vkSj lkekftd
izxfr ds lEcU/k esa jkT;ksa ds chp ik;h tkus okyh vlekurk dks U;wure fd;k tk ldsA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- MkW - ts-lh- ok”.ksZ; & jktLo
2- MkW - oh-lh- flUgk & yksd foŸk
3- izfr;ksfxrk niZ.k & vFkZ”kkL= fo’ks” kkad
4- ;kstuk % ekpZ 2017
5- dq:{ks= % vizSy 2015
6- vkj-ds- ys[kh % yksd foŸk
7- ,l-,u- yky % yksd foŸk
[kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe] lekos’kh fodkl rFkk ?kjsyw O;kikj dh ‘krZ ds e/;
vUrlZaca/k ij ,d v/;;u ¼d`f”k dher uhfr ds fo’ks”k lanHkZ esa½
foosd dqekj ik.Ms; *
90 ds n”kd ds izkjEHk esa Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk viukbZ xbZ [kqys }kj dh uhfr ¼ Open Door Policy½ ds
i”pkr Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk us tgk¡ ,d vksj Lo;a dks fo”o dh cM+h vFkZO;oLFkk ds :i eas LFkkfir fd;k gS]
ogha nwljh vksj fofHkUu ;kst ukvksa] dk;ZØeksa uhfr;ksa vkfn ds fØ;kUo;u ds ckotwn vFkZO;oLFkk esa [kk|
ladV] csjkstxkjh] fofHkUu {ks=ksa ds fodkl dh /kheh xfr] fofHkUu {ks=ksa o oxksZa ds e/; vlarqyu vFkkZr lekos”kh
fodkl ls nwjh vc Hkh viuh tMs+a tek;sa gq;s gSaA izLrqr ys[k dk ewy mnns”; ;g ijh{k.k djuk gS fd ^D;k
?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ esa d`f’k ds vuqdwy lq/kkj] [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe ds lkFk feydj d`f’k vkSj vkS|ks fxd
{ks=ksa ds larqfyr fodkl ,oa lekos”kh fodkl dks xfr iznku dj ldrk gS ;k ughaA*
izLrqr ys[k dks nks Hkkxksa esa ckaVk x;k gSA izFke Hkkx esa ys[k ds ewy fcUnqvksa ¼ Key Points ½ ds ckjs esa
laf{kIr ifjp; fn;k x;k gS rFkk buds e/; vUrlZaca/k dks n”kkZ;k x;k gSA tcfd ys[k ds nwljs Hkkx esa blds
ewy mn~ns”; ij fopkj&foe”kZ ,oa fo”ys’k.k fd;k x;k gSA
Hkkx& 1% ewy fcUnq ¼Key Points½ [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe] ?kjsyw O;kikj dh ‘krZ] lekos’kh fodkl rFkk
d`f”k dher uhfrA*
[kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe

iks’k.k ;qDr [kk|kUuksa dks lekt ds izR;sd oxZ ds yksxksa ds fy;s i;kZIr ek=k esa lqfuf”pr djkuk [kk|
lqj{kk dgykrh gSA [kk| lqj{kk ls vk”k; dsoy HkjisV Hkkstu ls ugha gSA orZeku le; esa HkkSfrd] vkfFkZ d
vkSj lkekftd fLFkfr;ksa ds ig¡qp ds vykok iks’k.k;qDr o larqfyr vkgkj] LoPN is;ty] LoPN okrkoj.k o
izkFkfed LokLF; dh miyC/krk dks lqfuf”pr djkuk [kk| lqj{kk ds vUrxZr vkrs gSaA Hkkjrh; lafo/kku ds
Hkkx 4 ¼jkT; ds uhfr funs”kd rRo½ ds vuq0 47 ^îks’kkgkj Lrj vkSj thou Lrj dks Å¡pk djuk rFkk yksd
LokLF; dk lq/kkj djuk jkT; dk drZO; gksxk** ij vey djrs gq;s ns”k esa [kk| lqj{kk dh fLFkfr dks etcw r
djus ds fy;s Hkkjr ljdkj us flrEcj 2013 esa [kk| ljq{kk dk;ZØe dks vf/kfu;fer fd;kA
bl vf/kfu;e ds rgr [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe esa fuEu izeq[k izko/kku fd;s x;s gSa&
 [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe dks eq[ ;r% 3 orZeku ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls lapkfyr fd;k tk;sxk&
* “kks /kkFkhZ] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] bykgkckn fo”ofo|ky;] bykgkckn ¼m-iz-½

1- lkoZtfud forj.k iz.kkyh 2- ,dhd`r cky fodkl ;kstuk 3- e/;kUg Hkkstu ;kstukA
 lkoZtfud forj.k iz.kkyh ds ek/;e ls eq[; [kk|kUuksa& xsgw¡] pkoy rFkk eksVs vukt& dh miyCèkrk
dks vke turk rd lqfuf”pr fd;k tk;sxkA [kk| lqj{kk vf/kfu;e }kjk orZeku lkoZtfud forj.k
iz.kkyh esa lq/kkj fd;k x;k gSA vc ykHkkFkhZ ifjokjksa dh nks Jsf.k;ka gkasxh& izkFkfedrk Js.kh rFkk
lkekU; Js.khA izkFkfedrk Js.kh esa lekt ds mu yksxksa dks “kkfey fd;k x;k gS tks xjhch js[kk ls
uhps ¼ch0ih0,y0½ gSa rFkk lkekU; Js.kh ds rgr xjhch js[kk ls Åij ¼,0ih0,y0½ vkus okys yksxksa
dks j[kk x;k gSA
 izkFkfedrk Js.kh ds izR;sd O;fDr dks 5 fdxzk0 vukt izfrekg&pkoy :0 3 izfr fdyksxzke xsgw¡ :0
2 izfrxzke rFkk eksVk vukt :0 1 izfr fdyksxzke dh nj ls& miyC/k djk;k tk;sxkA vUR;ksn;
dkMZ /kkjkdksa dks ;g vukt Øe”k% blh nj ij 7 fdyksxzk e izfr O;fDr izfrekg ¼vf/kdre 35
fdxzk0 izfr ifjokj izfrekg½ miyC/k djk;k tk;sxkA tcfd lkekU; Js.kh ds izR;sd O;fDr dks ;g
vukt 4 fdyksxzke izfrekg U;wure leFkZu ewY; ds 50 izfr”kr dher ij miyC/k gksxkA
?kjsyw O;kikj dh ‘krZ
?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ] ftls d`f’k vkSj vkS|ksfxd {ks= ds chp O;kikj dh “krZ Hkh dgrs gSa] d`f’k vkSj
vkS|ksfxd {ks= ds chp fofue; dh og nj gS] ftl ij nksuksa {ks= vius mRiknksa dk Ø; foØ; djrs gSaA pwa fd
nksuksa {ks=ksa ds chp mRiknksa ds fofue; dh nj mu mRiknksa ds ewY; lwpdkadkas ls fu/kkZfjr gksrk gS ] vr% ?kjsyw
O;kikj dh “krZ dks muds ewY; lwpadkdksa ds vuqikr ds :i esa ifjHkkf’kr fd;k tk ldrk gSA nwljs “kCnks a esa]
fdlh o’kZ fo”ks’k esa fdlh {ks= fo”ks’k ¼ekuk d`f’k½ ds lanHkZ esa ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ ml {ks= ds }kjk nwljs {ks=
¼ekuk vkS|ksfxd {ks=½ dks csps x;s mRiknksa ds ewY; lwpdkad rFkk nwljs {ks= ls [kjhnsa x;s mRiknksa ds ewY;
lwpdkad dk vuqikr gSA
lw= :i esa&
PA
DTOT 
pM
Tkgk¡] DTOT fdlh o’kZ esa d`f’k {ks= o vkS|ksfxd {ks= ds chp O;kikj dh “krZ ¼?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ&
Domestic Terms of Trade), P A d`f’k {ks= }kjk vkS|ksfxd {ks= dks csaps x;s oLrqvksa dk ewY; lwpdkad ftls
d`f’k {ks= dk ewY; lwpdkad dgrs gS( rFkk PM d`f’k {ks= ds }kjk vkS|ksfxd {ks= ls [kjhns x;s oLrqvksa dk ewY;
lwpdkad] ftls vkS|ksfxd {ks= dk ewY; lwpdkad dgrs gSa( gSA
;fn]
PA PA
1- ( p )t > ( p )t0 ¼vk/kkj o’kZ½] rks o’kZ ‘t’ esa ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ o’kZ ‘t0’ ¼vk/kkj o’kZ½ esa ?kjsyw O;kikj
M M
dh “krZ dh vis{kk vf/kd gksxh vFkkZr~] ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ o’kZ ‘t’ esa o’kZ ‘t0’ dh vis{kk d`f’k ds Ik{k
esa gksxhA bls ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ esa d`f’k ds vuqdwy lq/kkj dgrs gSaA
PA PA
2- ( p )t < ( p )t0 ¼vk/kkj o’kZ½] rks o’kZ ‘t’ esa ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ o’kZ ‘t0’ ¼vk/kkj o’kZ½ dh vis{kk de
M M
gksxh vFkkZr~] ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ o’kZ ‘t’ dh vis{kk o’kZ ‘t0’ esa d`f’k ds i{k esa gksxhA bls ?kjsyw
O;kikj dh “krZ esa d`f’k ds izfrdwy o vkS|ksfxd {ks= ds vuqdwy lq/kkj dgrs gSaA
lekos’kh fodkl
lekos”kh fodkl ,d cgqvk;keh vo/kkj.kk gSA tc vkfFkZd o`f) ,oa fodkl dk ykHk lekt ds fuEu]
detksj ,oa xjhc oxZ ds yksxksa dks Hkh leku :i ls izkIr gksrk gS rks bls lekos”kh fodkl dgrs gSaA bl
izdkj lekos”kh fodkl] fodkl dk forj.kkRed igyw gS] ftlds izeq[k vko”;d ?kVd fuEu gSa&
• vk/kkjHkwr vko”;d oLrqvksa ,oa lsokvksa tSls& Hkkstu] oL=] vkokl] ihus ;qDr ikuh] fo|qr] lM+d]
ifjogu ,oa f”k{kk o LokLF; dh lHkh yksxksa ds fy;s lqyHk miyC/krk A
• xzkeh.k o “kgjh {ks=ksa esa jgus okys lHkh csjkstxkjksa ds fy;s lkekU; :i ls rFkk detksj oxksaZ ds fy;s
fo”ks’k :i ls jkstxkj voljksa esa o`f)A
d`f”k dher uhfr
d`f’k dher uhfr d`f’k vkxrksa@lk/kuksa rFkk fuxZrksa@mRiknksa ds ewY; fu/kkZj.k esa ljdkj ds gLr{ksi dh
vksj ladsr djrk gSA d`f’k vkxrksa o fuxZrksa dh ,d mfpr cktkj dher&tks ,d vksj d`’kdksa dks vf/kd
mRiknu ds fy;s izsfjr djs rFkk nwljh vksj ;g xSj&d`’kd oxksaZ ds vuqdwy gks] rkfd laiw.kZ vFkZO;oLFkk dk
rhoz ,oa lekos”kh fodkl laHko gks lds& ds fu/kkZj.k ds fy;s ljdkj mik;ksa] ;kstukvksa o j.kuhfr;ksa dk ,d
<kapk rS;kj djrh gS vkSj blds ek/;e ls d`f’k dherksa dk ,d ekud r; djrh gSA bu lcdks lfEefyr :i
esa d`f’k dher uhfr dh laKk nh tkrh gSA d`f’k dher uhfr ds vUrxZr ljdkj ds ewyr% nks mn~ns”; gksrs
gS a %&
1- dherksa dks cgqr vf/kd u c<+us nsukA
2- dherksa dks U;wure Lrj ls uhps u fxjus nsukA
Hkkx&2% [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe] ?kjsyw O;kikj dh ‘krZ rFkk lekos’kh fodkl
[kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe ds lQy fØ;kUo;u ds fy;s vko”;d gS fd ns”k esa [kk|kUu Hk.Mkj.k i;kZIr gks
vkSj blds fy;s [kk|kUUkksa dk cktkj ;ksX; vf/k”ks’k gksuk o QyLo:i d`f’k {ks= ds fodkl dks lqfuf”pr
fd;k tkuk vko”;d gSA fofHkUu v/;;u bl rF; dh iqf’V djrs gSa fd ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ esa d`f’k ds
izfrdwy lq/kkj d`f’k {ks= dks udkjkRed :i ls rFkk blesa d`f’k {ks= ds vuqdwy lq/kkj d`f’k {ks= dks ldkjkRed
:i ls izHkkfor djrk gSA oh0 ,u0 feJk rFkk ihVj ch0 vkj0 gtsyk] ds bZ-ih-MCyw- ekpZ 1996 esa izdkf”kr
vius ys [k ^^ Terms of Trade, Rural Poverty, Technology and Investment: Indian Experience, 1952-53
to 1990-91** esa d`f’k ds vuqdwy ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ dk d`f’k mRiknu] fdlkuksa dh vk; ,oa d`f’k esa futh
fuos”k ds lkFk /kukRed lglEcU/k dks Lohdkj fd;k gSA muds vuqlkj] 1952&53 ls 1964&65 dh vof/k esa]
tc ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ d`f’k ds izfrdwy Fkk rks ml le; d`f’k th0Mh0ih0 3-3 izfr”kr izfro’kZ rFkk Qly
mRiknu 2-88 izfr”kr izfro’kZ dh nj ls c<+ jgk FkkA tcfd 1967&68 ls 1977&78 dh vof/k esa ?kjsyw O;kikj
dh “krZ ds d`f’k ds i{k esa gks tkus ls d`f’k th0Mh0ih0 rFkk Qly mRiknu Øe”k% 3-81 izfr”kr rFkk 4-25
izfr”kr izfro’kZ dh nj ls c<+k ,oa dqy iwath fuekZ.k 4-79 izfr”kr izfro’kZ dh nj ls c<+hA blds foijhr tc
iqu% 1978&79 ls 1991&92 dh vof/k esa ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ d`f’k dh foi{k esa gks x;h rks d`f’k th0Mh0ih0]
Qly mRiknu o dqy iw ath fuekZ. k esa o`f} dk Lrj ?kV dj Øe”k% 2-9 izfr”kr] 3-84 izf r”kr rFkk 1-2
izfr”kr izfro’kZ gks x;kA
fu”d”kZ
d`f ’k ds vuq dwy ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ esa lq /kkj [kk| Hk.Mkj.k ds fy;s [kk|kUuksa dh miyC/krk dks
lqfuf”pr djds] [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe dks etcwrh iznku djsxk rFkk [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe d`f’k ds vuqdwy
?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ esa lq/kkj dk d`f’k o vkS|ksfxd {ks= ij iM+us okys udkjkRed izHkko dks de djds bu
{ks=ksa ds fodkl rFkk vFkZO;oLFkk esa lekos”kh fodkl dks xfr iznku djsxkA ijUrq lkFk gh fuEu lq>koksa ij
vey fd;k tkuk Hkh visf{kr gS D;ksafd buds fcuk [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe rFkk lekos”kh fodkl dk okLrfod
/kjkry ij ifjyf{kr gks ikuk nq’dj gS&
• dsoy ?kjsyw O;kikj dh “krZ esa d`f’k ds vuqdwy lq/kkj gh d`f’k {ks= dh lao`f} ds fy;s i;kZIr ugha gS A
ljdkj dks d`f’k {ks= esa flapkbZ foLrkj] mPp mRikndrk okys cht] moZjd] vk/kqfud d`f’k ;U=ksa ds
iz;ksx ij Hkh /;ku nsuk gksxk] D;ksafd d`f’k {ks= ds lr~r fodkl esa dher rFkk xSj& dher@rduhdh
dkjd ,d&nwljs ds iwjd gSaA
• [kk| lqj{kk dk;ZØe ds fy;s lgh O;fDr ,oa ik=rk dk pquko djuk loZizeq[k vko”;drk gSA ;fn
[kk|kUuksa dks fcuk fdlh fjlko ds lqjf{kr ,oa lgh ek=k esa lHkh ik= yksxksa rd ugha igqapk;k x;k
rks bl dk;ZØe ds y{;ksa dks izkIr djuk dfBu gksxk vkSj gekjs fl}kUr dHkh O;ogkj :i esa ugha
izdV gks ldsaxsA
• ns” k ea s [kk| lqj{kk dks vkSj csgrj cukus ds fy;s ljdkj dks [kk| iz laLdj.k ij Hkh cy ns uk
pkfg;sA gekjs ns”k esa [kk| izlaLdj.k ds rduhdh Kku vkSj n{krk dh deh gSA fo”o esa Qyksa&lfCt;ksa
ds lcls cM+s mRiknd gksus ds ckotwn Hkh ge ek= 2 izfr”kr izlaLdj.k gh dj ikrs gSaA ftlds
dkj.k vf/kdka”k Qy lfCt;ka u’V gks tkrh gSaA tks [kk| ladV dh fLFkfr dks tUe nsrh gSaA
• f”kdk;r ra= ds lQy fØ;kUo;u rFkk tutkx:drk Hkh bl dk;ZØe dh lQyrk ds fy;s vfuok;Z
gS A
lanHkZ
1. Mishra, V.N. and Peter B.R. Hazela: Terms of Trade, Rural Poverty, Technology and Investment: Indian Experience,
1952-53 to 1990-91, Economic & Political Weekly, March, 1996.
2. Gulati, A. and S. Bhatia: Capital Formation in Indian Agriculture: Revisting the Debate, Economic & Political Weekly,
2001.
3. Krishna & Murty: Inflation and Growth: A Model for India, Indian Economy Review, 1984.
4. Ray and Pal: Investment, Agricultural Productivity and Rural Poverty in India.
foÙk vk;ksx % Hkwfedk dh leh{kk] vko’;drk
dkfeuh xqIrk *
çLrkouk
Hkkjr ,d yksdrkfU=d ns”k gSA ;gk¡ dh turk Lo;a ds fy, Lo;a gh ljdkj dk pquko djrh gS A lkFk
gh Hkkjrh; ljdkj ,d la?kkRed f=Lrjh; <kapk gS ] tks rhu Hkkxksa esa forfjr gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1
la?kh; “kklu esa ,dkRed “kklu ls vf/kd leL;kvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS] fo”ks’k :i ls rc tc
lHkh fodsfUær bdkbZ;k leku :i ls fodkl”khy] le`) rFkk lalk/ku dh –f’V ls Hkh lkekU; u gksA ,sls esa
dsaæ] jkT; rFkk LFkkuh; fudk;ksa esa dk;ksaZ] dj çkfIr ds çfr”krks] vuqnku ,oa _.k dks ysdj leL;k, mRiUu
gksrh gSaA
1950 esa lafo/kku ykxw gksus ds ckn buds dk;ksZ dk cVokjk fd;k x;k A Hkkjrh; lafo/kku ds vuqlwph 7
esa dsaæ rFkk jkT;ksa ds dk;ksZ ds c¡Vokjs ds lEcU/k esa rhu lwph nh x;h tks nksuksa ds dk;ksZ dh Li’V :ijs[kk
çLrqr djrs gSaA
1 - la?kh; lwph 2- jkT; lwph 3- leorhZ lwph
1- la?kh; lwph & la?kh; lwph ds varxZr orZeku esa 97 ensa gSaA ;s lHkh jk’Vªh; egRo dh ensa gSaA
tSls& j{kk] ok;qekxZ] VsyhxzkQ] fons”kh dk;Z] pyu rFkk Vdlky rFkk vk/kkjHkwr vkfnA
2- jkT; lwph & jkT; lwph esa orZ~reku esa 61 fo’k; lfEefyr gSaA tSls & yksd O;oLFkk] yksd LokLF;]
U;k; ç”kklu] LoPNrk vkSj vkS’k/kky;] —f’k] flpkbZ vkfnA
3- leorhZ lwph & blesa 52 ens lfEefyr dh x;h gSaA tSls tul¡[;k fu;a=.k] ifjokj fu;kstu ]
lkekftd lqj{kk vkfnA
* vFkZ”kkL=] “kks/ k Nk=k] ih-,u-th- jktdh; LukrdksÙkj] egkfo|ky;] jkeuxj ¼uSuhrky½] mÙkjk[kaMA
‘kks/k i= ds mís’;
1- foÙk vk;ksx dh Hkwfedk] vko”;drk o dk;Z dk v/;;u djuk
2- 13 osa o 14osa foÙk vk;ksx dh flQkfj”k dks v/;;u djuk
‘kks/k çfof/k
“kks/ki= gsrq MkVk vkSj dk;Z ç.kkyh orZeku v/;;u ds ek/;fed lzksrksa ls larqfyr MkVk ij vk/kkfjr gSA
foÙk vk;ksx dh Hkwfedk] vko’;drk & lafo/kku ds vuqPNsn 280 ¼1½ ds çko/kkuksa ds rgr foÙk
vk;ks x laoS/kkfud o lkafof/kd fudk; gSA ftldk xBu jk’Vªifr }kjk 5 o’kZ ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA 1959
esa vesfjdh vFkZ”kkL=h fjpMZ eLxzso }kjk fn, x, “kCn jktdks”kh; la?kokn Þtks ,d la?kh; ljdkj ç.kkyh
esa ljdkj dh bdkb;ksa ds chp foÙkh; laca/kks dks ifjHkkf’kr djrk gSß bldks lqpk: :i ls O;ofLFkr djus
ds fy, foÙk vk;ksx dh vko”;drk gksrh gS A
dk;Z
1- djksa ds lHkh cVokjs vkSj dsaæ o jkT;ksa ds chp djksa dk mfpr çfr”kr fu/kkZj.kA
2- dsaæ o jkT;ksa dks çnku dh tkus okyh lgk;rk jkf”k dk fu/kkZj.k
3- uxj ikfydkvksa] iapk;rksa ds fy, fu;fer jkf”k o lalk/kuks a dk fu/kkZj.k ¼jkT; foÙk vk;ksx dh
laLrqfr ds vk/kkj ij½
4- ,sls dk;Z tks Lo;a jk’Vªifr }kjk Hksts tk, fu/kkZfjr gksaA
14 os foÙk vk;ksx dh çeq[k flQkfj’ks
1- laiw.kZ djksa ,oa “kqYdksa ls vftZr dqy çkfIr;ksa dk çfr”kr 14osa foÙk vk;ksx us c<kdj 42 çfr”kr
dj fn;k gSA tcfd 13osa foÙk vk;ksx esa ;g 32 çfr”kr Fkk A
2- 14osa foÙk vk;ksx us 2016 & 17 rd jktdkS’kh; ?kkVs dks de dj th- Mh- ih- ds 3 çfr”kr rd
ykuk vkSj 2019 & 20 rd jktLo ?kkVs dks “kwU; djuk gS A tcfd 13osa foÙk vk;ksx ds vuqlkj
jktLo ?kkVk th- Mh- ih- vuqikr dks 2009&10 esa ç{ksfir 4-8 çfr”kr dks 2014&15 rd jktLo
?kkVs dks 0-5 çfr”kr ds jktLo vf/kD; esa ifjofrZr djuk Fkk A
3- ctV çLrkoksa ds jktdks’k uhfr fØ;kUou ds ewY;kadu ds fy, Lora= jktdks”k ifj”kn~ dh LFkkiuk
djuk A
4- ekStwnk ¼FRBM½ vf/kfu;e ds LFkku ij _.k lhek vkSj jktdks’kh; mÙkjnkf;Ro dkuwu ykukA 13osa
foÙk vk;ksx }kjk Hkh 2010&15 rd dh ;kstukvksa ds fy, u, foÙkh; mÙkjnkf;Ro ,oa ctV çko/kku
¼FRBM½ ij fopkj djus dks dgk x;k FkkA
5- 14 osa foÙk vk;ksx ds vuqlkj dj gLrkUrj.k mís”;ksa ds fy, fo”ks’k vkSj lkekU; Js.kh ds jkT;ksa ds
chp erHksn dks lekIr djsa] ysfdu jktLo ds ?kkVs okys 11 jkT;ksa dks vuqnku nsaA
6- jkT; ljdkjksa ds jktLo O;; esa fu;ksftr vkSj xSj fu;ksftr erHksn dks nwj djsaA
7- th- ,l- Vh- ds ykxw gksus ds ckn ;fn jktLo esa ?kkVk gksrk gSA rks rhu o’kksZ rd jkT;ksa dks iw.kZ ¼100
çfr”kr½ {kfriwfrZ djsaA 13 osa foÙk vk;ksx ds }kjk th- ,l- Vh- dh ,dy nj dh flQkfj”k dh x;h
FkhA
8- 14osa foÙk vk;ksx us jkT;ksa ds chp {kSfrtha; c¡Vokjs esa dlkSfV;ksa rFkk Hkkj esa Hkh cnyko fd;s x,
gSa A tks fuEu çdkj gS %&
rkfydk la[;k 2
dlkS fV;k Hkkj ¼çfr’kr½
tul¡ [;k 17-5
tukafddh; ifjorZu 10-0
vk; nwjh 50-0
{ks =Qy 15-0
ou vkPNknu 7-5
100
lzksr& çksQ- ,l- ,u- yky- ,oa M‚- ,l- ds- yky ¼2017½ ÞHkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk losZ{k.k rFkk fo”ys’k.k
14osa foÙk vk;ksx }kjk laLrqr gLrkarj.k ¼2015&20½
rkfydk la[;k 3
¼djksM+ :i;k½ foHkkT; iwy ds
çfr’kr :i esa
1- jkT;ksa dk djkUrj.k 3948187 ¼42½
2- foÙk vk;ksx }kjk jkT;ksa dks vuqnku ¼v+ + c + + l½ 5,37,354 ¼5-2½
v- djkarj.k ijorhZ jktLo ?kkVk xzkaV 194821
c- vkink jkgr xzkaV 55097
l- jkT;ksa ds LFkkuh; fudk;ksa dh xzkaV 287436
3- foÙk vk;ksxksa ls jkT;ksa dks dqy gLrkarj.k ¼1+2½ 4485541 ¼47-72½
4- foHkkT; iwy 940044
5- dsaæ ljdkj ds ikl miyC/k jktdks’kh; Lisl ¼4&3½] ftues ls 4914904 ¼52-28½
6- jkT;ksa dks vU; çR;kf’kr gLrkarj.k 1477943 ¼15-72½
7- dsaæ ls jkT;ksa dks dqy xzkaV 2015297
8- jkT;ksa dks lexz gLrkUrj.k 5963484 ¼63-44½
lzksr& çksQ- ,l- ,u- yky- ,oa M‚- ,l- ds- yky ¼2017½ ÞHkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk losZ{k.k rFkk fo”ys’k.k
fu”d”kZ
14oka foÙk vk;ksx 13osa foÙk vk;ksx ls dbZ vk/kkjksa ij fHkUu gS ftlds nwjxkeh ifj.kke fodkl”khy ;k
[kjkc Hkh gks ldrs gSa tks fuEu gSa&
1- djkUrj.k dks 32 ls c<kdj 42 çfr”kr djuk A ;g vc rd ds vUrj.k esa lcls cM+h o`f) gS
ftldk ds aæ ljdkj dh gLrkUrj.k O;LFkk ij çHkko iM+ ldrk gSA ;g O;oLFkk esa leL;k, o
fo?kVu Hkh mRiUu dj ldrk gS A
2- 14 osa foÙk vk;ksx esa jktLo ?kkVk vuqnku dks ;kstukxr jkT;ksa ds O;; dks /;ku esa j[kdj cuk;k
x;k gSA tcfd 13osa foÙk vk;ksx esa bldks çkFkfed f”k{kk vkSj i;kZoj.k ij O;; djus ij tksj fn;k
x;k Fkk A
3- 14 osa foÙk vk;ksx esa th- ,l- Vh- tks 1 tqykbZ 2017 dks ykxw gksus okyk gS ij jktLo esa ?kkVk gksrk
gS rks dsaæ ljdkj }kjk 3o’kksZ rd jkT;ksa dks 100 çfr’kr {kfriwfrZ nsus dh flQkfj”k dh x;h gS A
tcfd 13osa foÙk vk;ksx us ;g lq>ko fn;k Fkk dh dsaæh; th- ,l- Vh- esa vf/kdka”k ek= esa lsl vkSj
ljpktZ dks “kkfey djsa rkfd jktLo esa o`f) gks lkFk gh jktLo ?kkVk de gksxk A
4- 14oka foÙk vk;ksx igyk foÙk vk;ksx gS ftlus dj vUrj.k esa 2011 dh tul¡[;k dks Hkkj ds :i
esa çLrqr fd;kA tcfd 13 osa foÙk vk;ksx rd 1971 dh tul¡[;k dks Hkkj çnku fd;k x;k A
lsu ds vuqlkj & ÞdqN jkT; fo”ks’k :i ls fiNM+s ftys cgqr [kjkc fLFkfr esa gksaxs ;fn ch- vkj- th-
,Q- dks lekIr dj fn;k tk,Aß
lUnHkZ lwph
1- çksQ- ,l- ,u- yky- ,oa M‚- ,l- ds- yky ¼2017½ Þ Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk losZ{k.k rFkk fo”ys’k.kß
2- vkfFkZd leh{kk
3- foÙk vk;ksx fjiksVZ
fofuekZ.k m|ksx ds rgr oL= m|ksx ds vUrxZr fLdy LVS.Mvi vkSj LVkVZvi
dk la;kstu
;klehu ckuks * ,oa vjfoUn izdk’k **
Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk tks ikjEifjd :i ls d`f’k ij vk/kkfjr jgh gS] vc fofuekZ.k dh rjQ yEch Nykax
yxk jgk gS] tks vFkZO;oLFkk esa yxHkx 16 izfr”kr dk ;ksxnku djrk gS] ysfdu jsktxj vkSj fodkl esa bldk
;ks xnku bldh okLrfod {kerk ls dgha de gSA dBksj vkSj fu”ks/kkRed Je dkuwu] dq”ky Je&cy dh
rqyuk esa vdq”ky Je&cy dh fo”kkyrk vkSj rduhd iz;ksx/kfeZrk dh deh dqN ,sls eqn~ns gSa tks bldk
eq[; dkj.k gSA
oL= m|ksx LokHkkfod :i ls u dsoy fujarj ek¡x dh laHkkO;rk (Potential) ls lEiUu gS cfYd rduhdh]
dkS” ky ,oa LVkVZv i gsrq reke la Hkkoukvksa ls Hkh ifjiw.kZ fn[krk gS] ys fdu izf rLi/khZ dky esa ijEijkxr
rjhdkas ij vk/kkfjr mRiknu vkSj vlEc) cktkjksa ds tfj;s lQyrk dh mEehn ugha dh tk ldrhA blfy,
;g ns[kuk t:jh gksxk fd oL= Hkkjr dh Hkkoh cktkj ,oa mRiknu O;oLFkk esa fdl izdkj dh Hkwfedk fuHkk,xk]
mlesa fufgr laHkkO;rk fdruk mi;ksx laHko gksxk] bles a uoksU es” k ds fy;s fdruk LFkku gksxk vkSj D;k
LVkVZvi o LVSaMvi dgk¡ rd ys tkus esa lQy gks ik;sxkA
bfrgkl bl ckr dk lk{kh gS fd uxjhdj.k vkSj O;olkf;d Økafr ,d lkFk lEiUu gq;h vkSj viuh
lEiUurk ds dky esa bu nksuksa esa vU;ksU;kfJr lEcU/k cus jgsA egRoiw.kZ ckr ;g gS fd f}rh; uxjhdj.k
ds le; oL=ksa esa xq.koRrkijd fo”ks’krkvksa ds lkFk&lkFk +{ks=h; fo”ks’krkvksa dk mn; Hkh gqvkA iqaM +q] {kkses]
lkVd] phuk’kqa d tSls fofo/k ukeksa ls diM+k viuh /kkd tekus esa lQy jgk] tks e/;dky js’ke] ckaXyk]
[kqTt&,&fnYyh] [kqTt&,&dksuyk] e”k: “ksjh] “khjh ckQ~r] ukxkSjh] flygVh ds :i esa vius Qyd O;kid
:i nsus esa lQy jgkA ;g Qyd bruk O;kid gqvk fd ;wjksih; cqf)thoh] Hkkjrh; lwrh oL=kas ls Hk; [kkus
yxsA ^^- - - vjs ;:’kye~ vjs ;:’kye~] vius fouk”k dk dkj.k rw Lo;a gS - - - vjs bXyS.M] vtuch O;fDr
rq>s fuxy jgs gS] fons”kh rq>s uksp [klksV jgs gSa] rw mu ubZ oLrqvksa ls I;kj dj jgk gS] tks rsjk loZuk’k dj
nsa xh- - - **] tS ls “kCnks a ls ;wjksi ds euksfoKku dks cnyus dh dks f’k’k dh x;hAA Plan of The English
Commerce ds ys[kd us Hkkjrh; oL=ksa dks dsUnz esa j[kdj rks ;g rd dg fn;k fd& ^^gekjh nks ckrsa &
gekjh okluk;sa vkSj gekjs QS”ku vnE; gSaA**
* “kks/k Nk=k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] fQjkst xk¡/kh dkyst] jk;cjsyhA
* ,”kksf l,V izksQsl j] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] fQjkst xk¡ /kh dkyst] jk;cjsyhA
varr% mifuos”koknh O;oLFkk dk lcls xgjk izgkj lwrh oL=kssa ij gqvk vkSj Hkkjrh; pj[ks o dj?ks dks rksM+
fn;k x;k] tSlk fd ekDlZ us ,axsYl ds uke i= esa fy[kk gS fd vaxzst ?kqliSfB;k gS] ftlus Hkkjrh; dj?ks dks
rksM+ fn;k vkSj lwrh oL= dh tuuh dks vius oL=ksa ls ikV fn;kA rhljh egRoiw.kZ ckr ;g gS fd Lons”kh
vkUnksyu dk ekSfyd vk/kkj Hkh ;gh oL= cus ftlls ns”kh jk’Vªokn dh cqfu;kn n`<+ gq;hA bldk vFkZ ;g gqvk
oL= dsoy “kjhj dks <dus dk gh dke ugha djrk cfYd og laLd`fr dk izfrfuf/kRo djrk gSA mRFkkudky esa
uxjh;rk ,oa cktkjokn dks fgLlk curk gS] ftlds ijkftr gksus esa ijk/khruk dh cqfu;kn fufgr gS vkSj ftlds
uofuekZ.k esa Lons”kh jk’Vªokn dk HkkoA vkt ds le; esa ;g ikjEifjd fo”ks’krkvksa ds lkFk dykRedrk] laHkzkUrrk]
Hknzrk] rduhd o dkS”ky] LVkVZvi vkSj la;kstu ds e/; la;kstu dk okgd Hkh gSA
thou esa oL= dh ewy vko”;drk ds lkFk&lkFk ,d m|ksx ds :i esa bldh vkfFkZd thou esa fo”ks’k
vgfe;r gSA vr% Li’V gS fd oL= m|ksx dk jkstxkj l`tu ds lkFk&lkFk Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk esa vge
;ksxnku gSA Hkkjr esa oL= m|ksx orZeku le; esa yxHkx 100 vjc vesfjdh Mkyj ls vf/kd ewY; dk gksus
dk vuqeku gSA ;g d`f’k ds ckn jkstxkj iznku djus okyk nwljk lcls cM+k {ks= gSa] ftlesa 4-5 djksM+ yksxksa
dks izR;{k :i ls vkSj yxHkx 6 djksM+ yksxksa dks ijks{k :i jkstxkj feyk gqvk gSA buesa lwrh oL=ksa] dj?kk]
Åuh oL=ksa ds fofuekZrk vkiwfrZdrkZ] Fkksd O;kikjh vkSjj midj.k fofuekZrk jatd vkSj dPpk eky vkiwfrZdrkZ
rS;kj oL=] ÝsfczDl vkSj xkjes .V ds forjd “kkfey gSA oL= m|ksx dk ladV ?kjs yw mRikn ds djhc 5
izfr”kr izR;{k ;ksxnku gS vkSj ;g {ks= vkS|ksfxd mRiknu ds lexz lwpdkad esa djhc 14 izfr”kr ;ksxnku
curk gS rFkk fu;kZr ls gksus okyh vk; esa yxHkx 13 izfr”kr dk ;ksxnku nsrk gSA buls Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk
esa diM+k m|ksx dh vgfe;r Lo;a dh izekf.kr gks tkrh gSA
vkt ds cktkjokn vkSj oSfo/;iw.kZ ekax dh izfr;ksxh vkiwfrZ ds fy;s ;g vko”;d gS fd Hkkjrh; diM+k m|kxs
dks u;s lalk/kuksa ls lEiUu fd;k tk;s vkSj ljdkj viuh laosnu”khy uhfr;ksa ds ek/;e ls mls izfr;ksxh cukus dk
lexz iz;kl djsaA oSls dsUnz ljdkj us dkQh igys ls gh bl fn”kk esa iz;kl vkjEHk dj fn;s gSa] ftudk mn~n”s ;
bu {ks= dks oSf”od igpku fnykrs gq;s Hkkjr ds ;qokvksa dks jkstxkj miyC/k djkuk gSA bl lUnHkZ esa ljdkj us
viuh uhfr dks nks Lojksa ij fØ;kfUor djus dh ;qfDr viuk;h gSA ,d Lrj ij oL= mRiknu ds fy;s dPpk eky
miyC/kk djkus gsrq iVlu] js’ke] dikl vkfn ds mRiknu ds fy;s fdlkuksa dks izkRs lkguA tcfd f}rh; Lrj ij
oL= fuekZ.k ds {ks= esa vk/kqfud rduhd ds bLrseky dh lqfuf”prrkA blds fy;s ea=ky; esa fLdy] Ldsy vkSj
LihM ds lkFk&lkFk ^thjks fMQsDV ls thjks bQsDV* dh uhfr ij cy fn;k gSA
esd bu bf.M;k] fLdy bf.M;k vkSj eqnzk tSlh ljdkj dh igys ns”k dh m|e”khyrk dks izkRs lkgu nsdj
Hkkjr dks nqfu;k dk fofuekZ.k dsUnz cukus dh fn”kk esa ,d xHHkhj iz;kl gSA bl ctV esa ,d “kkunkj cqfu;knh
<kals dk izcU/k ÅtkZ] vkiwfrZ esa ck/kk,s]a rduhd vkSj uokpkj vkfn ij Hkh mfpr /;ku fn;k x;k gSA
vr% dgk tk ldrk gSa fd Hkkjrh; fofuekZ.k {ks= esa og {kerk gS fd Hkkjr dks nqfu;k dh lcls rst
vFkZO;oLFkk dk ntkZ izkIr djus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk ldrk gSA ljdkj vkSj m|ksx txr dh rjQ ls
mi;qDr izfrc)rk bl lius dks fuf”pr gh lkdkj dj ldrh gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- ,u0lh0bZ0vkj0Vh0 Hkwxksy & lalk/ku vkSj izknsf’kd fodkl] ist ua0&53
2- ;kstuk vizSy 2015] ist ua0&7] 29
3- ;kstuk vizSy 2016] ist ua0&7] 21
Theme 2
Women Empowerment in Micro and Small Scale Industries

in National Capital Region: With Reference to Manufacturing
Sector
Jasneek Arora* & Shalini Singh Sharma**
Introduction
The empowerment of women is identified as a crucial aim of the international
agencies, such as World Bank and WHO. It serves as a base in accomplishing various
goals, relating to poverty reduction, economic development and gender equality.
Empowerment is nothing but enhancing an individual’s choices and converting those
choices into desired outcomes. Many development agencies and international
organisations have aimed to tap the socio economic situation of women in households
and at workplaces (Kabeer, 1995; Malhotra & Schuler, 2005). Studies on empowerment
particularly highlight dimensions such as access to training and development, access
to resources (Kishor & Neitzel, 1996), absence of domestic violence, financial autonomy
etc. While women empowerment is concerned with various dimensions, feminist
studies have focused on to the agenda of development (Kabeer, 2012). The economic
dimension of women empowerment in the past two decades has out passed other
dimensions, hence becoming increasingly observable in the international policy decisions.
The process of women empowerment has a pivotal role in the course of development,
especially for a developing nation like India, where women form half of the population
base. The Beijing Declaration outlined the need to promote women’s economic
independence encompassing employment opportunities along with ensuring equal
access to resources and services (Women Beijing Declaration, 1995). Therefore, economic
empowerment in the most general sense is making the markets available to women
at the agency level and at policy level too (World Bank, 2006).
Micro and small scale industries, are leading corporation for enhancing the level
of economic empowerment of women. Micro and small scale industries in recent
decade have realised the importance of women employees, and therefore, have opened
up a plethora of employment opportunities for women. Around 94.94% of employment
opportunities are provided by micro enterprises and 4.89% by small scale enterprises.
Where, out of 93% around 21% of the employment is given to females in micro and
* Research Scholar, Amity School of Economics, Amity University, U.P.
** Director, Amity School of Economics, Amity University, U.P.
small scale industries (Annual Report, Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises,
2015-16). The Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development Act 2006, integrated
manufacturing and service entities. The major task of the entities is of income generation,
employment generation and skill development.
Research Design
The main aim of the paper is to study the impact of employment in enhancing
women’s ability to make choices and convert those choices into desired actions. As
workplace is driven by various community factors, therefore, the paper focuses on
the impact of employment in making decisions in the family and at workplace about
income, assets, health and mobility.
The objective of the paper is, thus, to examine the empowerment status of women
working in micro and small scale industries
The manufacturing sector forms a broad base of our economy, having a considerable
share in employment generation in micro and small scale industries also. Therefore,
the sector has been chosen to study the impact of employment in manufacturing
sector on women empowerment. The sector consists of various industries but by
looking at the share of female employment in each of the industries of manufacturing
sector, textile/garment industry has been chosen to study the desired objective (National
Sample Survey Organisation, 2016-17). The area of the study is Delhi and Noida.
Primary data survey was used to collect data from 50 women working in textile/
garment industry. The data was collected through questionnaire and interview method.
Model Specification
Multinomial logistics regression (MLR) are used to see the effect of socio economic
characteristics on women empowerment. The effect of marital status, educational
background and religion is examined on multiple response category variables. The
dependent variables are the indicators of women empowerment. Women empowerment
is a function of several explanatory variables, and take the form of 1 if empowered
and 0 if not empowered.
Following Agresti (1995) and Hosmer & Lemeshow (1989), Y i is the dependent
variablewhich takes up the value 1 if women working in micro and small scale
industries are empowered and 0 if women working in micro and small scale industries
are not empowered. All the explanatory variables are denoted by a vector Z’ = (z1, z2
…… zn) and the vector of respective coefficients is ?’ = (?1, ?2 …. ?n ), where the
variables are qualitative. The conditional probability is denoted by P(Yi = 1/Z) = ?(Y)
The multi logit model then is given by the equation:
g(Z) = ?0 + ?1z1 + ?2z2 + …….. +?pzp
Results & Discussion
Table 1 (Appendix) shows the odds ratio of various variables. The scores given
to decision making in household and at workplace are given two scores 1 and 0. If
the odds ratio are in the favour of 1 then we can say that women working in micro
and small scale industries are empowered with respect to decision making. Using,
religion as one of the explanatory variables, it is seen that women belonging to
Hindu religion are relatively better off at making decisions in households and at
workplace than Muslim and Christian women. Looking at the marital status, it is
seen that, single women are more likely to make decision than married women.
Here, education plays a very important role, as most of the single women have
completed their under graduate and post graduate studies and therefore, have a say
in matters of family and of workplace. Therefore, it is evident that education plays a
crucial role in decision making aspects. The results therefore, specify that 72.5% to
70% decision making is increased of women employed in micro and small scale
industries. Out of which major decision are made regarding health, education and
clothing.
Role of micro and small scale industries in providing training to its employees
cannot be neglected. Hence, the results show that the industries have been very
efficient in providing training to its employees. Women who have their educational
background very bleak, or who have only completed their studies up to 8th class are
more likely to get training than the women who have completed their UG and PG
degrees. Hence, it is evident that single women have majorly completed their UG
and PG degrees, and are given less training relatively to the married women have
completed their education up to 8th class.
As education makes us aware about our rights, duties and responsibilities, therefore,
the more the educational qualification the more is the rights enjoyed by woman.
72.5% of women need permission before going out. 40% go alone to workplace, 35%
go alone to health centre, 45% go alone to the market and 30% do not go anywhere.
The married women who have UG and PG degrees as their educational qualification
have odds ratio of possessing a house. However, all the single women possess a two
wheeler for their transportation. The results tell us that 64% have vehicle registered
under their name and 27.5% have house registered under their name.
Conclusion
The paper revolved around the objective of examining whether the women working
in micro and small scale industries are empowered or not, with special reference to
control over resources or asset ownership, freedom of movement, decision making
in household and at workplace, financial autonomy and provision of training.
Having informants from such a huge manufacturing base, the paper has shown
the effects of explanatory variables such as marital status, religion and education
level on the empowerment status of women. To do so, the paper has presented the
effect of each explanatory variable with each and every indicator of women
empowerment via Multinomial Logistic Regression model.In the context of decision
making at household and at workplace, the result indicates that there is a significant
relationship between employment and participation in decision making. This indicates
a perceived increase in the entire empowerment process, which helps in inducing
self confidence among women about their bargaining power. However, with respect
to control over resources, only single women have found to have an asset registered
under their name. Here, education plays a vital role, the women having an education
level of UG, PG and 12th class have either of the asset, house or two wheelers,
registered under their name. The indicator also depends upon various other socio
economic dimensions such as household income or own income, status or standard
of living in the society.
The result about mobility indicate that women still need permission before stepping
out of the house be it for work, or to visit market or any other recreational facility.
However, about 30% of the women reported that they are still not allowed to go
alone anywhere. The indicator dependency majorly focusses on the attitude or perception
of husband and other members of the family regarding a woman’s role and freedom
in the society. Various social and cultural norms play a big deal in persuading the
attitude positively or negatively regarding the said indicator. A major breakthrough
which has been brought up by the results is relating to the financial autonomy aspect,
wherein, 95 % women reported to have bank accounts and ATMs. This aspect helps
serve the independency of a woman in the society, further boosting her morale,
confidence and giving her equal rights in the financial matters. The indicator also
helps us to look beyond the set societal norms, by looking at the enhancement of
credibility of the working women.
It is observed that the empowerment process of a woman goes through various
cultural and social norms. Therefore, the most reliable factors that play a crucial role
in the process are the various structural factors of a household. As rightly said
empowerment begins at home and then trickles down to other places such as workplace.
Hence, the empowerment process is said to have a trickle-down effect. Employment
adds up to this effect, as new opportunities are created which further helps in getting
better access to resources and widening up of decision making possibilities, thus
enhancing capabilities. Hence, employment is one of the channel through which a
stream of empowerment flows and merges with economic, political, cultural and
societal streams.
Less has been studied about the role which a workplace plays in empowering
their women employees (Wolf, 1992), therefore, the paper has looked into various
aspects that serve the purpose of filling the gap. However, much is there to be researched
upon, issues relating to facilities provided by workplaces, the reward system that
functions in a workplace which further adds up to the empowerment process.
References
1. Hall & Parker (1993). The Role of Workplace Flexibility in Managing Diversity. Organsiational
Dynamics, 22(1), 5-18.
2. Spreitzer (1995). Psychological Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement
and Validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465.
3. Mehra (1997). Women, Empowerment and Economic Development. The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 554(1), 136-149.
Issues and Challenges of Women Workforce of Chikankari

Handicraft Sector
Shristi Purwar* & Jagdish Narayan**
Introduction
The proportion of population engaged in economic activity is called workforce
participation rate. In other words, workforce participation rate refer, economically
active population of any country. Indian economy may be studied in two distinctive
sectors - organized and unorganized sector, where large numbers of peoples are
working. According to economic survey 2015-16, less than 12% of workforce is working
in organized sector and more than 85% workforce are engaged in unorganized. India
is second most populous country in the world, where 48% women are part of total
population. Many studies have shown that, women workforce participation rate has
been stagnant in Indian Economy from many years. In India, 27% women are working
in rural area and 16% women are working in urban area for organized and unorganized
sector (Ajay Sen committee report, 2016). The concept of the unorganized sector was
introduced in 1972 by the International Labor Organization (ILO) in Kenya Mission
Report, which defined unorganized as a way of doing things characterized by (a)
ease of entry; (b) reliance on indigenous resources; (c) family ownership; (d) small
scale operations; (e) labor intensive and adaptive technology; (e) skills acquired outside
of the formal sector; (g) unregulated and competitive markets.
In India, Unorganized sector classified into four groups. These groups are: -
Occupational group, Nature of employment Group, especially distressed category
and service category (India’s Ministry of Labor report, 2008)
• Occupational group include small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural
laborers, fishermen, animal husbandry, beedi rolling, packing, building and
construction workers, leather workers, weavers, artisans, mill workers etc.
• Nature of employment category includes attached agricultural laborers, bonded
laborers, migrant workers, contract and casual laborers.
• Another separate category dedicated to distressed unorganized sector includes
toddy tappers, scavengers, carriers of head loads, drivers of animal driven vehicles.
* Faculty, Centre of Fashion Design & Technology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
** Professor Economics Department & Dean of Commerce, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
Handicrafts can be defined as products which are produced either completely by

hand or with the help of tools. Mechanical tools may be used as long as the direct
manual contribution of the artisan remains the most substantial component of the
finished product (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization/
Information Technology Community). In India handicrafts sector have great potential
of employment generation and income generation as it hold the key for sustaining
not only the millions of artisans already existing, spread over length, and breadth of
the country, but also for the increasingly large number of new entrants in the crafts
activity. Both men and women are contributing in the production of handicraft sector.
Presently approx 30.25 lakh male and 38.61 lakh female artisans are employed in
Indian handicraft Industry. Various states of India such as Manipur, Tripura, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Kashmir, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala are popular for its handicraft
collection. Each States offers a wide range of handicrafts, with its own identity. These
handicraft items represent quality craftsmanship from the respective states. The most
popular items in Indian handicrafts are metal ware, wood ware, Ceramic work, Jute
work, bamboo work, hand painting, hand embroidery etc.
Chikankari embroidery handicraft is one of the important sub-sector of Indian
handicraft industry. Chikankari embroidery work is renowned in all over the world
for its fineness, delicacy and elegance. The art of Chikankari embroidery in India is
about 400 years old. It is believed that, this is a Persian craft, which came to India
with Noorjahan, the Queen of Mughal Emperor Jahageer. The term Chikan is derived
from Chikeen or Chakeen word, which means fine embroidered cloth. Chikankari
Embroidery flourished under the patronage of the rulers of Awadh. Later when the
capital of awadh shifted to Lucknow from Faijabad, in the year 1722, the knowledge
of the craft came to Lucknow. Approx 2.5 lakh workers are employed at various
stages of production of Chikankari products such as cutting, printing, embroidery,
stitching, finishing and washing. Chikankari embroidery work is more laborious and
time taking work. Most of workers or artisans are muslim women, who do this
needle work successfully. The major populations of workers are lives in villages
around the main city of Lucknow in a radius of about 125 km. Sitapur, Lakhimpur,
Raibareily, Sultanpur, Faizabad, Unnao, Hardoi and Barabanki are the main sub-
centre of the Chikankari Embroidery handicraft work. But After lot of time consume
and hard-work in embroidery work, they facing many problems in daily routine
such as related to wage, health, medical, education, water, power, distance between
rural area to city etc. The paper entitled “Issues and challenges of women worker of
Chikankari Handicraft Sector” discusses some facts of female workers of Chikankari
handicraft sector. The main objectives of this study are:
Objectives
• To understand present scenario of Chikankari embroidery Handicraft
• To highlight issues and challenges of women workers of Chikankari embroidery
Handicraft
Methodology
In order to deep understanding of the study, both, primary and secondary data
are used. For collection of secondary data, published article, journal, books, blogs
and relevant websites are used. For collection of primary data, semi structured
questionnaire was prepared. Questionnaire was divided into two sections. The questions
were first section of questionnaire, related to personal data of respondent workers of
Chikankari Handicraft such as age, education, family size, occupation etc. and in
second section, question were related to issues and problems of respondent workers
of Chikankari Handicraft such as wages problems, health issues, education, living
problems, electricity problems, water problems etc. For collection of data interview
method was adopted. Data was collected in Chowk, Aliganj area of the Lucknow
City. Data was collected from 60 women workers of Chikankari Handicraft purposively.
Tabulation and Analysis
Table 1: Show General Personal Information of Respondent Women Workers of

Chikankari Embroidery Craft
General Information of Respondent Worker
Muslim women worker – 75%

Religion
Hindu women worker – 25%
Below 10 th class passed – 80%
Education level
10 th passed or above – 20%
Formal training – 05%
Formal training
No formal training – 95%
Between 15 – 25 yrs – 60%
Age group Between 25 – 35 yrs – 30%
Above 35 yrs – 10%

Average Family Size Between 6 – 12 members
Family monthly income Between Rs. 3000 – 7000/-

Rickshaw wala, Paanbidi shop, Bicycle puncher shop, Small tea stall vendor,
Family occupation
Trolley wala, Fruit seller, washer man, Printer, tailor, daily wage workers etc.
Table 2: Show, Some Basic Problems of Daily Life of Respondent Women

Workers of Chikankari Embroidery Craft
Sno. Problems Facing by Respondents (in %)
1. 65% respondents are living in single room shelter
2. 35% respondents are living in double room shelter
3. 25% respondents are facing toilet problems
4. 65% respondents are facing bathrooms problems
5. 35% respondents are facing electricity problems
6. 65% respondents are facing water problems
7. 77% respondents are facing health problems
8. 66% respondents are facing security problem
9. 95% respondents are facing unhealthy environment
Table 3: Show Data, Related to Working Time and Income of Respondent

Women Workers
Working time of respondents 7 – 8 hrs per day

Average monthly income of respondents Rs. 500 – 600/-
Table no. 3 has shown that, per day working time of respondent women worker
of Chikankari Embroidery Handicraft. Some time workers devote 8 – 12 hrs daily at
home.
After analysis, it could be concluded that, Chikankari women workers are facing
many serious problems in their life such as very low payment, no incentives, low
living standard, health issues, low education status, no awareness about associations
where they registered, security problem, work dependency on contractor, no direct
market linkage, high work pressure, spend lot of time for productivity and many
basic issues.
Today Chikankari products are treated as fashion products. Chikankari products
are not only sold out in Indian market, it also exported in other countries. So,
government should encouraged and support all aspects which are related to Chikankari
handicraft. Central and state organization related to handicraft industry may be
associated to private organizations of Lucknow Chikan handicraft and they can setup
a new system for Chikankari handicraft, which are profitable for all levels of persons
like – entrepreneurs, agents or contractor and artisans or workers. Steps should be
taken to ensure that all levels of majority are benefited; it should be ensure that
worker’s are not exploited and provided with motivational environment to continue
the craft. The geographical Indication (GI) registration should be used to increase
the visibility of the product, increase export revenue and provide substantial amount
of work and earning craft.
References
1. Arya P. (2013): A Diagnostic Study on Artisans of Chikan Embroidery Cluster, UNIDO
CDP, New Delhi
2. Ahmad Y. and Anees M. (2016): Issues of the Chikankari Handicraft Industry, International
Journal of Multidisciplinary research In social Science, Vol. 02, Issue 01
3. Bhardwaj A. (2014): Innovation in Chikankari, International Journal of research and
development in technology and management, Vol. 21, No. 4.
Gender Equality in Education and Employment: Strategy for

Women Empowerment
Anoop Singh* & S.K. Chaturvedi**
Introduction
Women are best creation of God as a mother, as a sister, as a wife, as a friend,
lending a vital supporting role in the life. Development in any country is not based
only on its economic growth, but also on the achievements of social goals, such as
gender equality in education, health, nutrition, employment and employability,
knowledge, etc. Economic and social development of a country can be meaningful
only when women are in the mainstream of progress. Women continue to face a
range of multiple challenges relating to access to employment disproportionately,
choice of work, working conditions, employment security, wage parity discrimination
and balancing the competing burdens of work and family responsibilities.
It is a fact that men and women have different roles in society, different access
to, and control over resources, different skills and interests.Simon de Beauvoir (1949)
says that ‘a girl or boy is not born, society make them girl and boy.’ Women do not
necessarily have control over their uses of resources available to them, nor do they
necessarily reap the full benefits accruing from their efforts because these relations
are decided by gender. Gender is a social construct of work decided by patriarchal
norms.Women’s and men’s gender roles also determine their different needs and
constraints. Men and women perform different and complementary roles and
responsibilities in society, which lead to gender disparity in the enjoyment of benefits
from social and economic development. These gender roles are evolved through history,
and vary from one society to another. The role attributed to men and women are not
static and these are interchangeable time to time. How men and women are perceived
and treated in a society is one of the cornerstones of any system, and one of its most
revealing facets.
Objectives and Methodology
Objectives of this paper are to see therole of Gender equality in Education and
employment in female empowerment in India. This paper is based on explanatory
* D.Phil. Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, U.P.

** Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, U.P.
method of secondary data taken from census reports of India, NSS reports of India
and other reports.
There are a number of indicators related to female empowerment like; education
health, nutrition, life expectancy, MMR, CMR, sex ratio, decision making capacity,
self esteem, political participation in main arena viz. are local government, legislation,
parliament, etc.. here we have taken education and employment to analyze.
Education
Education plays very important role in female empowerment. It is widely accepted
through the various research and studies that education enhances the life of a women
such as, enhances women personality, confidence, sell esteem, enriches them to add
the knowledge and awareness related to their life, family, society, health, awareness,
employment and employability, productive capacity and other innovative ideas, good
teacher for future generation when she becomes mothers, good family planning, low
MMR, CMR, improve in sex ratio, high life expectancy political empowerment or
awareness etc.
Table 1: Shows the Literacy Rate of India Since 1951, for Both, Along with Gender
Gap
Table 1: Literacy Rates for India (Per cent)

Year Male Female Total Gap
1951 27.16 8.86 18.33 18.03

1961 40.40 15.35 28.30 25.05
1971 45.96 21.97 34.45 23.99
1981 56.38 29.76 43.57 26.62
1991 64.13 39.29 52.21 24.84
2001 75.26 53.67 64.84 21.59
2011 80.90 64.60 73.00 16.30
Source: Census of India, Note. Literacy rate till 1971 census relate to population aged five years and above,
while after it, it takes seven years and above.
Employment
Economic participation of women in terms of size and structure of labour force,
formal and informal employment is important not only for analyzing the present
status of women but also an important step towards finding out existing gender
gap. Securing decent work is crucial for women, making it possible for them to
build more promising futures for themselves, their families and their communities.
Labour market gender gaps are more pronounced in developing countries, and often
exacerbated by gendered patterns in occupational segregation, with the majority of
women’s work typically concentrated a narrow range of sectors, many of which are
vulnerable and insecure. .
Table 2: WFPR in Different Approaches During 2011-12
Approaches Rural Urban Total
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Usual status (ps) 535 176 542 125 537 161
Usual status (ps+ss 543 248 546 147 544 219
CWS 526 207 539 138 530 188
CDS 504 169 528 125 511 156
Table-2 shows worker participation ratio for rural and urban males and females.
Conclusion
In a male dominated patriarchal society most of time women are treated as
subordinate and deprived. She has a lot of constraints viz. are biological, political,
psychological, economic constraints. Due to lack of mobility based on socio-cultural
constraints, they are being compelled to keep themselves away from access to good
education, health, nutrition, employment, awareness about their rights, decision making
capacity etc. Impact of this socio-cultural constraints can be easily seen every sphere
of women life.Due to lack of good education, health, nutrition and awareness, she is
unable to develop employable capacities, and it results into low wages, low economic
status, it converted into low education etc. So, we can say, they are being compelled
to live in a glass ceiling situation, where she can take birth, and spend her life in a
gendered behavior. Due to lack of health awareness in our society maternal mortality
rate is high and other health indicators like mortality rate, anemia etc. are found to
be high, malnutrition under nourished, frequent pregnancies etc. are very normal
thing for women in India. She neither has decision making capacity nor interferes in
matter related to their life like, marriage, mobility, property rights etc. Often women
worker are deprived from good jobs and good position in the organization and due
to lack of good training and skills she lag behind male dominated thinking. Finally
we have to stop discrimination against them and leave the thinking that investing in
education health etc. in a girl is watering the neighbor’s garden so they can get equal
opportunity and perform their latent talent in the society.
References
1. Awasthi, Chhaya (2009): “Women Participatation in Structural development and Socio-
Economic Life of Uttar Pradesh and Uttrakhand”, UPUEA, Economic Journal Volume-5
Chauhan Offset.
2. Agarwal, G.P. (2009): “Educational Status and Women Empowerment in Uttar Pradesh”,
UPUEA, Economic Journal, volume -5, Chauhan Offset.
Women’s Participation in Economic Activity and their share

of Employment in India
Archana Mishra* & Jagdish Narayan**
India is the second most populous country in the world. At present, around 1.30
billion people live in India,in which 48.5 percent are women. But the participation of
women to contribution of GDP is only 17 percent, it is much lower share of women’s
contribution to GDP than the global average of 37 percent. If we review the situation
of women contributionto GDP at global level, China’s women contribute 41 percent,
those in Sub-Saharan Africa 39 percent, and women in Latin America 33 percent. In
India, women represent only 24 percent of the labour force that is engaged in any
form of work in the market economy, compared with an average of 40 percent
globally.The female labour force participation rates (FLFP)of neighbor countries in
2013 was found to be - China (64 percent), Sri Lanka (35.6 percent), Nepal (79.9
percent), Bangladesh (57.4 percent), and India (27 percent).
From the beginning, India is remaining very equitable in its nature and culture,
but its justification for women equality is not being sufficient. In spite of given an
equal social, political and economical right through our constitution, still their share
is very poor in all the three streams. We are the very fast growing developing country
but still remain very low in inclusive development. The table 1 shows that where we
stand in gender sensitive development. Our position is not well in SAARC countries
as the GII rank stands on 130 which are lower than Bhutan, Maldives and Myanmar.
In terms ofshare of women in parliament is less than Afghanistan.
1. To focus on the employment structure of India with special concern about
women.
2. To highlight the education and employability of women.
3. To examine the reasons behind declining women LFPR in India.
Methodology
In order to achieve the above objectives following methodology has been used:
** Prof. & Dean, Faculty of Commerce, University of Economics.
Data
This study is based on secondary data collected from various published sources
like NSSO, census reports, journals, ministry of HRD, ministry of labour and other
government publications. Employment and unemployment report also has been used.
The most widely data source that has been used is from the indiastst.
Tools of Analysis
The data were appropriately standardize, tabulated and classified to exhibit the
figure of employment and working age proportion decisively.Annual compound growth
rate, proportion rate and trend analysis by method of least square have been
conspicuously used for the fulfillment of the objectives.
Employment of Women in Factories in India
Table 1: Average Daily Employment of Women in Factories in India
Year Total Employment (000) Women's Employment (000) % Share of women to Total Employment
1951 2526.5 290.0 11.4
1961 3497.0 372.3 10.6
1971 4293.0 370.1 8.6
1981 5342.5 497.8 9.3
1991 5214.3 507.1 9.7
2001 3272.1 474.4 14.5
2002 3330.4 542.4 16.3
2003 2139.5 235.6 11.0
2004 3554.0 641.7 18.1
2005 3848.0 640.4 16.6
2006 4373.0 730.7 16.7
2007 3054.0 313.9 10.3
2008 2628.4 220.9 8.4
2009 2662.4 194.1 7.3
2010 4713.7 737.6 15.7
Source: Ministry of Labour & Employment, Govt. of India. (10782), (12272), (ON813)
Working Age Population and Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

Labour force indicates to the number of persons usually employed or willing to
be employed. The labour force participation rate is a measure of the proportion of a
country’s working-age population (P15-59) that involve actively in the labour market,
either by working or seeking for work; it -provides an indication of the size of the
supply of labour available to work for the production of goods and services, relative
to the population at working age. The breakdown of the labour force (formerly known
as economically active population) by sex and age group gives a profile of the
distribution of the labour force within a country.
Table 2: Distribution (%) of Usual Status Worker of all Ages by Status in
Employment
Total Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Self employed 50.7 56.1 54.5 59.3 41.7 42.8
Regular wage/salaried 19.8 12.7 10.0 5.6 43.4 42.8
employment
Casual labour 29.4 31.2 35.5 35.1 14.9 14.3
Source: Nsso 68 round 2011-12
Table 3: Percentage Distribution of Usual Status Worker of All Ages by Industry of Worker
Total Rural Urban
Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female
Agriculture 48.9 43.6 62.8 61.1 59.4 74.9 6.7 5.6 10.9
Secondary 24.3 25.9 20.0 20.4 22.0 16.7 35.0 35.3 34.0
Tertiary 26.8 30.5 17.2 15.5 18.7 8.3 58.3 59.1 55.1
Nsso 68 round 2011-12

Section-3: Reason for Declining Women LFPR
There are so many reasons for declining women LFPR in India. Some important
reason are discussed there.
Women’s Participation in Unpaid Domestic Activities
Declining female labour force participation in India has been the cause of much
consternation and debate in the last decade. With the decline in the labour force
participation the commensurate rise is in their participation in education and unpaid
domestic activities.
Income Effect
If household income has been increase then family working women have choice
of withdrawing from the labour force (for example in Abraham 2009; Himanshu
2011; Thomas 2012). It is called “income effect”.
Life Cycle
These patterns do adhere to the argument of women’s life cycle including education,
marriage, child bearing and the resultant household division of labour. However,
this pattern is questionable when we make inter-temporal comparisons. Firstly, the
share of women in domestic activities had been increasing across all age groups,
except 5-15 years age group, where female children attended educational institutions.
If child bearing and caring was the explanation, then with declining fertility rate5 in
the country we should have expected that the share in domestic activities would be
declining over the years. Secondly, if these were age-specific activities then participation
in domestic activity would have increased in specific age groups. However, this is
not the case. The increase in domestic activity participation and concurrent decline
in female LFPR had been occurring across all age groups throughout the period 1983
to 2009-10, except the school-going age. It can therefore be argued that while household
division of labour does play an importantrole in the age structure of labour participation
and domestic activity participation, this does not explain the inter-temporal decline
in labour participation and increase in domestic activity.
Conclusion
The abysmal women labour force participation rate has been a structural problem
in India. Long run trends suggest that female labour force participation rates in
India have been puzzling as there are considerable variations between urban and
rural areas. Most of the women in India work and participate in the economy in one
or another form, much of their work is not identified and not documented or accounted
for in official statistics, and thus women’s work tends to be under-estimation. The
nature of economic development in the country has meant that jobs were not created
on appropriate level in sectors that could readily absorb women, especially for those
in rural areas. Labour laws and facility provided by the factories are also not in
favour in women consequently the share of women in factories is around only 15
percent. With low skill levels, jobs in the non-farm sector are also limited.
These dismal factors have led to the withdrawal of women from the workforce.
It is very significant that the better job for women benefits not only herself but also
to individuals, families, communities, companies, and economies. Women’s work is
also associated with better development outcomes, including significant investments
in children’s education and health.
References
1. Naidu C Sirisha, (2016), “Domestic Labour and Female Labour Force Participation” Economic
& Political Weekly, Vol. II, No. 44 & 45, pp. 101-108.
2. Abraham Vinoj, (2013), “Missing Labour or Consistent “De-Feminisation” Economic & Political
Weekly, Vol. xlviii, No. 31, pp. 99-108.
A Study of Gender Discrimination in Nainital District of

Uttrakhand with Special References to Ramnager and
Haldwani Blocks
Pramod Kumar*, Padam S Bisht**, Navraj Karki*** & Nitesh Pant****
Introduction
Women constitute almost 50% of the world’s population but India has shown
disproportionate sex ratio whereby female’s population has been comparatively lower
than males. As far as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to
men in all the places. In the Western societies, the women have got equal right and
status with men in all walks of life. But gender disabilities and discriminations are
found in India even today. Gender equality implies a society in which women and
men enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in all spheres of
life. Equality between men and women exists when both sexes are able to share
equally in the distribution of power and influence; have equal opportunities for
financial independence through work or through setting up businesses; enjoy equal
access to education and the opportunity to develop personal ambitions. A critical
aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women.
Research methodology : The present research paper is intended to find the
status of women in Nainital district of Uttrakhand state. The following table gives
the required in formation in the present perspective of the research methodology .
Selection of households : The respondents have been selected randomly and the
no of household have been selected purposely 100 from the two blocks .
Selection of blocks : Selection of blocks have been done purposely to suit the
study and selected blocks are Ramnager and Haldwani.
Statistical tools used : Simple average arithmetic mean is used to calculate the
values of different parameters.
Arithmetic mean = sum of total no/total respondents= ?x/n
* Assistant Teacher, GIC Maldhanchaur, Nainital, Uttarakhand.
** Department of Economics, DSB Campus, Nainital District Uttarakhand.
*** Economics, DSB Campus, Nainital District Uttarakhand.
**** Research Scholor, Department of Economics, DSB Campus, Nainital District Uttarakhand.
Limitations of the study: The conclusions are only valid for the two blocks and
the villages under the study.
Villages covered under the study: Kaniya, Ummedpur, Laxmanpur theri total 03
villages from Ramnager blocks have been selected and two villages Mukhani and
Chadnichowk Balutia have been selected.
As per the data the average family size of the respondents is 5.72 per family in
Ramnager block and 5.78 in Haldwani block. Total average family size is 5 person
per family which includes at least a female without her any family has no existence.
As per the survey result only 7.69 % of the women are graduate in the Ramnagar
block and 13.01% women are graduate in Haldwani block. total 10.27 percentage
women are graduate in the two study blocks. This shows that higher education in
the past was not prevalent as now a days. In the present 100 percentage girls are
attending the school or college if they are falling in the such age group. The fact
shows that in the past there was discrimination but now slowly disappearing in
these societies also as the girls education is expending very swiftly.
Table 1: Families Expenditure on Tuition Fees in the Study Area

Sr Block Tuition fees Average tuition Tuition fees Average tuition Average family
no. paid for boys fees paid by the paid for girls fees paid by the income in INR
(annual) INR respondents (annual INR l) respondents ( from table
families paid for families for girls no..)
boys INR INR
1 Ramnagar 417460 8349.2 319460 6389.20 256420
2 Haldwani 388600 7772 1031800 20636 390440
3 Total 806060 16121.20 1351260 27025 646860
Source: primary survey month May and June 2017
Table 2: Enquiry of Gender Discrimination in the Families of the Respondents

in the Study Area
Sr. Study Total Permission to Food served Look after of If the girl Training of Vaccination of Vaccination of Food Family
no Blocks respon- the girls for jobs same and equal the girls done fell ill taken personal the boys is the girls is done preparation shopping is
dents and services in the families well to the hygiene and done by the by the trained and house done by
trained care is given trained medical staff cleanness is male/femal
doctor to the girls medical staff done by male e/both
/female /both
yes no yes no yes no yes no yes no yes no yes no both both
1 Ramnagar 50 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil yes nil yes nil both both
2 Haldwani 50 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil 50 nil both both
3 Total 100 100 nil 100 nil 100 nil 100 nil 100 nil 100 nil 100 nil both
Source: Primary Survey Month May and June 2017.
As per the survey data the average age of marriage of the girls have been arrived at
23.33 years based on the marriage age revealed by the each respondent and adding then
computing average mean. Which is the very right and the girls have opportunities to
pursue higher education and chance to establish themselves in the job market.
Table 3 (a): Government Initiatives, Public Awareness and Benefits of

Plans Executed
Sr. Block Sampl Beti padao Benefited Cycles Benefited Nanda devi benefited
No e size beti bacho scheme for kanya dhan
knowledge 9th class yojna
girls knowledge
knowledge
y n y n y n y n y n y n
1 Ramnagar 50 42 08 00 50 44 06 01 49 42 08 00 50
2 Haldwani 50 45 05 00 50 47 03 00 50 40 10 00 50
3 Total 100 92 13 00 100 91 09 00 100 92 08 00 100
Table no. 03(b)

Sr.no Block Sampl Kishiori benefited Tilu rautlei benefited Sukanya benefite
e size sakti yojna award dhan yojan d
knowledge knowledge knowledge
1 Ramnagar 50 36 14 00 50 41 09 oo 50 39 11 05 45
2 Haldwani 50 39 11 00 50 38 12 00 50 45 05 08 42
3 Total 100 75 25 00 100 79 21 100 100 84 16 13 87
Table no. 03(c)

Sr. Block Sample Sable yojana Benefited Rastrya bal Benefited 73 and 74 benefite
size knowledge swath amendment d
no
s of
karyakrma
m the
knowledge constitution
knowledge
1 Ramnagar 50 36 14 00 50 41 09 oo 50 39 11 05 45
2 Haldwani 50 39 11 00 50 38 12 00 50 45 05 08 42
3 Total 100 75 25 00 100 79 21 100 100 84 16 13 87

Table No. 3(d)
Sr. Block Sampl Women Benefited Domestic Benefited Gaura devi Benefited
No e size help line violence act kanyadhan
knowledge knowledge yojana
knowledge
1 Ramnagar 50 45 05 00 50 45 05 00 50 46 04 00 50
2 Haldwani 50 44 06 00 50 47 03 00 50 44 06 00 50
3 Total 100 89 11 00 100 92 08 00 50 90 10 00 100
Source: Primary survey month May and June 2017
Table No. 3(e)

Sr. No Block Sample size PNDT Act Knowledge Benefited
y n y
1 Ramnagar 50 47 03 00
2 Haldwani 50 48 02 00
3 Total 100 95 05 00
Source: Primary survey month May and June 2017
References
1. Motherhood International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research & Development A Peer Reviewed
Refereed International Research Journal, Volume I, Issue II, November 2016, pp. 08-23, ONLINE
ISSN-2456-2831, Women Empowerment In India: A Study Of Uttarakhand, Dr.Krishna K.Verma,
School of Commerce, H.N.B.Garahwal Central University, Campus Badshahithoul, Tehri
Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India.
2. MPRA, Munich Personal RePEc Archive, Gender Discrimination and Women’s Development
in India, Marimuthu Sivakumar, Chikkaiah Naicker College, Erode, Tamilnadu, India, 7.
September 2008, Online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/10901/MPRA Paper No. 10901,
posted 11. October 2008 03:30 UTC.
Problems and Challenges of Women in Dairy Farming: A Study

of Garhwal Region of Uttarakhand State
M.C. Sati* & Preety Panwar**
Introduction
The nation’s milk supply comes from millions of small producers, dispersed
throughout the rural areas. These small and marginal farmers contribute a large
chunk to the milk production. They collectively hold about 70% of the national milk-
animal herd. Often one or two milk animals enable these farmers to generate sufficient
additional income to break the various subsistence agricultural debt cycles. Since
agricultural income is uncertain and deceptive, farmers easily get entangled in the
debt cycle. Moreover the combination of unfavourable land-to-person ratio and
fragmented landholding makes it difficult to support large families on crop income
alone. Thus the underutilized labour potential and a dire need for additional income
force farmers to look for subsidiary source of income Rearing milk cattle and selling
its milk give rise to an additional stream of income. It is a real relief to most of the
weaker groups of Indian Society. The income from crop production is seasonal. On
the contrary, dairy as an occupation helps them to procure stable income year round
rise. In India, dairy is recognized as a substantial contributor towards social and
economic development especially for rural women.
Various available literature has been reviewed based on the productivity,
technological advancement, problems and challenges but very few studies has been
conducted on the gender perspectives. Following are few studies which has been
conducted for the analysing problems and challenges faced by dairy farmers and its
role in women empowerment as well.
Shashikumar1 in his paper Beyond milk: Rural women empowerment through dairying
in rural India tried to analysed the problems and challenges faced by rural women
* Professor, Department of Economics, HNB Garhwal University Srinagar, Garhwal

Uttarakhand
** Research Scholar, Department of Economics, HNB Garhwal University Srinagar, Garhwal
Uttarakhand.
India and also gives stratigies and discusses about the future prospects of the dairying
enterprise as well.
Research Methodology and Methods
This paper followed descriptive research method and with the help of interviewing
worker at Aanchal dairy cooperative limited situated at Srinagar, Garhwal which
deals with the Rudraprayag and Pauri Garhwal dairying activities. Whereas, 120
dairy farmers which comprises, registered dairy farmer with dairy cooperative, or
self-help groups or individual as well has been interviewed randomly from both the
district of Garhwal of Uttarakhand primary data has been collected to know about
the economic condition, problems and challenges of the same at the grass root level.
The primary data collection was done through a questionnaire. Secondary data were
collected from various newspapers, Internet, research papers, magazines, books and
journals.
Dairy Farming & Women
Women contribute to nearly 60% of labour in farm production in India. They
form the backbone of agriculture, comprising the majority of agricultural labourers
in India. Women play a significant and crucial role in agriculture and animal husbandry
development and they come poorest sections of Indian society. The major activities
involved in dairy farming include collection of fodder/cultivation of fodder, grazing
the animals, feeding & watering, cleaning the animals and shed, milking and marketing
of milk.
Extra source of income of the house
Attainment of nutrition
Economic empowerment
Market supply
Dairying as a Sustainable Rural Enterprise for Women
As we know that rural women has not much economic stability or purchasing
power rather they depend on others even for their personal consumption. So they
are not able to establish their enterprise separately according their inclination. But in
rural area everyone has cattle if women manage it and try to convert this into earning
work it could become the very profitable enterprise because this work takes not
much to get start.
Less Technology
Less investment
Less maintenance
Less risk
Fewer labour demand
Findings
Constraints for the Dairy Farming Enterprise

Hilly formation of the land: Though population habitat spreader all over the
hills even the till the peak of the hills. It is not easy to carry the big size cattle to the
remote and difficult mountainous area.
Local breed and low productivity: Because of the difficult way to habitat and
hills only local breeds that is small in size and has less productivity are found in the
hills of Garhwal. There is no incentive to change the breed or way to increase their
productivity and composition of milk as well.
No availability of grassland: Though Uttarakhand has the huge cover of forest
but still there is lack of green fodder for cattle. Due to steeper slops of the hills and
spread of pine trees grass land has less area. Thereby green fodder is not available in
the hills of Garhwal.
Lack of fodder: Due to the small size of farm dry fodder for the cattle that is
obtained from wheat and rice and other crops could get very less. Which cannot
fulfil the need of fodder for the cattle. It is also one of the constraint that hind the
rural women to increase the scale of the enterprise.
Rural people lack knowledge of livestock diseases: Due to lack of knowledge
and education they remain unaware about the diseases found in the livestock. Which
discourage the dairy farmers to rear the cattle.
Veterinary services are very low sometimes nil: There is lack of adequate veterinary
services thereby livestock get die. This one is the biggest risk in dairy farming to
poor dairy farmer.
Table-1: Details of Particulars of Women Dairy Cooperative in District Pauri

Garhwal
Particulars 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Total women dairy societies 42 44 46 48

Working societies 38 37 37 36
Members 1234 1294 1354 1414
Average daily milk procurement 510 lt 500.7 lt 465.90 lt 416 lt
Cattle purchase no. - 10 04 08
Training program nil
Source : Aanchal dairy cooperative limited, Srinagar Garhwal.
Lack of self help group: There in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand lack of self
help groups in order to encourage and fulfilling the objective of taking dairy farming
above and making money from this enterprise. There were approximately 60 self
help groups had been setup during ninth five year plan and tenth five year plan but
due to lack of working staff and adequate finding none of the self help group functioning
in order to encourage of dairy farming these days.
Strategies for Empowering Rural Women Engaged in Dairy farming
Dairy cooperatives: Dairy cooperatives has given the platform to the rural women
engaged in the dairy farming to sale the excess milk in the market. There are very
few societies which are associated with the dairy cooperative in Pauri district.
Self-help groups: Self-help groups play an important role empowering the society.
This group take care of the interest and objectives of the group members. They work
collectively and profits distributed equally amongst members.
Easy availability of micro finance: Rural India has vast spreader poverty thereby
they have lack of the purchasing power for which bank should take the interest and
initiative to advance the loan to the needy dairy farmer thereby they can purchase
cattle and assemble other requirements.
Veterinary facilities: livestock may suffer various kind of diseases related to health
and fertility which cannot be diagnosed by the unskilled and less aware rural women. But
this is need to be diagnosed with respect to their health and milk production. So this
should be taken care and arranged by the state or local government or dairy cooperatives.
Artificial insemination facilities: There is lack of artificial insemination for the
livestock thereby livestock could not get fertile on time. This facility also should be
arranged by the state or local government adequately thereby dairy farmer will not
suffer. That profession out and effort to make that more efficient and earning activity.
Conclusion
Across the rural Garhwal dairy farming has been one of the self-employment
activity especially for women and they are getting empowering enough through
dairy farming. Being a sustainable activity it is quite suitable for the resource less
and unskilled rural women. But still it needed to be encouraged and taking the
steps to develop in more effective wayby giving them skill enhancement training
program. Successful dairy husbandry enterprise not only improves the economic
status of rural women, but also assures a sustained and assured means of income to
supplement their income from the main enterprise. With respect of this it becomes
really very necessary that awareness and skill training programs should be arranged
for rural women, finance assistance also should be given in easy way, and artificial
insemination and health care facilities for cattle should be provided adequately.
References
1. International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666, Vol.2, Issue-1(2) (Special), January-
March, 2015.
2. International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering & Management (IJAIEM),
ISSN 2319 – 4847,Volume 3, Issue 10, October 2014.
Women Empowerment a Challenge for Self-Help Groups in

India
Sweta Kumari* & Prahlad Kumar**
Introduction
In India, the plight of women is no better than their counterparts in other developing
countries. Women are to be considered as equal partners in the process of development.
Women constitute 48.25% of the country’ population as per the 2011 census. Women
empowerment is a global issue which has gained momentum in recent decades in
determining the status of women. Women in India are still having limited or complete
lack of access to education, property and economic rights, many women have few
opportunities to lift themselves out of poverty and achieve self-determination. Women
belonging to the economically and socially weaker section of the society were more
repressed. Women’s participation in the decision making process was either nil or
negligible. The development of Indian women will be the biggest source of enrichment
for our country’s development. Empowering of women Pre-supposes a dynamic and
democratic change in the perception and expectation from women in our society. To
help women, to attain economic independence is the first priority for such a change.
In this regard, the emergence of self- help group to seek economic independence for
every women is a welcome change and given the assistance and guidance these self-
help groups is bound to make not only a seek change in empowering women but
also tap the hither to unutilized powers of women for development of the society as
a whole.
Self-Help Groups
A Self- Help Group (SHG) is a small voluntary association of 10-20 poor people
from the same socio-economic background who come together for the purpose of
addressing their common socio-economic problems through self- Help and mutual
help. They collect small savings on regular basis. Members make small regular
contributions over a few months until there is enough capital with the group to
begin lendings.

** Professor & Former Head, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
Objectives
The main objectives of this paper are given below:
• To analyze the progress of Women SHGs under SHG-Bank Linkage Programme
during past three years in India.
• To study the State wise performance in number of SHGs in India.
This paper is based on secondary data. The data have been taken from many
articles of women development and empowerment of SHG women, edited books,
Status of Microfinance Report in various issues, Annual Reports of NABARD, Reports
of Sa- Dhan. This paper includes only theoretical part of the study.
Data Analyses
Table 1: Progress under SHG-Bank Linkage Programme during past three- years
(Numbers in Lakh/Amount in Rs. Crore) Savings linked SHGs with Banks
Years No of SHGs Amount Out of Total Women SHGs Amount WSHG
2013-14 74.3 9897.42 62.52 8012.89

2014-15 76.97 11059.84 66.51 9264.33
2015-16 79.03 13691.39 67.63 12035.78
Source: Status of Microfinance Report (2013-14 to 2015-16)
Above table 1 shows the overall progress of Saving Linked SHG, Women SHGs
and their savings amount Under SHG-Bank Linkage Programme during past three
years.
Table 2: Progress Under Microfinance- Savings of SHGs with Banks (State wise)
2015-16
No. of SHGs Savings Amount

S.N. States
(In Lakh) (Rs. In Crore)
1 Karnataka 962446 144242.13

2 Andhra Pradesh 901517 414561.23
3 Tamil Nadu 852034 92003.16
4 West Bengal 831011 153538.75

5 Maharashtra 789158 85745.68
6 Telangana 5422756 149130.09
7 Odisha 486686 48587.72

8 Uttar Pradesh 363979 38206.29
9 Assam 333686 11128.22
10 Bihar 278608 36006.37

11 Kerala 272859 62907.18
12 Rajasthan 264119 18659.06
13 Madhya Pradesh 248618 24831.13
14 Gujarat 221350 18414.23

15 Chhattisgarh 160461 16046.37
16 Jharkhand 99326 9558.45
17 Tripura 48658 4594.27

18 Himachal Pradesh 44185 3411.12
19 Haryana 42921 15891.44

20 Uttarakhand 42595 5024.88
21 Punjab 29971 3978.2
22 Pondicherry 14763 4089.71

23 Manipur 13620 356.42
24 Nagaland 11432 698.2
25 Jammu & Kashmir 8386 2410.5
26 Meghalaya 8196 937.77

27 Mizoram 8072 497.14
28 Goa 7541 1543.95
29 Arunachal Pradesh 4617 417.33

30 Andaman &Nicobar 4475 660.49
31 New Delhi 3668 535.87
32 Sikkim 1542 396.42
33 Chandigarh 225 127.85
34 Lakshadweep 2 0.1
Total 7903002 1369139.01

Source: Status of Microfinance Report 2015-16
The table 2 clearly indicates that as per the number of SHGs Karnataka ranked
first followed by Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
Findings
• The share of women SHGs out of total SHGs with savings linked was 84.14%
in 2013-14 which was increased with 86.41 in 2014-15 due to training for
women SHGs in capacity building programme by NABARD.
• The remarkable growth was about 4.73 lakh in number of total SHGs and 5.11
lakh in women SHGs during past three years i.e. 2013-14 to 2015-16.
• Contribution between NABARD and NRLM/SRLM is behind the progress of
savings amount of total SHGs as well as women SHGs during 2013-14 to
2015-16.
• Karnataka ranked first with 70 lakh SHGs with saving linked followed by
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
• Availability of fresh loan and village level meet are the reason behind the
growth of SHGs in Uttar Pradesh.
Conclusion
India is a country in which stone-age tribal communities and twenty-first century
condominiums cohabit. Bullock carts and bullet trains are contemporaries. In the
nook and corner of the country NGO-MFIs, for-profit MFIs, Self Help Groups will
keep up their activities, providing services to the needy. SHGs play a vital role for
the empowerment of women. SHG built a platform to rural women and helps them
to uplift their social and economic status. Their involvement in family decisions is
enhanced. Microcredit facility enables women to own tools and means of production
to upgrade their skills and improve their business. After Encouraging habit of savings
among women, group loans for specific economic purposes are provided. Women
have realized that they have an important role to play in the family and confident
about achieving their goals set for their families and make major decisions.
Limitations
The study is based on secondary data. State wise progress under Microfinance
savings of SHGs with banks are calculated from number of total SHGs linked with
Commercial Banks, Regional Rural Banks and Cooperative Banks.
References
1. Amutha,D.(2013). Empowerment Self Help Groups & Women Entrepreneurship. Manglam
Publications, Delhi(India).
2. Juha, S.V. (2014). Self Help Groups:A Tool for Sustainable Development. EPRA International
Journal of Economic and Business Review.No.2, April, pp21-24.
Analysis of Female Poverty with Special Reference to Ramgarh

Block in District Nainital
Daleep Kumar*, Richa Ginwal**, Padam Singh Bisht*** & Mayank Sah****
Introduction
Feminization of poverty is widely known as “Trend of women representing an
increasing proportion of the poor” (Parera 2000). It is a universal phenomenon, both
advanced, as well as the developing nations, are facing the problem of the feminization
of poverty, though the severity in advanced countries seems to be less. UN (2000)
noted it as a status of the gap between men and women caught in the vicious cycle
of poverty, which continued and widened through the past decade. It is also noted
that the majority of 1.5 billion people living on 1 $per day or less as women (Parera
2000). The economic status of women has declined over past some decade and along
with this demographic changes are also taking place. For the twentieth century, rising
inequality of incomes has been a dominant trend in the world. For example, the
skilled workers of industrialized countries earn about sixty times more than the
poorest group, say the farmers of Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank Report 1995). The
reason for such wide disparities can be the poor economic growth of developing
countries.
But the situation is even worse in India, because even with highest growth rate
among third world countries the issue of poverty among women is untouched.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru said, “To awaken the people, it is the women who should
be awakened. Once she is on the move, the entire family moves and thus nation
moves”. He also said, “I am quite sure that our real and basic growth will come
when women have a full chance to play their part in public life. Whenever they had
a chance, they have, as whole done well, better if I may say so than the average
man. The future of India will probably depend ultimately more upon women than
the men”.
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital

** Research Scholar, Department of Economics, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital
*** Professor, Department of Economics, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital
**** Research Scholar, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital
Reasons for Feminization of Poverty
One main reason for why poverty among women is prevalent in India is that it
has always devalued women. Equal opportunities are not available for women so
that they can compete with men on equal footing. Poverty among women also negatively
affects the family and the children.
Women’s access to the inheritance of poverty and other resources has been known
as inequitably unequal. It is known that women’s contribution to the world’s output
is more than half. But globally, their ownership of assets approximates to 1 percent
(Parera 2000).
Women are the majority of victims of intimate partner violence and domestic
violence – and the abuse they suffer keeps them struggling financially. Moreover,
after war or conflict, they are left alone to overcome from the situation. This makes
their condition worse.
The way our society and economy treats women is another cause of poverty
among women. Women have to face systematic discrimination at home, workplace,
market, education etc.
Women are still powerless and voiceless in the matters of state and society. Only
making reservation criteria is not going to help. They should even be made aware
that opportunities are available to them and they can make most of it.
Female Labour Participation
Female labour participation means the women who are working. The female
workforce is an engine of growth for any country. But this participation rate varies
from country to country. Both social and economic conditions are necessary for this
variation. Long- term trends suggest that female labour participation rates in India
have been puzzling. The female participation rate in India declined from 29.4 percent
in 1971 to 25 percent in 1991. It further declined from 34.1 percent in 1999-00 to 27.2
percent in 2011-12. (Sher, Chaudhary 2014)The several other countries show an increase
in the rate of female participation, however, the rates are very low compared to
those of advanced countries.
District Nainital- At Glance
Nainital is one of the districts in Uttarakhand, lying in the foothills of outer
Himalayas. Nainital is located at 29.38 o N 79.45oE. the district headquarters are in
Nainital. According to 2011 census, Nainital district has a population of 955,128 persons
(Census Handbook). Sex ratio is 933 females per thousand males. Nainital district
has eight blocks – Betalghat, Bhimtal, Dhari, Haldwani, Kotabagh, Okhalkanda, Ramgarh,
Ramnagar (Census Handbook).
The present study is mainly confined to Ramgarh Block. The block is located at
an alleviation of 7000ft. above sea level. The area of the block is 156.23 sq.km in total
and the whole area belonging the rural area. There are a total 7,947 households in
the block, out of which the total number of males is 20,423 and a total number of
females is 19,407(Census Handbook). Most of the people are engaged in agriculture,
including women, who carry on household chores along with working as agricultural
labour. The primary data for the study was collected through interview schedule,
through a pilot survey. A sample of 150 persons was selected for the present study.
The use of secondary data is also done.
Women and Poverty
This is a common known fact that women are treated unequally in almost all the
fields. Their labour goes unrewarded and unrecognized. In developing countries,
most of the women work as the labour, because of the poverty. The situation is more
or less the same in the block as well. Most of the women were found to be working
as agricultural labour. But it was a hard fact found that they had no right to their
earnings. Also, it was found out that working women were having low health, in
spite of their being independent at work.
The women who had better working conditions and were earning more had more
household autonomy. Their decision making power was better and was also independent
to make decisions. These were also who faced less incidence of domestic violence.
The households which had women on better social and economic footing, their
families were doing well. Female poverty affects the families and children negatively.
Financially strong women had school going and educated children and they were
also socially well-behaved. But most of the households had financial abusers, who
abused their wives for their hard earned money. This financial abuse interferes with
gainful employment activities, control financial resources, or negatively impact the
credit of their victims, which leave survivors lagging behind other women when
they do leave a relationship with an abusive partner.
Gender Development
Half of the population in the world is women. They have aptitude, capabilities,
and capacities for the contribution of progress and development of humanity. Only
women can act as a mother, caretaker of family and can still take up the responsibility
of any profession.
Women can be made powerful and independent if their participation in work
increases. Greater work participation will increase their income and thus will make
them independent. Provision for education, health, and nutrition will further improve
the situation. Women with good health will have the better productive capacity. But
in this study as well as most of the other studies it is found out that working
women had low health, in spite of their being independent at work.
Due to the sex-based division of labour and jobs, women stick to works which
are compatible with housework and family responsibilities. This has been cited as a
cause of limited work participation of females, which makes them dependent on
men and thus poor (Roos 1985).
The two approaches to gender development are- 1) Women in Development 2)
Gender and Development.
The approach of ‘Women in development’ uses quantitative methods, particularly
human capital models. The ‘Gender and Development’ approach rely on descriptive
data and historical narrative, with liberal applications of the word ‘empowerment’
(Lelithabhai 2003)
Conclusion
Women have larger share among poor and it is further increasing. The degree of
feminization varies from place to place and region to region. Globalization has made the
situation even worse. The negative impact of globalization is felt more on women as
compared to men. It was also found out that women headed households are in more
distress, their situation is worse. Moreover, the impact of financial abuse, when abusers
interfere with gainful employment opportunities, control financial resources, or negatively
impact the credit of their victims, can leave survivors lagging behind other women
when they leave a relationship with an abusive partner (Rios). On the other hand, social
exclusion of poor women also takes place adversely affecting the social capital of society.
There is a clear need for programs which will relieve women from financial abuse.
Despite a clear need for these kinds of resources, domestic violence shelters and
other social programs that assist survivors in recovery and re-establishing careers
are struggling to survive across the country.
These kinds of programs are invaluable for women looking to create stable, violence-
free lives and they keep abuse victims safe and off the streets. We need to keep these
shelters open and we need to ensure that they are as inclusive and all-encompassing
as possible (Rios)
References
1. Carmen, Rios 2015, ‘These Five Statistics prove we are Feminizing Poverty(And keeping
women down in the process)’ Available from http://everydayfeminism.com/2015/06/
feminizing-poverty.
2. Chant, Sylvia 2015, ‘ Feminization of Poverty: A Reflection 20 years after Beijing’, United
Nations Research Institute for Social Development [2 March 2015]
3. District Census Handbook 2011, Series-06, Part XII-B, Directorate of Census Operation, Nainital,
Uttarakhand.
4. Lelithabhai, KN2003, ‘Gender issues in development in Kerala on employment of women
family income and consumption’, Ph.D. Thesis,
5. Parera, Mallika 2000, ‘Feminization of Poverty’, Economic Review November, December
6. Roos, Patricia1985, Gender and Work, A Comparative Analysis of Industrial Societies, State
University of New York Press, Albany.
7. Verick, Sher, Chaudhary, Ruchika 2014, ‘Women labour force participation in India: Why is
it so low?’ International Labour Organization.
8. World Development Report 1995, World Bank.
Contribution of Financial Institutions in Promoting Women

Entrepreneurs
Masroor Ahmad Beg*
Introduction
Women entrepreneurs have been designated as the new engines for growth and
the rising stars of the economies in developing countries to bring prosperity and
welfare. Women entrepreneurs engaged in business due to push and pull factors
which encourage women to have an independent occupation and stands on their
own legs. A sense towards independent decision-making on their life and career is
the motivational factor behind this urge. Under the influence of these factors the
women entrepreneurs choose a profession as a challenge and as an urge to do something
new. Such a situation is described as pull factors. While in push factors women
engaged in business activities due to family compulsion and the responsibility is
thrust upon them.
I. Research Methodology of Study

The research is based on the secondary data available in the reports of various
governmental and non-governmental financial institutions helping women entrepreneurs.
Objective and Research Methodology of Study
The study is planned with the following objective
• To study the impact of financial institution assistance on economic indicator
for women entrepreneur.
• To study credit disbursed under various schemes to women entrepreneur.
• To study the difficulties faced by women entrepreneur in obtaining finance.
Financial Schemes for Women Entrepreneurship

With a view that women entrepreneurs should come forward in industrial field
and become self- sufficient, governmental and financial institutions have announced
* Principal, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi, Delhi.

many schemes of providing financial assistance. Seed Capital Scheme- In order to
start one’s own business this scheme is undertaken by the government. Mohanty
(2004) suggested that various self-employment and income generating schemes such
as IRDP, SEEUY, PMRY, SSI, KVI and DWCRA implemented in Orissa have made
significant contribution towards economic empowerment and self- employment of
women and development of women entrepreneurship. Important government agencies
are Directorate of Industries, Khadi and Village Industries Board, Small Industries
Service Institutions, Mahila Vikash Sambaya Nigam and Rashtriya Mahila Kosh were
contacted for this purpose. The Rastriya Mahila Kosh mainly fulfills the credit needs
of poor women particularly, those engaged in the unorganized sector not being
adequately addressed by the formal financial institutions. RMK aims at promoting
small enterprises among poor women through provision of credit as an instrument
to socio-economic change and development through the provision package of financial
and social development service for the development of women entrepreneurship.
Gupta (1997) found that the empowerment of women central government of India
has started Priyadarshani Yojna in the name of late Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi.
Through this scheme loan on minimum interest is provided to women for
entrepreneurship development to improve their livelihood. As a pilot project this
scheme has been launched in six districts: four districts (Raipur, Sitapur, Shravasti
and Behraich) are in Uttar Pradesh and two (Sitamani and Madhubani) in Bihar.
B) Impact of Financial Institution Assistance on Economic Indicator for Women Entrepreneurship

As per the study conducted by various agencies following was the impact of
financial assistance on women entrepreneurs:
i. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (The National Credit Fund for Women) was created
by the Government of India in 1993. Its purpose is to provide lower income women
with access to loans to begin small businesses. It disbursed around 16.31cr in year
2011-2012 which rose to 18.18cr in 2012-2013 with an aim to reach 25cr in 13-14.
ii. RMK provides 100% refinance assistance to Mahila Urban Co-operative Banks
on finances provided by them to poor women either directly or through SHGs
within the norms of the RMK Main Loan Scheme.
iii. As high as 13% of the total women owned enterprises are concentrated in the
state of Kerala. The state of Kerala where literacy among women is the highest
in India provides a good example of women entrepreneurship. As on March
31, 2004, there were 1782 women-run industrial units in Kerala. Of these 1592
were proprietary concerns, 42 charitable institutions, 43 partnership concerns,
3 joint stock companies and 102 cooperatives societies.
iv. Women who were financially strong have actively participated in political
and social process. They are helpful in creating awareness regarding issues
faced by women as well finding solution for the same.
v. Studies and research on women entrepreneur widely highlighted the fact that
women entrepreneur has been quite successful in creativity and innovation
based working process.
C) Difficulties Faced by Women Entrepreneurship in Obtaining Finance

i. The greatest deterrent to women entrepreneurs is that they are women. A
kind of patriarchal – male dominant social order is the building block to
them in their way towards business success. Male members think it a big risk
financing the ventures run by women.
ii. The financial institutions are skeptical about the entrepreneurial abilities of
women. The bankers consider women loonies as higher risk than men loonies.
The bankers put unrealistic and unreasonable securities to get loan to women
entrepreneurs.
iii. The women entrepreneurs are suffering from inadequate financial resources
and working capital. The women entrepreneurs lack access to external funds
due to their inability to provide tangible security. Very few women have the
tangible property in hand.
iv. Bhardwaj and Parashar (2011) stated major hurdles that the women face during
starting and running a company generally come from financing and balancing
of life. The balancing of life is caused due to lack of family support for the
women. The other hindering external factors include gender discrimination,
inaccessibility to information, training opportunities, infrastructure etc. Some
internal factors like risk aversion by women, lack of confidence, lack of vision
of strategic leader etc. can also create obstacles for the women entrepreneurship
development.
v. Banks also ask for lot of paper work which deter women entrepreneur from
approaching banks for finance.
Suggestions
Financial institutions can take following steps in this direction:
• The financial institutions should provide more working capital assistance both
for small scale venture and large scale ventures.
• More governmental schemes to motivate women entrepreneurs to engage in
small scale and large-scale business ventures. Involvement of Non-Governmental
Organizations in women entrepreneurial training programs and counseling.
• State finance corporations and financing institutions should permit by statute
to extend purely trade related finance to women entrepreneurs.
• Skill development to be done in women’s polytechnics and industrial training
institutes. Skills are put to work in training-cum-production workshops.
Vocational training should be extended to women community that enables
them to understand the production process and production management.
• Repeated gender sensitization programs should be held to train financiers to
treat women with dignity and respect as persons in their own right.
• Making provision of micro credit system and enterprise credit system to the
women entrepreneurs at local level.
• Workshops and seminars should be frequently organized for the officials and
supporting agencies and for women entrepreneurs to make their relations
more cordial.
Conclusion
Over the past few decades the women has been breaking traditional role of a
mother or a house wife. But the rural women entrepreneurs’ movement in India is
still in transitory stage and has a long way to go. The movement requires pre and
post-follow-up support to utilize women power in the country’s economic development.
Various factors like positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement influencing
women entrepreneurs. Successful leading businesswomen in India are ideal role model
for our country. Government takes various steps for the uplifting of women
entrepreneurs in 7th five year plan, 8th five year plan and in 9th five year plan.
Women entrepreneurship must be molded properly with entrepreneurial traits and
skills to meet the changes in trends, challenges global markets and also be competent
enough to sustain and strive for excellence in the entrepreneurial arena.
References
1. Rao Padala Shanmukha (2007) “Entrepreneurship Development among Women: A case study
of self-help Groups in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh” Vol.1
2. Singh B.S. “Development of Women Entrepreneurs in India: The Role of Universities”
University News.
3. Prasad. Hanuman and Verma B.L, “Women Entrepreneurshipin India” The India Journal of
Commerce.
4. Bowen, Donald D. & Hirsch Robert D. (1986), The Female Entrepreneur: A career Development.
5. Ajendran N (2003), “Problems and prospects of women Entrepreneurs” Vol. 30
6. E-References: www.google.com; www.wikipedia.org
Gender Gap in BRICS Nations: A Review through UNDP’s

Global Gender Gap Report 2016
C.B. Singh*
Introduction
The BRICS nations comprise a consortium of five rapidly growing economies -
Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. The acronym “BRIC,” coined by Goldman
in 2001, later became “BRICS” when South Africa joined in 2010. They are not only
becoming the hub of natural resources, hydrocarbon reserves, production, consumption,
technology, and forward-looking opportunities, but they are equally significant builders
of human capital based on best HRD strategies.1 Gender equality is considered to be
the basic right of every human being. But though rational but socially we are staunch
enough at grass root levels which creates gap between male and female. For the
promptness of economic productivity and growth of the country contribution and
participation of the human is must. Yet gender inequalities remain deeply entrenched
in every society of the country of the world. This gender bias is faced by women in
every field like health, education, job allocation and wages. With this the plight and
plethora of women in dominant male society is also projected by violence and
discriminations across the globe. India is also among a group of countries that have
made key investments in women’s education but have generally not removed barriers
to women’s participation in the workforce. 2
Global Gender Gap Index
The report measures gender gap as progress towards parity between men and
women through a dimensional index which works in four areas (i) Educational
attainment, (ii) Health and survival, (iii) Economic opportunity and (iv) Political
empowerment. All these parameters are drafted into sub indexes and further scored
and ranked in terms of 144 countries around the globe.
In this study we analyse the status of gender achievement in BRICS countries
with special reference to India.
* Dean of Arts, Institute Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.
Statement of the Problem
This paper reviews the Global Gender Gap Report showing gender disparities
among BRICS nations and revealing the educational, economics participation, political
participation and health parameters questioning gender biases among the emerging
‘BRICS’ Nations.
1. Fernandez and Fogli (2009) show that female labour force participation amongst
second-generation immigrants in the USA is very strongly correlated with female
labour force participation in the country of origin. This evidence is relevant to
explain the importance of culture, because migrant women of various origins are
all observed in the same institutional and labour market environment. (The authors
chose second-generation immigrants because the problem of selection and disruption
due to migration is less relevant for them than for first-generation immigrants.)
2. Gender disparities in developing countries are often more pronounced in secondary,
technical and vocational than in primary education. In South and West Asia,
along with sub-Saharan Africa, girls accounted for 44% of students in secondary
education in 2007, but just 27% and 39%, respectively, in technical and vocational
education (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2010). Post-primary education is critical
for women’s economic empowerment, especially in developing countries where
greater participation in quality secondary schooling has strong positive effects on
health outcomes for girls, who postpone first childbirth, and better social outcomes
via lower infant mortality rates, better nutrition and educational attainment of
future generations.
Result and Discussion
Table 1: Global Gender Gap of BRICS Countries for the Year 2015 and 2016
2015 2016
Economies Rank
Rank out
Score out of Score
of 144
145
South Africa 0.759 17 0.764 15
Russian Fed. 0.694 75 0.691 75
Brazil 0.686 85 0.687 79
India 0.664 108 0.683 87
China 0.682 91 0.676 99
Source: World Economic Forum 2015 and 2016
The Global Gender Gap Report 2015 ranked the BRICS nations in the range 17 to
108. South Africa ranked best among BRICS and India ranked the worst with 108
rank in 2015. But the 2016 report revealed a positive change in gender disparities
among the nations where South Africa moved from 17 to 15 rank, Brazil from 85 to
79 and India showed a far more improvement from 108 to 87. But China’s position
dwindled from 91 to 99 where as Russian maintained its rank at the same level.
The sub indexes data and rank of BRICS nations are as under:
Table 2: Global Gender Dimensional Index of BRICS Nations for the Year 2016
Country Global Index Economic Education Health & Survival Political
Participation and Attainment Empowerment
Opportunity
Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score
Brazil 79 0.687 91 0.640 42 0.998 1 0.980 86 0.132
Russia 75 0.691 41 0.722 45 0.997 40 0.979 129 0.66
India 87 0.683 136 0.408 113 0.950 142 0.942 9 0.433
China 99 0.676 81 0.656 99 0.967 144 0.919 74 0.162
South 15 0.764 63 0.677 55 0.995 1 0.980 13 0.404
Africa
Source: Global Gender Gap Report, 2016
The Report revealed that Russia ranked the best in Economic Participation and
Opportunity for women where as India showed a leaning position with Rank 136.
This brings out the discriminating situation in India for females in job opportunities
and access to good positions and fair career choice and movements.
Conclusion
Though BRICS nations are emerging as a powerful development block enriching
growth and development, targeting trading and market opportunities in the global
scenario but still the development is single facet in these countries especially India
and China. The government policies should target more staunchly on gender
sensitization and gender mainstreaming in every fields especially by changing the
mindset of people which can only help in reducing gender gap. Every effort should
be dynamic enough in which pre planning of jobs and enrichment of labor force
should be done according to the market requirement from the base level i.e. beginning
from health targeting TFR, reducing diseases, living a health life, availing quality
education according to employment avenues and increasing participation rate of women
also in labour force. This will further lead to removing poverty, unemployment and
increase the nation’s income. The agenda of ‘every person rightly placed’ without
inequality should be envisioned for emerging nations which will globally help resource
optimal utilization.
References
1. Meeting of the OECD Council at Ministerial Level Paris, 25-26 May 2011: Report on the
Gender Initiative: Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship
2. The Global Gender Gap Report, 2016, World Economic Forum.
Socio Economic Status of Unorganized Sector of Women

Entrepreneurs of Urban Area of Jhansi District of UP
C.B. Singh* & Ankita Jasmine Lall**
Introduction
Jhansi city is a historical place of India, which is situated between the rivers
Pahunj and Betwa is a symbol of bravery, courage and self-respect. According to the
2011 census, Jhansi has a population of 505,693, its urban agglomeration a population
of 547,638. The literacy rate of Jhansi is 83.02%, higher than the state average of
67.68%. The sex ratio is 905 females for every 1000 males. Jhansi city has 57th rank
among the most populated cities of India, according to the 2011 census. Recently,
Jhansi is considered in the list Smart city of the nation in the third round.
Women Empowerment is enlisted in the agenda for social development of all
developing economies. But what exactly is women empowerment? Women
empowerment in itself means making women self reliant where she can survive in
this male dominated society being economically, socially and mentally strong. But
this does not simply mean a ‘one time’ push in the form of policies, etc but it is an
‘ongoing’ process of women transition from the captives of traditional home based
culture to stepping up in an unexplored territories of work. These new territories
can be further characterized as organized sector and unorganized or informal sector.
Justice T S Thakur (2015) stated that more than 90 per cent workforce is engaged
in unorganized sector in India where out of 46 crores of workers 14 crores are women.
He also alleged that the welfare schemes for these workers are proving to be ineffective
because of improper implementation by government authorities. This simply reveals
the engagement of women participants in the unorganized economy whose contribution
is sometimes left unnoticed.
Entrepreneurship is an important aspect of women empowerment. By entrepreneurs
we mean a person who is able to organize various inputs and perform managerial role
to generate output. Women entrepreneurs are business women which can be traced in
both type of formal and informal sectors. Examples of Women in formal sector are
Ekta Kapoor, Shahnaz Hussain, etc who are termed as Women Business tycoons.
* Dean of Arts, Institute Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.
** Research Scholar, Institute Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.

1. To identify the concentration of women entrepreneurs in defined categories
of businesses in unorganized sector of Jhansi city.
2. To analyze the socio economic condition of women entrepreneurs through
their socio- religious affiliations in the area under study.
This field survey on Women Domestic Workers was conducted in Jhansi City of
Uttar Pradesh to ascertain the nature, working profile, economic status and societal
reciprocation received by women domestic workers. Here a randomly sample of 100
domestic workers was taken and their socio-economic condition was analysed. This
study is limited to Women Entrepreneurs in Unorganized sector for which specifically
women concentrated in occupations like Beauty Parlour, Tailoring, Retail Shop, Grocery
Shop and Food/ Tiffin System in the urban area of Jhansi District was focused.
Result & Discussion
Data Analysis
1. Concentration of Women Entrepreneurs in Jhansi City
This table 2 shows the occupational details of women where the major concentration
of women was in Beauty Parlour Industry which is unanimously proving to be a
large industry in unorganized sector followed by Tailoring with 27 percent result
and Retail and Food Industry with 15 and 12 percent position in the captured
respondents. This simply states the involvement of women in economic activities in
order to earn bread and butter for their families or give financial support to them.
Table 1: Occupational Details

Type of Enterprise Frequency Percent Absolute Percent Cumulative Percent
Beauty Parlour 38 38.0 38.0 38.0
Tailoring 27 27.0 27.0 65.0
Grocery Shop 8 8.0 8.0 73.0
Valid
Retail Shop 15 15.0 15.0 88.0
Food/Tiffin System 12 12.0 12.0 100.0
Total 100 100.0 100.0
Source: primary data.

2. Socio Economic Status of Women Entrepreneurs in Jhansi City
Table 2: Education of Respondent * Occupational Details Cross tabulation

Education of Respondent Occupational Details Total
Beauty Tailoring Grocery Shop Retail Shop Food/Tiffin
Parlour System
Illiterate 1 1 4 2 2 10
Primary 1 5 1 4 2 13
Secondary 7 3 1 4 5 20
Senior Secondary 6 4 2 2 3 17
Graduate 17 13 0 2 0 32
Post Graduate 6 1 0 1 0 8
Total 38 27 8 15 12 100
Source: primary data
Table 3: Occupational Details * Category of the Respondent - Cross tabulation

Occupational Details Category of the Respondent Total
Gen OBC SC ST
Beauty Parlour 20 11 6 1 38
Tailoring 18 5 3 1 27
Grocery Shop 3 2 3 0 8
Retail Shop 8 4 3 0 15
Food/Tiffin System 4 4 2 2 12
Total 53 26 17 4 100
Source: Primary data
Table 4: Monthly Income * Occupational Details Cross tabulation

Monthly Income Occupational Details Total
Beauty Tailoring Grocery Shop Retail Shop Food/Tiffin
Parlour System
Below 10000 8 15 3 1 5 32
10000-20000 17 5 2 5 7 36
20000-30000 3 2 2 5 0 12
30000-40000 6 1 0 3 0 10
40000-50000 1 1 0 0 0 2
50000 and Above 3 3 1 1 0 8
Total 38 27 8 15 12 100
Source: Primary data

Findings
1. It was found that the maximum engagement of women entrepreneurs was in
Beauty Parlour Industry followed by Tailoring. This proved the growing industry
in the city in unorganized sector in Jhansi.
2. The maximum women entrepreneurs were found of Hindu Religion which
can be correlated to the religion wise population in Jhansi which was seen to
be approximately 90 percent.
3. Also it was found that the women were basically of General category followed
by OBC category in the study area.
4. It was also identified that out of the total women respondents 32 percent
were graduate which stated that educated women also prefer self employment
rather than getting completely engaged in the organized sector.
Conclusion
Though education plays a vital role in empowering women but Women
Empowerment simply explains a trend in which there is a transition of home based
women to self reliant and earning women. This self reliance of women is not just
getting engaged in industrial and service sector or getting a white collar job but it
can be explained as a case where women are economically or financially earning a
livelihood or supporting their families for which their participation can be seen in
any area, even in home based earning will also be dealt in the same category.
As in Jhansi District the maximum population is of Hindu religion so it was seen
the major involvement of Hindu women in the unorganized sector. But it also revealed
that Muslim women are less engaged in informal economy as compared to Hindu
Women entrepreneurs.
Finally we can conclude that women empowerment and self reliance can also be
judged by their participation in unorganized sector too. As we identified the participation
of women earning bread and butter for their families in unorganized or informal
economy like that of Jhansi city. Thus a transition trend can be captured in which we
can make out the engagement of women in informal sector through self employment
which can drive out a balance by just short period skill acquirement through training.
This in real terms is ‘Skill India’ and ‘Women Empowerment’.
References
1. Alekar, Anjali A. (2013) “Women Entrepreneurs in Beauty Salon Industry in Mumbai: Problems
and Prospects” International Journal, Jan- June 2013,Vol 2, No 2, P 64-67
2. “90% of the workforce in unorganized sector deprived of welfare schemes, says, Justice T S
Thakur” quoted by Express News Service, Chandigarh, Published on 12 th April 2015
Role of Women in Economic Development
Anamika Choudhary*
As Samuelson (1976) maintains, ‘It has been quite impossible to differentiate between
the cooperative roles of men and women in producing GNP. In developing economies, the
discrimination against women is seen more than in developed countries. In these countries,
work force participation rates of women are significantly lower.
These lines by Samuelson way back in 1976 still holds true in this era of liberalization
and globalization. Though the role of women has taken a multifaceted dimension
wherein she has traversed from the threshold of home to the workplace. The contribution
in GNP of Indian women in particular has been growing at a steady pace. As per
Census 2011, workers constitute 39.79 percent of total population whereas the ratio
of female workers was 25.51 percent. It is undoubtedly an increase when compared
to 14.68 percent in 2001 Census.
Most Indian women undertake employment only under economic compulsion to
supplement the family income. They thus enter the informal sector and get employed
as part time helpers in construction units, tanneris, beedi industries and the like.
Their dual role as a significant contributor to GNP and fulfilling their family
responsibilities with the same dedication force the society to change their outlook.
Their role in present society has thus become all the more pertinent as they constitute
almost half of the total population. The problems of gender discrimination, health
related problems, exploitation, working conditions and working environment are some
of the many issues which needs a serious probe if the contribution of women needs
to be enhanced in the economy.
Women and Economic Development: A Background
The pertinent question that arises is why at all there is a need to invest in women.
Why must the gender issues be resolved? Before delving into such areas, an evolution
of thinking towards women and development need to be focused.
In 1970s, it was noted through research on African farmers that development
was not gender neutral, rather it was gender blind and as such could harm women.
There came in a “Women in Development’ approach which marked that the exclusion
* Associate Professor and Head, Department of Economics, DSMNR University, Lucknow, U.P.
of women was problem of development. Women had no control over resources and
lacked existence in the market sphere. It was then legislatively marked that the
development should bring ‘in’ women and the discrimination should be limited.
This could be possible through promoting education and giving them employment.
This approach targeted at women and made their contribution in productive activities
and income generating areas more visible.
Thus in 1990s, many NGOs and agencies adopted a “Rights-Based Approach”.
An awareness of the recognition of women’s demand for legitimate claims was
recognized. The right to live free from violence, not limiting to domestic violence
but to gender based too. Thus a shift in understanding was developed wherein the
meaning of development accrued not just to economic development but to holistic
social development, the main driver being economic development.
Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming has now become the main concern of majority of large
development organization and agencies. It implies a gendered perspective to all activities
including planning, implementation and monitoring of all programmes, projects and
legislation. Gender is thus placed at the heart of development. It has clearly been
observed that women still suffer from violence across the globe and lack full and
equal participation in economic and political life. Thus mainstreaming is yet to succeed.
A continuous effort is required for prioritizing the integration of women into the
development process.
Efficiency and Equity Argument
May it be industries like textiles or electronic transnational corporations, the innate
quality of women as being reliable, productive and being considered a cheap labour
force places her as a preferred workforce. The microfinance programmes perceives
women as being good with paying back loans and thus targets women more than
men. Women are also recognized as efficient distributors of goods and services within
the households, in efforts to alleviate poverty through cash transfer programmes.
Promoting Women’s Economic Participation in India
The increased role of women has been the central driver of economic growth.
The economic status of women is now accepted as an indicator of a society’s stage
of development.
As the 2012 World Development Report highlights, empowering half of the potential
workforce has significant economic benefits beyond promoting just gender equality.
This empowerment is just not limited to increased female labor force participation
but also accrue in reducing gender discrimination and wage differentials and promoting
talented women into leadership and managerial roles.
The data by the World Economic Forum 2012 Gender Gap Index ranked India
123rd out of 135 countries on economic participation and opportunity. The Global
Gender Gap Report 2011 states that India scores average on the gender gap index
overall while the grim side is that its score for women’s economic participation and
opportunity is worse than 95 percent of all countries taken in the study.
It gives rise to many significant questions:
What explains these huge disparities in women’s economic participation in India?
Is it poor infrastructure, or limited resources or the gender composition of the
labour force and industries?
Or is it the deficiencies in social and business networks and a low share of incumbent
entrepreneurs?
Constraints on Realizing full Potential of Women in the Process of Economic
Development
World Bank Gender and Development Group (WBGDG, 2003) reported that
‘education, healthy women are more able to engage in productive activities, find formal
sector employment, earn higher incomes and enjoy greater returns to schooling than uneducated
women…’ an investment in human capital brings positive short and long term results,
in terms of higher productivity, and controlling population growth. Greater equal
access of girls to primary education is visible but still inequality in access to secondary
and higher education persists. Moreover it has been observed that girls do not opt
for the study of science and technology, thus limiting their employment opportunities
in the future.
Gender imbalance still persists in the allocation of resources to girls and boys.
Even today, sending the girls to school, providing nutrition to them and attending to
their health care is determined by the income of the family and the cost of these
services than in the case for boys. Many countries still carry laws that discriminate
women in family, property, employment, etc. it is estimated that women own only 1
% of property and lack of rights to inherit or own land. Limit their engagement in
large scale cash production. In some states, early and forced marriages of girls prevent
them from further education and employment. A progressive outlook still lack among
the society. Religions do play a key role in furthering discrimination among women
and girls. Economic fundamentalism, policies and practices that privilege profits over
people, also deny rights to women as workers and to work. A limited voice of the
women in the political culture restricts their full participation in formal systems of
power as well.
How to Unblock these Constraints
There is a need to respect and defend women’s sexual and reproductive health
rights. This is quite critical for social and economic development. Sexual, emotional
and physical violence and the threat of violence limits women’s mobility, thus keep
them away from being engaged in the process of development. Men and boys can
have a role to play in the prevention of gender based and the promotion of gender
equality.
There is a need to strengthen women’s access to both formal and informal justice
systems so that their rights, opportunity and participation are ensured. Improved
political voice also becomes crucial.
Policies to provide for affordable and quality child care and adequate health
services may bring women to enter paid employment and their domestic responsibility
becomes a collective responsibility. Full and decent employment opportunities, access
to finance, providing social protection and valuing her efforts in the development
process, hold the key to economic growth.
References
1. Ghani, Ejaz, William Kerr and Stephen D.O’Connell (2013): “Promoting Women’s Economic
Participation in India”, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, Economic
Premise, World Bank, no.107
2. Dr. Sarah Bradshaw (2013) : “Women’s Role in Economic Development: Overcoming the
Constraints”, Background paper for the High Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post -
2015 Development Agenda, Sustainable Development Solutions Network.
A Strategy of Women Empowerment: Women Entrepreneurship

in India
M.K. Shastri*
Introduction
Development of any nation to a great extent depends on the successful organization
of productive economic activities, a prerequisite for which is the presence of good
quality entrepreneurs. In other words, in any nation the responsibility of pulling the
tempo of economic development ahead falls ultimately on entrepreneurs. Many countries
lag behind in the development race because of the absence of good quality entrepreneurs.
In such countries, which lack sufficient number of entrepreneurs, women entrepreneurs,
who due to some social reasons are not allowed to walk out and show their
entrepreneurial and organizational qualities, represents an important untapped source
of economic growth.
This paper is entirely based on secondary data and information and is organized
in five sections namely, importance of women entrepreneurs, History, Problems Govt.
Schemes and efforts necessary for the growth of women entrepreneurship. Research
methodology is descriptive and data is based on secondary. For this study data and
information has been collected with the help of Books, Magazines, Newspapers, Research
Articles, Research Journals, E-Journals, Reports on Women Entrepreneurship.
The study mainly aimed at analyzing about the status of women entrepreneurship.
To analyse this the study covered the following specific objectives:
1. To analyse the socio-economic characteristic of women entrepreneurs.
2. To examine the sources of finance and investment made by the women
entrepreneurs.
3. To identify the factors motivated the women entrepreneurs to undertake
entrepreneurship and reasons for their success.
* Associate Professor & Head, Department of Applied Business Economics, RBS College, Agra, U.P.
4. To review the problems faced by the women entrepreneurs while starting,

operating and management of their enterprises.
5. To suggest the policy measures to strengthen the women entrepreneurs.
The Importance of Women Entrepreneurs
Women entrepreneurs encounters only one third of all entrepreneurs. And as half
the population on this planet is .women there is an unnatural gap between genders.
There is thus potential to enhance the level of women entrepreneurs. Women
entrepreneurs have a massive potential which are yet to be unleashed. Not only due
to the gender gap, but also because women bring in diversity to the innovation
process. More women will provide per se entrepreneurs with a more diverse perspective.
Solutions to market inequalities are not solved just. by male entrepreneurs with
male thinking innovation. Now women also brings in solutions to market inequalities
and their innovations may not be alike those of the man. Thus. women entrepreneurship
is to be seen as part of the diversity question.
Govt. Schemes for the Development of Women Entrepreneurs
Importance of women entrepreneurs in the nation’s development is now well
recognized in India. It was in the 7th five year plan that a special chapter was
devoted for women’s development.
The schemes for the development of women enterprises are briefed below along
with their important features.
Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development Schemes for Women

(TREAD)
Under this scheme,
1. Women Association / NGOs / SHGs are expected to prepare composite Bankable
proposals for a group of women entrepreneurs and submit to the ministry.
2. The ministry forwards the proposal to the banks for their appraisal
3. After examination, the bank issues the approval.
4. The approved proposal gets the 30 per cent amount as grant from GOI and
remaining 70 per cent is extended by the bank as loan.
5. GOI also provides grant to training institutes for imparting training to the
women and also for carrying out field surveys, research studies, evaluation
studies, designing training modules etc.
Micro and Small Enterprises Cluster Development Programme (MSE-CDP)

Under this Programme
1. Assistance is provided for capacity building, common facilities, marketing
etc. to a cluster. That is group of enterprises ideally having 100 members.
2. Assistance provided is called intervention in the cluster and classified in to
soft interventions and hard interventions.
3. Soft interventions include diagnostic study, forming association, organizing
workshops, training and exposure visits, common procurement and sales and
branding etc. and an assistance of Rs. 10 lakh is made available per cluster.
4. Hard interventions include setting up of Common Facility Centre (IFC), Mini
tool room, R&D Centre, testing facilities, common raw material bank / sales
depot etc. The Ministry provides assistance up 80 per cent of the total project
cost which increases up to 90 per cent of the project cost in case of clusters
owned by women enterprises
Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme for Micro and Small Enteprises
Under this scheme
1. Credit gurantee is extended to ensure better flow of credit to micro and small
enterprises.
2. The credit guarantee helps in minimizing the risk perception of financial
institutions and banks lending without collateral security.
3. The guarantee cover available is up to 75 per cent of the loans extended and
increases up to 80 per cent in case of the women operated or managed MSEs.
Support for Entrepreneurial and Managerial Development
Under this scheme
1. Entrepreneurship skill development programme / Entrepreneurship development
programme / Management development programme are organized to train
the potential entrepreneurs.
2. The main objective of the programme organized is to improve the techno /
managerial knowledge and skill of the potential entrepreneurs. So that can
start MSEs.
3. Many programmes are tailor made and are organized for a target group the
SC, ST, OBC, minorities, weaker sections and women.
Suggestions
Based on this the study makes the following suggestions to strengthen the women
entrepreneurs:
• Better educational facilities and schemes should be extended to women
entrepreneurs from government part.
• Adequate entrepreneurial knowledge should be provided to the women
entrepreneurs through formal education and training
• Institutional loans made available to the entrepreneurs according to their need.
• State finance corporations and financing institutions should permit by statute

to extend purely trade related entrepreneurs.
• Women’s development corporations have to gain access to open-ended financing.
Conclusion
Increase the ability of women to participate in the labour force by ensuring the
availability of affordable child and equal treatment in the work place. More generally,
improving the position of women’s entrepreneurship.
Listen to the voice of women entrepreneurs. The creation of Govt. offices of
women’s business ownership is one way to facilitate this. Such offices could have
programme responsibilities such as providing women’s business centers, organizing
information seminars and meetings and/or providing web-based information to those
wanting to start and grow a business.
Incorporate a women’s entrepreneurship dimension in the formation of all SME
related policies. This can be done by ensuring that impact on women’s entrepreneurship
is taken into account at the design stage.
References
1. Asghar Afshar Jahanshahi, et.al., (2010), “Issues and Challenges for Women Entrepreneurs
in Global Scene with Special Reference to India”, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied
Sciences, 4(9): 4347-4356.
2. Das Mahilea (2000-2001), Women Entrepreneurs from India : Problem, Motivations and Success
Factors”, Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, Volume 15, No. 4, pp 67-81.
3. Dhameja S.K. (2004), “Women Entrepreneurs: Opportunities, Performance and Problems”,
Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi.
4. Kollan, Bharti and Indira J Parikh (2005): “A Reflection of the Indian Women in Enterpreneurial
World”, Working Paper No. 2005-08-07, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.
The Paradigm of Gender Main Streaming Through Gender

Budgeting: An Insight Analysis
Satish Kumar Tripathi* & Shruti Tripathi**
Introduction
‘Gender Budgeting is a dissection of the government budget to establish its
differential impacts and to translate gender commitments into budgetary commitments.’
Though women constitute 48 percent of India’s population, yet they lag behind
men on many social indicators like health, education and economic opportunities
and warrant special attention due to their vulnerability and lack of access to resources
Therefore, Gender Budgeting, as a tool for achieving gender mainstreaming, has
been adopted by the government of India since 2005. Gender budgeting is not an
accounting exercise but an ongoing process to ensure that the benefits of development
reach women as much as man. The first step in this direction was the establishment
of Gender Budgeting cell in 56 ministries/departments at union level. A significant
breakthrough was the introduction of Gender Budgeting in 2005-06, which is now
placed in Parliament with Union Budget Documents every year. It serves as a reporting
mechanism and provides an indication of the funds flowing to women. Over the
years, the number of ministries/departments reporting in the Gender Budgeting
Statement has gone-up from 9 (2005-06) to 29 (2011-12). The magnitude of Gender
Budgeting as percentage of total budget has gone-up from 2.80 percent in 2005-06 to
6.22 percent in 2011-12.
Objectives
The main objective of the paper is to go deep into the concept of gender budgeting,
its need and relevance in Indian context at present. The other one is to suggest
measures for its successful implementation in future years.
The literature on the said problem is discrete and limited. Despite, the Fifth Five
Year Plan Documents (1980-85, 1985-90, 1992-97, 1997-2002 and 2002-07) and Union
* (Retd.) Associate Professor and H.O.D. Economics, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru College, Banda (U.P.)
** Lecturer in Home Science, Bhagwati Prasad College, Tindwari, Banda(U.P.)
Budgets since 2005-06 are available source for directional and quantitative informations.
As review of the literature some referable research papers are: Dr. Goel, M.M. and
Ms. Rani, Suman, “Gender Budgeting and women Empowerment in India.” Varta,
Methodology
The Study follows, as the social scientists adopt mostly, the Descriptive Research
Methodology. The insights analysis bases to secondary data and graphical modeling
in this paper.
The Discussion
Gender Responsive Budget Initiatives are outcome of a collaborative effect of the
UNDF for women, the Commonwealth Secretariat, and International Development
Research, Canada. The ultimate stated goal of gender budgeting is to bring gender
equality in the allocation of public funds and to evaluate and to enhance women’s
participation in the decision-making processes that shapes their lives. The economic
reform measures initiated in the early 1990s and consequent fiscal policies were
found to have widened gender differences in this country. Studies on gender budgeting
in India indicate that India’s impressive economic growth in the last two decades or
so have not succeeded in addressing the issues like relative deprivation of women in
India. Several macro indicators as education, health, sex ratio and economic participation,
etc point towards the existing imbalance in the status of 48 percent female population
vis-a-vis men. The gender budgeting exercise has reflected government’s recognition,
acceptance and willingness to use fiscal policy in achieving its ends which are beneficial
to women. This change of mindset can contribute to narrowing down gender gaps in
incomes, health, education, nutrition and living standards.
As per action plan shown by the modeling the details of three dimensions as
follows:
Macro-Level Initiatives in the Gender Budget

(a) This entails preparation of a Gender Based profile of public Expenditure. This
serves as a situational analysis/Benchmark to identify gap areas in resource
allocation for women.
(b) The Exercise can be carried out for the entire Budget of a state or ministry of
for specific sectors.
(c) Identification of gaps will enable enhancing re-prioritizing allocation of reserves
towards women’s empowerment.
(d) Monitoring flow of funds, gender friendly implementation and achievement
of outcomes are integral parts of gender budgeting.
Micro-Level Initiatives in the Gender Budgeting

(a) Spatial Mapping of resources available for women in the villages and towns
and bench-marking public expenditure necessary to ensure adequate availability
and access to essential services like health, education, water sanitation, fuel
and employment gives a realistic picture of funds required for women.
(b) The further step pertains to progressively translate gender based spatial
requirement to resource allocations and create synergy in resource allocation
across levels of goverence and to ensure universal coverage.
(C) Reprioritize resource allocation to address regional imbalances and infrastructural
gaps.
Certain Constraints in the Path of Action Plan for Gender Budgeting
They may be stipulated as under:
(i) Non- availability of gender disaggregated data.
(ii) Need to train administrative cadres in gender budgeting perspectives and
practices.
(iii) Need for concerted multi-departmental action for successful and holistic
empowerment of women.
Gender Budgeting Perspective in Fifth Five Year Plan Documents:
The Fifth Five Year Plane Documents have over the years reflected the evolving
trends in gender matters. Formal earmarking of funds for women began with the
Women’s Component Plan. However gender sensivity in allocation of resources starts
with the Seventh Five Year Plan. This Plan introduced the concept of monitoring of
27 beneficiary-oriented schemes for women by DW CD. The exercise continues. The
Eighth Five Year plan highlighted for the first time a gender perspective and the
need to ensure a definite flow of funds from the gender developmental sectors to
women. The Plan Document stated that “…the benefits to development from different
sectors should not bypass women and special programmes on Woman should
complement the general developmental programmes.
Analysis of Union Budget from Gender Perspective
The Ministry of Women and Child Development New Delhi has been analyzing
the union Budget from a gender perspective based upon the model adopted by the
National Institute of Public Finance & Policy, New Delhi. The institute is analyzing
the union budget since 2001-02.
The total allocations for gender budgeting has increased from Rs. 13,856 crores in
2001-02 to Rs. 31,177 crores in 2007-08 (budget estimates) with annual compound
growth rate of 13.90 percent which is higher than the increase of 9.20 percent in total
union government expenditure. As a percentage of total union government expenditure,
this constitutes a rise from 3.80 percent to 4.80 percent. This reveals that the gender
budgeting is gaining importance day by day. Over the years, the number of ministries/
department reporting in the Gender Budgeting statement has gone-up from 09(2005-
06) to 29 (2011-12). The magnitude of Gender Budgeting allocation as percentage of
total budget has gone up from 4.80 percent in 2005-06 to 6.22 percent in 2011-12.
The analysis of expenditure Budget from a gender perspective reveals that only
12 ministry/department have specifically targeted programmer for women (A Category)
and 13 ministry/department have pro-women allocations (Category B), other than
the fiscal transfer to UTs. (Table No. 1). The other thing is that there is a significant
deviation between the budget allocations and revised estimates and in turn in actual
expenditure. Higher budgetary allocation per say does not necessarily translate into
higher expenditure on women. The reasons beneath these significant deviations in
the budget estimates and revised estimates need to highlighted and analyzed through
Expenditure Tracking Surveys.
Some Specific Suggestions
1. The first and foremost step ahead is to strengthen the sex disaggregated database
within relevant departments/ministries which will enable better analysis and
more effective monitoring of targets and achievements for men and women
separately.
2. In order to ensure transparency and accountability to allocations for women,
open a budget (Major) head on ‘Gender Development’. This would help in
protecting those provisions earmarked on their re-appropriation for other
purposes.
3. Expenditure Tracking Surveys are to be followed regularly.
4. The system of alignment of Gender Budget with outcome budget and
performance budget is needed.
Conclusion
The rationale of integrating gender into budgetary policy has dual dimensions of
equality and efficiency. Gender Budget does not refer to a separate budget; rather it
is a tool scrutinizing the government budget to reveal its gender differentiated impact.
Conducting Gender Budgeting in India is all the more relevant with growing evidence
of gender discrimination even before birth from the trends of juvenile sex ratio; and
other socio-economic indicators showing how the bias is getting accentuated in many
parts of Inida. The given suggestion, if followed, may improve the current process of
gender budgeting in India.
References
1. Government of India, Ministry of Finance, New Delhi: Economic survey 2011-12.
2. Government of India, Publication Division Ministry of information and Broadcasting: India
2015.
3. UNIFEM, Delhi: Banerjce, N(2002); What is Gender Budgeting? Public Policies from Women’s
Perspective in the Inida context.
Strategy of Women Empowerment in India
Jagdish Singh*
Introduction
The subject of empowerment of women has becoming a burning issue all over
the world including India since last few decades. Many agencies of United Nations
in their reports have emphasized that gender issue is to be given utmost priority. It
is held that women now cannot be asked to wait for any more for equality. The
position and status of women all over the world has risen incredibly in the 20th
century. We find that it has been very low in 18th and 19th centuries in India and
elsewhere when they were treated like ‘objects’ that can be bought and sold. For a
long time women in India remained within the four walls of their household.
Goal of Empowerment
Hence, feminist all over the world raised their voice against inhuman treatment
of women in the beginning of 19th century and started demanding basic rights and
dignified treatment through women liberation movement. The UNO recognized the
justice in their demand and declared, that “women rights are human rights” and
through international conferences, workshops and committees drew a draft plan for
women empowerment process and offered the guidelines and instructions to be followed
to improve the status women. The member countries initiated women oriented
development and welfare programmes and enacted suitable laws to protect their
rights. The empowerment process was initiated through education, training, health,
employment, legal and political facilities but these are only tools of empowerment.
Can they alone guarantee “real” empowerment? The answer then is “no’. Because
unless women understand the goals of empowerment they cannot elevate their status
within the family, society and the nation
The Goals of Empowerment are
1. An economically empowered woman or an employed women should have
the ability to plan and take independent decision about her own life( in matters
of education carrier, marriage, child birth etc.,)
* Associate Professor & Head, Department of Economics, Harishchandra, P.G. College,
Varanasi, U.P.
2. She should be able to face challenges of her life, with courage and confidence
and with the support of laws or supporting groups.
3. She should be able to use the resources(such as education job, money, time
and energy ) at her disposal to her best advantage, i.e., to achieve goals of
her life.
4. She should be able to take part in decision making process at the family level
in matters concerning, marriage, higher education or job of children, property
acquisition and disposal, saving and investment matters etc and at national
level through representation in the law making and administrative bodies.
5. She should be able to put an end to violence against her through legal awareness
etc.
New Pattern of Working Wives
This new pattern of working wives and mothers has affected the status of women
in many ways. Women’s monetary independence leads them to the way to
empowerment. Sociologist Robert Blood (1965) observes, ‘Employment emancipates
women from domination by their husbands and secondarily, raises their daughters
from inferiority to their brothers’ (Blood and Wolfe, 1965). They can get most of the
things they want (income, status, identity) without marriage, while they find it harder
to find a suitable accomplished mate. This is why their marriage is delayed.
Challenges for Women in India
There are many challenges that are currently plaguing the issues of women’s rights
in India. A lot of issues are redundant and quite basic which has been faced across the
country; they are contributory causes to the overarching status of women in India.
Targeting these issues will directly benefit the empowerment of women in India.
Education
While the country has grown from leaps and bounds since its independence the
gap between women and men education is severe. In comparison to 82.14% of adult
educated men, only 65.46% of adult literate women are there in India.
Poverty in the Country
Poverty is considered the greatest threat to peace in the world, and eradication
of poverty should be a national goal as important as the eradication of illiteracy. Due
to abject poverty, women are exploited as domestic helps and wives whose incomes
are usurped by the man of the house.
Health and Safety
The United Nations Development Program constituted eight Millennium
Development Goals (MDG) for ensuring equity and peace across the world. The
third MDG is directly related to the empowerment of women in India. The MDGs
are agreed-upon goals to reduce certain indicators of disparity across the world by
the year 2015.
There are number of schemes running under the women empowerment mission
we will discuss the major schemes here:-
Poverty Alleviation and Economic Empowerment of Women:

1. Schemes of Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying Fisheries
2. Scheme on Development of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture
3. Scheme on Development of Marine Fisheries, Infrastructure and Post harvest
Operations
4. Scheme on Fisheries Training and Extension
5. Assistance to Cooperatives
6. National Bamboo Mission
Social Empowerment and Education

These schemes are basically for the purpose of providing educational facilities
to the women. Because education play a very important role when it comes
to any sort of empowerment and specially women empowerment.
Health & Nutrition

1. Integrated Child Development Scheme
2. Reproductive & Child Health Program, Ph.II (RCH II)
3. National Rural Health Mission
Kishori Shakti Yojana

This schemes aims to improve the nutritional, health and development status
of adolescent girls, promote awareness of health, hygiene, nutrition and family
care, link them to opportunities for learning life skills, going back to school,
help them gain a better understanding of their social environment and take
initiatives to become productive members of the society.
Empowerment of Vulnerable and Marginalized Groups and Women in Difficult

Circumstances
The scheme envisions a supportive institutional framework for woman victim
of difficult circumstances so that she could lead her life with dignity and
conviction. It envisages that shelter, food, clothing, and health as well as economic
and social security are assured for such women. It also envisions that the
special needs of these women are properly taken care of and under no
circumstances they should be left unattended or abandoned which could lead
to their exploitation and desolation.
Ujjawala
This schemes aims to prevent trafficking of women and children for commercial
sexual exploitation through social mobilization and involvement of local communities,
awareness generation program generate public discourse through workshops/seminars
and such events and any other innovative activity. It also facilitate rescue of victims
from the place of their exploitation and place them in safe custody.
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

This scheme provides shelter to the poor community. Right now implemented in
every state and providing homes to the poor.
Suggestions
1. Proper awareness for laws should be there that is law should not be restricted
to papers only but the implementation of law should be there so that every
woman can be familiar with her rights. Significant steps should be taken to
implement all the laws which are amended to facilitate detention, prevention
and punishment of crimes against women.
2. Women education has to be made compulsory and women should be encouraged
to become literate because without being educated women cannot have a
access to her right.
3. Strict implementation of the schemes and policies for women empowerment
should be done.
4. Awareness camps for women should be organized where they can become
familiar with the framed schemes and policies and can take benefit of those
schemes and policies.
Coonclusion
Women around the world share a common condition; they are not full and equal
participants in public policy choices that affect their lives. Nowhere is the gap between
de jure and de facto equality among men and women greater than in the area of
decision making. The top decision making position remain largely male dominated
spheres where women have little influence. The lack of women’s participation in
political decision making has important consequences. It deprives women of important
rights and responsibilities as citizens, and excludes their perspectives and interests
from policy making and decision making.
References
1. Jill Williams (2005) Measuring Gender and Women s Empowerment Using
Confirmatory Factor Analysis, IBS Working Paper,PACS-2005-01
2. Malhotra Anju, Sidney Ruth Schuler and Carol Boender (2002) Measuring
Women s Empowerment as a variable in International Development., World
Bank Social Development Group.
A Study on Functioning of Microfinance Self Help Group in

Bundelkhand Region of Uttar Pradesh
Radhika Choudhary Kureel*, Suman Yadav** & Shamim Ansari***
Introduction
Financial services can include one or many combination of the following: lending,
savings, insurance, pension/retirement and payment services. Microfinance is also
frequently combined with the provision of social services, such as literacy or health
care training, and/or business development services, such as management or accounting
training.
Micro-finance has received a entire recognition today not only as a powerful
instrument for poverty reduction and empowerment of deprived section of the society,
but also as a promising sector of financing for the banks, financial organizations and
NGOs. Developing Countries with sound Micro-finance system have succeeded in
reducing poverty and improving socio-economic conditions of women significantly
(Sharma Pushpa Raj 2008).
Research Design and Literature Review
The present paper titled, “A study on Functioning of Microfinance Self Help
Group in Bundelkhand Region of Uttar Pradesh” attempts to examine the functioning
of SHGs in respective area of research.
Statement of the Problem

There are many SHGs operating in the Bundelkhand Region of Uttar Pradesh.
However, how far they have been effective in achieving their objective, need to be
evaluated. In this back drop the present study “A study on Functioning of Microfinance
Self Help Group in Bundelkhand Region of Uttar Pradesh”, aimed to achieve the
following objective.
* Assistant Professor, IEF, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.

** Assistant Professor, BIET, Jhansi, U.P.
*** Associate Professor, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.
(i) To asses transparency, examination of records, of Self Help Groups in

Bundelkhand region after joining such groups.
(ii) To analyze knowledge about the thrift, source of money to deposit in thrift of
SHGs members in Bundelkhand region after joining such groups.
(iii) To assess regularity and frequency of saving, meetings of SHGs in area under
study.
Research Design
The samples are taken from all the seven district of Bundelkhand Region i.e.
Jhansi, Banda, Lalitpur, Hamirpur, Mahoba, Jalaun, and Chitrkoot. In proposed study
SHGs Groups, SHGs Member in Bundelkhand Region is considering as sample Units
under the SHGs Bank Linkage Program (SBLP) Model. Since sample size depends on
some constraint like budget, time, information etc. Here approximately 350 respondents
were considered for the study. 50 SHGs Member were taken from each district for
assessment of obligatory function of SHGs. Two blocks in each selected district were
further identified randomly. Total 70 SHG’s and 350 members of SHG’s were randomly
selected for field survey. This study is based on both Primary data.
Questionnaire/Schedules were used to collect primary data from stakeholders
(NGO-MFIs and Beneficiaries). These questionnaires were structured and pre-tested
through pilot survey. Both simple as well as advance statistical techniques were
used to analyze the data. The data collected from above mentioned source was analyzed
using SPSS 16. Statistical tools such as frequency distribution, percentage analysis,
were used to analyze the data.
Literature Review
Palanichamy (2011) revealed that after joining with SHGs the income have increased
along with thrift are got self confident for living with community. Rajendran and
Raya (2011) studied that there is a high level of political empowerment as compared
to economic empowerment and poor level of social empowerment.
Analysis and Interpretation
Transparency in Dealing
A great majority 89.7 percent of the respondents affirmed that these documents
were maintained properly and available to any member on demand, and the remaining
7.7 percent did not know that these were to be made available to other members
other than the leaders. Only 2.6 percent respondents confirmed that the documents
were not maintained properly.
Examination of Records
Usually ordinary members do not examine these documents. But response to a
question whether the respondents had examined these documents during last six
months, it was found that 82.9 percent of the respondents had replied affirmatively
as well as 17.1 percent responded negatively. This clearly indicates that great majority
of the members were serious about the functioning of the SHGs and were particular
about transparency of all dealings (Figure-4.2.4).
Knowledge about the Thrift Saving and Loans Repayment

This is another important aspect of transparency in financial dealings. The collection
of thrift savings, loan disbursal and repayment loan etc. are to be done only during
the meetings and all the members are to be informed about the financial position of
the group. In order to assess the level of transparency in this matter, respondents
were asked whether they knew about thrift collection, loan repayment done during
the last meeting, a great majority 87.4 percent of the respondents knew it, only 12.6
percent did not know.
Regularity of Meetings of SHG

The majority of SHG hold regular meeting 95.4 percent as well as 4.6 percent
respondents give information that Meetings were not griped frequently. Generally
92.3 percent respondent gives information that meeting has pre decided schedule.
Therefore all the members have attended meeting timely.
Frequency of Meetings
It is key indicator of effective functioning. Meeting of SHG should be regular. It
was a mixed response from members. As Figure-4.2.9 revealed that 49.7 percent
respondents said they are holds meeting monthly and 45.1 percent fortnightly remaining
5.1 percent detained half yearly.
Source of Money to Deposit in Thrift

Different SHG follow different strategy for thrift savings. Some fix an amount,
which is agreed upon by majority of the groups under them, while others leave the
matter to the SHGs to fix up the amount. The amount also depended on the frequency
of meetings. If weekly meetings, the amount is fixed on a lower amount, if not it
goes up accordingly. The following Figure-4.2.11 indicates that majority of the
respondents 94.6 percent were of opinion that they deposit money from own income
in thrift of SHG. About 5.1 percent of respondents deposit their money through
other sources like from family member, relatives or friends.
Finding on Functioning of Self Help Groups in Bundelkhand Region of Uttar
Pradesh
A wide variation is observed in functioning of SHGs in Bundelkhand region. The
SHGs who have completed four years participated in the survey. SHGs, which were
in existence for more than four years under block office (DRDA), were incubated by
NGOs like Tara Gram and Sai Jyoti. The officials of block office and administrators
of NGOs motivated public to join the SHGs. However, existing members also played
significant role in motivating general public to join as SHGs members. Majority of
the respondents are of the opinion that economic factors such as (i) developing saving
habits and (ii) access to credit at affordable cost are primary reasons for joining the
SHG. However, social factors such as cooperation among members, acquiring
knowledge, skills and a desire to work for the development of the community etc.
also motivated to joining SHGs.
The SHGs affirmed that necessary documents like account books, registers, reports
were maintained properly and were available to members on demand 82.9 percent
of the respondents confirmed that they had examined these documents during the
last six months. It has also been observed that majority of the members were aware
of the functioning of the SHG and were particular about keeping transparency in all
dealings. Regular meetings are also organized for the members.
Cases of dropouts from SHG membership are very few in the region. However, it
was also found that inability to save and contribute to thrift is also root cause for
members leaving the SHG. About 90 percent of the respondents are satisfied with
transparent functioning of SHGs. About 91.4 percent of the respondents confirmed
that they started thrift savings within a week of joining the group, and started
contributing to thrift within a month. Most of the SHGs were linked to banks or
financial institutions within 12 to 24 months.
Conclusion
The growth and development of SHGs in Bundelkhand region is apparent. Poor
management and lack of coordination among members are two main responsible
factors for the pathetic state of SHGs in this region. Members are not benefited
much with the SHGs in terms of socio-economic empowerment. Barring one or two
SHGs most of them are defunct. The SHGs were linked to banks for sustainability
but banks have failed to nourish them. The bankers are more concerned about reaching
the targets rather than making SHGs viable. Bankers would have involved in providing
entrepreneurship training to members of funded SHGs. However they abstained from
doing so. There is an urgent need for changing the approach towards the SHGs.
Thus, on the parameters of transparent functioning it could be concluded that
the performance was satisfactory. Majority of the respondent SHGs seemed to be
satisfied with mode of keeping records and their access and conduct of regular meetings.
References
1. Das, Sanjay. Kanti; 2012 Best Practices of Self Help Groups And Women Empowerment: A
Case of Barak Valley of Assam. Far East Journal of Psychology and Business. Vol. 7 (2), pp. 29-
51.
2. Banerjee, Tanmoyee; 2009. Economic Impact of Self-Help Groups -A Case Study. Journal of
Rural Development, 28 (4), 451-467.
3. Manimekalai, M., & Rajeswari G; 2001. Nature and Performance of Informal Self Help Groups:
A case from Tamil Nadu, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 56(3), pp. 453-54.
Female Labour Force Participation in India
Kanwaljit Kaur*
Introduction
The relationship between women’s engagement in the labour market and broader
development is a complex issue. Women’s employment may be due to necessity on
the one hand, and the education, changing societal norms and employment opportunities
on the other. Increased participation of women is due to declining household income
on account of unemployment in the household (the so-called “added- worker effect”)
(Abraham, 2009; Attanasio et al., 2005; Bhalotra and Umana-Aponte, 2010). In general,
when women do work, they are engaged in low-paid and low productivity jobs
(ILO, 2011). The widespread entry of women into the labour market is not a desired
situation, it may be distress-driven and does not reflect an increased access to decent
jobs. It is a known fact that women’s work in the developing world is overlooked,
undervalued and underreported because women are often home based and contributing
to non-market activities, like care giving, which have economic benefits for households.
The “unitary” household models and “collective” household models are used to
explain the labour supply behaviour of households. In the standard “unitary” model,
the household is regarded as a decision-making unit. The “collective” household
labour supply model is explicitly based on individual preferences and control over
resources influences the bargaining within the household (Chiappori, 1992). This model
implies that women’s increased control over household resources may increase women’s
welfare by fortifying their bargaining position within the household. But empirical
evidence on collective models suggests that women in developing countries generally
receive fewer productive resources within households and very less bargaining power
(Mammen and Paxson, 2000).
Objective
1. To Study the Global trends in female labour force participation.
2. To study trends in Women Employment.
3. To study the determinants of Employment status
* Associate Professor, Economics, SGGS College, Chandigarh, Punjab.

Methodology
Secondary data is collected through Various reports, NSS, Various rounds, ILO,
2014. To analyse the determinants of women’s employment status, a multinomial
logit model has been estimated with a five-level dependent variable.
Global Trends in Female Labour Force Participation
Globally, women’s participation in the labour market has remained relatively stable
from 1993 to 2013, whereas the participation rate for men has declined steadily over the
same period. Though 345 million women have joined the labour force in the past 20 years,
women still only account for approximately 40 per cent of the global labour force. The
economy of Bangladesh has witnessed an acceleration of economic growth since the early
1990s, with the average annual GDP growth exceeding 6 per cent since 2004. The incidence
of absolute poverty declined from 59 per cent in 1991–92 to 31.5 per cent in 2010 (Rahman
and Islam, 2013). In Bangladesh, women’s informal employment as a percentage of their
non-agricultural employment is as high as 91.3 per cent. factors have kept most women
from entering the job market. Out of 173 million, the working-age population is 55.3 per
cent. More than 82 per cent of men and only 28 per cent of women
Trends in Women’s Employment
According to Lewis (1954), the transfer of women’s work from household to commercial
employment is one of the most notable features of economic development. As stated in
the ILO’s Global Employment Trends 2013 report, out of 131 countries with available data,
India ranks 11th from the bottom in female labour force participation (ILO, 2013).
Since the 1980s, there has been a near consistent decline in the workforce
participation rate of women. The release of the 66th NSS Round of the Employment
and Unemployment Survey (EUS) (2009–10) resulted in surprise and debate surrounding
the trends. These figures revealed sluggish growth in employment and a steep fall in
female labour force participation between 2004–05 and 2009–10. In this context,
understanding the gender dimensions of employment trends in India is critical.
Table 1: Females Attending to Domestic Duties as a Percentage of All Females

in India (UPSS) 2011-12
Years Rural Urban
1993 29.1 41.7
1999 29.2 43.3
2004 27.2 42.8
2009 34.7 46.5
2011 35.3 46.1
Source: NSS, Various Rounds
Table 2: Number of Workers in India (UPSS) (in millions) (all ages)
Category 1983 1993–94 1999–2000 2004–05 2009–10 2011–12

Rural male 154 187.7 198.6 218.9 231.9 234.6
Rural female 90.7 104.7 105.7 124 104.5 101.8
Urban male 46.7 64.6 75.4 90.4 99.8 109.2
Urban female 12.1 17.2 18.2 24.6 22.8 27.3
Rural persons 245 292.4 304.3 342.9 336.4 336.4
Urban persons 58.8 81.8 93.6 115 122.6 136.5
All persons 303 374.2 397.9 457.9 459 472.9
Source: NSS, Various Rounds.
Table 3: Net increase in the number of workers in India (UPSS) (in millions)
(all ages)
Period Rural Male Rural Female Urban Male Urban Female All persons
1983 to 1993–94 33.8 14 17.9 5.1 70.8

1993–94 to 1999–2000 10.9 1 10.8 1 23.7
1999–2000 to 2004–05 20.3 18.3 15 6.4 60
2004–05 to 2009–10 13 -19.5 9.4 -1.8 1.1
2009–10 to 2011–12 2.7 -2.7 9.4 4.5 13.9
1993–94 to 2011–12 46.9 -2.9 44.6 10.1 98.7
Source: NSS Various Rounds

Determinants of Employment Status
1. Understanding Women’s Work is a Complex Task: The issues relating to
women’s work and employment are qualitatively different from those of male
workers (Beneria, 1982). Traditional surveys are inadequate in measuring
women’s employment, time-use surveys can play a very important role in
capturing women’s “invisible work” as it gives information on SNA, Extended-
SNA and also Non-SNA activities (Hirway, 2002; Hirway and Jose, 2011).
2. Women’s Marital Status: Single women are seen to participate more than
married women (Panda, 1999). Social factors play a very significant role in
repressing women’s labour force participation in India. There are restrictions
imposed on women’s movements outside the household by the husband and
in-laws.
3. Various forms of Discrimination: In India, as elsewhere, women face various

forms of discrimination at the workplace, particularly in terms of wages
(Srivastava and Srivastava, 2010). women in India tend to be in certain industries
and occupations such as basic agriculture, sales and elementary services, and
handicraft manufacturing. These industries/occupations have not seen
employment growth. Female employment in India grew by 8.7c million between
1994 and 2010.
Figure 1: Distribution of females across various labour market outcomes, India

(15–59 age group)
SE RS CL UNEMP OLF
47.9
62.2
77.8 74.9
0.4
0.7 20.3
1.5
13.1
2.2 1.7
1..9
2 2
9.3 7.0
29.9 8.8 10.3
21.9
2011 - 12 1993 - 94 2011 - 12 1993 - 94
R U R A L _ F E MA L E U R B A N _ F E MA L E
Note: SE: Self-employed; RS: Regular salaried; CL: Casual labour; UNEMP: Unemployed; OLF: Out of
Labour Force.
Source: NSS, various rounds.
Conclusion
Women’s labour force participation is an inclusive and sustainable development
process. Making investment in women’s full economic potential is important for
economic growth.
Gender inequalities are in the socio cultural norms of countries in South Asia.
Women continue to face many barriers to entering the labour market and accessing
decent work like care responsibilities, lack of skills, limited mobility and safety issues.
Women face multiple challenges like access to employment, choice of work, working
conditions, employment security, wage parity, discrimination, and balancing the
competing burdens of work and family responsibilities.
References
1. Abraham, V. 2009. “Employment growth in rural India: Distress driven?”, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. 44, No. 16, pp. 97–104.
2. Attanasio, O.; Low, H.; Sanchez-Marcos, V. 2005. “Female labour supply as insurance against
idiosyncratic risk”, Journal of the European Economic Association, Vol. 3, No. (2/3), pp. 755–
764.
Miles to Go: A Socio-Economic Study of Woman Empowerment

with Reference to Rural Allahabad
Aarti Arora*
Introduction
The empowerment of women is often identified as an important aim of international
development policies, and many donor agencies now include women’s empowerment
in their development strategies. Although empowerment is often conceptualized as
a process (Cueva Beteta 2006; Kabeer 2001; Malhotra and Schuler 2005), most
quantitative studies have been cross-sectional, comparing individual women with
others in their communities or societies (Malhotra and Schuler 2005). In the development
of indicators it is usually implicitly assumed that higher levels of empowerment
represent a change from a pre-existing situation in which women have more limited
power, influence, freedom, or autonomy; but such changes have rarely been measured
using a common set of indicators. Such studies can be valuable for cross- national
comparisons (UNDP 1995; Ibrahim and Alkire 2007) and for documenting change
over time, particularly at the macro- or meso- levels, but we would argue that the
meanings and salience of empowerment indicators are likely to evolve over time,
and that these changes too should be taken into account, both in developing
interventions to foster women’s empowerment and in documenting empowerment
processes.
This paper presents findings from a small study in rural Allahabad in which a
set of empowerment indicators developed within a specific socio-cultural context
were reassessed to examine the extent of their relevance We define women’s
empowerment as women’s acquisition of resources and capacities and the ability to
exercise agency in a context of gender inequality.
Methods
This study was undertaken as exploring the influence of empowerment in one
generation of women, and health and social outcomes in the next generation.
* Associate Professor, United Institute of Management, Allahabad, U.P.

Sites
The research sites are Five villages in Kaushambi,Phoolpur Jhoonsi , Naini and
karchhana of District Allahabad where the authors had been conducting research
since December 2016 to observe the ways in which evolving opportunities and
constraints in a particular setting influence women’s resources, capacities, and agency.
The changing context is likely to affect both the meaning and measurement of women’s
empowerment. Earlier rural women in these villages had few opportunities other
than micro credit for income generation.
Sample selection
We constructed an aggregate empowerment score, to identify two samples, as
follows
1. Mother/daughter/mother-in-law triads were identified, starting with 10 mothers
and 10 mothers-in-law , these women also had to have a daughter or daughter-
in-law (and son) who had married within the past five years but more than
one year ago. The other senior woman in the triad (the mother of the young
married woman’s as well as her mother- in-law) had to be living. In most
cases the married son (or daughter’s husband) or the father-in-law was also
interviewed to get additional perspectives. This sample was drawn primarily
for a separate investigation of the effects of women’s empowerment across
generations.
2. A contrasting sample of nine senior women (mothers and mothers-in-law)
and nine younger women (married daughters and daughters-in-law of the
senior women) was randomly selected, from two of the five villages. This
sample was drawn specifically for the present analysis.
Interwiew Method
Ethnographic interviews explored women’s resources and their ability to exercise
agency in spheres of life where women’s access to resources and ability to exercise
agency is traditionally constrained. Open-ended questions were improvised in order
to tailor them to each woman’s specific situation, and to encourage her to talk about
her own life. We did not attempt to cover the full list of empowerment indicators in
each interview, concentrating instead on a few items in each interview to generate a
deeper discussion of these.
Findings and Analysis
Five of the eight original indicators still appeared to be salient, but our analysis
suggested that the component items in all but one (economic security) needed updating.
In addition, we identified seven new indicators, including three variables that we
had not conceptualized as empowerment indicators.
Dropped Indicators
Three indicators were dropped: making small purchases, making larger purchases,
and freedom from domination by the family. Below we describe one example.
Making Small Purchases—Previously, it was in most cases men who kept and
spent money; some woman never handled it at all. Now it appears that the vast
majority of women can make small purchases and do not need permission from
their husbands to do so. Many women made purchases from small shops close to
home or from people selling items door-to-door: sources of goods that were much
less common 15 years ago. Since most of the husbands are out working in the daytime,
it would be impractical for their wives to seek permission when small needs arise.
Revised indicators
Four indicators were revised. Below we describe three examples.
Mobility—The findings suggest that this indicator still has face validity, but the
specific items used to measure it need to be modified to fit the changing social
landscape. In contrast to the situation in the early 1990s, in 2017 women in the five
research villages typically could go just about anywhere, even alone, in an emergency
such as a child health problem. One young married woman said:
‘When husbands are not at home, women go to pick coriander leaves from the
open spaces and slopes outside the home. Women often work in the fields on moonlit
nights when no one can see them. Or they work with their husbands in the fields.
And they go to the bus stand and the district town if they need to see a doctor or
buy medicine. Such changes have taken place here.’
Sons would also do this, but interpreting that as a sign of empowerment is
problematic.
Legal and Political Awareness — Overall, the more empowered women were
able to discuss in greater detail and with more understanding a number of legal
matters and rights issues. This indicator was split into two separate indicators
(knowledge of legal rights and political awareness), and the sub-items were revised
accordingly
Participation in Public Protests and Political Campaigning—since the early 1990s
women’s political participation has expanded. Both political campaigning and voting
were found to be more common and meaningful than in the past. Previously we did
not include voting under the heading of political participation, because the common
pattern was for women to vote according to their husband’s opinion, without discussion.
As one woman put it, ‘What he says, I will do– he knows politics, I know nothing
about that.’ This is still true for many women, but there was a sub-group who said
that they had recently voted for a candidate of their own choice.”,
Education- women’s education, which we previously treated as a control variable.
This was because education beyond a few years of primary school was extremely
uncommon, especially among the poor. In the past 15 years, access to education has
increased remarkably, especially among girls and young women, and it is now highly
valued through the program Beti Padhao Beti Bachao in the research sites. Among
the daughters and daughters-in-law, however, there is a statistically significant

correlation, confirming the idea that the older women were empowered through
means other than education, whereas among the younger generation education is a
more important source of empowerment.
Suggestions and Conclusions
The findings from this study suggest that social, political, and economic changes
at the microlevel, many of which reflect macro-level changes, can have substantial
implications for the measurement of women’s empowerment. In the 15–16 years
since our culture specific empowerment indicators were developed, women in rural
Allahabad have begun to develop new capacities, acquire resources, and respond to
a widening array of opportunities, and social norms have begun to change to allow
them to do so. Thus, we found that several of our original empowerment indicators
were no longer relevant; and several were still conceptually relevant but probably
could be measured more effectively by changing the sub-indicators associated with
them. There were also a number of new aspects in which women were becoming
empowered that could be added to our original list. The measurement of women’s
empowerment is also fraught with other challenges. The effect of a woman’s life
stage is one example. For example, even if the study population is confined to currently
married women, there are pronounced variations in the restrictions on agency that a
recently married woman faces, compared with a woman who has been married for
several years. Moreover, in the context of low education, when a woman’s ability to
earn income depends to a significant extent on her physical strength, women at the
other end of the age spectrum may also be at a disadvantage when their ability to
work and earn diminishes, and they may lose some of their ability to exercise agency.
Thus, in some cases, studies of women’s empowerment may benefit by restricting
their samples to women in certain age groups. Poverty can influence empowerment
by limiting opportunities to invest money, and since decision making regarding
investment and consumption is often an important component of empowerment, the
existence of economic inequality makes it difficult to develop indicators that apply
equally to all women. Finally, there is a need for more multi-level studies to measure
the relative effects of community-level norms related to empowerment, which in
some cases may be better predictors than individual-level empowerment measures
(Mason 2005; Mason and Smith 2003).
To conclude, empowerment is typically conceptualized as a process, and therefore
change is at its very essence. Once a resource, capacity, or form of agency becomes
commonplace, it no longer distinguishes more empowered women from less empowered
women. Therefore, we would argue, the measurement of empowerment must change
and adapt to keep up with this elusive phenomenon.
References
1. Poornima, Vyasulu Vinod (1999), “Women in Panchayati Raj : graanroots democracy in
India, experience from Malgudi. UNDP.
2. Bari, Farzana (2005), “Women’s political participation: Issues and Challenges”. United Nations
Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) Thailand.
Role of Education in Women’s Empowerment
Ganesh Kumar*
Introduction
Education is a capability that should be valued not only as an end in itself, but
as an instrument for achieving many other goals – among them gender equality.
There is rising evidence that investing in girls’ education in particular, yields higher
returns for the girls themselves, as well as for household and communities. It is
believed that when we literate a male we literate an individual but when we literate
a female we literate the family. Women, through education, become aware of their
social and legal rights learn and improve the income generating skills. Women education
brings lower infant, child and maternal mortality rates, reduces women’s fertility
rates, improves family and child health, increases life expectance and increases the
quantity and quality of children’s educational attainment. It also increases women’s
labor force participation rates. Therefore, women education is an essential condition
for women empowerment.
Women empowerment means entire development of women. When a women is
empowered it does not mean that another individual (may be men or women) becomes
powerless or less powerful. There are some indicators of women empowerment such
as participation in crucial decision making process, self-esteem, ability to prevent
violence, existence of women’s organizations, awareness of her social and political
rights and adequate political representation etc. Since independence, the government
of India has been making various efforts to empower women. Women’s empowerment
is the key issue for planners and policy makers in India. Every issue of women’s
empowerment viz. education and health was given due care in various five year
plans and governments polices. The women in India are being discriminated in the
family, society, business organizations and government in a big way. General and
stereotype measures for the upliftment of women remain fail to provide desired
results. There are many important factors which are responsible for poor status of
women education in country. The prevailing India’s social system is the main factor
and due to impact of customs and traditions the mentality of the society is indifferent
towards women education. Economic backwardness is also a barrier in the process
of women education in India. The poor family cannot afford to pay high education
* Associate Professor & HOD, Department of Economics, ACC Wing Indian Military Academy,
Dehradun, U.K.
fee and this is more severe in rural India. Lower enrolment and higher dropout rate
among girls, girl child playing the role of second mother especially in poor families,
bonded labor and caste system are also barriers in girl’s education. Poor school
environment for girls is also a major factor for low girls’ enrolment in India. There
are still thousands of school in India with poor basic amenities and inadequate number
of teachers especially female teachers.
J.B.G.Tilak (1983) examines the educational development of women in quantity
term in comparison with the educational development of men in the light of the
national objective of equality in educational opportunities. Jain and Nag (1986) concluded
that access to modern education and better health services would not only enhance
women status but also health status themselves and their children, consequently
women education can play a vital role in controlling population growth which is a
great obstacle to economic growth especially in a country like India. Sanad and
Girls’ Enrolment and Drop-out at Different Levels of Education in India
The dropout rates of students at primary, elementary and secondary level of

education in India has been presented in table-2.
Table 1: Drop-Out Rates of Students at Different Levels of Education in India
Primary (I-V) Elementary (I-VIII) Secondary (I-X)
Year
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
2000-01 39.7 41.9 40.7 50.3 57.7 53.7 66.4 71.5 68.6
2001-02 38.4 39.9 39.0 52.9 56.9 54.6 64.2 68.6 66.0
2002-03 35.85 33.72 34.89 52.28 53.45 52.79 60.72 64.97 62.58
2003-04 33.74 28.57 31.47 51.85 52.92 52.32 60.98 64.92 62.69
2004-05 31.81 25.42 29.00 50.49 51.28 50.84 60.41 63.88 61.92
2005-06 28.71 21.77 25.67 48.67 48.98 48.80 60.10 63.56 61.92
2006-07 24.57 26.75 25.60 46.44 45.22 45.90 58.61 61.50 59.88
2007-08 25.7 24.4 25.1 43.7 41.3 42.7 56.6 57.3 56.7
2008-09 29.6 25.8 27.8 41.1 36.9 39.3 54.0 54.4 54.2
2009-10 31.8 28.5 30.3 41.1 44.2 42.5 53.3 51.8 52.7
2010-11 29.0 25.4 27.4 40.6 41.2 40.8 50.2 47.7 49.2
2011-12 23.4 21.0 22.3 41.5 40.0 40.8 48.6 52.2 50.3
2012-13 23.0 19.4 21.3 41.8 35.7 39.0 50.4 50.3 50.4
2013-14 21.2 18.3 19.8 39.2 32.9 36.3 48.1 46.7 47.4
Sources: Educational Statistics at a Glance 2014-15, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi 2016
Table 2: Major Reasons for Dropping out/Discontinuance of Students Per
Thousand (For Persons Aged 5-29 Years)
Rural Urban Rural + Urban
Sr. No. Major Reasons Male Female Male Female Male Female
1 Not interested in education 251 162 208 143 238 156
2 Financial constraints 236 154 237 149 236 152
3 Engaged in domestic activities 59 329 24 231 48 297
4 Engaged in economic Activities 299 39 336 69 310 49
5 School is far off 6 42 2 18 5 34
6 Unable to cope up with studies 55 51 53 36 54 46
7 Completed desired level/class 45 43 83 113 57 65
8 Marriage 124 171 139
9 Other reasons* 48 57 58 70 51 62
All 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Source: NSS 71st Round 2014
*include (for all): timings of educational institution not suitable, language/medium

of instruction used unfamiliar, inadequate number of teachers, quality of teachers
not satisfactory, unfriendly atmosphere at school, preparation for competitive
examination and others. For girl students only, additionally: non-availability of female
teacher, non availability of girls’ toilet.
Literacy Rate of India
Table 3: Rate of Literacy in India from 1951 to 2011

(In percentage)
Year Rural Urban All India Males- Females

Gap in Literacy LGPI
Females Persons Females Persons Females Persons Rate
4.87 22.33 8.86
1951 12.10 34.59 18.30 18.30 0.326
(19.12) (45.60 ) (27.16 )
30.60 64.00 39.29
1991 44.70 73.10 52.21 24.84 0.613
(57.90 ) ( 81.10) ( 64.13)
46.70 73.20 54.16
2001 59.40 80.30 65.38 21.69 0.714
(71.40 ) ( 86.70) ( 75.85)
58.75 79.92 65.46
2011 67.8 84.1 74.04 16.68 0.797
(78.57) (89.67) (82.14)
Note: 1. Literacy rates for 1951, Censuses are estimated for population aged 5 and above years and for
1991, 2001 and 2011 are estimated for population aged 7 and above years.
2. Literacy Gender Parity Index (LGPI) = Literacy Rate of Females/ Literacy Rate of Males
3. Values in brackets are males’ literacy
Source: Population Censuses of India (Various Reports).

Education breaks all the barriers in the way of women’s empowerment. In India,
however, the status of Indian women is improving gradually but still it is lagging
behind men and from women in other developed and developing countries. One of
the main reasons for the weak position of women is low expansion of women education
in India. The girl’s participation in education has shown clearly that there may be
lack of infrastructure for women education in India and also lack of awareness of
the benefits of education among women. During the study period girl’s enrolment
and GER at different levels of education has been increasing. Since 1951, the rate of
literacy is steadily increasing. However it is quiet low at all India level in general
and rural areas in particular. The gap between the education participation of girls
and boys can be narrowed by improving the rate of girl’s enrolment and their retention
by adopting strong measures in a vast way. The government should workout strategic
steps to prevent the ongoing high drop-outs rate among the girls. Bonded labour,
child labor, child marriage, dowry system, caste system and other practices which
deprive right of education for children should be eliminated. Government officials,
policy makers and other stake holders should have adequate will and sincerity to
empower women in India. All programmes for development of women education
should be properly monitored and inspected from time to time by all stake holders.
References
1. Anrudh, K. Jain & Moni Nag., 1986, ‘Importance of Female Primary Education for Fertility
Reduction in India’, Economic and Political Weekly, 21(36), 1602-1608.
2. I .,Patel.,1998, ‘The Contemporary Women’s Movement and Women’s Education in India’,
International Review of Education, 44(2/3), 155-175.
Women’s Participation in Social Development
Shah Raziq Khalid*
Status, as the relative position of female with respect to male ought to be the
same. But due to various reasons it is not equal. In fact, an inferior status and role
are ascribed to women. Once the inferior status is accepted by the society, it is
expressed in the attitudes and behavior of people and also in the activities of all
man—made institutions and organisations. A male-dominated society is, thus, originated
and ongoing. Given the inferior status to women, it turns to be the source of gender
biases — implicit and explicit in different forms which refuse gender equality and
result in gender-based discriminations, accepted generally by the society with the
exceptions of few protests by progressive men and women.
Women are denied an acknowledgement of their work because their role in home-
based production is rarely enumerated. According to Aiyarl, the biased statistics on
workforce is best reflected in statistics dealing with female labour. If the gender
biases in data collection are changed, the differences in figures will be quite startling.
Another study revealed that the census definition of labour force keeps nearly half
of the active women population outside the usual notion of labour force. In fact, 30
per cent of the active women are engaged in productive work within the household.
The concept of worker in the Census of India had been pointed out as one of the
important factors identified for the declining female work participation rate. Bilgrani
also pointed out census underestimation as a reason for declining secular trend in
women participation in economic activities. The overall data on women’s participation
in agriculture understate the importance of their work in producing foods. It is also
reported that, many women are enumerated as nonworkers as they themselves report
that they are neither available for work nor seeking jobs though they have good
amount of work at home.
Exploitation/under-valuation of Women’s Work
Women’s work and worth are generally under—valued and hence underpaid.
This is basically due to the assumptions that females are inferior in capacity to males
and no family runs by the income of females alone, that is, the earnings of women
are only supplementary. This violates the principle of equal wage for equal work.
* Associate Professor, SV College, Aligarh, U.P.
However, one can see several such occasions in real life and some of them are
documented here.
Women labour force is predominant in agriculture in Third World Countries.
Since women’s work is devalued, subsistence agriculture is nurturing a large army
of cheap labour. Few case studies showed that in Central Nigeria, female’s contribution
is 100 per cent in cases of weeding, storage and Processing for almost all crops. In
Asia, women work 14 to 17 hours per day. Yet most of their work go undervalued in
an economy which puts premium on marketable work. The major causes of differential
income are reservation of better opportunities of employment to men, discriminatory
wage, exploitation through policy prerogatives and unduly long working hours for
women. Mitra and others remarked that women labour force in India is a reserve
pool of helpless labour.
Discrimination in Education, Extension and Technology
Education, extension and training will enrich and empower women. Technology
will equip them to acquire new skill and to lessen their drudgery. The following
studies highlight how far these factors have enabled women to participate more
effectively in the economy.
Women have not become the targets of change whenever technological innovations
are introduced. Women generally learn the job as understood and practised by men.
Alagh is of the opinion that modernization and mechanization tend to marginalise
women workers. In many traditional areas of women employment, technology replaces
women. In many countries, transfer of technology has worsened the employment
and health conditions of women. Mechanisation in agriculture is mainly to help
men’s work. A technology gap exists between men and women. The profit of technology
flow is largely to men and even adverse to women. Technology is both a part of the
problem and a part of the solution to women. Elimination of drudgery from the life
of rural Indian women can be had only by the adoption of appropriate technology in
her day—to—day lifesl.
Dual Role of Women - Farm and Family
The dual role of women as paid workers outside the family and as unpaid workers
in their family leads to real contribution to an economy6l. However her role is usually
underestimated. A reliable technique should be evolved to quantify her contribution,
especially non—monetary contribution.
When a family is controlled by a woman, the family is relatively more benefited
because 90 per cent of her income will be spent for the family. Today many married
women who go for work believe that they ensure betterment of the family. In many
families employed women look after budget. Women headed households are there
in the society, mainly due to widowhood, migration, desertion or illness/
unemployment/ addictive habits of their husbands. Census data usually give the
female—headed households as around 10 per cent. A study reveals 6th at there are
more women headed households among the poorest (upto to 35 per cent).
Government Committees on Women Participation
Since 1970, at the national level and international level, measures have been taken
to solve the problems of women by setting up expert committees, conventions and
meetings. The various national and international documents arising out of these actions
are reviewed in the ensuing paragraphs.
In 1971 following a resolution of the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare,
the Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSWI) was constituted at the instance
of the UN General Assembly by the Government of India (i) to evaluate the changes
that had taken place in the status of women as a result of the constitutional, legal
and administrative measures adopted since independence (ii) to examine the impact
of the complex processes of social change on various sections of Indian women and
(iii) to suggest measures which would enable women to play their full and proper
role in building up the nation. The presentation of the report — ‘Towards Equality‘
in 1974 coincided with the celebration of 1975 as International Women’s Year. The
Committee urged that community organisations, particularly women’s organisations
should mobilise public opinion and strengthen social efforts against oppressive practices
in the country. Formation of women’s Wings in all trade unions, to look after the
problems of women workers to improve women’s participation in trade union activities
was among the recommendations of the Committee.
Non-governmental Organisations and Women
While government organisations are inflexible and conservative, a .change in the
outlook of the society to increase the participation of women can be related only by
the non—governmenta1 organisations. The need for organisations to mobilise women
is materialised by NGOS. However, there can be limitations on their part. The present
section of review is dealing with (a) need/functions of women organisations and (b)
advantages/limitations of NGOs.
Need and Functions of Women Groups
Autonomous organisations organise the women and fight against discrimination.
Review of different projects and strategies reveals that income-generating activities
can be effective if women are organised in groups. By agreeing with the importance
of grass-root organisations, it is pointed out that all NGOs should have women units
or wings at all levels to ensure women’s rightsel. In Malaysia there was no bonded
labourers as there were effective women’s organisations in villages. Women problems
can be resolved only by their own struggles for agmore productive and just social
order. GOs, NGOS and separate women organisations can perform complementary
functions to protect the interests of women. A1agh observed that lack of organisation
is the root cause of exploitation of women, especially in the unorganized sectors.
Women organisations should precede women programmes.
Participation and Organisations

The participation of women in rural development through the organisations of
women (Mahila Mandals) at grass root level was studied by Jainl. Data were collected
from 15 mandals of five states. It was found that leadership in the majority of mandals
was confined to high castes. These organisations were playing important roles in
nutrition, education and family welfare programmes. Lack of proper management
led to the failure of certain mahila mandals, whereas enthusiastic leadership and
emphasis on economic activities ensured success.
Conclusions
Women in various development activities at all levels, viz., in the‘ family, farm/
firm, organisation and the economy are available and some of them have been reviewed.
There is no dispute among academicians or policy makers regarding the need for
effective participation of women in all spectrums of national life as equal partners.
Available literature soundly substantiate the imperative of women participation. But
gender biases exist in practical policies and programmes which result in undervaluation
and underestimation of women’s work, alienation from development process,
discrimination in facilities and opportunities, absence of control over resources and
decision—making etc. Even the statistical estimations are biased against women. All
these factors increase the burden of women and deteriorate their status in the society
and family. It also shows that women are participating in all economic activities but
that is neither accounted nor rewarded properly. Non-participation is mainly due to
the factors alien to her own personal characteristics viz., cultural, social, organisational,
economic etc.
References
1. Robbins Mildred Leef, “Roles of Women: UNCSTD Background Discussion Paper”, in Roslyn
Dauber, Melinda Cain, L. (Ed.), Women and Technological Change ‘in Developing Countries,
West View, Colorado.
2. Bhatt Ela, “The Invisibility of Home-Based Work: The Case of Piece-Rate Workers in India”,
in Singh Andrea Menifee, Anita Kellies Viitanen (Ed.), Invisible Hands - Women in Home-
Based Production, Sage, New Delhi.
3. Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), Shramshakti - A Summary of the Report of
the National Commission on Self Employed women and Women in the Informal Sector,
Ahmedabad.
An Analysis of the Role of MSMEs in the Women

Entrepreneurship Development and Women Empowerment
in India
Anusuya Biswas*, Kalpana Singh** & Dushyant Kumar***
Introduction
Sustainable economic growth and development of any country, it is imperative to
promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization. Nationwide more emphasis has
been given to Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). According
kumarSrinivasa et.al (2013), it constitutes about 90 percent of the industrial units in
India and 40 percent of the value addition in manufacturing sector . It is an important
source of economic growth and employment generation across the world. In India,
MSMEs generate around 80 million job opportunities through over 36 million units
(MSME at a Glance, 2016). Despite huge scope and importance in the development
of transitional and developing economies the potential to fully utilize this sector still
remains untapped especially for women entrepreneurship and development. In a
global quest to sustained economic development and progress of the society, women
entrepreneurs play a vital role. Women contribute significantly to the socio-economic
development of the country. Regardless of higher education level and high labour
force participation rate (48%), the women entrepreneurs are twice lesser than their
male counterparts. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the role of MSMEs in the
development and empowerment of women in India.
Ponsindhu and S.Nirmala (2014) in their study focuses on government schemes
available for the development and promotion of the existing women entrepreneurs
in the business and the budding business of women entrepreneurs through micro,
small and medium enterprises. This paper createsawareness among the women on
the available schemes for the development of women entrepreneurship in the country.
* Research Scholar, Amity University, Noida, U.P.

** Professor, Amity University, Noida, U.P.
*** Associate Professor, A.S.P.G College, Lakhaoti Bulandshahr, U.P.
Objectives
The major objectives of the paper are as under below
1. To analyze the role of MSME sector in the Economic Growth and Development
of India.
2. To study the role of MSMEs in the development and empowerment of women
in India.
3. To analyze the government initiative for women empowerment in India.
Methodology and Data Sources

The methodology used in this paper is descriptive in nature and it is based on
extant literature review. The study makes use of secondary data collected from various
government sources like Annual MSMEs report, various government sources as well
as ILO (International Labor Organization), websites, articles, NGOs, journals, conference
proceedings etc.
Role of MSMEs in the Economic Growth and Development of India
MSMEs act as a driver of economic growth (Kumar Srinivasa, Prasad, RaoPrasada
2013). It is identified as a major strategic buster across the world economy. On an
average it contributed 20% to 50 % in GDP growth rate (Hall 2002, Ayyagari et al
2007).
In India, 94 percent of MSMEs are unregistered and its contribution to the GDP
has been growing consistently at 11.5% per year, which is higher than the overall
GDP growth rate of 7%.
Performance of MSMEs in India’s Employment and GDP
Table 1: Contributionof MSME SECTOR in India’s GDP

Base Year 2011-12 (in percent)
Year Share of MSME GVA\GDP at Constant Prices for 2011-12 (in %)

MSME Manufacturing Sector MSME Service Sector Total
In GVA In GDP In GVA In GDP In GVA In GDP
2011-12 6.64 6.16 25.66 23.81 32.29 29.97
2012-13 6.77 6.27 26.05 24.13 32.89 30.40
2013-14 6.79 6.27 26.40 24.37 33.19 30.64
2014-15 6.63 6.11 26.72 24.63 33.34 30.74
Source: Annual Report of MSME, 2016-17

Role of MSME in Women Entrepreneurship Development and Women Empowerment
in India
In India, women constitute almost half of the demographic dividend i.e, 48 percent
of the working population (15-64 years) as per CIA (Central Intelligence Agency),
2016 report. It reflects that if we cannot utilize the women resources then there is a
huge loss to the society consequently it will pull back India in terms of its growth.
It can clearly reflected from world instances where women development and
empowerment is not there in the society, the economy is less flourished than the
countries where women’s are having more equal rights and say. As per Global
Employment Trends for Women report 2012, tendency of highly educated women to
participate in labour market and might work in such sectors where gender equality
(both in terms of career opportunities and higher salaries/wages) is better.
As per the Fourth All India Census of MSME out of the total number of working
enterprises (361.76 lakh) women owned enterprises are 26.61 lakh which constitutes
7.36% of the total working enterprises. Out of this 13.72% (2.15 lakhs) are registered
and 9.09% (18.06 lakhs) are unregistered. It clearly shows that women are more
transparent than their male counterparts.
Schemes/Programmes initiated by Government of India for the development of Women

Entrepreneurs in India
Below are list of programmes started by M/o MSMEs for women:
(I) Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development (TREAD):
DuringXI th Five YearPlan, government has launched TREAD scheme for
women.TREAD envisagedeconomicempowerment ofwomen through the
development of entrepreneurial skills in non-farm activities. There are three
major parts of the scheme:
• In order to promote women entrepreneurs government grants up to 30%
of the total project costs to NGOs (Non-Govenmental Organizations) and
• the remaining 70% of the total project costs will be financed by the lending
agency as loan for undertaking activities mentioned in the project.
• Up to Rs.1 lakh per program can be granted by the GOI to the training
institutions/NGOs for providing training to the women entrepreneurs.
Till Jan 2016, Ministry has granted Rs. 2 crore to 12 NGOs for providing self-
employment to 3560 women.
(II) Mahila Coir Yojna
(III) Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP), 1993
(IV) Prime Minister’s RozgarYojana (PMRY), 1995
Conclusion
The paper looked at the various schemes, subsidy and special benefits available
for women and also creates awareness of these schemes to women entrepreneurs.Though
there are several schemes contributing to the development of women entrepreneurs,
and there are some of organizations that are associated with MSMEs. Its support the
sustained and coordinated effort
Thus, entrepreneurs shape the economy by creating new wealth and new jobs
and by inventing new products and services. However, an insight study reveals that
it is not about making money, having the greatest ideas, knowing the best sales
pitch, applying the best marketing strategy.
Women entrepreneurs face many obstacles, specifically in marketing their product
(including family responsibilities), that have to be overcome in order to give them
access to the same opportunities as men. The entry of rural women in micro- enterprises
must be encouraged and aggravated. Rural women can do wonders by their effectual
and competent involvement in entrepreneurial activities. The rural women have the
basic indigenous knowledge, skill, potential and resources to establish and manage
enterprises. Now, the need is for knowledge regarding accessibility to loans, various
funding agencies, procedures regarding certification, awareness on government welfare
programmes, motivation, technical skill and support from family government and
other organizations.
References
1. Ponsindhu and S. Nirmala (2014). Role of MSME in Women Entrepreneurial Development.
International Journal of Research and Development - A Management Review (IJRDMR);
Volume-2, Issue–4, 2014.
2. Mathew.Viju(2010). Women entrepreneurship in Middle East: Understanding barriers and use of
ICT for entrepreneurship development. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal,
June 2010,Volume 6,Issue2,pp 163–181.
Female Labour Force Participation Rate in India:

A Comparison with Developing Countries
Rashmi Sharma* & Archna Singh**
Introduction
The continuous decline in labour force participation rate of women in India with
consistent economic growth is a troublesome situation. The Employment and
Unemployment Survey showed that female labour force participation declined to
26.5 per cent in rural areas and to 14.6 per cent in urban areas from 33.3 per cent and
17.8 per cent respectively in the period 2004-05 to 2009-10. According to ILO Global
Employment 2016 report women’s labour force participation rate in India declined
to 26.9 in the year 2016 from 35.03in 2006.
The downfall in women’s economic activity is cause for concern for the society
because women are valuable resources for an economy specially like a developing
one like India so it must be utilised efficiently. Women’s employment is a very crucial
and critical factor for an economy which is progressing towards economic independence
and it is also an indicator of female status in society (Mammen and Paxson 2008).
The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP)
estimates that if India’s female labour force participation rate reached parity with
that of USA, its gross domestic product and growth rate will automatically
increases.According to the New York Times women are rarely encouraged and motivated
to seek jobs outside their homes. There are also biases against certain specific jobs
because of which there is poor participation of female in the labour force in India.
Objectives
• To analyze the reasons of low Female labour force participation rate in India.
• To compare the Female labour force participation rate in India with the average
for the world.
• To compare the Female labour force participation rate in India with Sri Lanka
and China.
* Research Scholar, Meerut College, Meerut, U.P.

** Associate Professor, Meerut College, Meerut, U.P.
In this paper the data ofthe Female labour force participation rate is taken from
International labour organization’s site. For the purpose of comparison data from
the year 1991 to 2016 is taken for India, Sri Lanka, China and the World. China and
Sri Lanka are selected for the comparison purpose because both the countries are
developing economies and situations of employment are also same in these economies.
The comparison of the Female labour force participation rate in India with Sri
Lanka, China and world is done on SPSS version22 by using Independent sample t
test.
The null hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1) of the independent samples
T test of the study-
• H0:µ1=µ2 the Female labour force participation rate in India is equal with the
world.
H1: µ1¹ µ2 the Female labour force participation rate in India is not equal with
the world.
• H0:µ1 =µ2 the Female labour force participation rate in India is equal with
China.
H1: µ1 ¹ µ2 the Female labour force participation rate in India is not equal with
China.
• H0:µ1 =µ2 the Female labour force participation rate in India is equal with Sri
Lanka.
H1: µ1 ¹ µ2 the Female labour force participation rate in India is not equal with
Sri Lanka.
Table 1: Independent Sample t test

Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Variances
F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence
(2-tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
India Equal 42.347 .000 -25.922 52 .000 -18.63029 .71871 -20.07249 -17.18810
variances
assumed
Equal -25.922 30.875 .000 -18.63029 .71871 -20.09636 -17.16423
variances
not
assumed
Table: 1 shows the output of the Female labour force participation rate in India
and the world. The p-value of Levene’s test shows the value.000 (p < 0.05), so we
reject the null of Levene’s test and conclude that the variance in Female labour force
participation rate in India is significantly different than that of the world.we should
look at the “Equal variances not assumed by India and the world” which also shows
a p value less than .05 .
In case of comparing India with the world the null hypothesis is rejected so, we
have to accept the alternate hypothesis that there is significant difference between
the variance of the Female labour force participation rate in India and the world.
The rejection of the first null hypothesis can be attributed to the inclusion all countries
whether developing or developed while calculating the female labour force participation
rate for the world.
As we all known that in most of the developed countries the rate of female
labour force participation is very high like 73 in Botswana, 77.06 in Ethiopia ,77.74 in
Eritrea, 79.44 in Guinea, 82.33 in Uganda etc.The reason that some economist gave
for the low female workforce participation rate in India is that the economy is on the
feminization U hypothesis, which suggests that firstly the female labour force
participation declines and then grows lateron.
This mechanism gives the following reasons for the low female workforce
participation rate as
• Incompatibility of work
• Females duties for the homes as the workplace moves away from home,
• Dependency on the husband’s earnings,
• Society against females working outside the home, or in some specific sectors.
Table 2: Independent sample t test

F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence
tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
India Equal 1.425 .238 -34.888 52 .000 -35.78285 1.02566 -37.84099 -33.72471
variances
assumed
Equal -34.888 51.456 .000 -35.78285 1.02566 -37.84151 -33.72420
variances
not assumed
Table: 2 shows the output sheet of independent sample t test of the Female
labour force participation rate in India and China.Forlevene’s Test for equality of
variance in the first row for equal variance assumed shows sig.value .238 which is
greater than .05 which shows that variability in the two situations is almost same,
which means that female labour force participation rate in India is not very much
different from China. The p value for t test shows a value less than .05 so in this
case the null hypothesis that the Female labour force participation rate in India is
equal with China is accepted.
Table 3: Independent Sample t test

F Sig. T df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence
tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
India Equal 1.425 .238 -34.888 52 .000 -35.78285 1.02566 -37.84099 -33.72471
variances
assumed
Equal -34.888 51.456 .000 -35.78285 1.02566 -37.84151 -33.72420
variances
not assumed
Table: 3 shows the output sheet of independent sample t test of the Female
labour force participation rate in India and Sri Lanka.For levene’s Test for equality
of variance in the first row for equal variance assumed shows sig. value .238 which
is greater than .05 which shows that variability in the two situations is same. The p
value for t test shows a value less than .05 so in this case the null hypothesis that
the Female labour force participation rate in India is equal with Sri Lanka is accepted.In
both the above cases the situation is almost same which suggests that the female
labour force participation rate in the three developing economies i.e. India, China
and Sri Lanka is not significantly different , the reason may be that all the three are
from the same basket ofdeveloping economies and all are facing the same type of
problems related to economic growth rate, fiscal and monetary policies, literacy and
health services etc.
Conclusion
Between 2004 to 2011, when the Indian economy grew at a healthy average of
about 7%, there was a decline in female participation in the country’s labour force
from over 35% to 25%.The women’s participation rate in the labor force has been a
critical factor of the development process. Female’s employment is driven by factors
such as education, social norms, fertility rates , the nature of job etc. Government
should be concerned with providing better jobs to women so that they can use the
new opportunities that appear as a country grows .The situation is basically same in
most of the developing countries like India, China, and Sri Lanka etc. So government
should provide access to better education, training and other supportive to encourage
the females for employment in developing countries.
References
1. Abraham, Vinoj. 2009. “Employment Growth in Rural India: Distress Driven?” Economic &
Political Weekly xliv (16): 97–104.
2. Bhalotra, SR, and M Umaña-Aponte. 2012. “The Dynamics of Women’s Labour Supply in
Developing Countries.” Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) Working Paper. Institute for
the Study of Labor (IZA) Working Paper.
Addressing the Health Issue of Rural Women through Ujjwala

Scheme
Anup Kumar Mishra*
Introduction
Household air pollution or indoor air pollution in developing nations is a significant
form of indoor air pollution (IAP) that is little known to those in the developed
world.
As per available data around 3 billion people still cook and heat their homes
using solid fuels (i.e. wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal and dung) in open fires and
leaky stoves. Most are poor and live in low- and middle-income countries. Such
inefficient cooking fuels and technologies produce high levels of household air pollution
with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small soot particles that penetrate
deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times
higher than acceptable levels for fine particles. Exposure is particularly high among
women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth.
Over 4 million people die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air
pollution from cooking with solid fuels. More than 50% of premature deaths due to
pneumonia among children under 5 are caused by the particulate matter (soot) inhaled
from household air pollution.3.8 million premature deaths annually from
noncommunicable diseases including stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer are attributed to exposure to household
air pollution.
Even though the rate of dependence on biomass fuel is declining, this dwindling
resource will not keep up with population growth which could ultimately put
environments at even greater risk. Over the past several decades, there have been
numerous studies investigating the air pollution generated by traditional household
solid fuel combustion for space heating, lighting, and cooking in developing countries.
It is now well established that, throughout much of the developing world, indoor
burning of solid fuels (biomass, coal, etc.) by inefficient, often insufficiently vented,
combustion devices results in elevated exposures to household air pollutants. This is
due to the poor combustion efficiency of the combustion devices and the elevated
nature of the emissions.
* Department of Economics, DAV PG College (BHU), Varanasi, U.P.
In addition, they are often released directly into living areas. Smoke from traditional
household solid fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion
products, including both fine and coarse particulate matter (e.g., PM2.5, PM10), carbon
monoxide (CO),nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and a variety of organic
air pollutants(e.g., formaldehyde, 1,3butadiene, benzene, acetaldehyde, acrolein, phenols,
pyrene,benzopyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzopyrenes, dibenzocarbazoles, and cresols).
In a typical solid fuel stove, about 6–20% of the solid fuel is converted into toxic
emissions (by mass). The exact quantity and relative composition is determined by
factors such as the fuel type and moisture content, stove type and operation influencing
the amount.
Analysis of Ujjwala Scheme in India
Prime Minister Narendra Modi on May 1st , 2016 launched the Pradhan Mantri
Ujjwala Yojana, which aims to provide five crore LPG connections to women in
Below Poverty Line (BPL) households over the next three financial years, at a cost of
Rs. 8,000 crore. The scheme, launched at Ballia in Uttar Pradesh, is to be partially
funded from the savings accruing to the government from LPG users who gave up
their subsidy as part of the Give It Up programme. Over one crore consumers have
given up their subsidy, leading to savings of nearly Rs. 2,000 crore per year. This
money would be utilised to provide LPG connections to BPL families. Finance Minister
Arun Jaitley had, in his Budget speech in February 2016 , announced a provision of
Rs. 2,000 crore this financial year to provide LPG connections to 1.5 crore women
from BPL households. Recently the target increases up to 2.5 Crore.
The new users who receive LPG connections under the scheme will not have to
pay the security deposit, while the Rs. 1,600 administrative costs, cost of pressure
regulator booklet and safety hose will be borne by the government.
Objective of the Scheme
The main objectives of the Ujjwala Scheme are:
1. To prevent trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation
through social mobilization and involvement of local communities, awareness
programmes, workshops/seminars and other innovative activity.
2. To facilitate rescue of victims from the place of their exploitation and place
them in safe custody.
3. To provide rehabilitation services both immediate and long-term to the victims
by providing basic amenities/needs such as shelter, food, clothing, medical
treatment including counselling, legal aid and guidance and vocational training.
4. To facilitate reintegration of the victims into the family and society at large.
5. To facilitate repatriation of cross-border victims to their country of origin.
Target Group
Women and children who are vulnerable to trafficking and commercial sexual
exploitation. Consumers will have the option to purchase gas stove and refills on EMI.
Ujjwala Scheme and Health Perspective
The scheme is remarkable for two reasons. First, it has brought focus to the
important developmental issue of enabling clean cooking energy. This is because
indoor air pollution, caused by smoke from the traditional chulha stove leads to 1.3
million premature deaths in the country every year. Second, the scheme improves
the quality of life of poor women whose health interests are usually neglected in
household priorities.
The largest rural energy access survey of India which was conducted last year by
the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) and the Department of Political
Science at Columbia University, shows that as many as 95 per cent of LPG-deprived
households cite their inability to pay as a barrier to their adopting LPG. Thus, the
scheme is well-targeted to address the crucial impediment of a high upfront cost,
which has limited the transition towards LPG use in poorer households. While the
move is appreciable, other challenges that limit the use of this clean fuel in India
must be resolved simultaneously.
All forms of smoke produce these kinds of diseases, although of course at different
rates due to the different levels of exposure, with active smoking producing the
highest risk per person. Each of these diseases has other risk factors as well, but use
of solid fuels is thought to be responsible for a significant amount of each in India
From the health perspective, once people have access to clean fuel, the key become
finding way to encourage them to use it instead continuing also to use traditional
polluting fuels. Thus, the relevant central and state agencies, including ministries of
health, should develop programmes for ongoing encouragement and rewards for
households to use the clean fuel, for example by linking to other national schemes,
such as health insurance, rural employment, and health are for pregnant women,
one of the most vulnerable groups.
The government has embarked on one of the most pioneering, innovative, and
apparently successful programmes in the form of the ‘Give It Up’ campaign, through
which middle-class households directly support access to LPG among BPL families.
This has triggered a truly massive response with more than one crore households
having participated so far and tens of thousands more signing up every day. What is
needed now is a parallel campaign at similar scale for the BPL communities in the
country to Give It Up as well, but in this case, finding ways to encourage them to
rapidly give up their chulhas and use clean fuels for all their needs.
Major Challenges and Barriers
One such challenge is the high monthly expenditure incurred which 88 per cent
of LPG-deprived households in the survey cited as a barrier. The survey was across
8,566 rural households in 714 villages of Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Similarly, National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)
data from the past also highlight the low expenditure capacity of poorer households
in having access to LPG. However the high recurring cost is not only a problem of
purchasing capacity but also a perception and cash-flow issue. An increasing number
of rural households rely on commercially procured biomass to meet their cooking
energy needs. The rural informal markets for firewood and dung cakes are thriving
across India. CEEW analysis suggests that households that buy some or all of their
biomass end up paying more than those who rely on LPG. Thus, LPG would be an
economically attractive proposition for such households. However, those relying
completely on free-of-cost biomass (about 50-60 per cent of the rural population)
would possibly opt for the subsidised connection, but would not spend on refilling
cylinders regularly. We need to focus on reducing this gap between adoption and
sustained use.
Conclusion
Indoor air pollution (IAP) may have potentially large impacts on the health and
well-being of poor families. The literature indicates ambient IAP levels and personal
exposure levels from cooking with traditional fuels are dramatically high. Although
the literature is growing, there is currently a deficit of information on the impacts of
IAP on health, and even less on the impacts on the economic well-being of the
family, with much of the evidence—except from the RESPIRE study—resulting from
observational studies. In the observational studies, we cannot rule out the possibility
that observed respiratory illnesses are not due to other factors that also contribute to
a households’ decision to use a traditional stove, including poverty and health
preferences. Thus, our understanding of the causal impact of IAP is weak.
It is welcome that the government has recognised the importance of clean cooking
energy with the launch of this mammoth scheme “Ujjwala”. However, we need to go
beyond subsidising connections and fuel costs and focus on issues of cash flow,
awareness, availability and administration. Only such a comprehensive approach will
help poor households have a better life. Also, much work is needed to better understand
the welfare effects of reducing IAP within households and to better understand the
most cost effective way to reduce it.
References
1. Bruce N.L. et al.(2006). Indoor Air Pollution. In Disease Control Priorities in Developing
Countries, 2nd Edition, Jamison, D.T., et al, Eds. Washington D.C.: World Bank, New York:
Oxford University Press.
2. Dasgupta S et al. (2004b). Who suffers from indoor air pollution? Evidence from Bangladesh.
World Bank Policy Research Paper 3428, October 2004.
3. DOI : 10.1093/heapol/czl027
4. Duflo E., Greenstone M. & R. Hanna (2007). Cooking Stoves, Indoor Air Pollution, and
Respiratory Health in Orissa, India. Mimeo.
Gender Inequality and Women Labour Force Participation in India
Bhanu Shankar* & Shivani Srivastava**
Introduction
India’s labour force was 476 million in 2011-12. Of these, less than 4 million or
0.8% of the total were child workers in the age group of 5-14 years. Another 39
million or 8.2% of the total were older workers in the age group of 60 or more years.
Thus, the working age labour force in the age group of 15-59 years was about 434
million which was almost 91% of the total labour force. Interestingly, females constituted
just 27% of the total labour force as also the working age labour force (Table- 1).
Table 1: India’s Labour Force in 2011-12 ( in Million)
Age group (years) Male Female Total
UPSS labour force
May-14 2.2 1.7 3.9
15-59 315.9 117.6 433.5
60 or more 29.5 9.3 38.8
UPS labour force
May-14 1.9 1 2.9
15-59 313.2 88.3 401.5
60 or more 29 7.1 36.1
Source: Population Census (various years). National Sample Survey of Employment

and Unemployment (various years).
On the narrower but more relevant measure (i.e. Usual Principal Status UPS),
which leaves the subsidiary workers out of the account, the total labour force as in
2011-12 was 441 million. Of this, only 3 million (0.7%) were child labour and 36
million (8.2%) were elderly workers. Thus, the core labour force was 402 million
which we may call as UPS labour force. The females constituted just 22% of the total
UPS labour force as also the core labour force.
* Associate Professor, National P.G. College, Lucknow, U.P.
** Associate Professor, N.S.C.B. Govt. P.G. College, Lucknow, U.P.
Declining Female Labour Force Participation

The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) survey on Employment and
Unemployment situation in India conducted in 2009-10 states that the labour force
participation rate for women aged 15 years and above fell by 10.1 percentage points
in comparison to the previous survey round, corresponding to 22.6 million fewer
women in the labour force in 2010 as compared to 2005. The same trend continues to
exist even today. The decline in female participation rate was registered in both
rural and urban areas, which dropped by 11.5 and 5.0 percentage points respectively.
In comparison, the male participation rate declined by only 3.4 percentage points
over the same period. According to NSSO Survey 2014, female participation declined
further in rural areas- a drop of two percentage points since 2010, while in urban
areas, the rate increased by 1.1 percentage points. The overall female participation
rate declined by 1.3 percentage points while the male participation rate dropped by
0.8 percentage points.
Gender Inequality in Occupational Segregation
The data collected from NSSO 1994,2000 and 2010 rounds reveal a large degree
of gender-based occupational segregation in India during the reference period. Less
than 19% of the new employment opportunities generated in India’s 10 fastest growing
occupations were taken up by women.
Gender Inequality in Total Employment
The discussion so far clearly indicates that female labour force participation in
India has declined over the reference period 1999-2000 to 2011-12 and that the job
opportunities created during the period were mainly male oriented with the result
that females are confined to only a few selected fast growing job opportunities.
Table 2: Growth of Employment and Labour Force

A ve rage a n n ua l ra te of growth (% )
19 9 9 -2000 to 2 0 11 -1 2
E m p loym ent growth

Ma le 2
Fem ale -0 .2
L a bou r Force Growth
Ma le 1 .9
Fem ale 0
Source: NSSO Surveys of Employment and Unemployment (55th and 68th Rounds).
But, on the contrary, the Gender Inequality in Total Employment in the country
has registered a decline over the period. Employment growth in India basically reflects
the Labour force growth and therefore, the rate of employment growth is not much
different from the Labour force growth. Table 2 indicates that during 1999-2000 to
2011-12, employment growth was faster than labour force growth for men but it was
slower than labour force growth for women.
This difference is also reflected in the difference in trends in unemployment (Table
3); the unemployment rate showed a decline (from 3.1% to 2.6%) for men but an
increase (from 2.7% to 4.1%) for women.
Table 3: Unemployment Rate (%) by Age (Years) and Level of Education
L e v e l o f E d u c a ti o n A ge G ro u p
1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0 1 5 -2 4 2 5 -29 3 0 -5 9 1 5 -5 9
M a le U p t o p rim a ry 3 .9 0 .7 0 .1 1 .1
A b o v e p rim a ry 1 3 .9 8 .1 1 .0 5 .9
A ll 8 .6 4 .6 0 .5 3 .1
F em a le U p t o p rim a ry 1 .2 0 .5 0 .1 0 .4
A b o v e p rim a ry 2 3 .0 1 8 .9 2 .5 1 4 .2
A ll 7 .1 4 .4 0 .4 2 .7
2 0 1 1 -1 2
M a le U p t o p rim a ry 5 .6 0 .8 0 .1 1 .2
A b o v e p rim a ry 1 2 .2 5 .1 0 .6 3 .9
A ll 9 .5 3 .6 0 .4 2 .6
F em a le U p t o p rim a ry 2 .3 0 .8 0 .6 0 .9
A b o v e p rim a ry 2 1 .4 1 4 .1 3 .0 1 0 .7
A ll 1 2 .2 7 .5 1 .2 4 .1
Source: India Employment Report 2016
Table 4: Employment Structure 1999-2000 to 2011-12
Employment Average Annual Rate Percentage Distribution Percentage Distribution

Structure of Growth (%) (1999-2000) (2011-2012)
Employment Type Male Female Male Female Male Female

Organized sector 5.2 6.2 12.4 6.9 18.0 14.6
Unorganized Sector 1.4 -0.9 87.6 93.1 82.0 85.4
Self-employment 1.9 0.2 48.5 46.6 48.2 48.8
Economy 2.0 -0.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Regular formal 2.9 4.8 8.0 3.8 8.9 6.8
.
Regular informal 3.4 4.9 11.4 6.4 13.4 11.6
Casual 1.3 -2.4 32.1 43.2 29.5 32.8
Self-employment 1.9 0.2 48.5 46.6 48.2 48.8
Source: NSSO Surveys of Employment and Unemployment (55th and 68th Rounds).
Conclusion
The discussion so far clearly focuses on the following points:-
• Firstly, the growth in employment opportunities is not in tune with the growth
in labour force ( both men and women).
• Secondly, the available employment opportunities absorb more male workers
than female workers.
• Thirdly, the female labour force participation rate in the total employment
has been less over the reference period.
• Fourthly, the literacy level among female workers had been, by and large,
less as compared to their male counterparts.
• Fifthly, the female workers in India generally get employment in the unorganized
sector and as casual workers.
However, with the increasing awareness of the society towards female education,
the gender inequality that existed in India in respect of employment and employability
has reduced. Moreover, the female labour force participation has increased in the
organized sector and reduced in the unorganized sector.
In an era of an egalitarian society where both males and females enjoy equal
opportunities in all walks of life, the discrimination in offering employment to males
and females would fail to continue for a long time. In a country where females
constitute almost half of the total population, efforts should be made to generate
such employment opportunities that are more suitable for female workers so that
female labour force participation rate can be increased and they need not compete
with their male counterparts for jobs.
References
1. Ajit K. Ghose (2016): “India Employment Report 2016”, Oxford University
Press.
2. Chowdhury, S. (2011): “Employment in India: What does the latest data show?,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XLVI. No. 32. pp 23-26.
Gender Inequality in Education and Women Empowerment
Sharad Kumar Srivastava*
Gender Equality is considered element serial and institutional change that leads
to sustainable development with equity and grows. Over the past decade, gender
equality and women’s Empowerment have been explicitly recognized as key only to
the health of nations, but also to social and economic development. The promotion
of gender equality and empowering of women is one of the main challenge to which
India is a Signatory. The pairing of the two concepts of women’s empowerment and
gender equality into one main implicitly recognizes that gender equality. Gender
equality demands the empowerments of women with a four on identifying and
redressing power imbalances and giving rumen more autonomy to manage their
own lives. Gender quality and empowered women are catalysis for multiplying
development efforts. Education policy has to be taken in the right form and kind to
facilitate women participation in education in order to reduce the in equality in the
gender gap prevalent in our country. In the context the objective of this paper is to
analyses the progress and achievement of our excellent country, that is, promotes
gender equality and empower women though women education.
Enrolment and Gender Gap in Literacy
Table 1: Sex Ration and Gender Gap in Literacy Rate

Years Literacy Rate Sex Ratio
Total Male Female Male female Gap
1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.3 946
1961 28.30 40.40 15.35 25.05 941
1971 34.45 45.95 21.97 23.98 930
1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62 934
1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84 927
2001 64.83 75.26 53.67 21.59 933
2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68 940
Source: Census Date, Various Years Govt. of India.
* Associate professor & Head, P.G. Department of Economics, H.P.G. College, Zamania,
Ghazipur, U.P.
The least Square trend equation of Male female literacy gap is computed as follows.
Y= 23.99-0.39 t (Where R2 =0.05, P value = 0.63, Y= Literacy Gap, t = Year)
Table 2: Trend in Important Indicators Related to Girls Enrolment Education

Indicator Level of education 2001-01 2013-14
Enrolment of Upper primary education (Class VI-VIII) 40.90% 48.6%
Enrolment Secondary (IX-X) and higher secondary (XI_XII) education 38.8% 47.1%
Number of girls Primary education (Class I-V) 78 93
Per 100 boys Upper Primary education 69 95
Enrolled Secondary education 63 90
Higher education 58 81
Source: Education for all towards quality and Equity, M/O HRD, Education Statistics at a glance 2014,
Ministry of HRD
The gender wise student growth in table-3 indicates that women students as
percentage of all students has increased from 10 percent in 1950 to 44.20 percent in
2012-13.
Table 3: Gender-wise Student Growth in Higher Education from 1951-52 to 2012-13

Year Men Women Total enrolment Women as Percentage
(0’000) (0’000) (‘000) %of all growth rate
Students
1950-51 157 17 174 10.00 .....
1955-56 252 43 295 14.60 31.51
1960-61 468 89 557 16.00 8.75
1965-66 849 218 1067 20.40 21.57
1970-71 1563 391 1954 20.00 -2.00
1975-76 2131 595 2426 24.50 18.37
1980-81 2003 749 2752 27.20 9.93
1985-86 2512 1059 3571 29.60 8.11
1990-91 2986 1439 4425 32.50 8.92
1995-96 4235 2191 6426 34.10 4.69
2000-01 4988 3012 8001 37.60 9.31
2005-06 6562 4466 11028 40.50 7.16
2012-13 13468 10687 24180 44.20 8.37
Source: Selected Education Statistics, University Grants Commission, Annual Report, various years:
Table 4: Gender Parity Index (GER) for Primary, Secondary and Higher
Education in India
Year Primary Secondary Higher

1990-91 0.76 0.6 0.54
2005-06 0.94 0.8 0.69
2006-07 0.94 0.82 0.69
2007-08 0.98 0.85 0.7
2008-09 1.00 0.85 0.7
2009-10 1.00 0.88 0.74
2010-11 1.01 0.88 0.86
2011-12 1.01 0.93 0.88
2012-13 1.03 0.99 0.89
2013-14 1.03 1.0 0.9
Source: Education for All, towards quality with equity, NEUPA, New Delhi, 2014.
The least squares trend equations are computed and coefficients are all positive
which indicates that Gender Parity Index for primary, secondary and higher education
are improving over time. Since the coefficient is marginally higher in higher education,
the index is growing relatively better in higher education.
Social Class and Gender Parity Index
Table-5 Gender Parity Index at Education Level in 2013

Level Gen SC ST
Primary (IV) 1.03 1.01 0.98
Upper Primary (VIVIII) 1.06 1.04 0.99
Elementary (IVIII) 1.04 1.05 0.98
Secondary (IXX) 1.00 1.00 0.99
IX 1.03 1.04 0.98
Senior sEcondary (XIXII) 1.00 1.03 0.94
IXII 1.03 1.02 0.98
Higher Education 0.89 0.89 0.79
Source: For School Education: U DISE-2013-14, Higher Education: AISHE-2012-13, Report.
Gender Parity Among Teachers

Specific measures have been undertaken to recruit female teachers for Government.
Recommendations for Gender Equality in Education

1. Gender sensitization should become a part of the curriculum.
2. Value education or Moral education classes play a very crucial role in gender
sensitization.
3. Gender related material prepared by voluntary organization and other
stakeholders on gender related issues.
4. To develop a dynamic society it important to change its mind set.
5. It should be made mandatory for research institutes to encourage research on
gender issues.
6. Equal job opportunity for women as well as status and power distribution.
Conclusion
A key approach to promoting girl’s education is to develop all schools to be
inclusive. and safe places for girls and ensuring increased and more targeted investments
for girl’s education through strengthened systems for local service delivery that ensure
gender equality in elementary education. The specific measures to promote girls’
education include strengthening and expanding the special schemes for girls such as
the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyala (KGBV) Scheme to provide one more KGBV in
education backward blocks, with special focus on locations/wards with high migration
rates in urban and semi-urban areas, and educationally backward blocks with high
concentration of Schedules Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Muslim populations:
strengthening the National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL) which is a focused intervention to reach the ‘hardest to reach’ girls, especially
those not in school: training of members of the School Management Committees on
gender and equity issues: and continuation of the Mahila Samakhya (MS) which has
been recognized as an effective strategy for creating circumstances for girl’s education
and empowerment.
References
1. Abusalesh Shariff, P.G. (2000), Indian Education Scene and the public Gap. 1396-1406, EPW,
Vol. 35, No. 16. Agarwal, P. (2006), ‘Higher Education in India: The Need for Change’.
Working paper No. 180, Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.
2. Anindita Chakrabaty, R.J. (2006), Determinants of Expenditure on Education Analysis using
State Level Date. Economic and political Weekly, 1465-1472.
3. Anuradha De, T.E. (2008), Public Expenditure on Education in India. Recent Trends and
outcomes. RECOUP Working paper No. 18, Collaborative Research and Dissemination 1
(CORD), India.
Causes and Consequences of Declining Child Sex Ratio of

Uttarakhand
V.B. Chaurasia* & Pooja Rawat**
Introduction
As per details from Census 2011, Uttarakhand has population of 1.01 Crores, an
increase from figure of 84.89 Lakh in 2001 census. Total population of Uttarakhand
as per 2011 census is 10,086,292 of which male and female are 5,137,773 and 4,948,519
respectively. In 2001, total population was 8,489,349 in which males were 4,325,924
while females were 4,163,425.
The sex ratio has remained almost stable rising marginally from 962 women per
1000 male as per 2001 census to 963 women per 1000 as per 2011 census. The most
alarming feature of Uttarakhand’s profile as per the census conducted in 2011 was
the huge decline in child sex ratio (0-6years of age group) from 908 as per 2001
census to 890 as per 2011 census.
Causes
There are several reasons that can be responsible for the declining child sex ratio
in Uttarakhand. Some of the reasons are as mentioned below:
1. Literacy rate among women: In 2001 83.28% of men in Uttarakhand were
literate. This figure increased to 87.4% in 2011. While in case of women, the
literacy levels rose remarkable from 59.63% in 2001 to 70.01% in 2011. This
means that over the years literacy among women in Uttarakhand has increased
but it has failed to have any positive impact on child sex-ratio. This shows
that the education system in Uttarakhand has more of quantitative aspects
than qualitative aspects. The state has been successful in educating its women
but this has not empowered them or made them aware enough to be decion
maker in matters related to them.
2. Rural-urban divide: Out of total population of Uttarakhand, 30.23% people
live in urban regions. The total figure of population living in urban areas is
* Associate Professor, D.A.V. P.G. College, Dehradun, U.K.

** Research Scholar, D.A.V. P.G. College, Dehradun, U.K.
3,049,338 of which 1,618,731 are males and while remaining 1,430,607 are females.
The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 30.23 percent.
Sex Ratio in urban regions of Uttarakhand was 884 females per 1000 males.
For child (0-6) sex ratio the figure for urban region stood at 868 girls per 1000
boys. Total children (0-6 age) living in urban areas of Uttarakhand were 365,038.
Of total population in urban region, 11.97 % were children (0-6).
Average Literacy rate in Uttarakhand for Urban regions was 84.45 percent in
which males were 89.05% literate while female literacy stood at 68.96%. Total
literates in urban region of Uttarakhand were 2,266,903.
The sex ration in urban areas as per 2011 census is merely 884 while in rural
areas is 1000. As far as the child sex ratio is concerned, 2011 census reveals a
highly skewed child sex ratio of 868 women per 1000 males in the urban
areas of Uttarakhand while in the urban areas the figure remains at 899. This
shows that the child sex ratio is much lower in the urban areas than in the
rural areas of Uttarakhand.This is applicable at large for the entire country as
proved by Paul & Saha(2015) in their research paper. Paul & Saha (2015) in
their study concludes that sex ratio is more skewed in the most urbanized
and economically well off states of north and western region. Conversely, the
relative under developed and less urbanized population of central and eastern
region have higher child sex ratio.
3. Increasing instances of Female foeticide: India has been severely affected by
declining child sex ratio (CSR) especially since 1981 as a result of collusion
between technology to detect sex of the foetus in early stage of pregnancy
and traditional preference for boys. Uttarakhand has the 7th lowest CSR among
35 States/UTs of India as per 2011 census with CSR of 890 girls per thousand
boys, a drastic decline from 908 as per 2001 census.3 The Annual Health
Survey (AHS) conducted by the Registrar General & Census Commissioner of
India, which is claimed to be the largest demographic survey in the world,
shows little improvement of the CSR in Uttarakhand. The sex ratio at birth
(SRB) as per the AHS was respectively 861 in 2011-2012 and 867 during 2012-
2013 in Uttarakhand.
Consequences
As per the report by Asian Centre for Human Rights if under-five mortality rate
(U5MR) of 48 deaths per 1,000 births in India is taken into account in Uttarakhand
context, the CSR in Uttarakhand would have reduced to 813 in 2011-2012 and 819 in
2012-2013. If the current abysmal state of implementation of the measures to combat
female foeticide continues, the CSR in Uttarakhand will fall drastically to a little
over 800 by 2021 census.
The Nanda Devi Kanya Yojana (NDKY) launched in 2009 and renamed as Hamari
Beti Hamara Abhiman (HBHA) in 2014 failed to achieve its primary objectives to
reduce gender imbalance in child sex ratio, prevent female foeticide and provide
social and economic security to girl child.8 The scheme itself is designed not to have
any impact. The NDKY is extended only to Below Poverty Line (BPL) families while
the Above Poverty Line (APL) families who use and can afford sex selective abortion
are completely left out.
Suggestions
• Revise the Nanda Devi Kanya Yojana, renamed as Hamari Beti Hamara Abhiman
Scheme in order to increase the amount for post birth benefits and include
scholarship and further provide additional financial assistance for marriage
of the surviving girls;
• Remove the condition of covering only upto 2nd girl child and also expand
the coverage of the Hamari Beti Hamara Abhiman Scheme to include all girl
children;
• Remove the condition provided under the Hamari Beti Hamara Abhiman Scheme
that upon the demise of the girl child the accumulated benefits under the
scheme shall be forfeited and transfered back to the Government;
• Undertake effective measures to monitor and ensure proper implementation
of the PCPNDT Act and MTP Act.
• Undertake public awareness campaigns: to challenge the existing feudal-
patriarchal values and practice, and to encourage and inspire a new outlook
based on gender justice and gender equality.
Conclusion
At a fundamental level, child sex ratio imbalance reflects deeply entrenched
patriarchal values that sustains and promotes the phenomenon of son preference.
Therefore, while it is imperative to ensure implementation of the PCPNDT Act, it is
equally important to strategically address some key factors that challenge patriarchy
and counter son preference. The government shoulduphold women’s sexual and
reproductive rights by implementing gender-sensitive communications plans that do
not inadvertently perpetuate gender stereotypes or blame women or stigmatize safe
and legal abortion. In addition to this, ensure that policies and procedures aid, promote
and protect a woman’s right to safe abortion.
References
1. Uttarakhand Population Census data 2011. {Online:web}, accessed on 08.06.2014, http://
www.census2011.co.in/census/state/uttarakhand.html
2. Lohani, Dr. Jitender (2013) , Analysis of Sex-Ratio in Uttarakhand State from 1901-2011 : a
Study, Indian Journal of Research, ISSN - 2250-1991,Vol. 3, Issue 5
3. Kalosona Paul, Shrestha Saha (2015), Declining Child Sex Ratio In India And Its Major Correlates,
International Journal of Current Research and Review, Vol. 7, Issue 11.
4. Report on “The State of Female Foeticide in Uttarakhand”(2016), Published by Asian Centre
for Human Rights, ISBN: 978-81-88987-64-1.
Female Labor Force Participation in India and Domestic

Labour
Shanti Rai*
Introduction
In the World Economic Forum ‘Global Gender Report 2015’ India’s rank in female
labor force participation rate (LFPR) is 136 among 145 countries. According to fifth
annual employment-unemployment survey 2015-16(vol-1) of Ministry of Labor &
Employment female LFPR of 23.7% at all India (Rural and urban) level was significantly
lower than the LFPR of 75% among males. The LFPR for females in urban areas is
very low at 16.2% as compared to 26.7% in rural areas (Table-1).
Table 1: LFPR for Different Categories Based on UPS Approach 2015-16
All India (in per cent)

Sector Male Female Transgender Person
Rural 77.3 26.7 51.1 53.0
Urban 69.1 16.2 41.2 43.5
Rural + Urban 75.0 23.7 48.0 50.3
Source: Fifth Annual Employment-Unemployment Survey 2015-16, vol-1, Ministry of Labor and
Employment, Labor Bureau, Chandigarh.
Underlying Causes
For some economists this decline in female LFPR has been the result of rising
educational attainment (see for example RangaRajan et at 2011), others claimed that
this was due to increasing household incomes which gave working women choice to
withdraw from the labor force (for example in Abraham 2009). Some identified lack
of appropriate job opportunities (see for example Kapsoset at 2014) and many others
found exclusion of domestic activities from NSSO’s counting usual economic activity
status behind this decline in female LFPR.
* Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Avadh Girls Degree College, Lucknow
University, Lucknow, U.P.
Table 2: Female Labor Force as a Percentage of Total Labor Force
Rural Urban Total
PS PSSS PS PSSS PS PSSS
1972-73 35.48 18.9 32.68
1977-78 31.20 36.48 19.6 22.5 28.94 33.84
1983 30.68 36.89 17.6 20.6 27.92 33.63
1987-88 31.03 36.24 17.8 21.3 28.13 33.06
1993-94 28.87 35.66 17.9 21.4 26.26 32.48
1999-2000 29.41 34.57 17.4 19.6 26.38 30.97
2004-05 30.23 36.23 19.3 22.1 27.26 32.55
2009-10 26.44 31.10 17.5 19.4 23.85 27.85
2011-12 23.92 30.25 18.3 20.4 22.19 27.37
Source: NSS reports on employment and unemployment in India
Table 3: Labor Force Participation Rates (%)

Rural Male Rural Female Urban Male Urban Female
PS PSS PS PSS PS PSS PS PSS
1972-73 55.2 32 52.6 14.3
1977-78 54.9 55.9 26.2 33.8 53.2 53.7 15 17.8
1983 54 55.5 25.5 34.2 53.1 54 12.9 15.9
1987-88 53.2 54.9 25.4 33.1 52.8 53.4 12.9 16.2
1993-94 54.9 56.1 23.7 33.1 54.3 53.4 13.2 16.5
1999-2000 53.3 54 23.5 30.2 54.2 53.2 12.6 14.7
2004-05 54.6 55.5 25 33.3 57.1 57.1 14.9 17.8
2009-10 54.8 55.6 20.8 26.5 55.9 55.9 12.8 14.6
2011-12 54.7 55.3 18.1 25.3 56.3 56.3 13.4 15.5
Source: NSS Reports
The most famous feminization U- hypothesis claims an inverse relationship between

household income levels and female LFPR at initial levels of economic development
and a direct relationship in the later stage. Applying this hypothesis to the India it
can be inferred that the declining female LFPR must be the result of income effect
arising from increasing incomes of their male counter parts due to increase in male
wages. But analysis of NSSO data shows that the relationship between female labor
force participation and income as per U- hypothesis has not been witnessed in India.
On the contrary there has been paradoxical development in Indian economy where
women has been withdrawing from the labor force and attending to domestic duties
in spite of robust economic growth and rising educational standards. In spite of the
rise in educational standards incentive for the educated females to join the labor
force has been declining. Third reason advanced for declining female LFPR and their
declining share in labor market is related to inadequate employment growth in the
Indian economy. This is well known fact that agriculture has failed to absorb female
labor which previously employed around 70% of all female workers and it is not
surprising given the low growth of agriculture sector. Not only agriculture, ‘jobless
growth’ in manufacturing sector is also responsible for this declining female
employment. . In the post globalization era informalization and casualization of work
has become integral part of employment growth characterized by insecurity of
employment, gender wage gaps and different forms of exploitations which has also
forced women to withdraw from the labor market.This provides further evidence
against the straightforward application of the U-hypothesis in Indian economy.
Women’s Participation in Domestic Activities
Table 4: Female Usual Activity Status Distribution (for all ages)

Activity status (principal status or PS) 1983 2004-05 2011-12
Rural
Domestic duties only 15.9 17.5 18.5
Domestic and allied activities 13.9 18 23.7
Urban
Domestic duties only 30.8 35 36.4
Domestic and allied activities 7.7 10.7 11.6
Source: NSS Reports

The NSSO divides “domestic duties” into “domestic activities only” (NSSO activity
code 92) and “domestic and allied activities” (NSSO activity code 93). Free collection
of goods (vegetables, roots, firewood, cattle feed, etc), sewing and tailoring, weaving,
processing food for household consumption, etc, are included in the category domestic
and allied activities. The category “domestic duties only” has not been clearly defined
in NSSO documentation but generally these activities include “taking care of family
members, preparation of meals, washing dishes and clothes, cleaning the house, and
homestead maintenance” ( Mukherjee 2011).
Conclusion
As discussed in this paper, there has been consistent downward trend in the
female LFPR and female employment in India alongside increasing participation in
domestic activities in spite of rising household incomes and increasing access to
education. Another reason advanced for this is related to inadequate employment
growth in agriculture and manufacturing sector. Besides insufficient job creation the
quality of employment is another area of concern because of informalization and
casualization of work in the post globalization era. According to the Twelfth Five
year Plan the informal sector accounts for more than 84% of the total labor force.
Employment in this sector is characterized by job insecurity, rising gender wage gap
and high incidence of sexual harassment for female workers and other forms of
exploitations. This along with shrinking employment opportunities forged women to
shift from the labor market to labor intensive domestic and allied activities. This
goes against the straight forward application of U-hypothesis in the case of India.This
phenomenon can’t be understood in terms of patriarchalnorms that compel women
to confine themselves to the household spheres, nor can it be explained in the context
of growing economy that frees women from drudgeries. Instead, this paradoxical
development can be understood in terms of political, social and economic institutional
framework that exists in Indian society.Women’s access to decent work and labor
force participation are necessary element of an inclusive and sustainable development
process, hence there is an urgent need to create more jobs and entrepreneurship
opportunities to promote women empowerment thereby making them economically
independent. In sum the issue of female labor force participation needs to take a
central role in economic policymaking to ensure inclusive and sustainable growth in
India.
References
1. Abraham Vinoj (2009); Rural Employment Growth in India: Distress Driven?, Economic
and Political Weekly, Vol. 44 (16).
2. Abraham Vinoj (2013); Missing Labor or Consistent ‘De- Feminisation’? Economic & Political
Weekly, Vol. XLVIII, No. 31.
3. Census of India (1981 to 2011); Primary Census Abstracts; New Delhi: Registrar General
and Census Commissioner.
Women Empowerment and Development in India
Rama Rani*
Introduction
Women empowerment refers to increasing the religious, opinionated, societal,
educational, gender or economic power of individuals and communities of women.
Women’s empowerment in India is profoundly dependent on many diverse variables
that include geographical location (urban / rural) educational status, social status
(caste and class) and age. Policies on Women’s empowerment exist at the national,
state and local (Panchayat) levels in many sectors, including health, education, economic
opportunities and gender based violence and political participation. However, there
are considerable gap between policy advancements and actual practice at the community
level. Empowerment of women is essentially the process of upliftment of economic,
social and political status of women, the traditional underprivileged ones, in the
society. It is the process of guarding them against all forms of violence. Women
empowerment involves the building up of a society, a political environment, wherein
women can breathe without the fear of oppression, exploitation, apprehension,
discrimination and the general feeling of persecution which goes with being a woman
in a traditionally male dominated structure.
Choudhary, L. (2016) explored the status of Women Empowerment in India and
highlighted the Issues and Challenges of Women Empowerment. Women constitute
very nearly half of the world’s population whereby female’s populace has as far
been as their comparatively social status is concerned, they are not regarded as
equivalent to men in every one of the spots. In the Western social orders, the ladies
have approach right and status with men in all kinds of different backgrounds. Be
that as it may, sex inabilities and Empowerment are found in India even today.
Banerjee, R. and Panda, M. (2015) defined fundamental rights and numerous hassles
to survive of women in India. We explained the inequality to empower our women, as
in the words of Swami Vivekananda, “men and women are two wings of a bird,”
which rings true as without empowering women we cannot march towards progress.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Law, IIMT College of Law, Greater Noida, U.P.
Duflo, E. (2011) Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development, National
Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge The study focuses that the inter relationships
of the Empowerment and Development are probably too weak to be self sustaining
and that continuous policy commitment to equally for its own sake may be needed
to bring about equality between men and women.
1. To know the need of Women Empowerment.
2. To analysis the government efforts for improving the women status at present
time.
3. To analyze the Factors influencing the Economic Empowerment of Women.
4. To study the Government Schemes For Women Empowerment.
Crime Against Women
The crimes against women fly directly against orchestrating Women Empowerment
in India. A report on the crimes against Women by the National Crime Records
Bureau comes up with alarming statistics. The cases of crimes against women during
the year 2015 have decreased by 3.1% over the year 2014 and increased by 43.2%
over the year 2011. The IPC component of crimes against women has accounted for
96.1% of total crimes and the remaining 3.9% were SLL crimes against women. The
proportion of IPC crimes committed against women in total IPC crimes has increased
during last 5 years from 9.4% in the year 2011 to 10.7% during the year 2015.
Why Need of Women Empowerment?
Reflecting into the “Vedas Purana” of Indian culture, women are being worshiped
such as LAXMI MAA, goddess of wealth; SARSWATI MAA, for wisdom; DURGA
MAA for power. The status of women in India, particularly in rural areas needs to
address the issue of empowering women. About 66% of the female population in
rural area is initialized. This is mainly due to existing social customs. In agriculture
and Animal care the women contribute 90% of the total workforce. Women constitute
almost half of the population, perform nearly 2/3 of its work hours, receive 1/10th of
the world’s income and own less than 1/ 100th the World property. Among the world’s
900 million illiterate people, women outnumber men two to one. 70% of people
living in poverty are women. Lower sex ratio, i.e. 933, the existing studies show that
the women are relatively less healthy than men though belong to a same class. They
constitute less than 1/7th of the administrators and managers in developing countries.
Only 10% seats in World Parliament and 6% in National Cabinet are held by women.
Hindrances of Women Empowerment

The Main Problems that were Faced by Women in Past Days and Still today up
to Some Extent
Gender discrimination Absence of ambition for the
achievement
Lack of Education Social status
Female Infanticide Dowry
Financial Constraints Marriage in same caste and child
marriage
Family Responsibility
Low Mobility Humiliated almost daily
Low ability to bear Risk
Need for low achievement
Need for Women Empowerment: Women are deprived of
Decision Making Power Access to Employment
Freedom of Movement Exposure to Media
Access to Education Domestic Violence
Government Schemes for Women Empowerment

The Government programs for women’s development began as early as 1954 in
India, but the actual participation began only in 1974. At present, the Government of
India has over 34 schemes for women operated by different department and ministries.
Some of these are as follows;
1. Rastria Mahila Kosh (RMK) 1992-1993
2. Mahila Samridhi Yojana (MSY) October, 1993.
3. Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) 1995.
4. National Mission for Empowerment of Women.
5. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) (1975),
6. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescence, Girls (RGSEAG) (2010).
7. The Rajiv Gandhi National Crèche Scheme for Children of Working Mothers.
8. Ujjawala (2007).
Reasons For The Empowerment of Women
Today we have noticed different Acts and Schemes of the central Government as
well as state Government to empower the women of India. But in India women are
discriminated and marginalized at every level of the society, whether it is social
participation, political participation, economic participation, access to education, and
also reproductive health care. Women are found to be economically very poor all
over the India. A few women are engaged in services and other activities. So, they
need economic power to stand on their own legs on par with men. Other hand, it
has been observed that women are found to be less literate than men.
Conclusion
Women’s empowerment is not a Northern concept women all over the world,
including countries in the South, have been challenging and changing gender inequalities
since the beginning of the history. These struggles have also been supported by
many men who have been outraged at injustice against women. Women represent
half the world’s population and gender inequality exists in every nation on the planet.
Until women are given the same opportunities that men are, entire societies will be
destined to perform below their true potentials. The greatest need of the hour is a
change of social attitude to women.
The Empowerment of Women has become one of the most important concerns of
21st century not only at national level but also at the international level. Government
initiatives alone would not be sufficient to achieve this goal. Society must take initiative
to create a climate in which there is no gender discrimination and women have full
opportunities of self decision making and participating in social, political and economic
life of the country with a sense of equality.
References
1. Choudhary, Lalit. 2016 “Women Empowerment in India: Issues and Challenges” (IOSR-
JHSS): 21(10), 50-56.
2. Banerjee Ranita and Panda Mitali. 2015 “Women’s Empowerment and Changing Indian
Society”, (IJHSS): 3(8), 27-278.
3. Duflo E. 2011 “Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development”, National Bureau of
Economic Research, Cambridge.
4. Baruah, B. 2013. “Role of Electronic Media in Empowering Rural Women Education of NE
India”. ABHIBYAKTI: Annual Journal, 1, 23-26.
5. Goswami, L. 2013. “Education for Women Empowerment”. ABHIBYAKTI: Annual Journal, 1,
17-18.
6. Kadam, R. N. 2012. ‘Empowerment of Women in India- An Attempt to Fill the Gender
Gap”. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 2(6), 11-13.
7. Nagaraja, B. 2013. “Empowerment of women in India: A critical analysis”. Journal of Humanities
and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS,, 9(2), 45-52.
8. Deshpande, S., and Sethi, S., 2010. “Role and Position of Women Empowerment in Indian
Society”. International Referred Research Journal, 1(17), 10-12.
9. Kishor, S., & Gupta, K. 2009. “Gender equality and womens empowerment in India”. National
Family Health Survey (NFHS-3).
10. Suguna, M., 2011. “Education and Women Empowerment in India”. ZENITH: International
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(8), 19-21.
11. Bhuyan, D. 2006. “Empowerment of Indian women: A challenge of 21st century”. Orissa
Review, 1, 60-63.
12. Vinze, Medha Dubashi 1987 “Women Empowerment of Indian : A Socio Economic study of
Delhi” Mittal Publications, Delhi..
13. Hazarika, D. 2011. “Women empowerment in India: A brief discussion”. International Journal
of Educational Planning & Administration, 1(3), 199-202.
14. Baro, P. K., & Sarania, R. 2014. “Employment and Educational Status: Challenges of Women
Empowerment in India”. Pratidhwani-The Echo, 2, 49-56.
Strategies and Policies for Women Empowerment in India
Tanu Varshney*
Introduction
Empowering women is clearly a basic human rights issue. Women’s empowerment
has to be a core part of any development strategy as, apart from being denied equal
status; women bear the brunt of poverty in poor societies. In many, if not most rural
poor families in India, women do more physical labour than men, eat less, have less
access to health and education facilities, get less wages, and bear the major part of
the responsibility of bringing up children and looking after the family. This enormous
contribution goes largely unrecognised. Women are even denied a role in household
decision-making. More women than men live in poverty. Economic disparities persist
partly because much of the unpaid work within families and communities falls on
the shoulders of women and because they face discrimination in the economic
sphere.womens economic empowerment-that is, their capacity to bring about economic
change for themselevs is increasingly viewed as the most important contributing
factor to achiveing equality between women and men. it is well eastablished that
without gender parity in governance, womens equity and equality can not be achieved.
The persistent under-repesentation of women in political life and decision making
has lead to a “democratic deficit” in india.Social and legal institutions still do not
guarantee women equality in basic legal and human rights, in access to or control of
land or other resources, in employment and earning, and social and political
participation. Laws against domestic violence are often not enforced on behalf of
women.About two thirds of the illiterate adults in the world are female. Higher
levels of women’s education are strongly associated with both lower infant mortality
and lower fertility, as well as with higher levels of education and economic opportunity
for their children.There is a considerable gap between male and female literacy rates
in india.According to 2011 census an effective literacy rate for men was 82.14% whereas
for women it was only 65.46%. The progress made in this sector is very slow.Lack of
education means lack of awareness. Illiterate women are not aware of their rights.
They know nothing about the initiatives taken by the government for their upliftment.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, S.V. College, Aligarh, U.P.

Constitution of India and Women Empowerment
The Preamble to the Constitution of India assures justice, social, economic and
political; equality of status and opportunity and dignity to the individual. Thus it
treats both men and women equal.The policy of women empowerment is well
entrenched in the Fundamental Rights enshrined in our Constitution. For instance:
Article 14 ensures to women the right to equality.
Article 15(1) specifically prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex.
Article 15(3) empowers the State to take affirmative actions in favour of women.
Article 16 provides for equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating
to employment or appointment to any office.
These rights being fundamental rights are justiciable in court and the Government
is obliged to follow the same.
Directive Principles of State Policy
Directive principles of State Policy also contains important provisions regarding
women empowerment and it is the duty of the government to apply these principles
while making laws or formulating any policy. Though these are not justiciable in the
Court but these are essential for governance nonetheless. Some of them are:
Article 39 (a) provides that the State to direct its policy towards securing for men
and women equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood.
Article 39 (d) mandates equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
Article 42 provides that the State to make provision for securing just and humane
conditions of work and for maternity relief.
Fundamental duties are enshrined in Part IV-A of the Constitution and are positive
duties for the people of India to follow. It also contains a duty related to women’s
rights:Article 51 (A) (e) expects from the citizen of the country to promote harmony
and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India and to renounce
practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
Specific Laws for Women Empowerment in India
Here is the list of some specific laws which were enacted by the Parliament in
order to fulfil Constitutional obligation of women empowerment:
• The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.
• The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961.
• The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956.
• The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961.
• The Medical termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971.
• The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.
• The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.
• The Pre-Conception & Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and

Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994.
• The Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Protection and)
Act, 2013.
Above mentioned and several other laws are there which not only provide specific
legal rights to women but also gives them a sense of security and empowerment.
United Nations Development Programme and India
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) focuses on gender equality
and women’s empowerment as a tool for achieving the Millennium Development
Goals and sustainable development.UNDP introduced Gender Equality Index (GII)
as a measure of these inequalities built on the same framework as the HDI - to
better expose differences in the distribution of achievements between women and
men.
India ranked low on Gender Inequality Index (GII)
India is ranked 125 of 159 countries in the Gender Inequality Index (GII) listed in
the United Nations Development Programme’s latest Human Development Report
2016. . The ratio of maternal mortality is 174 against every 100,000 live births. Only
12.2 per cent of Parliament seats are held by women. 26.8 per cent of women above
the age of 15 years are part of India’s labour force — compared to 79.1 per cent
men.3
Various Schemes for Economic Empowerment of Women
The key challenge for women’s economic empowerment in India is the gender
gap in employment outcomes. Empowerment of women can not happen unless they
are provided with adequate income generating activities, through wage and self-
employment. Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India have
come up with various schemes, programmes, social welfare schemes, Health and
Nutrition, scholarship for women empowerment, Girl Child pregnant women, mothers,
ward members, Anganwadi Workers, Women Health Volunteers, the women living
in the rural & tribal areas, ex-servicemen, physically handicapped, nursing women,
Lactating mother, widows/destitute, Old age women, women self-help group (SHG),
Women Entrepreneurs and Adolescent Girls’.Also, it helps to the women and child
belonging to Scheduled Caste(SC) and Scheduled Tribe(ST), Other Backward
Classes(OBC), Socially and Educationally Backward Classes(SEBC) Minority Category,
below poverty line(BPL) and also for General Category.This scheme provides assistance
for Education, Training, Financial assistance/Cash, Subsidy on the loans, Scholarship,
Nutrition, self-employment and other facilities. The prime goal is for empowerment,
development, protection and welfare of Women & Child.
Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (Save girl child, educate girl child) is Central Government
Sponsored Scheme by Government of India. The prime goal of this scheme is to
generate awareness and improving the efficiency of welfare services meant for women.
Prime Minister Modi launched the programme on 22 January 2015 from Panipat,
Haryana on the occasion of International Day of the Girl Child, Prime Minister Modi,
called for the eradication of female foeticide
A number of schemes such as Swyamsiddha, Swablamban and Support to Training-
cum-Employment Programme (STEP) are in progress where women mobilized as
viable Self Help Groups(SHGs) are utilizing micro credit with the help of agencies
like the Rashtriya Mahila Kosh for income generating activities or getting trained in
various traditional trades and crafts (such as poultry, bee keeping and weaving) as
well as newly emerging vocations (such as the IT sector), or skill up gradation and
capacity building.
National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) aims to achieve holistic

empowerment of women through convergence of schemes/programmes of different
Ministries/Department of Government of India as well as State Governments.Under
the Scheme National Mission for Empowerment of Women, technical support to Ministry
of Women and Child Development is being provided by domain experts who are
involved in the implementation and monitoring of new initiatives of the Ministry
like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP Scheme), One Stop Centres, Women Helpline
etc.A review of government’s various programmes for women empowerment reveals
that little has been done or achieved through these programmes. The government’s
policies for alleviating poverty have failed to produce any desirable results, as women
do not receive appropriate wages for their labour. There is also significant amount of
unpaid or non-marketed labor within the household. There should be Capacity-building
and other support to women’s organisations. Electoral and other reforms to increase
women’s participation in public life.Public awareness campaigns to challenge gender
stereotypes. The increase in gender disparity in wages in the urban areas is also
quite marked as it results from the employment of women in different and lower
paying activities. They are exploited at various levels. They should be provided with
proper wages and work at par with men so that their status can be elevated in
society Educational attainment is essential for empowering women in all spheres of
society. India needs to work hard to give its women equal share as men. Empowerment
would not hold any meaning unless they are made strong, alert and aware of their
equal status in the society. Policies should be framed to bring them into the mainstream
of society. It is important to educate the women. The need of the hour is to improve
female literacy as education holds the key to development.
References
1. Gender inequality indices: A Statistical update 2012, United Nations Deveiopment programme
2. UNDP report on ‘Global Human Development Report 2011, Sustainability and Equity: A
Better Future for all’,
3. UN human Development report 2016, hdr.undp.org/en/content/national-human-development-
report-2016
Status of Rural Education of Women in Uttar Pradesh,

Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh
Rashmi Chaudhary*
Introduction
Swami Vivekananda, the greatest Indian mind since Shankara, defines education
as the manifestation of perfection already in man. He also defines religion as the
manifestation of divinity already in man. Religion, according to him is also a process
of education. ‘If there is a choice between football and Gita, I would want the children
to play football, as there is the whole life to learn Gita. ‘Football teaches how to kick
and our children must learn it’. Simultaneously he talked of value education.
According to Rabindranath Tagore ‘Vidya is Vimukta’ (knowledge is liberation).
The spiritually liberated man is the aim of Indian education. Education alone can
create a climate and establish a state ‘where the mind is free and the head is held
high, where knowledge is free, where the world has not been broken up into fragments
of narrow domestic walls, where words come from the depths of truth’.
Objectives
The objectives of the study are:
• Review national policy on education.
• Evaluation of literacy in study states
• Factors affecting the students attainment and students retention in government
schools in study states.
The study is based on the secondary data. The secondary data was collected
from published and unpublished records and reports of the central Government and
Government of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
* Assistant Professor, ICFAI University Selaqui, Dehradun, Uttarakhand.

ASER 2013 (Rural) Findings
Enrollment in the 6-14 age group continues to be very high, with more than 96%
of children in school. The proportion of out of school girls in the 11 to 14 age group
has declined since last year.
• Overall, enrolment numbers remain very high. Over 96% of all children in the
age group 6 to 14 years are enrolled in school. This is the fifth consecutive
year that enrolment levels have been 96% or more.
• Nationally, the proportion of children (age 6 to 14) who are not enrolled in
school has decreased slightly, from 3.5% in 2012 to 3.3% in 2013.
• At the All India level, the proportion of girls in the age group 11 to 14 who
are not enrolled in school dropped from 6% in 2012 to 5.5% in 2013. The
greatest progress is visible in Uttar Pradesh, where this percentage dropped
from 11.5% in 2012 to 9.4% in 2013.
• For the age group 6 to 14, there has been a steady increase in private school
enrolment from 18.7% in 2006 to 29% in 2013. The increase in private school
enrolment since last year has been very small, from 28.3% in 2012 to 29% in
2013.
Evaluation of Literacy in the Study States
Table: Rural Literacy Rate in Study States

State Total Literacy % Male Literacy Female literacy
Haryana 71.42 81.55 51.96
Himachal Pradesh 81.85 89.05 73.42
Punjab 71.42 76.62 58.99
Uttar Pradesh 65.46 76.33 48.48
Source: www.census2011.co.in
Problems Faced in Rural Education in India

India is developing rapidly and many initiatives had been taken for the development
of rural India, still much more have to be done. There are several problems being
faced by the schools running in rural India. Some of these problems are stated below:
1. Lack of Infrastructure: Many schools in villages lack proper infrastructure
facilities. There are no proper facilities for sitting as sometimes children are
even made to sit on the floor due to non-availability of furniture. The school
building lacks doors and windows, and so the wind and animals enter
unimpeded.
2. Low Income: Teachers in the villages also get very less income in comparison
to the teachers that teach in urban schools. As teachers are not satisfied with
their income, they generally do not give proper attention to the students.
Factors Affecting the Students Attainment and Students Retention in Government

Schools in Study States
Several factors have been observed for low students’ attainment and dropouts of
students’ resulting in low retention in government schools. However, the most recent
ones are poverty, low enrolment, location of schools, inadequate infrastructure, teacher
absenteeism, gender, low rate of students’ attendance, dropout and students teachers
ratio. Few less important reasons like illness of students, no interest in studies and
teachers’ competence to teach are observed.
Gender Disparity, Low Attendance and Dropouts
It has been observed in the study states that Gender disparity, low attendance
and dropout in state government schools are linked to each other. Girls from poor
families in rural India do not attend school due to several reasons like house hold
work and discrimination by the parents even after getting enrolled. Consequently
they lose interest and do not return to school resulting in dropping out. More number
of girls is enrolled in government schools in rural India. In the study states it was
observed that parents prefer to admit their daughters in the government schools
only due to the policy benefits but in case of son’s they prefer to send them to the
closest private schools as they think that quality of education is better in private
schools and spending on girls education is a complete waste for them. Other than
this it is also observed that girls in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab are also
required to do the households chores and manage their younger siblings, this leads
to low attendance and dropout of the girl child. The attendance of the girls is better
in villages of Himachal Pradesh.
Poverty, Low Attendance and Dropout
As gender disparity plays its role in low attendance and dropping out of girls,
poverty plays the same role for both, boys and girls. The main cause for the lack of
education in India is poverty. As children do not even have access to food, possibility
of their education is very low. Hunger is the root cause for the poor results in
education in India. Poverty hampers the attendance of state schools as children do
not go to school due to several factors related to poverty.
Inadequate Infrastructure
Lack of building or unusable classrooms hinders the process of teaching and
learning as the classes cannot run in all-weather conditions. Facilities like drinking
water, separate and clean toilets for boys and girls and furniture also lack in government
schools in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Lack of such facilities discourages
the students, especially the girls, to attend the school.
Mid–Day Meal Scheme
The mid-day meal scheme worked as a real booster in increasing the student’s
attendance in schools. In some cases parents motivates their children to attend school
so that they can at least eat one full meal in a day. It appeared to be successful in
providing meal and increasing the school attendance of the girls and children of the
poor and minority communities of all the study sates.
Conclusion
The retention of students in schools is also not up to the mark, especially in the
case of girls. Gender disparity still prevails in rural India and parents prefer boys
over girls to attend school. Thus gender becomes a major reason for dropping out of
girls. Another major reason for dropouts is poverty. Students dropout either to help
their parents in earning money or they themselves are involve in money earning
activity. Many times students do not dropout but attend schools very irregularly.
This results in low attendance and in low attainment. Though government has made
provisions of incentives and MDM to help children attend school yet its implementation
needs more attention.
Recommendations
The following areas require for much greater attention: school infrastructure,
including more classrooms, a kitchen room, separate toilets for girls’ in all the schools
and a boundary wall for every school, curriculum and instructional resources, stricter
control over and improved oversight of teachers’ improved and rigorous teachers’
training, and improved quality and quantity of mid-day meals.
References
1. ASER 2013 Press Release, The ninth Annual Status of Education Report (ASER 2013) released
in New Delhi, 15 January 2014
2. www.census2011.co.in
3. Pulse September 2014, Indian Education Sector: Grading of Primary Schools to help in
improving the Learning outcomes
4. UNDP. 2002. Human Development Report. New York: United Nations.
Putting Women at Centre: Development Dynamics With

Special Reference to India
Era Tiwari*
Introduction
In the past few decades there has been tremendous progress in redefining
development indicators. This has been particularly true regarding the concepts of
sustainable development and human development. Sustainable development as per
Bruntland Commission has been defined as the development that meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their
own needs (World Commssion on Environment and Development, 1987). The three
core elements of sustainable development have been identified as: economic growth,
environmental protection and social inclusion. In this context a total of 17 sustainable
developmental goals (SDG’s) have also been listed. The 5 th SDG of these is about
achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls. Therefore; “putting
women at centre” and making the development more holistic and long-lasting is at
heart of the sustainable development as a concept as well as practical objective to be
realised within a stipulated time-frame. Countries are expected to devise their own
development strategies and integrate these targets within the framework of their
national policies. It is all the more important for a developing Third World Country
like India where marginalisation of weaker sections including women is a serious
issue. The various human development indices have thus been redefined in terms of
gender. Gender sensitive policies and well as programmes aim to ensure the
‘development’ of gender gets gradually shifted towards ‘empowerment’ of gender. It
is thus important to trace theoretical as well practical perspectives in this regard.
The perspectives are being followed with analysis of various indicators of women
development in Indian context. This also involves a comparative assessment with
their male counterparts. Policy recommendations have been provided with respect
to this assessment.
Tracing Theoretical Perspectives: A Review of Literature
Globally; the three most often discussed approaches of mainstreaming gender in the
development process have been: welfare of women approach, women in the development
* Assistant Professor, Economics, Department of Banking, Economics and Finance
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.
(WID) approach and; gender and development (GAD) approach. The welfare approach
focuses on role of women primarily as ‘wives and mothers’. With policies and programs
aimed at providing them better nutrition and safe motherhood (Razavi & Miller, 1995).
Indicators of Women Development in Indian Context
It is of extreme importance to analyse important indicators of women development
in Indian context. This can best be achieved as a comparative assessment with their
male counterparts.
Figure 1: Comparative Assessment of Female and Male HDI

Paid participation in livelihood generating activities of both the genders can also
be analysed in terms of their respective percentages in labour force participation rate
(Figure 4). As can be seen the female participation in labour force lags behind males
by a significant margin and has registered an overall decline.
Figure 2: Comparative Assessment of Female and Male Labour Force

Participation Rate
To adjudge the differential aspects of HDI in terms of gender; a specific Gender

Development Index (GDI) was introduced in 1995 along with Gender Empowerment
Measure (GEM) by United Nations Development Program.
Figure 3: Selected Years’ GDI and GII
Figure 4: Selected Years’ Female Life Expectancy at Birth and Adolescent Birth Rate
Figure 5: Selected Years’ Female Participation in Socio-Political Sphere

Conclusions and Policy Implications
Major conclusions of the study may be summarised as under: There have been
distinct and substantial phases of women development namely Welfare approach,
Women in Development (WID) and Gender & Development (GAD). The latest addition
to these perspectives has been a shift towards development from that of the
empowerment. There is a dire need to eliminate structural inequalities between the
two genders to attain the much sought after concept of ‘sustainable development.’
A comparative assessment of male and female in terms of selected gender indicators
depicts that females fall significantly behind males in terms of indicators of gross
national income, HDI and labour force participation rate. The only silver lining in
the whole story is that expected years of schooling of females have considerably
increased in comparison to their male counterparts. GDI has shown a slight rise
while GII has depicted a slight fall. Both are thus favourable for women development.
A gradual increase has been registered in the female life-expectancy while adolescent
birth rate has shown a sharp decline over successive years. In terms of measuring
empowerment female participation in socio-political sphere has been analysed. It
depicts a peculiar tendency. It reached its maximum level between 2004 and 2006
and it again fell down in the year 2010 and thus depicts an inverted U-shaped
pattern.
Overall policy is being directed to make efforts to increase income of females,
ensure their enhanced participation in labour force and most importantly to make
sustained efforts to increase female participation in socio-political sphere which gets
reflected in their contribution in the legislative, administrative and managerial capacities.
All these are the need to empower the females in real sense of the term – in theory
and in practice; thus putting in the ‘centre of development!’
References
1. Boserup, E., 1970. Woman’s Role in Economic Development. London: Earthscan Publications.
2. Dollar, D. & Gatti, R., 1999. Gender Inequality, Income and Growth: Are Good Times Good For
Women?. s.l.:Gender and Development Working Papers.
3. Durian, A., 2010. The Implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, the
Outcomes of the 23rd Special Session of the General Assembly and Its Contribution to Shaping a
Gender Perspective Towards the Full Realization of the MDG’s. New York: United Nations
Headquaters.
4. Molyneux, M., 1985. Mobilization without emancipation? Women’s interests, the state and
revolution. Nicaragua Feminist Studies, 11(2), pp. 227-254.
Women and Voilence
Rukhsana Begam*
Introduction
India has been a place where women were worshiped like Durga, Saraswati, Kali
and Laxmi in every home, they are symbolised as goddesses saraswati, considered
as goddesses as the source of knowledge, laxmi as the source of wealth and kali and
Durga symbolizes as the source of strength. In schools colleges or institutions that
are the sources of knowledge worship saraswati before celebrating any occsionor
function and wish to give knowledge for successful completion of work being organised.
“Yatra Naryastu Pujyante, Ramante Tatra Devata”
If we look back into the history of Indian women, we find that she has been
defined and interpreted in different ways in diverse branches of knowledge, literature
and folk lore portray her as a symbol of sex (Rati) and domesticity and highlight the
erotic image of a women, but the negative image of women has also been presented
through character like Manthara, kaikai, shuparnakha and Hindi mamba, however
Meera bai can be called feminist who for the size of devotion neglected, the orders
of king and the royal family and initiated the empowerment of women.
In India women are facing problem in every sphere of life, whether employment,
access to health care of property rights. They are victims of crime directed specifically
at them. Rape , kidnaping and abduction, dowry related crime, sexual harassments,
eve-teasing etc. The crime again are growing rapidly women irrespective of their
class, cast and educational status are not safe. Recently they gang rape in New Delhi
of 23rd years old women was raped by 6 people in moving bus is not a single example,
it is being every day with the Indian women where she is of 23rd ,of 53 or only 3 are
not safe today.
Stages of Women Voilence and Present Indian Perspectives
In the grip of growing consumerism, violence against women has been rapidly
increasing and a legitimate human right issue in connection to their socio-economic
stability has got impetus. Trafficking of women is strongly associated with economic
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, D.S. College, Aligarh, U.P.

disparity as prevailing in the country which brings massive development of women
into prostitution (Barry 1995). Therefore, several researches, systematic investigations
are being performed to find out the spatio-temporal variation in this regard to ensure
women a dignified life. International researches network on violence against women
(IRNVAW) has been studying worldwide pattern of such violence to share experiences
and formulate strategy implication in this context. Contrary to popular belief, child
prostitutes are not primarily children lower socio-economic circumstances but also
from families from higher income group (Flower, 1994)
Violence in Pre-birth Stage of Women
Violence in Infancy Stage of Women
Violence in Childhood Stage of Women
Violence at the Adolescence Stage of Women
Violence in Reproductive Stage of Women
Different Forms of Women Violence in Present Society
Domestic violence
In Indian family the man is the master and women is the inferior and subordinate
partner and societal pressure force women to maintain this status quo. Wife beating
is the most prevalent form of violence against women in the Indian society and it is
viewed as a general problem of domestic discord.
Rape Victim and Accused Relationship in India

Rape in India has been described by Radha Kumar as one of India’s most common
crimes against women. Official sources show that rape cases in India has doubted
between 1990 and 2008.
Rape Victim and Accused Relationship - 2012

S.no Accused relationship No. of rape victim % of rape victim
1 Neighbours 2007 29.32%
2 Friends 200 28.32%
3 Relatives 59 08.35%
4 Employers/co-workers 17 02.41%
5 Other known persons 197 27.90%
6 Unknown/stranger 26 03.68%
Total 706 99.98%
Source: Delhi Police (The Hindu news staff Reporter New Delhi, January 19, 2013)
Legal Support for Women

• For women upliftment, to women development, to women empowerment.
Fundamental Right of Equality

• The Constitution of India ensures gender equality in its preamble as a
fundamental right but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive
discrimination in favor of women by ways of legislation and policies. But it
also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favor
of women by ways of legislation and policies.
National Commission For Women 1990
• It was formed as the apex national level organization of India with the mand-
ate of protecting and promoting the interests of women. The commission has
the following functions
• It reviews the legal and constitutional safeguards for women.
• It recommends the remedial legislative measures.
• It facilitates the redressed of grievances.
• It advices government on all policy matters affecting women.
The Constitution of India Provides For
• Equality before law for all persons (Article 14);
• Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place
of birth (Article15(i)); However, special provisions may be made by the state
in favour of women and children Article 15(3);
• Equality of opportunity for all citizens relating to employment or appointment
to any office under the state (Article 16);
• State policy to be directed to securing for men and women equally the right
to an adequate means of livelihood (Article 39(a);
• Equal pay for equal work for both men and women (Article 39(d);
73rd and 74th Amendments of Constitution 1993
• The Constitution of India ensures gender equality in its preamble as a
fundamental right but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive discr-
imination in favor of women by ways of legislation and policies.
Conclusion
In Indian modern society. It is very much essential to all women to get educated
to solve all women issues in any society and any circumstances in order to live with
honors, education will only give them strength and social status. This will increase
the women smooth living in modern society. Every women has a fundamental right
to be save protesting in justice, if a woman is able to protest herself with the right
and education, then that protest her life becomes measurable. It should be remembered
that the social economic empowerment must be ensured by the nation to minimize
the exploitation which can help to improve the status of women. The recent gang
rape has created a fear among women,, which I think a very unfortunate and serious
thing. The court should consider this fact and a speedy trial resulting into the harshest
punishment possible or those animals who are committed the heinous crime, will if
not remove that fear, will at least ensure that a person will think before committing
such a crime. The should be in the mind of the offenders not the innocent people
and hope our judiciary will understand the gravity of the situation and will ensure
that the correct judgment without taking much time is made. Finally the offender
may set free, and the victim may treat as offender I marvelous India. May god
punish the guilty, that’s my prayer. A crying women said,
“Tamam umar tinke jode, bana nahi aashiyana mera,
Mujh se hi zamana hey, phir bhi nahi zamana mera”
Suggestions
Here are some suggestions for the up liftmen of women.
1. Lack of well-planned educational, economic and social programmed from grass
root level’s highly responsible for such acute and pitiable scenario of the
women in the country. In this context it should be mentioned that women
being vulnerable by this sort of negligence are compelled to divert themselves
to choose dark route of survival in the form of abused or sexually exploited
product of consumption. In most cases, they cannot get justice despite their
voices for survival to get rid of violence.
2. We need communities and individuals to be a part of this change in mindsets,
attitudes and beliefs. We call on the Government of Delhi and India to do
everything in their power to talk up radial reforms, ensure justice and research
out with robust public services to make women’s lives more safe and secure.
References
1. Women exploitation in Indian modern society MN, Radhika MK (International journal of
scientific and research publications vol.3)
2. Women exploitation in India Ramit Gulati published on Wednesday 26 December 2012.
3. National policy for the empowerment of women 2001.
Inclusive Economic Growth through Women Financial

Inclusion in India
V.S. Rawat*
Introduction
Why? Culturally, in this matriarchal society, women are considered the financial
managers in the household only.
Women have to be on the global agenda, because of the consequences of inequality,
because of women’s potential to contribute to the economy and to transform society,
for present and future generations-Arunma Oteh,
The G20 is focusing on women and finance via the priorities of the G20 Turkish
Presidency) and the adoption of the cross-cutting theme of women’s empowerment
within the G20 Financial Inclusion Action Plan. This commitment is also reflected in
the work of HRH Queen Máxima of the Netherlands, the UN Secretary General’s
Special Advocate for Inclusive Finance for Development; the post-2015 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), in which full financial inclusion is embedded in several
of the 17 proposed goals and is tied explicitly to SDG as well as efforts by the World
Bank to focus more attention on women’s financial inclusion.
World Bank and the OECD underlined the importance of financial inclusion for
economic growth and poverty reduction, and identified greater financial inclusion
for women as a priority. There is broad agreement that women’s financial inclusion
leads to significant benefits in terms of economic growth, equality and social well-
being. More inclusive growth requires a more inclusive financial sector that responds
to the needs of both men and women.
Yet despite being 50% of the world’s population, women still lag behind men in
usage of financial products and services. While there were significant advances in
financial inclusion for both men and women between 2011 and 2014, there is a persistent
gender gap.
“Women, in particular, often bear the brunt of poverty and limited access to
economic opportunity, including unfavourable financial access. Inequality is not just
* Assistant Professor, SGRR (PG) College, Dehradun, U.K.

a moral issue it is a macroeconomic issue. Growth has to be more inclusive, and for
this, finance has to be more inclusive to close the gender and inequality gap.”-Christine
Lagarde, Managing Director, International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Poverty Alleviation through Financial Inclusion
Financial inclusion denotes delivery of financial services at an affordable cost to
the vast sections of the disadvantaged and low-income groups. The various financial
services include credit, savings, insurance and payments and remittance facilities.
The objective of financial inclusion is to extend the scope of activities of the organized
financial system to the needy people of low incomes. Important areas of financial
inclusion performed by commercial banks are: 1. Financial literacy, 2. Credit counseling,
3. BC/BF model, 4. KYC norms, 5. KCC/GCC, 6. No-frill accounts, 7. Branch expansion,
8. Mobile banking, and other measures such as micro insurance, microcredit etc.
Chart 1: Dimensions of Financial Inclusion
Rural Banking Scenario
Table 1: Branch Expansion of SCBs

As on Number of Estimated population* Branches/
March
Branches (in million) 100,000 population
Rural + Urban + Total Rural + Urban + Total Rural + Urban + Total

Semi- Metro- Semi- Metro- Semi- Metro-
urban politan urban politan urban politan
2001 44,905 20,713 65,618 851 177 1,028 5.3 11.7 6.4
2006 45,673 23,904 69,577 920 195 1,115 5.0 12.3 6.2
2010 53,086 31,072 85,158 980 211 1,191 5.4 15.2 7.2
2014 76,753 40,958 1,17,711 1,044 228 1,272 7.3 17.9 9.2
2015 82,358 43,716 1,26,074 1,061 233 1,294 7.8 18.7 9.7
June 2015 82,794 43,910 1,26,704 1,065 235 1,300 7.8 18.7 9.7
*Population estimates are based on CAGR between Census 2001 and Census 2011 data
At the turn of the century, the expansion of brick-and-mortar branches, despite

several efforts, was limited. The low penetration of formal banking led the Reserve
Bank to look at financial inclusion as a major policy drive. The slew of measures that
followed were the introduction of Business Facilitators (BFs) and Business
Correspondents (BCs) and deregulation of the opening of ATMs and branches, while
ensuring sufficient coverage to hitherto unbanked areas. Concurrently, relaxations in
the BC model were made to bridge the ‘last mile’ problem. This accelerated the pace
of branch opening, with more branches being opened in rural and semi-urban areas.
Notwithstanding this development, the number of branches per 100,000 of population
in rural and semi-urban areas is still less than half of that in urban and metropolitan
areas (Table 1).
Table 2: Growth in Individuals’ Savings Bank Deposits Accounts with SCBs

Number of Individual Individual Saving Bank Deposits’
Population
Saving Bank Deposits Accounts Amount Outstanding
Group
(million) (billion)
2006 2010 2015 CAGR (%) 2006 2010 2015 CAGR (%)
Rural 104 167 384 15.6 962 1,703 3,601 15.8
Semi-urban 85 136 320 15.9 1,124 2,155 4,470 16.6
Urban 68 97 186 11.8 1,246 2,381 4,541 15.5
Metropolitan 71 100 180 10.9 1,838 3,731 6,476 15.0
All India 329 500 1,070 14.0 5,170 9,970 19,088 15.6
CAGR is for all scheduled commercial banks(SCBs) including regional rural banks(RRBs) during 2006-15
Conclusion
As already mentioned that nearly 70% of population in India live in villages. The
majority of people living in rural areas remain excluded from the purview of the
financial institutions even after 64 years of independence. Reaching out to the hither-
to unreached segment of population and providing basic financial services is the
need of the hour. To bring a large segment of the society under the umbrella of
financial inclusion, banks have set up their branches in remote corners of the country.
The rules and regulations have been simplified. It goes without saying that the banking
industry has shown tremendous growth in volume during the last few decades.
India’s fastest growing economies have become possible through financial inclusion.
In spite of that, still there are large segments of the society outside the financial
system.
Table 3: Individual Savings Bank Account of SCBs – Female Population
Total Female Rural Female Total Female
Population Population Population
Number of female's sav-ings bank
accounts per thousand of Amount outstanding per female’s savings bank
account (in thousand)
female population
2006 2010 2015 2006 2010 2015 2006 2010 2015
Minimum among
49 60 277 4 4 3 9 10 6
states/ UTs
Maximum among
712 893 1577 25 31 43 31 45 60
states/ UTs
Median of States/
146 189 588 9 10 8 14 18 16
UTs
All India 143 196 536 7 7 7 14 17 15
There should be a shift from credit to savings. Access to savings should be a top
priority because it promises three important benefits:
• Enhanced household capacity to manage the vulnerabilities exposed by the
devastating impact of the crisis,
• Diversified funding base of financial institutions to cushion the impact of a
global credit crunch on domestic financial intermediation, and
• Deeper financial systems that enhance economic resilience by accelerating growth,
facilitating diversification, and reducing poverty.
• Investing more in gender-disaggregated data collection and research
• Reform legal and regulatory frameworks, creating space for innovation to
allow greater financial inclusion for women.
In a nutshell, it is observed that although various measures have been undertaken
for financial inclusion, the success is not found to be considerable. However,
only supply side factor is not responsible for the financial exclusion. Demand
side factors are also equally responsible for this exclusion. Thus there is a
need to solve both these problems with the help of appropriate policies.
References
1. Banerjee, Abhijeet, and others. 2009. “The Miracle of Microfinance? Evidence from a Bank
for International Settlements. 2010. “Macroprudential Policy and Addressing Procyclicality.”
In 80th Annual Report, chapter 7. Basel.
2. Chaia, Alberto, and others. 2009. “Half the World Is Unbanked.” Framing Note. New York:
Financial Access Initiative (October).
3. Chatain, Pierre Laurent, and others. 2008. “Integrity in Mobile Phone Financial Services.”
Working Paper 146. Washington: World Bank.
Women and Development: An Indian Perspective
Archana Pal*
Introduction
After independence status of women was obscure. Although efforts for upliftment
and bringing them out from drudgery were started by Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Ishwar
Chand Vidhyasagar, and many other social activists. Planned change in the lives of
women came with the Five Year Plans initiated by the government. This paper has
made an effort to locate women in various Five Year Plans in addition an effort is
also made to critically analyse the status of women in these Plan and her situation in
community.
Gender Inequality: Trends
According to Amartya Sen (2001: 4) ‘the afflicted world in which we live in
characterized by deeply unequal sharing of the burden of adversities between women
and men. Indeed gender in equality is not a homogeneous phenomenon, but a collection
of disparate and inters linked problems. In this paper we will discuss, demographic
educational, health and economic in equalities.
2. Literacy and Education Trends

Post Independence India manifest rapid growth in literacy but gender disparity
is still present and needs to be overcome. The progress in female literacy and education
resulted in decreasing male/female disparity. In 2001 census shows that female literacy
is slightly more than half of the female population (53.671) as compared to one third
(75.26%) of male population. This showed improvement in 2011 census that become
65.46% in female 82.14% of female.
* Assistant Professor, Sociology, D.A.V. (PG) College, Dehradun, U.K.

Table 1: Gender Disparity in Literacy in India
Year Female Male Total
1951 8.86 27.15 18.32
1961 15.35 40.4 28.31
1971 21.97 45.96 34.45
1981 29.76 56.38 43.57
1991 39.29 64.13 252.21
2001 53.67 75.26 64.83
2011 65.46 82.14 74.04
Source: Census of India, Office of Registrar General, India.
Table 2: Drop-out Rate at Different Stages of School Education

I-V Class I-VII Class I-X Class
Year
Female Male Female Male Female Male
2000-01 41.90 39.70 57.70 50.30 71.50 66.40
2001-02 39.88 38.36 56.92 52.91 68.59 64.16
2002-03 33.72 35.85 53.45 52.28 64.97 60.72
2003-04 28.57 33.74 52.92 51.90 64.92 60.98
2004-05 25.42 31.81 51.28 50.49 63.88
2005-06 21.77 28.70 49.00 48.67 63.56 60.10
2006-07 26.80 24.60 45.20 46.40 61.50 58.60
2007-08 24.41 25.70 41.34 43.72 57.33 56.55
2008-09 25.80 29.60 36.90 41.10 54.40 54.00
2009-10 28.50 31.80 44.20 41.10 51.80 53.30
2010-11 25.40 29.00 41.20 40.60 47.70 50.20
2011-12 21.00 23.40 40.00 41.50 52.20 48.60
2012-13 19.40 23.00 35.70 41.80 50.30 50.40
2013-14 18.30 21.20 32.90 39.20 46.70 48.10
Source: Educational Statistics at a Glance 2014.
Work Participation
Census data show that in recent years there has been an increase in work
participation rates of women, in both rural and urban areas. Since 1981 there has
been a steady increase in number of female workers.
Table 3: Work Participation Rate

Year Rural Urban
Female Male Female Male
2000-2001* 28.7 54.4 14.0 53.1
2001-2002* 31.4 54.6 13.9 55.3
2002* 28.1 54.6 14.0 53.4
2004-05 32.7 54.6 16.6 54.9
2005-06* 31.0 54.9 14.3 54.0
2007-08* 28.9 54.8 13.8 55.4
2009-10 26.1 54.7 13.8 54.3
2011-12 24.8 54.3 14.7 54.6
Source: Census 2011.

* Based on thin sample
Work participation is more or less equal in boys/male category but disparity

exists in female category and the gap is quite huge in rural and urban female workforce
participation.
Unemployment Rate
The unemployment rate for women in Rural areas was 2.9 against 2.1 for men
whereas it was 6.6 & 3.2 for women and men in urban areas during 2011-12. The
unemployment rate 4.9 for females as compared to 2.9 for males aged 15 years &
above as per the 4th employment-unemployment survey.
Health
While locating women in Five Year Plans it was discussed that women have been
in central targets of the family planning programmes & yet their reproductive health
needs were neither acknowledged as a policy issue nor considered within the overall
integrated approach to their health.
Over the year infant mortality has shown improvement average infant mortality
was 60 in 2003 that reduced to 40. Similar trends are visible in maternal mortality
ratio:
Table 4: Maternal Mortality Ratio
Year Maternal Mortality
2001-2003 301
2004-2006 254
2007-2009 212
2010-2012 178
2011-2013 169
Source : Office of the Registrar General India

* Note: Maternal Mortality Ratio is the number of maternal deaths for 100,000 live births.
Conclusion
Indian Society is characterized by contradictions it wants women to confine to
conventional role models of good daughter, good wife, good mother and many other
ideal types and contrarily it want women to break away from that model at the
same time. Society is in a state of confusion it want women to contribute economical
but within the limits of its ideal types or role models. Theoretically gender equality
has been introduced but practically the traditional and conventional models of division
of labour have not changed that sharpens class and gender inequalities.
This confusion has however led to an increasing awareness that constitutional
commitment to equality of opportunity is not enough unless it is backed by strategic
interventions by women themselves a new vocabulary of empowerment emerged
where by mass based local movements and the state joined hands in creating enabling
conditions …. to support, reinforce and match in efforts by women … and legitimize
women in entry into new spaces. Baltiwala 1997 : 89.
Development Indices & statistical trends show several improvements in
demographic, education and health indices although at a relatively slower pace.
Developmental Planning and institutional supports has shown results.
References
1. Batliwala, S. (1997) ‘Empowering Women’ Seminar Vol. 449, Annual pp. 88-91.
2. Caplan, P. (1985) ‘Women’s voluntary social welfare work in India : the Cultural construction
of Gender and Class’, Bulletin of concerned Asian Scholar, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 20-31.
3. Government of India (1968) Fourth Five Year Plan Planning Commission, New Delhi.
Impact of Caste Based Reservation System on Women

Development and Gender Equality: Special Reference of
Bundelkhand
Atul Goyal*
Introduction
Bundelkhand is socially and economically backward state of Uttar Pradesh. Customs,
conventions, traditions are strong here; position of women is very low in Bundelkhand.
Caste based reservation system positively affected the relative poverty among women.
Part of Bundelkhand in Uttar Pradesh consist seven districts named – (1) Jhansi (2)
Lalitpur (3) Jalun (4) Hamirpur (5) Mahoba (6) Banda (7) Chittrakut. Recognition of
poor’s is a major difficulty of economic planning. First in world India decided social
categories as economical rich or poor groups. There is a strong correlation between
social and economic categories, society determined by the peoples who have same
occupation. Worker of same occupation were called a specific society like- carpenter,
goldsmith, blacksmith, fowler, potter, oilman, priest, warrior, merchant, farmer, sweeper,
cobbler, fisher etcetera. Thus comparative per capita production in each trade declared
there comparative economic level of whole belonging community. The history of
India’s social development shows that different castes worked according to their
economic interests and took the present shape. For the caste related reservation system
there are four main category of society in India. (Table-1)
Through schedule (panel) data investigation, we get reason of why Indians mostly
adopted his family business among various caste based categories. Main reason of
succession system in India is lack of business environment. There are many difficulties
in starting a new business in India. Comparative analysis shows that the reason for
adopting family business in general category is lack of knowledge about other
businesses. Social compulsions have also been observed in the family business for
some exploited castes. Panel data also shows that the general category is more of a
follow-up to adopt family business. In this way social categories took the shape of
strong economic classification in India. (Graph-1&2)
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics and Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi (U.P.)
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh were taken as representatives of the Republic
of India. Primary data collected through questionnaires and schedules has been used.
For international comparisons data from United Nations Development Program, World
Bank, International Monetary Fund etc. The entire Indian society is divided into
three major categories -
(I) General (II) Reserved-A and (III) Reserved-B
In the general category, all the unreserved castes were included, which are included
in the gold or white collar business by economists. These classes do business or
mental work with high investment. All those castes were included in reserved A
category, which is described as most backward in most Indian states, they work with
small investments, mostly in the primary sector.
In reserved-B all those Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are kept which
are described in the Indian Constitution. Scheduled castes usually have physical
workers of various businesses, while Scheduled Tribes are dependent on forest resources.
Different Employment Schemes in India
Reservation system has an important role to provide for higher salaried employment
in the weaker population. This is a distribution strategy, not a job creation. Long
time the distribution of jobs has been decided by the quota system in India. Due to
this strategy of socialism, India gets lesser growth compared to its counterparts, but
in equality and relative poverty, we are in a better position. This development strategy
is comparable to Hamilton’s “infant industry regime” in the field of human resources
management. Facilities should be provided to the socially backward families and
some qualification levels should also be given exemption to get them a high-paid
job. This is comparable to Ragner Fisher’s “Trap rule of poverty”. Just as poor countries
cannot grow due to poverty pressures, in the same way weaker community can not
invest in high-level equilibrium so they need a qualification for qualification.
Conclusion
India enforces very unique policies for socialism and social justice, which were
very successful, but there is also a need for more reforms. Main finding of this
research is that –
1. Social categories play an important role to create an economic group.
2. Social categories are a best way to recognized poor.
3. Caste based reservation is a best way for reducing inequality.
4. Caste based reservation created new subcategories among reserved.
Caste based classification is very favorable because it is easy to identify and treat
the poor. The performance of the checking system is also successful as it is also
successful in achieving social justice. Despite low qualification in India, high level
government jobs were provided to weaker communities. Although we get less

development due to this strategy compared to Japan, Germany, China and Thailand.
We are on the low level of living and Human Development index but are rich in
Social Justice. Thus, reservation policy seems logical and helpful for various economic
goals. For sustainable measures, it is necessary to provide high earning jobs to a
low-income society because they always live in low-level poverty net. Other social
welfare activities are only useful for short-term effects. The right to food security,
education, medical and insurance facility is only useful for eradicating absolute poverty.
Although there are some flaws in this system,
1. The benefits of reserved categories have become concentrated among specific
castes.
2. Even among the castes, some families are taking advantage of this scheme.
3. This system creates a quality degraded environment.
Graph 1: Average Income of General and Reserved Categories in Service Sector
Graph 2: Type of Unemployment in Different Caste

Graph 3: Beneficiary Ratio in Reserve Categories
Table 1
General Reserve – A Reserve - B
Caste Work Caste Work Caste Work
pundits Priest Ahhir Animal Husbandry Chamar Skinny/Cobbler
Dhiwar Pisciculture Barar Music
chhatriya Warrior Kachi Farming/Gardening Dhobi Launder
Teli Oil Seeds Julaha Weaver
baniya Merchant Sunar Ornaments Balmik Sweeper
Badai Furniture Sahariya ForestMedition

kayasth Account Kumhar Pottery Tikariya Timber
Luhar Iron Work Bahelya Fowler
References
1. K.S. Chalam, 2007, caste-based reservation and Human development in India, Sage publications.
2. Dr. R.K. Suri, Dr. S.L. Gupta, 2007, case study in human resource Management, Pentagon
press (New Delhi), India, ISBN 978-81-8274-289-5.
Women and Development (WAD)
Dipti Verma*
Women and development (WAD) is a theoretical and practical approach to

development. It was introduced into gender studies scholarship in the second half of
the 1970s, following its origins, which can be traced to the First World Conference
on Women in Mexico City in 1975, organized by the UN. It is a departure from the
previously predominant theory, WID (Women in Development) and is often mistaken
for WID, but has many distinct characteristics.
WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women’s role in development, and
concerns about the explanatory limitations of modernization theory. While previous
thinking held that development was a vehicle to advance women, new ideas suggested
that development was only made possible by the involvement of women, and rather
than being simply passive recipients of development aid, they should be actively
involved in development projects. WAD took this thinking a step further and suggested
that women have always been an integral part of development, and did not suddenly
appear in the 1970s as a result of exogenous development efforts. The WAD approach
suggests that there be women-only development projects that were theorized to remove
women from the patriarchal hegemony that would exist if women participated in
development alongside men in a patriarchal culture, though this concept has been
heavily debated by theorists in the field. In this sense, WAD is differentiated from
WID by way of the theoretical framework upon which it was built. Rather than
focus specifically on women’s relationship to development, WAD focuses on the
relationship between patriarchy and capitalism. This theory seeks to understand
women’s issues from the perspectives of neo-Marxism and dependency theory, though
much of the theorizing about WAD remains undocumented due to the persistent
and pressing nature of development work in which many WAD theorists engage.
The WAD paradigm stresses the relationship between women, and the work that
they perform in their societies as economic agents in both the public and domestic
spheres. It also emphasizes the distinctive nature of the roles women play in the
maintenance and development of their societies, with the understanding that purely
the integration of women into development efforts would serve to reinforce the existing
structures of inequality present in societies overrun by patriarchal interests. In general,
* Assistant Professor, Seth Phool Chand Bagla (P.G.) College, Hathras, U.P.
WAD is thought to offer a more critical conceptualization of women’s position that
does WID.
Gender and Development (GAD)
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach focuses on the socially constructed
differences between men and women and the need to challenge existing gender roles
and relations. This approach was majorly influenced by the writings of academic
scholars such as Oakley (1972) and Rubin (1975), who emphasize the social relationship
between men and women. These relationships, they argue, have systematically
subordinated women. GAD departs from WID, which discussed women’s subordination
and lack of inclusion in discussions of international development without examining
broader systems of gender relations. Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s,
some practitioners working in the development field questioned focusing on women
in isolation. GAD challenged the WID focus on women as an important ‘target group’
and ‘untapped resources’ for development. GAD marked a shift in thinking about
the need to understand how women and men are socially constructed and how
‘those constructions are powerfully reinforced by the social activities that both define
and are defined by them.’ GAD focuses primarily on the gendered division of labor
and gender as a relation of power embedded in institutions. Consequently, two major
frameworks ‘Gender roles’ and ‘social relations analysis’ are used in this approach.
‘Gender roles’ focuses on the social construction of identities within the household;
it also reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’ in their relative access
to resources. ‘Social relations analysis’ exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical
power relations embedded in social institutions, as well as its determining influence
on ‘the relative position of men and women in society.’ This relative positioning
tends to discriminate against women.
Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but
with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to
both women and men. GAD applies gender analysis to uncover the ways in which
men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics
and efficiency. In an attempt to create gender equality, (denoting women having
same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere;
GAD policies aims to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected
to fulfill household management tasks, home based production as well as bearing
and raising children and caring for family members. The role of a wife is largely
interpreted as ‘the responsibilities of motherhood’ Men however, are expected to be
breadwinners whom are associated with paid work, and market production. In the
labor market, women tend to earn less than men. For instance, ‘a study by the
Equality and Human Rights Commission found massive pay inequities in some United
Kingdom’s top finance companies, women received around 80 percent less performance-
related pay than their male colleagues.’ In response to pervasive gender inequalities,
Beijing Platform for Action established gender mainstreaming in 1995 as a strategy
across all policy areas at all levels of governance for achieving gender equality.
Caroline Moser developed the Moser Gender Planning Framework for GAD-oriented
development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning
Unit of the University of London. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a
methodology for gender policy and planning. The Moser framework follows the
Gender and Development approach in emphasizing the importance of gender relations.
As with the WID-based Harvard Analytical Framework, it includes a collection of
quantitative empirical facts. Going further, it investigates the reasons and processes
that lead to conventions of access and control. The Moser Framework includes gender
roles identification, gender needs assessment, disaggregating control of resources
and decision making within the household, planning for balancing work and household
responsibilities, distinguishing between different aims in interventions and involving
women and gender-aware organizations in planning.
GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and
women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes
in roles. Another criticism is that GAD does not dig deeply enough into social relations
and so may not explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at
women. It also does not uncover the types of trade-offs that women are prepared to
make for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood. Another
criticism is that the GAD perspective is theoretically distinct from WID, but in practice,
a program seem to have the element of the two. Whilst many development agencies
are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional
perspective remains focused on a WID approach. There is a slippage in reality where
gender mainstreaming is often based in a single normative perspective as synonymous
to women. Development agencies still advance gender transformation to mean economic
betterment for women.
Women in Development (WID)
The term “women in development” was originally coined by a Washington-based
network of female development professionals in the early 1970s. who sought to question
trickle down existing theories of development by contesting that economic development
had identical impacts on men and women. The Women in Development movement
(WID) gained momentum in the 1970s, driven by the resurgence of women’s movements
in developed countries, and particularly through liberal feminists striving for equal
rights and labour opportunities in the United States. Liberal feminism, postulating
that women’s disadvantages in society may be eliminated by breaking down customary
expectations of women by offering better education to women and introducing equal
opportunity programmes, had a notable influence on the formulation of the WID
approaches.
The focus of the 1970s feminist movements and their repeated calls for employment
opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given
to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social
welfare. This approach was pushed forward by WID advocates, reacting to the general
policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development
authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers
was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.
The WID’s opposition to this “welfare approach” was in part motivated by the work
of Danish economist Ester Boserup in the early 1970s, who challenged the assumptions
of the said approach and highlighted the role women by women in the agricultural
production and economy.
References
1. Moser, Caroline O.N. (1995). Gender planning and development : theory, practice and training
(Reprint. ed.). London [u.a.]: Routledge. ISBN 0415056209.
2. Irene Tinker (1990). Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development. Oxford University
Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-19-506158-1.
3. Robert Connell (1987). Gender and power: society, the person, and sexual politics. Stanford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1430-3.
4. Bradshaw, Sarah (May 2013). “Women’s role in economic development: Overcoming the
constraints” (PDF). UNSDSN. UNSDSN. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
5. Koczberski, Sarah (1998). “Women In Development: A Critical Analysis”. Third World Quarterly.
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 19 (3): 399. doi:10.1080/01436599814316.
6. Koczberski, Sarah (1998). “Women In Development: A Critical Analysis”. Third World Quarterly.
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 19 (3): 400. doi:10.1080/01436599814316.
7. a b http://www.choike.org/nuevo_eng/informes/1453.html
8. a b c d Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990. “WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice.” The
Journal of Developing Areas. 24(4) 289-502
9. a b c Barriteau, Eudine; Conn.
Micro Finance: A Catalyst for Women Empowerment
Deepshikha Sonker*, Karimullah** & Pradeep Kumar Singh***
Introduction
Empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation, when women
are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is essential
as their thoughts and value system leads to the development of the good family,
good society and ultimately a good nation. The origin rights of the concept of
Empowerment go back to the civil right movement in the 1960. Women Empowerment
as a concept was introduced at the International Women Conference in Nairobi, 1985.
Empowerment is defined as the process by which women take control and ownership
of their lives through expansion of their choices. Thus, it is the process of enabling
or authorising an individual to think, behaves, take actions and control work in an
autonomous way. It is the state of feeling of self-empowered to take control of one’s
own destiny. “Empowerment” occurs within sociological, psychological and economic
spheres and at various levels, such as individual, group and community and challenges
our assumptions about status quo, asymmetrical power relationship and social dynamics.
There are varying accounts about the status of women in the early and late Vedic
period; most studies indicate that there was a gradual decline in the socio-political
and economic status of women. (Majumdar, 1994)
Objective of the Research Paper
This paper aims to analyse on the role that micro finance plays in empowerment
of rural women. It also focuses on the main challenges and issues to be addressed to
make it more effective for empowerment of rural women.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, (UP).

** Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, (UP).
*** Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, (UP).
In order to understand the role of micro credit institution especially in the process
of women empowerment we have to develop the conceptual framework based on
the review of literature which helps the relationship between the key concepts and
various variables affecting the process of empowerment. The main concepts are-:
• Analysis of different terms and concepts in which empowerment has been
conceptualized and defined.
• Selection of the variables for the analysis and then classification of the variables
into the predictor and response variables i.e. into the independent and dependent.
The dependent and independent variable relationship will analyse how women’s
empowerment depends on important factors such as health, education,
autonomy, decision making, income level and credit facilities.
We have used various statistical techniques (as R Square) to empirically analyse
the relationship between the predictor and response variables. The statistical methods
have been analysed by the statistical computer programme as Microsoft Excel etc.
The data used in the present study are obtained from the secondary sources.
Data Analysis
For the dependent-independent variable analysis we have applied logistic regression
here to show that how the various variables are related to the empowerment level.
Table- 1: R Square for the Household Empowerment

Step -2 Log likelihood Cox & Snell R Square Nagelkerke R Square
1. 217.24 0.41 0.60
2. 158.28 0.50 0.74
3. 152.23 0.50 0.75
Table 2: R Square for the Freedom Empowerment

1. 256.37 0.36 0.53
2. 210.58 0.44 0.64
3. 197.78 0.46 0.67
4. 193.64 0.46 0.68
Source: Author ’s calculation.

Table 3: R Square for the Economic Empowerment

1. 195.28 0.44 0.65
2. 140.83 0.52 0.77
3. 128.43 0.54 0.79
4. 120.41 0.55 0.81
5. 114.00 0.55 0.82
Table 4: R Square for the Socio–Political Empowerment

1. 259.42 0.35 0.51
2. 210.56 0.43 0.63
Table 5: Socio–Political Empowerment Results with Logistic analysis

Step Independent Variables Sig. Exp(B)
Saving of SHG’s 0 7.12
1. Constant 0 0.00
2. Monthly Income 0 1.02
Savings of the SHG’s 0 8.09
Constant 0 0.00
Conclusion
Thus micro finance can have a potential to solve basic socio-economic problems
of poor’s as well as effective instrument of the financial inclusion. The challenges
lies in finding the level of flexibility in the credit instrument that could make it to
match the multiple credit requirements of the low income borrower without imposing
unbearably high cost of monitoring its end use upon the lenders. A promising solution
is to provide multipurpose loan or composite credit for income generation, housing
improvement and consumption support. Participation in the micro financing activities
not only gives women greater control over their saving and income but also they are
now playing in the process of the decision making in their respective field.
Challenges and Problems
• Lack of knowledge of the market and potential profitability, thus making the
choice of business difficult.
• High interest rates puts heavy burden of repayment upon the women as this
increasing indebtedness amongst the poor as women
Suggestions
• Knowledge sharing – It’s a key instrument of empowerment. Knowledge transfer
has to extend beyond knowledge related to savings, book-keeping, accounting,
investment and information about the banking system. So the proper and
sound network of knowledge and information regarding the various aspects
of the micro credit should be formed which acts as a knowledge and information
sharing centre.
References
• Dsagupta, R. (2005). Microfinance in India: Empirical Evidence, Alternative Models and
Policy Imperatives. Economic and Political Weekly.19 March.
• Seth, M. (2001): Women and Development – The Indian Experience. Sage Publications, New
Delhi.
Role of Micro Finance in Women’s Empowerment in

Uttar Pradesh
Ajay Prakash Yadav* & Dharmnath Uraon**
Introduction
Microfinance is the provision of financial services to low-income people for self-
employment, to those who are traditionally deprived to access the banking and related
services. Microcredit or microfinance is banking of theunbankables, bringing credit,
savings and other essential financial services within the reach of millions of peoplewho
are too poor to be served by regular banks, in most cases because they are unable to
offer sufficient collateral. The main aim of microfinance is to empower women.
Empowerment of women is a global challenge.The most of the microcredit institutions
and agencies all over the world focuses on womenin developing countries. Observations
and experience shows that women are a small credit risk, repaying their loans and
tend more often to benefit the whole family. There are many reasons why women
have become the primary target ofmicrofinance services.A recent World Bank report
confirms that societies that discriminate on the basis of gender pay the cost of
greaterpoverty, slower economic growth, weaker governance, and a lower living
standard for all people. At a macro level, itis because 70 percent of the world’s
women are poor. Women have a higher unemployment rate than men in virtually
every country and make up the majority of the informal sector of most economies.
They constitute the bulkof those who need microfinance services. Giving women
access to microcredit loans therefore generates a multipliereffect that increases the
impact of a microfinance institution’s activities, benefiting multiple generations NABARD
(2005) explains that the Self Help Group is a group with “an average size of about
15 people from ahomogenous class. They come together for addressing their common
problems. They are encouraged to makevoluntary thrift on a regular basis. They use
this pooled resource to make small interest bearing loans to theirmembers. The process
helps them imbibe the essentials of financial intermediation including prioritization
of needs, setting terms and conditions and accounts keeping. This gradually builds
financial discipline in all of them. Empowerment is an assistive multidimensional

** Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
process to enable women to realize their identity, position and power in all spheres
of life. Empowerment provides a greater access to knowledge and resources, more
autonomy in decision making, greater ability to plan lives, more control over the
circumstances which influence lives, and freedom from customs, belief and practices.
Empowerment demands a drastic and basic change in the system of marriage and
family, husband and wife relationship and attitude towards socialization and remarriage.
Empowerment is a process that gives a person freedom in decision making.
Meaning of Women Empowerment
Empowerment is a process that gives a person freedom in decision making.
Empowerment provides greater access to a knowledge and resource, more autonomy
in decision making, greater ability to plan lives, more control over the circumstances
which influence live and freedom from custom belief and services.Women empowerment
became a developing concept, which leads to bring a better society in the world. It
providing powers and act them to become independent society builders with potential
challenges to the future generation. We cannot neglect the contribution of the women
in to the socio-economic development of the nation. Empower the women in social,
political, economical and legal aspects became necessary to convert the idle society
into self-sustainable society. Women empowerment can be achieved through political
power, education, and employment.
Microfinance and Women Empowerment
Micro-finance programs not only give women and men access to savings and
credit, but reach millions of people worldwide by bringing them together in organized
groups. Although no ‘magic bullet’, they are potentially a very significant contribution
to gender equality and women’s empowerment, as well as pro-poor development
and civil society strengthening. Through their contribution to women’s ability to
earn an income these programs have potential to initiate a series of ‘virtuous spirals’
of economic empowerment, increased well-being for women and their families and
wider social and political empowerment. Micro finance services and groups involving
men also have potential to question and significantly change men’s attitudes and
behaviors as an essential component of achieving gender equality.
Majority of microfinance programs focus women with a view to empower them.
There are varying underlying motivations for pursuing women empowerment. Some
argue that women are amongst the poorest and the most vulnerable of the
underprivileged and thus helping them should be a priority. A more feminist point
of view stresses that an increased access to financialservices represent an opening/
opportunity for greater empowerment. Such organizations explicitly perceive
microfinance as a tool in the fight for the women’s rights and independence. Finally,
keeping up with the objective of financial viability, an increasing number of microfinance
institutions prefer women members as they believe that they are better and more
reliable borrowers. Self-help groups intermediated by microcredit have been shown
to have positive effects on women, with some of these impacts being ripple effects.
They have played valuable roles in reducing the vulnerability of the poor, through
asset creation, income and consumption smoothing, provision of emergency assistance,
and empowering and emboldening women by giving them control over assets and
increased self-esteem and knowledge.
There are numerous studies to examine the empowerment of women and their
related issues. Some of them are as follows.
Pattnaik (2003) in her study reveals that SHGs are continuously striving for a
better future for tribal women as participants, decision-makers and beneficiaries in
the domestic, economic, social and cultural spheres of life. But due to certain constraints
like gender inequality, exploitation, women torture for which various SHGs is not
organized properly and effectively.
Objectives ofthe Study
The specific objectives of this study are:
1. To study the socio-economic status of the respondent in the study area.
2. To evaluate the impact of micro finance on women empowerment in the study area.
Research Question
There are following research question.
1. What is the socio-economic status of the respondent in the study area?
2. Whatis the impact of micro finance on women empowerment in the study
area?
Data Presentation and Analysis
In the present study 42% of the respondents had opinion regarding for enriching
the saving, 30% are joining to attain the economic independence,8% are respondent
replied for other purpose.
Inference: most of the respondents are joining for saving purpose.
It is revealed that income level of sample respondents have increased after joining
SHGs. The monthly income of majority of sample respondent (26.99%) was above
Rs3 000 before joining SHGs, but this percentage of respondents is increased to 49.99%
after joining SHGs. This signifies that the SHGs helped the beneficiary in increasing
their income level.
It is also observed that most of the beneficiary (94.66%) says that microfinance
plays an important role in decision making in their family.
Findings
1. From the above analysis it is proved that the microfinance beneficiaries specially
the targeted women have been encouraged a lot by the microfinance institutions
working in the research area through the MFI’s innovative approach to motivate
the rural backward women who had earlier nothing or had no courage to
change their life style to make them self-confident.
2. It is found that the beneficiaries have expressed their satisfaction in respect of
their income that increased and changed financial condition in the family
level after joining microfinance institutions.
3. There is a definite improvement in psychological wellbeing and social
empowerment among rural women as a result of participating in micro finance
through SHG program.
4. It has empowered women by enhancing their contribution to household income,
increasing the value of their assets and generally by giving them better control
over decisions that affect live.
5. Microfinance has reduced the incidence of poverty through increase in income,
enabled the poor to build assets and thereby reduce their vulnerability.
6. It is also mentioned that a significant percentage of respondents are
psychologically developed by giving the yes answers to the variables developed
for measuring the psychological empowerment.
Conclusion
Thus it can be concluded from the above study that microfinance is playing a
vital role in the social, psychological as well as economic empowerment of women
in India. Microfinance loan availement and its productive utilization found to be
having a profound role and impact on women empowerment. The empirical findings
of the study suggests that microfinance has a profound influence on the economic
status, decision making power, knowledge and self-worthiness of women participants
of self-help group linkage program in eastern up reigion.Microfinance is accepted as
a key mantra for attaining and maintaining the sustained and long-term economic
growth in all over the world.
References
1. K.G.Karmakar, 1999, Rural Credit and Self Help Groups- Microfinance needs and Concepts
in India – 1999.
2. Manjula Bolthajjira Chengappa. “Micro-Finance and Women Empowerment: Role of
Nongovernment Organizations”. http://www.istr.org/Abstracts2010/pdf/ISTR2010_0212.pdf.
3. K. Rajendran and R.P. Raya (2010) Impact of Micro Finance - An empirical Study on the
Attitude of SHG.
Women Empoworment Through Financial Inclusion
Rashmi Devedi*
Introduction
This paper has taken into consideration many dimensions of financial inclusion
of women related with gender gap , women empowerment at international level.
According to Global Findex Data (World Bank,2011), 47 per cent of women and 55
per cent of men worldwide have an account at a formal financial institution. The
financial inclusion plays a very important role in development.
In India where women constitute 46% of total population majority of them are
denied to opportunities and rights due to their financial dependence. Financial inclusion
is much needed for women as it helps in increasing amount of regular savings along
with enabling women to pay for micro insurance and obtain credit. It also helps in
increasing income from employment and micro enterprise, usage of mainstream banking
services that offer appropriate designed products and service. In other words financial
inclusion make women informed about their role and right in economic development
to improve access to markets and other information for overall empowerment. By
helping women to meet their practical needs, micro finance may help women to gain
respect, achieve good education and health facility and more in their socially defined
roles along with wellbeing.
According to Fletschner et al, 2010 Croson and Gneezy, 2008 and Browne 2006
Studies in psychology, Economics and Behavior patterns suggest that women tend to
be more risk averse then men, other things being equal, women are more likely to
forego those activities which bear more risk but also provide higher returns.
According to Prof. N.S.Rao, Mrs. HarshitaBHatnagar, “vol 5, issue 3, sept 2012,
financial inclusion issues and proapects”they found out that financial inclusion show
positive and beneficial change because of intensity change and technology changes.
Sarkar and Baishya(2012) results suggest that womens access to credit has a role
in improving the household decision making capacity, workforce participation rate
* Research Scholar Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

and control over resources and even politica and legal awareness thereby opening /
opportunity for greater empowerment of women.
The study aims
1. To analyses the penetration of women empowerment among financial inclusion
in india.
2. To study the women empowerment through financial inclusion
Women Empowerment
Empowerment means authority or power given to someone to do something. It
refers to the expansion of freedom of choice and action to shape one’s life which
also implies the control over resources and action. The term empowerment refers to
measures designed to increase the degree of autonomy and self determination in
people and in communities in order to enable them to represent their interests in a
responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. Empowerment
as action refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support
of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of
influence, and to recognize and use their resources.
Empowering women to participate fully in economic life across all sectors is
essential to building stronger economies, achieve internationally agreed goals for
development and sustainability, and improve the quality of life.
Financial Inclusion
Financial inclusion or inclusive financing is the delivery of financial services at
affordable costs to sections of disadvantaged and low-income segments of society, in
contrast to financial exclusion where those services are not available or affordable.
Financial inclusion is the delivery of financial services at affordable costs to vast
sections of disadvantaged and low income groups (for example “no frill accounts”).
Financial inclusion refers to a process that ensures the ease of access, availability
and usage of the formal financial system for all members of an economy. An inclusive
financial system has several merits.
Importance of Financial Inclusion in India
Despite India boasting economic growth rates higher than most developed countries
in recent years, a majority of the country’s population still remains unbanked. Financial
Inclusion is a relatively new socio-economic concept in India that aims to change
this dynamic by providing financial services at affordable costs to the underprivileged,
who might not otherwise be aware of or able to afford these services. Global trends
have shown that in order to achieve inclusive development and growth, the expansion
of financial services to all sections of society is of utmost importance. As income
levels and consequently, savings in rural areas increase, it is essential to help earners
manage their funds and facilitate incoming and outgoing payments. Allowing people
to create simple, no-frills current and savings accounts, relaxing KYC norms and
directly crediting social benefits to account owners will bolster an inclusive approach
to finance & banking in rural areas. Impact of Financial Inclusion Efforts: An increasing
body of evidence shows that appropriate financial services can help improve individual
and household welfare and spur small enterprise activity. Different types of financial
products can benefit poor people in different ways.
• Credit: Microcredit helps encourage investments into assets that enable business
owners to start or expand small enterprises. In many countries, it’s been
demonstrated that access to credit can lead to larger and more profitable
businesses.
• Savings: Building savings helps households manage cash flow spikes and
smooth consumption, as well as build working capital.
• Insurance: Vulnerability to risk and the lack of instruments to cope with external
shocks make it difficult for poor people to escape poverty. Micro insurance
can be an important instrument for mitigating risk
Financial Inclusion in Indiastatus Quo
It can be observed that Financial Inclusion has been on the agenda of the Government
and RBI from some time now. This section is an attempt to highlight the extent to
which Financial Inclusion as an objective has been met in India. The number of
banks in India has been increasing steadily over the past few years. According to the
latest statistics released by RBI, the Scheduled commercial banks in India are 88562
out of which 51502 are located in rural and semi urban areas.
Also, the number of KCCs issued as on 31st March 2013 stood at 33.79 millions
and number of GCCs issued were 3.63 millions. But, situation is still grim as reported
by the Global Findex 2013 database released by World Bank. According to a report
published by World Bank in February 2013, there are only 35percent of the Indian
who have an account at a formal financial institution. The figure is less than the
average of the other developing countries which stands at 43 percent. The report
also observes a gender gap where only 26 percent of the women have an account as
compared to 44 percent of men having an account at a formal financial institution.
The various reasons cited for not having an account included lack of enough money,
cost, distance and religion as common causes. Women particularly did not have an
account since others in the family already have one.
As far as the government schemes are concerned, SHGs one of the most potent
tools towards financial inclusion has not been able to succeed as expected. The reasons
can be attributed to poor asset quality and Inability of SHGs to pay back loans. As a
result there has been an increase in the Non Performing Assets in case of loans to
SHGs to around 7 percent.
Therefore it can be observed the efforts by the Government as well as RBI has
been partially successful. The following section makes certain recommendations as
to how the situation can be improved.
Conclusion
India has, for a long time, recognized the social and economic imperatives for
broader financial inclusion and has made an enormous contribution to economic
development by finding innovative ways to empower the poor, women and other
disadvantaged group. Starting with the nationalization of banks, priority sector lending
requirements for banks, lead bank scheme, establishment of regional rural banks
(RRBs), service area approach, self-help group-bank linkage programme, etc., multiple
steps have been taken by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) over the years to increase
access to the weaker segments of society. Financial inclusion is a great step to for
women empowerment in India. But to achieve this, the government should provide
a less perspective environment in which banks are free to pursue the innovations
necessary to reach low income consumers and still make a profit. Financial service
providers should learn more about the consumers and new business models to reach
them. The author of this paper discusses the pertinent issues of financial inclusion
comprising of narrower and broader aspect with respect to women empowerment,
the importance of the financial literacy and the detailed perspective of the pros and
cons and steps to be taken to improve the reach of financial and banking services at
grassroots level. Financial inclusion is the road that India needs to travel toward
becoming a global player. Financial access to all sections of people will attract global
market players to our country and that will result in increasing employment and
business opportunities. Inclusive growth will act as a source of empowerment and
allow people to participate more effectively in the economic and social process.
References
1. Asli Demirguc-Kunt, Leora Klapper ,Douglas Randall FINDEX NOTES The Global Findex
Database Financial Inclusion in India , Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
EXTGLOBALFI N/Resources/85196381332259343991/N8india6pg3.pdf, accessed on 27th may
2014
2. B. Sujata, Financial Inclusion Concepts and Strategies, The Icfai University Press, 2007.
Women Empowerment: Realities and Challenges
Preeti Mishra*
“There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of women
is improved; It is not possible for a bird to fly on only one wing.”
—Swami Vivekananda
Women empowerment means liberty of women from the vicious grips of social,
economical, political and gender-based discrimination. It means allowing women the
freedom to make life choices. Women empowerment does not mean ‘adore women’
rather it means replacing patriarchy with parity. In this regard, there is various aspect
of women empowerment, such as given hereunder:—
Human Rights and Individual empowerment: A woman is a being with senses
and thoughts; she should be able to state them freely. Individual empowerment means
to have the self-confidence to expressive and state the power to negotiate and choose.
Social Women Empowerment: An important aspect of social empowerment of
women is the encouragement of gender equality. Gender equality means a society in
which women and men benefit from the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and
obligations in all spheres of life.
Educational Women Empowerment: It means empowering women with the
knowledge, skills and confidence to participate fully in the expansion process and
makes women aware of their rights. And help them in developing a confidence to
claim them.
Economical and occupational empowerment: It implies a better quality of life
through sustainable livelihoods earned and managed by women. Economical
empowerment helps women in reducing their financial dependence on their male
partner by making them an important part of the human resource.
Legal Women Empowerment: Means the provision of an effective legal structure
which is helpful in women empowerment and fill the gaps between what the law
says and what actually happen.
* Research Scholar, Department of Business Economics, VBS Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, U.P.
Political Women Empowerment: Means the existence of a political system helping
women participation in and control by the women of the political decision-making
process.
“We cannot all succeed if half of this are held back.”
—Malala Yousafzai
The Position of Women in India
The position enjoyed by women in the Rig-Vedic era declined in the later Vedic
era. Women were denied the right to education, the right to inheritance and ownership
of property and widow remarriage. Lots of social evils like child - marriage and
dowry system surfaced and started to surround women. In the British rule, many
social reformers such as Jyotirao Phule, Raja Rammohun Roy and Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar started agitations for the empowerment of women. Their efforts led to
the abolition of Sati and formulation of the Widow Remarriage Act. Later, Mahatma
Gandhi and Pt. Nehru advocated women rights. As a result of their efforts, the
status of women in social, economical and political life began to rise in the Indian
society.
Women in India have made a significant progress in almost seven decades of
Independence; still they have to fight against many social evils in the male-dominated
society. It is ironical that a country, which has recently celebrated the status of the
first Asian country to achieve its Mars mission, is ranked at the 29th rank among 146
countries across the globe on the basis of Gender Inequality Index. The position of
women is improved, but their true empowerment is still awaited. For women
empowerment, many social, economic and political provisions were incorporated in
the Indian Constitution. Women in India now play roles in areas such as education,
sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sector and science and technology.
But due to the deep- rooted patriarchal mentality in the Indian society, women are
still victimised, humiliated, tortured and exploited. Even after almost seventy years
of Independence, women are still discriminated in the socially, economically and
educationally.
Women Empowerment — Challenges
‘There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women.”
—Kofi Annan
Perspective: The most extensive and dehumanising discriminations against women
are on the basis of the biased perspective. The girl child faces discrimination very
begins from the birth itself. Boys are favoured over girls; hence, female infanticide is
a common in India. An Indian girl faces at birth is only the beginning of a lifelong
struggle to be seen and heard.
Patriarchate Bottlenecks : The Indian society is a patriarchal society governed by
the diktats of caste lords who are the guardians of old and unfair traditions. They
ruin the growth of women by putting the burden of traditions, culture and honour
on the shoulders of women . The various cases “honour killing” in state of

U.P,Haryana,Punjab and many states India reveal the distorted social fibre in the
male-dominated society.
Economic Backwardness: Women represent only 29% of the workforce but forms
majority of the destitute in the country. There has been a failure in transforming the
available women base into human resource. This, in turn, has held back not only the
economic development of women but also of the country’ as a whole.
Implementation Gaps: In Indian the attention is only on developing and devising
new schemes, policies and programmes and has given less attention to the proper
monitoring system and implementation short-sightedness. Despite the presence of
The Pre-Natal Diagnostic Technologies Act and various health programmes like Janani
Suraksha Yojana and National Rural Health Mission (NHRM), our country has a
slanted sex ratio and a high maternal mortality rate (MMR).
Loopholes in the legal structure: In Indian constitution there are a number of
laws to protect women against all types of violence; still there has been the significant
increase in the cases of rapes, extortions, acid, attacks etc. It is only due to delay in
legal procedures and the presence of several loopholes in the functioning of a judicial
system.
Lack of Political Will: Women’s Reservation Bill is still pending underscores the
lack of political will to empower women politically. The male dominance prevails in
the politics of India and women are forced to remain mute spectators.
Suggestion for Overcoming Women Empowerment Challenges
Replacing ‘Patriarchy’ with Parity: Women’s empowerment is effected by strong
patriarchate society with deep- rooted socio-cultural values. The need of the hour is
a democratic society, where there is no place for dominance. The Government should
spot and abolish such forces that work to keep alive the tradition of male-dominance
over its female counterpart by issuing inhumane and unlawful rules.
Education is the most important and essential tool for women empowerment,
and makes women aware of their rights and responsibilities. Educational achievements
of a woman make changes in the family and across generations. Most of the girls
drop out of schools due to the lack of separate toilets for them. The recently launched
‘Swachh Bharat Mission’ focusing on improving sanitation facilities in schools can
prove to be very major in bringing down the rate of girls dropping out of school.
Political Will: Women should have access to resources, rights and entitlements.
They should be given decision-making powers and due position in governance. Thus,
the Women Reservation Bill should be passed as soon as possible to increase the
effective participation of women in the politics of India.
Bridging implementation gaps: Government must be set up to keep an eye on
the programmes devised for the welfare of the society. Due importance should be
given for their proper implementation and their monitoring and evaluation through
social audits.
Justice delayed is justice denied. So efforts should be made to restructure the
legal process to deliver fair and timely justice to the victims of crimes like rapes,
acid attacks, sexual harassment, trafficking and domestic violence. The Govt of India
and judiciary has taken initiative of fast-track courts, devised to impart speedy justice
to the victims.
Conclusion
Empowering women socially, economically, educationally politically and legally
is going to be a extraordinary task. It is not going to be easy to change the culture of
ignorance for women in Indian society. But it does not mean that it is impossible.
There is need of concentrated effort from the individual voter to Prime minister for
women enhancement in socially economically and politically. Only revolutions bring
changes in a day, but reforms take their time. This one will also, in particular, will
take its time as well. All we need is a concentrated effort focused in the right direction
that would rest only with the liberation of women from all forms of evil.
References
1. https://www.iaspapernet.net>women empowerment
2. The report titled “Women and Men in India – 2015” by Ministry of Statistics and ... making
along with social obstacles in women’s empowerment.
3. www.nmew.gov.in
Alka Asthana*
This article focuses on how gender, as a socially constructed phenomenon, has

been integrated into development practice.Further, it critiques the different ways in
which women have been incorporated into development policies and program.
Women constitute half of the world’s population.Despite this, women experience
considerable disadvantage and discrimination in societies perpetuating gender-
differentiated structures. Gender is a socially constructed phenomenon, while sex is
biologically determined. The meaning of “gender” varies from society to society and
changes over time. Women are not a homogeneous group and their lives vary depending
on the place in which they live as well as their age, social class, ethnic origin, and
religion.
For all societies, globally, the common denominator of gender is female
subordination, although relations of power between men and women may be
experienced and expressed in different societies and at different times. Yet, today’s
development realities beg the question as to whether we are achieving this objective
sufficiently and in a reasonable time frame. Although there has been considerable
and important progress in terms of women’s well-being .Things have changed for
the better, but not for all women and not in all domains of gender equality. Progress
has been slow and limited for some women in very poor countries, for those who
are poor, even amid greater wealth, and for those who face other forms of exclusion
because of their caste, disability, location, ethnicity, or sexual orientation. Whether
comparisons between men and women in the same country, or absolute comparisons
of women across countries, the progress in some domains is tempered by the sobering
realities that many women face in others’.
The role of women in developing countries, as explored throughout this module,
has been recognised as the single most important factor when it comes to bringing
about and sustaining long term social change.
Objective and Significance
Over the years development programs have been criticized for ignoring gender
roles and the impact it has on women in the global south. However we see a shift to
integrate women into development programs in hopes of eradicating poverty and
* Assistnat Professor, Department of Economics, Dayanand Girls P.G. College, Kanpur, U.P.
low social economical status. Despite the effort to reinforce gender mainstreaming
into society we still see a vast number of gender inequality especially in the developing
world. This also includes the disproportionate ratio of women to men in the job
market and at leadership position, low level of education among women, and low
socio-economic status among women.
The term “Women, Gender and Development” could be seen a discipline much
like ever other area of knowledge. However, what sets it apart from various disciplines
is that, its major contributors are individuals that raise issues and concerns, concerning
women, gender and development. These are academics, feminist activists and
development practitioner.
The diversity of this approach was open to the experiences and need of women
in the developing world. Its two main goals were to prove that the unequal relationship
between the sexes hinders development and female participation. The second, it sort
to change the structure of power into a long-term goal whereby all decision-making
and benefits of development are distributed on equal basis of gender neutrality.
Noting that Singapore’s workforce is facing higher demands for labour in the
face of a rapidly ageing population, a diverse workforce also encourages innovation
and creativity, which will help us stay ahead of industry-transforming disruptions
and sustain our competitive advantage.
Feminization is an action, a process of becoming more feminine. It necessarily
involves changes over time or populations (comparing geographical areas, for example).
Feminine, in this case, is used to mean ‘more common or intense among women or
female headed households’.
The feminization of poverty, among many other factors, may be caused by changes in:
Family Composition
Dissolution of marital unions, constitution of families without these unions, higher
male mortality
Family Organization
Gender division of labor and consumption within the household, gender roles
regulating the control over household resources
Inequality in the Access to Public Services or in Their Quality
Barriers to education of girls, educational segregation by sex, lack of women
specific health attention
Inequality in Social Protection
Contributory pensions systems reproducing previous labor market inequalities,
lower access to pensions and social assistance by women, inequality in benefit concession
or in benefit values in targeted policies
Labor Market Inequalities

Occupational seggregation, intra-career mobility, differential levels of employment
in paid work, wage discrimination, duration of work shifts.
Legal, Paralegal and Cultural Constrains in Public Life
Property rights, discrimination in the judiciary system, constrains in community
and political life, etc.
Empowerment is the process of increasing the capacity of individuals or groups to

make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes.
Surprisingly, there is no common definition of women’s empowerment. In fact,
the word “empowerment” does not exist in most languages. Although the phrase
“women’s empowerment” is used pervasively in the Gender Equality & Women’s
Empowerment space (and beyond), it is generally in the context of issues — economic
empowerment, political participation, and girls’ education.
Furthermore most of the data that have been collected is on gender equality —
or more accurately inequality — counting the number of boys vs. girls, men vs.
women. There is dearth of information on women’s empowerment, particularly at
the global level.
Human Rights or Individual Rights: A woman is a being with senses, imagination
and thoughts; she should be able to express them freely. Individual empowerment
means to have the self-confidence to articulate and assert the power to negotiate and
decide.
Social Women Empowerment: A critical aspect of social empowerment of women
is the promotion of gender equality. Gender equality implies a society in which
women and men enjoy the same opportunities, outcomes, rights and obligations in
all spheres of life.
Educational Women Empowerment: It means empowering women with the
knowledge, skills, and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in the development
process. It means making women aware of their rights and developing a confidence
to claim them.
Economic and Occupational Empowerment: It implies a better quality of material
life through sustainable livelihoods owned and managed by women. It means reducing
their financial dependence on their male counterparts by making them a significant
part of the human resource.
Legal Women Empowerment: It suggests the provision of an effective legal structure
which is supportive of women empowerment. It means addressing the gaps between
what the law prescribes and what actually occurs.
Political Women Empowerment: It means the existence of a political system favoring
the participation in and control by the women of the political decision-making process
and in governance.
Acts like the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, prohibits the request, payment or
acceptance of a dowry. Asking or giving dowry can be punished by imprisonment as
well as fine; Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, provides for a
more effective protection of the rights of women who are victims of domestic violence.
A breach of this Act is punishable with both fine and imprisonment; Sexual Harassment
of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013, helps to
create a conducive environment at the workplace for women where they are not
subjected to any sort of sexual harassment.
Conclusion
In conclusion to all the theoretical approaches.
1) It is important to note that no approach can be neutral in terms of its effect
on the power relationship between men and women.
2) Second, gender inequality is highly linked with the power struggle that hinders
the recognition of women as significant actors and negotiators of the development
processes.
3) Finally, the need for including actual fieldwork results into theories of
development. Basically, the collective needs of individuals need to be put into
consideration when implementing various development theories.
Women’s equality is vital to sustainable development and the realisation of human
rights for all. Equality for women is vital economically, politically, socially, culturally
and environmentally – it is also crucially a matter of basic human rights.
This is revolutionary. Given that girls’ education is the main focus and what is
funded in today’s girls’ empowerment work, it is time to rethink our strategy and
action around the world. This is not to say girls’ education isn’t important or shouldn’t
be funded. It is to boldly challenge conventional assumptions on what empowers
girls and young women. It is also to invite partners in more data collection and to
scale this endeavor.
Foremost, it is a call to action to support girls and young women in self-actualizing
their inner power - empower - to truly leapfrog women’s empowerment. The next
generation of empowered women leaders and changemakers will transform our world.
References
1. Gender planning and development : theory, practice and training by Moser, Caroline
2. Women and Development by Hurriyet Babacan
3. Education, Equality and Development: Persistent Paradoxes in Indian Women’s History by
Vina Mazumdar
4. Gender and Development In India by U. Kalpagam
A Study on ‘WorkLife Balance’ of Married Women Employees

Teaching in Technical Institutions of Moradabad Region
Monika Khanna*
Introduction
In the current scenario, there are many challenges that females have to deal such
as running a home, doing daily routine works like cooking/ cleaning , bringing up
children from school & handle the tight work schedule. Work life Balance is the
burning issue because it affects the personal life & productivity of the organization.
Organizational performance is directly related to employees. As a result, good
organization is taking interest in improving the work life of their employee by using
various work life methods & strategies so that they can improve the performance of
the employees as well as profitability of the organization.
At the present scenario females are opting jobs in order to build a good career &
give financial support to their families. Work life balance raise job satisfaction & job
performance & reduce stress & absenteeism. The present educational & infrastructural
facilities have encouraged women to occupy a prominent position in the corporate
world. A good positive support from their parents, husband, children & co-workers
help them in gaining the balance between work & personal life. A proper work life
balance can make women a good performer, a good wife, mom & daughter/in-law
in her personal life.
In the year of 1980, the concept of work life balance emerges & since then achieving
work life balance is the major goal of concern of every business organizations. Work
life balance is the essence to lead a successful life by the employees. It plays an
eminent role in all working females teaching in various technical institutions/
Universities. In general it is found that people use to avoid their family & personal
life because to their tight work schedule. In the fast moving world, people have to
give more time to work in order to earn money but personal life cannot be ignored.
The working sphere of women in India is changing rapidly due to modern innovative
technologies. Women are also facing a cut thought competition and changed culture
of family. Educational institutions are also facilitating various schemes that can help
women employees to manage work life balance. Some of these facilities are realistic
work load, flexible timings, leave plans both paid and unpaid to suit employee needs.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Rampur Raza P.G College, Rampur, U.P.
• To analyze the support of family members for effective work life balance.
• To study the initiatives taken by the institutions for effective work life balance.
To accomplish research objective, primary data as well as secondary data has
been collected. The primary data has been collected through Married female employees
working in technical institutions/ universities of Moradabad Region. In this research
we selected institutions offering BCA, BBA, MBA, B.Tech, LAW, B.Sc,and M.Sc, B.Ed
(UG and P.G courses) are teaching by married female employees. Secondary data has
been collected through different journals, websites, and books. Sample of 45 married
female employees were taken for the study. The Questionnaire was opted to collect
primary data through convenience sampling method.
Testing Hypothesis
• There is a no affect of personal factors on work life balance.
• The initiatives taken by the private institutions/universities have no affect on
work life balance.
Data collection: To analyze the work life balance of women teaching employees,
we have collected primary data with the help of questionnaire through convenience
sampling method. The sample size of this research paper is 45 married women teachers
of Moradabad region. To check the validity of the data, we applied the chi-Square
test.
Data Analysis & Discussion
We collected data by using Likert Scale in which, respondents gave their views
within five categories. We categories all the five scales in terms of numbers like 5
(Strongly Agree), 4 (Agree), 3 (Neutral), 2 (Disagree), 1(Strongly Disagree). Before
analyzing the primary data, we classified the data in to two groups. The table of
Group B includes the professional factors of women employees. All the professional
factors are divided in three groups as shown in the following table. After calculating
the data with the help of chi-square test, we found that the value of chi-Square is
more than the tabulated value so we are rejecting null hypothesis and accepting
alternate hypothesis that means personal factors affects work Life Balance. While
summing up the chi-Square value as well as tabulated value of professional factors,
we find out that the value of chi-square is greater than the tabulated value that
means the professional factors also affects the work life balance of women teaching
employees.
Figure: Showing Professional Factors Affecting Work Life Balance

Institutional Factors
Group A
Tota Chi- Chi- Tabulate
5 4 3 2 1 l square square d Value
My institution sometimes ? 239.259 ? 67.5048

manage stress arising from work 2.7
5 8 12 2 9 14 45
by arranging Yoga and 5
Meditation
I feel tired and stressed because 20.

6 18 20 0 7 0 45
of work 1
I can openly discussed issues

8.5
7 related to worklife with my 7 8 1 10 19 45
2
superiors
33 40 3 26 33 135 ? 31.356
Group B
My institution provides medical 28.

8 24 18 3 0 0 45
facilities 1
My institution arrange 18.

9 6 7 4 19 9 45
recreational facilities 3
My institution provides holiday 3.5

10 13 17 2 9 4 45
schemes (summer/winter) 1
My institution provides flexible 55.

11 2 2 1 17 23 45
starting times for females 2
My institution provides flexible 7.7

12 12 10 2 10 11 45
finishing times for females 7
My institution provides 32.

13 24 21 0 0 0 45
maternity leaves 9
1
81 75 55 47 270
2 ? 145.811
Group C
My institution arrange 40.

14 0 1 2 18 24 45
workshop on parenting 8
My institution provides
15 flexibility in fulfilling parental 8 12 2 18 5 45 4.6
responsibilities
My institution helps in
5.6
16 achieving a good worklife 14 12 2 12 5 45
4
balance.
I feel that I am able to balance

17 my professional life 16 12 4 8 5 45 11
19 3 18 15
207 1 1 2 4 180 ? 62.092
Findings and Conclusion
After analyzing the collected data , we find out that female employees, which are
getting family support, support from their spouse are able to manage their work life
balance as compared to those employees which are not supported by spouse and
other family members. The data also reveals that they have enough time to spend
with their children and other family members. Most of the women employees are
satisfied regarding the flexible working hours as well as holidays makes a good
impact on work life balance. Data analysis reveals that policy of work life management
help in increasing productivity of the institution. Data analysis reveals that efficient
work life management policy is able to retain its employees. Employees were in
favor that their university/ institutions are committed in helping to achieve a good
work life balance but the solutions offered are not compatible with employee needs.
References
1. Aluko, Y. A. (2009). Work-Family Conflict and Coping Strategies Adopted by Women in
Academia. Gender and Behaviour, 7 (1), 2095-2122.
2. Barnett, R., and Rivers, C. (2004). Same Difference: How Gender Myths are Hurting Our
Relationships, Our Children, and Our jobs. New York: Basic Books.
3. Department For Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reforms (BERR) (2008). Flexible working:
The Right to Request and The Duty to Consider, available at www.berr.gov.uk/ employment/
employment legislation/ employment-guidance /page 35663.html assessed on 12-11-2010
4. Epie, C. (2006). Family-Responsive Policies in the Nigerian Environment’, ACREW Conference
proceedings. Co-hosts: Australian Center for Research in Employment and Work (Monash
University) and Kings College (London).
5. Epie, C. (2009). Managing time-based conflict across life domains in Nigeria: A decision
making perspective. Ife Psychologia, 17, 194-216
6. Freeman, L.M. (2009). ‘Comparison of Attitudes Between Generation X and Baby Boomer
Veterinary Faculty and Residents’, Journal of Veterinary Medical Education’, 36 (1), 128-132.
7. Greenhaus J. H, Powell GN (2006). When work and family are allies: A Theory of Work-
Family Enrichment. Academy of Management Review, 31, 72-92
8. Guest, D. E. (2001)”Perspectives on the Study of Work-Life Balance. A discussion paper.”
2001 ENOP Symposium, Paris, http://www.ucm.es/info/Psyap/enop/guest.htm, assessed
on 12-11-2010
9. Susi S., Jawaharrani K.(2010), “Work life Balance: The Key driver of employee Engagement”,
Asian journal of management Research, Vol:2, Issue -1, pp. 474-483
10. Sakthivel Rania, Kamalanabhanb & selvarania (2011), “Work life balance reflections on employee
satisfaction”, Serbian Journal of management, Vol. 6(1), pp. 85-96.
11. Varatharaj V., Vasantha S. (2012), “ Work life balance A Source of job satisfaction- An
Exploratory study on the view of women employees in the service sector”, International
journal of Multidisciplinary research Vol.2, Issue 3, pp. 450-458.
Women Empowerment in India: A Root in Development
Amit Kumar Singh*
“Woman is an incarnation of ‘Shakti’—the Goddess of Power. If she is bestowed with

education, India’s strength will double. Let the campaign of ‘Kanya Kelavni’ be spread in
every home; let the lamp of educating daughters be lit up in every heart —Narendra Modi”
Introduction
“Sexism is the root oppression, the one which, until and unless we uproot it, will continue
to put forth the branch of racism, class, hatred, ageism, competition, ecological disaster, and
economic exploitation. No other human differentiations can be similarly powerful in reproducing
oppressions, and so, women are the real left.” -Morgan Robin
For a long time women in India remained within the four walls of their household.
Their dependence on men folk was total a long struggle going back over a century
has brought women the property rights, voting rights, an equality in civil rights
before the law in matters of marriage and employment (in India women had not to
struggle for voting rights as we find in other countries).
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) established a special Division
for Women in Development, promoting concrete action to ensure that women participate
in UNDP projects. The United Nations paper International Development Strategy for
the Third United Nations Development Decade, issued in 1980, recognized a number of
Women in Development issues. It called for women to play an active role in all
sectors and at all levels of the Program of Action adopted by the World Conference
of the United Nations Decade for Women, both as agents and beneficiaries. Policies
on industrialization, food and agriculture, science and technology and social
development should all involve women.
A 1985 report by the OECD Development Centre surveyed a broad sample of
development projects aimed at women. It concluded that many were too welfare-
oriented. It said “future projects should avoid the home economics approach and focus on
income-generating activities which are relevant and useful to the women participating”. It
also noted the lack of information about women’s roles and activities, and called for
greater research as input to development projects.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi, U.P.
The Harvard Analytical Framework attempted to address these concerns. The
framework has its origins in 1980 with a request to Harvard University for WID
training from the World Bank. James Austin, who was well known for case-method
training at Harvard, led a team with three women experienced in WID work: Catherine
Overholt, Mary Anderson and Kathleen Cloud. These became known as the “Harvard
Team”. The framework was elaborated by the Harvard Institute for International
Development in collaboration with the WID office of USAID, and was first described
in 1984 by Catherine Overholt and others. It was one of the earliest of such frameworks.
The starting point for the framework was the assumption that it makes economic
sense for development aid projects to allocate resources to women as well as men,
which will make development more efficient – a position named the “efficiency
approach”.
In November 1990 the leaders of the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) countries endorsed recommendations of the second SAARC
ministerial meeting of Women in Development held in June 1990, agreeing that the
years 1991–2000 should be observed as the “SAARC Decade of the Girl Child”. A
wide range of recommendations for improving the development of female children
were accepted.
”Women belong in all places where decisions are being made... It shouldn’t be
that women are the exception.” —Ruth Bader Ginsburg
”There’s something so special about a woman who dominates in a man’s world.
It takes a certain grace, strength, intelligence, fearlessness, and the nerve to never
take no for an answer.” —Rihanna in the March 2017 issue of Harper’s BAZAAR
The pre-World War II period saw flourishing movements of various forms of
feminism; however, the nexus between (economic) development and women was
not clearly articulated until the second half of the 20th century. Women first came
into focus in development as objects of welfare policies, including those focused on
birth control, nutrition, and pregnancy. ”In 1962 the UN General Assembly asked the
Commission on the Status of Women to prepare a report on the role of women in
development. Ester Boserup’s path breaking study on Women’s Role in Economic
Development was published in 1970. These events marked monumental moments in
developing the liberal paradigm of women in development, and the welfarist approach
still remains dominant in development practice today. This article reviews the dominant
liberal approaches, including women in development (WID), women and development
(WAD), gender and development (GAD) and neoliberal frameworks (Singh, 2007).
There is significant overlap among these approaches (for example, WID can be seen
as an early version of the neoliberal framework).
Role of Women in Socio-Economic Growth of the Country
India has experienced rapid growth and development in the past years in many
spheres. Gender equity is not one of them. This is deplorable considering the important
role played by women in the socio-economic growth of the country.
The Indian development model has yet to fully incorporate the important role
played by women for propelling the socio-economic growth of the country. Current
governments at state and central level must understand that no nation can progress
unless its women are given equal access to opportunities and adequate safety and
security. Contribution of women Proprietors in MSME report, Government of India
shows only 7.36 % of contribution in dominated male economy. This is not the reality
almost all male economic agents are backuped and supported by females showing
the 7.36 % as a profit over them as a synergy, which is invisible in material world;
and hence I called them as root of development in India.
Viewpoint
• Across the globe, educating women and giving them the ability to stand on
their own feet has been a priority. In India, social evils and a rising rape rate
are confronting women in urban and rural areas, regardless of which political
party is at the helm. Women are not being given a chance to become stronger
in the political sector.
• The Women’s Reservation Bill of 2013 is being vociferously opposed on the
grounds that it will deny opportunities to persons of other groups. When it
comes to legislations which aim to reduce gender inequity, India has a long
way to go.
Now, women such as Ela Bhatt who founded SEWA are empowering women to
gain freedom from poverty and unemployment. Women entrepreneurs are also benefiting
from some of the well-implemented governmental programs at central and state
level.
Learning’s from Experts
RE: Role of Women in Socio-Economic Growth of the Country - Deepa Kaushik (05/05/14)
The net productivity of the women is definitely much more than the men, as
they manage both the home and outside work in a well-balanced way. With respect
to the revenue generation of the country, encouragement of women definitely has
helped with new innovative ideas for the implementation in various spheres of life,
giving a better proposal at the international market. Hence, a women encouraged
country is definitely a more developed one. And India still needs to go a long way
in this path.
Role of Women in Socio-Economic Growth of the country - Lubna Lakdwala (04/02/14)

Women have made their presence felt in all fields be it Business, Education, Fashion,
Entertainment, Finance, Information Technology. Earlier it was said that if a woman is
working she is just fit to do administrative or lower management jobs. But women
have proved them wrong and they have been successful leaders and mentors. The
sharp mind and sympathetic nature of women has helped them achieve success in the
business world. They successfully overcome any challenge posed their way.
Women of rural India in spite of not having proper facilities and education still
engage themselves various actives such as agriculture handicrafts, weaving etc and
gain additional income. The agriculture and handicrafts also contribute to the national
economy.
Role & Importance of Women in India
The women have left the secured domain of their home and are now in the
battlefield of life, fully armoured with their talent. They must avail themselves of
the educational opportunities provided and learn to empower themselves.
“Educate a man and you educate an individual. Educate a woman and you educate
a family.” A. Cripps
Our Responsibilities’
• Establish high-level corporate leadership for gender equality.
• Treat women and men fairly at work—respect & support human rights and
non-discrimination
• Ensure the health, safety and well being of all co-workers
Conclusion
Indian women play an important role in initiating socio-economic progress of the
country. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world. Women should be empowered
so that they can lead India to glory.
Our women entrepreneurs, social welfare workers, scientists, politicians and
economists are leading the way for a brighter future. Women in urban and rural
areas should be given access to good opportunities so that they can bring about
positive social change and contribute to the growth of the country.
Women play a crucial role in initiating the advancement and growth of any society,
in nations across the world. India is no exception to this rule.
References
1. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/essay-on-women-empowerment-in-india/31317/
2. https://www.lawctopus.com/academike/schemes-strategies-for-women-empowerment-india/
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_development
4. http://www.importantindia.com/20816/women-in-india-role-and-status-of-women-in-india/
Women’s Empowerment in India
Bhupendra Kumar* & Samta Tomar**
Introduction
The topic Women’s empowerment is a burning issue all over the world. Women’s
empowerment is very essential for the development of society. Women’s empowerment
as a concept was introduced at the International Women Conference in 1985 at Nairobi
which defined it as redistribution of social power and control of resources in favour
of women. Women’s empowerment means individuals acquiring the power to think
and act freely, exercises choice and fulfill their potential as full and equal members
of society. As per the United National Development Fund for women (UNIFEM), the
term women’s empowerment means:
• Acquiring knowledge and understanding of gender relations and the ways in
which these relations may be changed.
• Developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one’s ability to secure desired
changes and the right to control one’s life.
• Gaining the ability to generate choices exercise bargaining power.
• Developing the ability to organize and influence the direction of social change,
to create a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally.
Women Empowerment-Challenges
Women are continuously facing many problems even after having self-confidence,
individuality, self-respect, personality, capacity, talent, and efficiency more than men.
They are facing problems in their daily life even after they are given equal rights
and opportunities like men by the Constitution of India. Some of the major problems
modern women are still facing mentioned below:
• Patriarchate Bottlenecks
• Economic Backwardness
* Assistant Professor, Departant of Ecomomics, V.V. College, Shamli, U.P.

** Assistant Professor, Departant of Economics, Government P.G. College, Deoband,
Saharanpur, U.P.
• Implementation Gaps
• Loopholes in the legal structure
• Lack of Political Will
• Problems of Female Education
• Problems Related to Unemployment
• Dowry System
Violence Against Women
Women are getting affected by the various violence almost every day which is
disrupting the society. Women are being victims of violence at huge level day by
day because of increasing crimes against women (according to the report of Crime
Records Bureau of the Central Home Ministry). Woman is getting kidnapped at every
44 minutes, raped at every 47 minutes, 17 dowry deaths every day, etc. They may
face violence within the family (dowry related harassment, death, marital rape, wife-
battering, sexual abuse, deprivation of healthy food, female genital mutilation, etc)
or outside the family (kidnapping, rape, murder, etc).The Crime Head Wise details
of reported crimes during the year 2011 to 2014 along with percentage variation are
presented in Table1.
Gender Discrimination
Women are considered as weaker section of the society than men and given less
importance. Girl children are becoming real victims of the discrimination. There are
also discrimination of power and work between men and women because of the
patriarchal system families in India. Gender discrimination affects women in the
areas like nutrition, education, health, care, decline of female population, job, public
life, etc.
Table 1
Percentage
S. No. Crime Head Year Variation in 2014
over 2013
2011 2012 2013 2014
1. Rape 24206 24923 33707 36735 9
2 Attempt to commit rape* 4234 -
Kidnapping & abduction of
3 35565 38262 51881 57311 10.5
women
4 Dowry deaths 8618 8233 8083 8455 4.6
5 Insult to the modesty of women 8570 9173 12589 9735 -22.7
Assault on women with intent to
6 42968 45351 70739 82235 16.3
outrage her/ their modesty
7 Cruelty by husband or his relatives 99135 106527 118866 122877 3.4
Importation of girl from foreign

8 80 59 31 -58.1
women
9 Abetment of suicide of women* 3734 -
A. Total I P C crime against women 219142 232528 295896 325329 10.9
10 Commission of Sati Prevention Act 0 0 0 0
Indecent Representation of
11. 453 141 362 47 -87
Women(P) Act
12 The Dowry Prohibition Act 6619 9038 10709 10050 -6.2
Protection of women from
13. 426
Domestic Violence Act*
14 Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act# 2436 2563 2579 2070#
B. Total S. L. L. crime against women 9508 11742 13650 12593 -7.7
Total A+B 228650 244270 309546 337922 9.2
*Newly included crime head
#Modification in data in 2014, as figure refers to women related crimes only.
Source: Crime in India- 2014
Suggestions to Women’s Empowerment in India

Way ahead starts with bridging the deep-rooted biases through sustained
reconditioning. It is only possible by promoting the idea of gender equality and
uprooting social ideology of male child prefer ability. This concept of equality should
be first developed in each and every household and from there; it should be taken to
the society. This can be achieved by running sustained awareness programs with the
help of Nukkad Natak or dramas, radio, television, Internet, etc. across the country.
Replacing ‘Patriarchy’ with Parity : A strong patriarchate society with deep- rooted
socio-cultural values continues to affect women’s empowerment. The need of the
hour is an egalitarian society, where there is no place for superiority. The Government
should identify and eliminate such forces that work to keep alive the tradition of
male dominance over its female counterpart by issuing inhumane and unlawful diktats.
Awareness about their rights is essential for women empowerment. Awareness
programmes need to be organized for creating awareness among women especially
belonging to weaker sections about their rights.
Education is the most important and indispensable tool for women empowerment.
It makes women aware of their rights and responsibilities. Educational achievements
of a woman can have ripple effects for the family and across generations. Most of
the girls drop out of schools due to the unavailability of separate toilets for them.
The recently launched ‘Swachh Bharat Mission’ focusing on improving sanitation
facilities in schools and every rural household by 2019, can prove to be very significant
in bringing down the rate of girls dropping out of school.
Political Will Women should have access to resources, rights, and entitlements.
They should be given decision-making powers and due position in governance. Thus,
the Women Reservation Bill should be passed as soon as possible to increase the
effective participation of women in the politics of India.
Bridging implementation gaps Government or community-based bodies must
be set up to monitor the programs devised for the welfare of the society. Due importance
should be given for their proper implementation and their monitoring and evaluation
through social audits.
Justice delayed is justice denied. Efforts should be made to restructure the legal
process to deliver fair and in- time justice to the victims of heinous crimes like
rapes, acid attacks, sexual harassment, trafficking and domestic violence. The idea of
fast-track courts, devised to impart speedy justice to the victims of rapes and other
crimes against women, is a good initiative taken by the judiciary and the Government
of India.
Conclusion
The women empowerment has become one of the most important concerns of
21st century not only at national level but also at the international level. Women
represent half the world’s population. The greatest need of the hour is change of
social attitude to women. Government alone should not sufficient to achieve full
women empowerment. Society has to take the responsibilities to create an environment
for empowerment. We have to change the mind of society.
Woman is an incarnation of ‘Shakti’—the Goddess of
Power. If she is
Bestowed with education, India’s
Strength will double. Let the campaign of ‘Kanya
Kelavni’ be spread in every home; let the lamp of
Educating daughters be lit up in every heart
—Narendra Modi
References
1. Madankar N. (2014) The Problems, Strategy and Women Empowerment in India, International
Journal of development Research, Vol. 4, Issue 10, pp. 2119-2121.
2. Suguna M., (2011). Education and Women Empowerment in India . ZENITH: International Journal
of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol. 1(8), pp. 19-21.
3. Deshpande, S. and Sethi, S. (2010 ). Role and Position of Women Empowerment in Indian
Society. International Referred Research Journal, Vol. 1(17), pp. 10-12.
4. Shettar R. M. (2015) A Study on Issues and Challenges of Women Empowerment in India,
ISOR Journal of Business and Management, vol.17, Issue-4, pp. 13-19.
Gender Bias on Farm Wage: A Micro Level Study of West

Bengal
Chinmoy Sarkar*
Introduction
The word ‘House Wife’ is no more consisted with the present busy world. Very
soon it will be ancient concept. Sophisticated life style which is very expensive forced
the women to be a working lady. The modern readymade life is driven by finger
power. Now people can enjoy any comfort pressing the switch by the finger. No
need to move here and there physically. Money is the prime factor to achieve such
modern comforts. As a result men and women together work in primary, secondary
and tertiary sectors. But the story of rural women are different compared to unban
or semi-urban women. Rural women are bound to work as wage labourer to meet
their need which is becoming expensive day to day. They are working in farm and
non-farm sector. It is a new trend in farm sector that women participation is going
up gradually. Two reasons are responsible (a) migration of male workers inside and
outside the state (b) wage differential between farm and non-farm jobs. Most of the
eligible male workers are migrating outside and getting higher wage rate. As a result
farm sector is now driven by women labourer where they are getting lower wage.
But the most pitiful think is the existing Wage-Gap between male and female
workers in all types of work. It is not new phenomenon rather it came from the
before independence. Society has made such a nasty concept that still women are
getting lower wage for same class of job. Although this Wage-Gap has been going
down but still required few decades to come up zero Wage-Gap situation. It is noticeable
that Wage-Gap has been decreasing in farm sector. Because most the heavy works
previously which were doing by male workers now performed by machineries.As a
result remaining all farm works such as weeding, sowing, threshing is doing by
male and farmers equally. They are both male and female equally efficient for these
farm works. In farm sector labour crisis is big issue in recent days. So there is not
any scope to discriminate the women workers from male according to wage rate.
The objective of this study to show the women employment rate and wage
differentiation between male and female workers. The most important thing which
* Assistant Professor, Economics, Siliguri College of Commerce, Siliguri, Darjeeling,

West Bengal.
has noticed that in farm sector wage differentiation has been reduced and it varies
only on the basis of season of cultivation. Primary and secondary both data has used
to fulfill the study.
Figure 1: Work Participation Rate by Sex in India
Source: Office of Registrar General, India.
Wage Differentiation
The current census (2011) said that almost half of the population is women in
India. So, growth of the nation equally depends on women. Women should incorporate
in all sector of the economy. They are very important part the nation and indispensable
element of nation’s growth. But this women society has been suffering from dual
problem. On hand they neglected from many policies of employment and on the
other hand they suffering from wage differential problem for the same work. It is a
worldwide problem and it varies nation to nation. Wage -Gap also varies on the
basis of job quality, efficiency of worker, experiences of workers etc. However, it has
been growing down gradually.
Table 1: Year-Wise Gender Pay Gap in India

Year Median Salary p.a. in Rs. Median Salary p.a. in Rs. % in Difference in Salary
for Male for Female of Female from Males
2007 & before 432600 238800 -(44.80)
2008 522000 300000 -(42.53)
2009 408000 264000 -(35.29)
2010 408000 291264 -(28.61)
2011 343728 230400 -(32.97)
2012 312000 240000 -(23.08)
2013 397368 298800 -(24.81)
Source: Wage Indicator in collaboration with Indian Institute of Management, Amhedabad, Paycheck
Report, India, 2013.
Table 2: All India Annual Average Daily Wage Rates in Agricultural

Occupations During the Year 2008-09.
Occupation Male Female Wage Gap
Ploughing 102.90 55.43 47.47
Sowing 90.00 65.00 25.00
Threshing 85.06 67.66 17.40
Weeding 80.15 68.02 12.13
Picking 81.02 66.37 14.65
Source: Labour Bureau, RLE Reports on Wages and Earnings of Rural Labour Households, 2009-10, Shimla
& Price and Wage in Rural India, NSSO.
Table 3: Wage Differential Between Current and Previous Periods in Bardhaman

(wage rate per day in rupees)
Current Year Previous Year
Bardhaman Male Female Male Female

/blocks
Peak Lean Peak Lean Peak Lean Peak Lean
Season Season Season Season Season Season Season Season
Memari II Rs.180 Rs.130 Rs.180 Rs.130 Rs.160 Rs.130 Rs.160 Rs.130
Katwa-II Rs.160 Rs.130 Rs.160 Rs.130 Rs.150 Rs.130 Rs.150 Rs.130

Aushgram II Rs.150 Rs.130 Rs.150 Rs.130 Rs.150 Rs.130 Rs.150 Rs.130
Source: Field Survey
In the above table it has shown that wage rate varies according to peak and lean
season of farming.
The picture slight different in case Dakshin Dinajpur district.
This study has shown the work participation rate of women across the nation. In
addition to that Wage-Gap between male and female has highlighted accordingly.
The sighted data showed the increasing trend of women work participation rate in
different sector of the economy. Wage-Gap has found more or less in all sector of the
economy. Its vary sector to sector and Wage-Gap very high in industrial sector where
hard work is doing by the labourers. But recently Wage-Gaphas been going down.
Interesting result has found in case of farm sector. It has observed that due to labour
scarcity in farm sector both male and female labourers are getting more or less same
wage. Wage difference has found only between peak and lean season but not between
male and female workers. The reason behind that is all heavy works such as ploughing,
harrowing, digging, harvesting is doing by modern machineries. The remaining works
such as weeding, sowing, picking etc. is doing manually and women are efficient for
these works. At the end it is true that still women are getting comparatively low
wage rate than man workers. The Wage-Gap may be reduced if the following
suggestions have been followed:
Table 4: Wage Differential between Current and Previous Periods in Dakshin
Dinajpur (wage rate per day in rupees)
Current Year Previous Year
Male Female Male Female

Dakshin
Dinajpur/blocks
Peak Lean Peak Lean Peak Lean Peak Lean

Season Season Season Season Season Season Season Season
Balurghat Rs.160 Rs.110 Rs.150 Rs.110 Rs.150 Rs.100 Rs.140 Rs.100
Banshihari Rs.140 Rs.100 Rs.140 Rs.100 Rs.130 Rs.100 Rs.130 Rs.100
Kushmandi Rs.150 Rs.100 Rs.150 Rs.100 Rs.140 Rs.100 Rs.140 Rs.100
• Raise the minimum wage

• Provide the skill development facility specially for women
• Support pay transparency
• Invest in affordable high-quality child care and early childhood education
References
1. ChakrabortyKavita and Tanya Gandhi “ Extent of Wage Gap in India” Accessed through
interner, Dated 10-05-2017
2. “Statistical Profile on Women Labour” Labour Bureau, Minitry of Labour and Employment,
Government of India, Accessed through internet, Dated 05-06-2017
3. “NABARD: Need for custom hiring of farm machinery”, Accessed through internet, dated
08-06-12, website- www.indianexpress.com/news/nabard-need...custom-hiring.../742986
Women & Development
Kalpana Singh*
Introduction
Women in India make up 7.5% of the world’s total population. While certain
development indicators show their quality of life is improving – maternal mortality
rates declining; literacy rates increasing; more women gaining access to healthcare
and education – the pace of change is heartbreakingly slow.Women are undoubtedly
the foundation of the basic unit of society – the family. Even in traditional roles they
demonstrate great innovation, skill, intelligence, hard work and commitment.If we
can harness these attributes effectively, India’s growth can be more inclusive and
equitable. The education of women is therefore key. But in a country where nearly
70% of the population lives in rural areas, access to educational opportunities is
limited. Moreover, poverty puts the girl child at a greater disadvantage. Add to this
the social attitudes towards women, and it is obvious that we need a multi-pronged
approach if we are to achieve education for women worldwide.This is where technology
– or e-education – can help. E-infrastructure can deliver relevant education to both
sexes in an efficient and equitable manner, enabling our youth to leapfrog into the
internet age.When we educate and empower one woman, we set off a chain reaction
that transforms the life of her family and the community she lives in. An exemplary
model is the network of trained Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA), created
under the National Rural Health Mission, who have played a crucial role in improving
the health of women and children across India.Vocational training is equally important
to women’s economic independence. The inspirational efforts of the Self-Employed
Women’s Association, founded by Ela Bhatt, and other successful self-help groups,
have sowed the spirit of entrepreneurship in hundreds of women. Sewa’s women
members are trailblazers, redefining themselves as they add value to their families
and the nation. This kind of female empowerment can transform India.Societal
perceptions of females and their role are often the biggest barriers to change, because
they shape women’s perception of themselves. Across all strata of Indian society,
people still believe that women are capable of performing only certain types of jobs
and that marriage must take precedence over career.This mind-set, common to both
* Armapur P.G. College, Kanpur, U.P.

men and women, must change. We must focus on the girl child and help her escape
the traditional stereotypes that stifle her potential.
Not even this, Women play a major role in the economy of a nation, including
housewives. Housewives are the largest workforce in the world, the most underpaid
and receive undue scoff. If she is paid the role of a housewife’s duties can amount to
billions of dollars annually. A woman purchases household goods not limited to
food items, but clothing, accessories, and many daily use items as simple as a scrub
to wash dishes. She is the dictator of large companies producing goods in manifold,
she purchases the chips and cold-drinks her child consumes and treats guests with,
she decides which commodities will be used and in what quantity. Most shopping
outlets are directed towards women. Women are ultimately the largest consumers in
the market, especially so in the Indian market where c.ulture is upheld by women,
where it’s the wifely duty to ensure all goods are stocked in the house and family
members are able to work without a hiccup. Yet women are the most overlooked
consumer of the market, and the corporates which target female-consumers lack the
female workforce within their company.
As women are the largest consumers in the market, any product targeted towards
them will surely become a success.
If women in India were to take a day off then the economy would face a serious
setback, teachers in schools are mostly women and children would face a difficult
time learning, household chores would not be done which would bring down the
productivity and ease with which this patriarchal regime thrives upon, even though
the private sector sees only a small percentage of women in the workforce that is
still enough to create a loss. More women may be involved in undocumented or
‘disguised’ wage work than in the formal labour force.
Lets talk a little about, females’ managerial skills, undoubtedly, they have performed
well on this pivotal front, and in comparison to their male counterpart, they are
naturally superior.
Remembering our mothers, how good she was in managing home affairs, when
we were a child. She was taking care of the kitchen, school fees, uniforms, groceries
and host of others things. In the corporate world, female bosses command more
respect as they don’t wear their ego on their sleeves.
Emotionally very strong, they think twice before firing or scolding subordinate
employees. Many women have broken the glass ceiling in the corporate world. Owing
to their incredible knowledge, sheer hard work and remarkable performance, they
have created a respectable niche for themselves in the corporate world and society
as a whole. Pepsi Co head honcho, Indira Nooyi, ICICI Bank’s ChandaKoccher and
Biocon’sKiranMazumdar Shaw are some of the names that deserve the mention here.
Considering the facts and figures, here, I would like to say that women’s contribution
in India’s economy has been phenomenal, and their role and performance cannot be
disregarded. Imagine a situation wherein, we are without iconic lades such as Indira
Gandhi, Chanda Koccher and KiranBedi. I think without the contribution of female
workforce, India would not have been what it is today.
Women empowerment & development is much more than realizing the work a
woman does is equivalent to the work of a man, it’s much more than obtaining the
right to a certain occupation. Woman development is the global realization that tasks
done by women, that the feminine touch to domesticity and professionalism is not
desired but needed. It’s the realization of the balance of nature, that we are all equal
and no work is big or small.
By neglecting the development of women, we will compromise the future of the
Indian nation. By investing in women and their education, we are investing in our
present and in our future.
There are certain sectors where Indian women are leading the way. The quantum
of their workforce is gradually moving up the ladder across various industries.
Women hold the reins of some of the largest Indian banks and financial service
companies. The biggest example is that of the Chairperson of State Bank of India
(SBI), Arundhati Bhattacharya, who is the first woman to have held this position.
She was also named among the 50 Most Powerful Women (International), according
to a list compiled by business magazine Fortune.
The other names that are part of the list are Managing Director (MD) and Chief
Executive Officer (CEO) of ICICI, ChandaKocchar and Shikha Sharma, Managing
Director & CEO of Axis Bank, who have played a significant role in the development
and progress of the retail banking sector in India.
KiranMazumdar-Shaw is another exemplary woman leader who founded Biocon,
the country’s leading biotechnology enterprise. She has immensely contributed to
research, innovation and affordable healthcare. Mazumdar-Shaw has been conferred
upon with the ‘2014 Othmer Gold Medal’ and the coveted ‘2014 Global Economy
Prize’ for Business by Germany-based Kiel Institute for the World Economy.
The Managing Director of global technology solutions company IBM, Vanitha
Narayanan, is consistently working towards the development of women’s leadership
in India as well as the South Asia region. She is also a member of IBM’s Multicultural
Women’s Network that encourages multicultural business women to expand their
career network.
Similarly, NivrutiRai was appointed as the Intel India General Site Manager in
March 2016. She succeeds KumudSrinivasan, who was the first woman president of
the computer chip maker. Having joined Intel in 1987, Srinivasan has spent more
than two decades at the company and held several significant business positions.
In an empowering move, Infosys has also set a target to have 25% women in
senior leadership roles by 2020. The second largest Information Technology services
company in India currently has 35% women employees, though most occupy junior
and mid-level positions.
Another name that is counted among India’s most inspiring women is IndraNooyi,
who has ensured steady revenue growth ever since she was appointed Chairperson
and CEO, PepsiCo, the second-largest food and beverage business in the world.
Of the nearly 4,400 start-ups, fewer than one in 10 were founded by women,
according to industry body NASSCOM. India can grow at over 10-11% if we include
women in the economic process. They can contribute to building new businesses –
from traditional industry to start-ups.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that women play an important role in initiating socio-economic
progress of the country. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world. Thus, women
should be empowered so that they can lead India to glory. With the power of digital
technology and growing opportunities, there is a revolution in the way women are
doing business. Some of them are already running successful enterprises, and many
more are joining the bandwagon. For ‘Make in India’ to grow even further, women
should be considered and promoted as key drivers.
References
1. http://www.makeinindia.com/article/-/v/make-in-india-women-central-to-india-s-growth-
story
2. http://www.careerride.com/view/role-of-women-in-socio-economic-growth-of-the-country-
12283.aspx
Bibliography
1. Women in Developing Countries: Assessing Strategies for Empowerment- Editors: Judith F.
Kornberg, Rekha Datta
Gender and Climate Change: Livelihood Challenges
Manveen Kaur*, Rachna Gupta** & Meenakshi Yadav***
Introduction
Increasing temperatures, changing cropping patterns and frequent climatic changes
have always led to adverse effects on human health (UNDP, 2012; WHO, 2014).
People’s adaptability to climatic change is largely dependent upon the level of exposure
to the weather conditions for the purpose of livelihood and is further influenced by
resources available. In fact different roles and responsibilities of gender are being
ignored in the policies and programmes related to the climate change. It is evident
that women and girls are affected by the strong climatic conditions. The risks faced
by women are significantly higher in every climate related disaster because of prevailing
social norms within the region (Boetto and McKinnon, 2013).
Changing Perceptions
Numerous studies have been conducted in the area of climate change and its
impact on gender (Quisumbing, 2011). The studies do reveal an imbalance in the
impact of climate with regards to gender – women are more adversely affected than
men (Ahmad and Fajber, 2009; Hoddinott and Kinsey, 2000; Jungehulsing, 2010).
Global organizations such as the United Nations, the World Health Organization
(WHO), and Oxfam have recognized a greater negative influence of climate change
on women (Burns and Patouris, 2014; Oxfam, 2009; UNDP, 2012; WHO, 2014). Studies
have been done across the globe; for example Africa (e.g. Chikulo, 2014), Australia
(e.g. Boetto and Mckinnon, 2013), India (e.g. Ogra and Badola, 2014), and Mexico
(e.g. Bee, 2013). Due to the complexity of the interaction between gender, social
roles/expectations and extreme climate occurrences caused by climate change, different
variables such as agricultural production, food security, health, water, and education
illustrate the adverse impact on women.
* Faculty Member, Faculty of Rural Development, Haryana Institute of Public Administration,
Gurugram, Haryana
** Faculty Member, Faculty of Beahvioral Sciences, Haryana Institute of Public Administration,
Gurugram, Haryana
*** Assistant Professor, PGDAV College, University of Delhi, Delhi
One of the variables for women which is most affected by climate change is that
of agricultural production. There are several reasons for this. The first is that the
climatic changes causes change in weather patterns and force people to seek other
avenues of income. Men are more likely to migrate to seek work thus leaving the
women to manage the livestock and the farm (Banerjee, Bisht and Mahapatra, 2015;
Ogra and Badola, 2014). Thus as men try to fulfil a cultural norm of the responsibility
for food security by migrating for work after a natural disaster (e.g. flooding or
drought), it forces women to take control over livestock and other agricultural production
endeavours (Kristjanso, 2010). A further study conducted by Biskup and Boellstroff
(1995) stated that a long period of drought causes the greatest level of economic
stress to unmarried and widowed women and their children due to an absence of
adequate resources. Under these circumstances it becomes a perceived necessity for
some of the women to sell their livestock which, ultimately results in a reduction of
financial strength (Angula, 2010; Biskup and Boellstroff, 1995).
Chiluko (2014) contends that women not only suffer physically but often must
forgo the opportunity for education due to the need to collect water and fuel for
fires. This lack of education is also noted by the World Health Organization (WHO)
in their 2014 report (WHO, 2014).
As seen in numerous extreme weather occurrences climate change “causes substantial
damage to human well-being and prosperity” (Watkins, 2007, p. v). By mapping
these kinds of studies it is evident that climatic changes are a threat to human
development. It is clear from the studies conducted by various researchers that the
negative impact of climate change may be seen in terms of agricultural production,
women’s health, education and water. It is further seen that women face more adverse
effects of climate change then men as they are more dependent for their livelihood
on natural resources which are threatened by climate change. They also face limitation
in connection with socio-economic barriers in the society.
The Field Realities
The present paper is an attempt to focus on the effect of climate change on
gender in the study area. The field work was conducted in Maroda village of the
Mewat district of Haryana in northern India.
The Study Area
The location of Mewat district is between 26 and 30 north latitude and 76 and 78
E longitude in the southern part of Haryana state.
Women in Mewat work on an average of 14-16 hours a day. They are completely
unaware of their potential capability. They are involved in three main activities:
agriculture, animal husbandry and household work which include, household activities
like sowing, weeding, transplanting, harvesting, winnowing, carrying produce and
agricultural waste.
The quality of water found in most parts of the study area of Mewat is substandard.
The drudgery of women lies in porting drinking water from a distance of 2 to 3
kilometres, two to three times every day.
Agriculture is the major economic activity in Mewat. People in Mewat are largely
dependent on two occupations for earning their livelihood i.e. agriculture and labour.
Agriculture is dependent upon the rain since irrigational facilities are the lowest in
this area. Due to the crop diversifications, the farm work has been increased for Meo
women, which has added more hardships to their lives.
Impacts of Global Warming and Climate Change on Women
The present study was conducted in the village of Maroda in Nuh block of Mewat
district and is based on the hypothesis that there is a significant relationship of
climate change and environmental factors with gender. Agricultural farming is major
activity of the region. The given methodology was adopted to achieve the objectives.
Due to the vagaries of climate, education, water and health are the prime concerns
in this village.
The analysis shows that availability of good quality water is a prime issue in
Maroda village. The ground water is saline. Hence, availability of fresh drinking
water is a major problem and is escalating. It is for the women or the lady of the
house to arrange water for the family. The drudgery of women is not only the distance
for the source of water, but also the size of the family and almost 3 to 6 hours are
spent in this task every day. Even the school age girls are asked to help their mothers.
Mewat, being a male dominated society, it is common site men sit in groups chatting
and they do not give any support to women. It is the women’s job to manage the
household as well as do the farming. They are double burdened with the task of
reproduction and raising children and take up the household activities as well. The
women labourers have to sweat in the heat with limited food and water and have
extended work hours. The sufferings of women are expressed in their own words.
One respondent said that “manas pisai h na nahana na dhona bina pani k btao ke kra.
Ghar me bahu bimar pdi h, me budhi ho rhi hu or ladki akela kitna pani dho legi?” “(Young
daughter-in-law is unwell how much an old woman and her daughter can fetch the water for
the whole family for all family for all routine activities)”.
The variations in the climate have led to adverse effect on women’s education
and health in the present study area. Various severe diseases have also spread among
the women. Due to this the common problems faced by the women are hardening of
skin, dark spot on the hands and feet, tuberculosis and swollen limbs as they are the
ones who do all the manual work in the house as well as fields. Many times they are
injured due to carrying heavy loads for long distances.
It is not only the women who are adversely affected by the global warming and
change in climate, but also their families bear the brunt in terms of health, agriculture,
production, livestock and education as well.
Impact on Education
Education does not enjoy a high priority in the region despite adequate physical
infrastructure. Due to climatic condition attendance has gone down in schools. It is
worth mentioning here that young school girls are also given the task of collecting
water and fuel even during school hours.
Impact on Livelihood and Household Burden

During the survey, it was also found that women besides engaging in cooking,
cleaning and porting the water from the distances, also devote considerable time
attending to the dairy and agricultural activities in their daily routine. Women hardly
find time for their education as they are generally engaged in household activities.
Natural resources are the major source of livelihood for women. These climatic
conditions have adverse effect on their livelihood strategies. In fact, women are solely
responsible for collecting the water even in the changing scenario of climate change.
They also suffer from various diseases due to these changes.
The Way Ahead
It is apparent from the various studies that women are adversely affected from
the climate change. This issue is important for policy makers/decision makers to
have a better understanding of the people affected by the climate change. In this
regard following issues are suggested for consideration to deal with these kinds of
situations.
• It is suggested that some remedial measure related with climate change and
disasters and their impact on gender may be taken up by the government.
• Due to less exposure to information, education and training women are not
able to cope with disaster situations. It is suggested that some steps may be
taken up to build up their capacity with these situation through training
intervention or making them aware through community radio on these issues.
• To fill up the gap, a systematic analysis of climate change and its impact on
gender may be conducted/organised through research.
To sum up it is suggested that do deal with any climatic situation, inherent
strength of women may be enhanced through capacity building strategies. These
will enable them to face any difficult situation.
References
1. Annecke, W. 2002. Climate change, energy-related activities and the likely social impacts on
women in Africa. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues 2 (3/4): 206–222.
2. Banerjee, S., Bisht, S., and Mahapatra, B. 2015. Building adaptive capacity in Assam. Forced
Migration Review, (49), 66-68.
3. Barnett, J., and W. Adger. 2007. Climate change, human security and violent conflict. Political
Geography 26 (6): 639–655.
4. Bee, B. (2013). Who Reaps what is Sown? A Feminist Inquiry into Climate Change Adaptation
in Two Mexican Ejidos. ACME: An International E-Journal for Critical Geographies, 12(1), 131-
154.
Violation of Women Human Rights in India
Brajesh Srivastava*
Introduction
It has been repeatedly said these days that women in India are enjoying the
rights equal to men. But in reality, the women in India have been the sufferers from
past. Not only in earlier times but even now days also, have women had to face
discrimination, injustice and dishonor. Let us now discuss the crimes done against
the women in spite of being given rights equal to men. These points will explain
that continues violation of human rights of women in India.
Violation of “Right to Education”
Education is considered as means of development of personality and awareness.
Education is one of the most important human rights but the position of women’s
education in India is not at all satisfactory. Young girls may be bought up to believe
that they are suited only to certain professions or in some cases to serve as wives
and mothers. Despite in the improvement in the literacy rate after independence,
there continues to be large gap between the literacy levels of men and women.
Almost half the women population are even unable to recognise language characters.
Al least 60 million girls lack access to primary education in India. Due to large
percentage of uneducated women in India, they are not even aware of their basic
human rights and can never fight for them.
Violation of “Political Right”
The political status of women in India is very unsatisfactory, particularly their
representation in higher political institutions – Parliament and provincial Legislation
which is of great under – representation which hampers their effective role in influencing
the government initiatives and policies regarding women’s welfare and development.
Their representation has been unable to reach even 10% in Lok Sabha. Thus it is
clear that, (a)- there is male domination in Indian politics and almost all the parties
give very little support to women in election despite their vocal support for 33%
reservation of seats for women in Parliament and Provincial Legislation. (b) Women
* Assistant Professor, Economics, Goverment Degree College, Manikpur, Chitrakoot, M.P.

have made initiatives in political participation but they have not been accepted in
politics.
Violation of “Right to Property”
In most of the Indian families, women do not own property in their own names
and do not get share of parental property. Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting
them, women continue to have little access to land and property. In fact, some of the
laws discriminate against women, when it comes to land and property rights. Though,
women have been given rights to inheritance, but the sons had an independent
share in the ancestral property, while the daughter’s shares were based on the share
received by the father. Hence, father could anytime disinherit daughter by renouncing
his share but the son will continue to have a share in his own right. The married
daughters facing harassment have no rights in ancestral home.
Violation of “Right to Protection of Health”
According to the World Bank report, malnutrition is the major cause of female
infertility. The presence of excessive malnutrition among female children as compared
to male children is basically due to differences in the intra – family allocation of
food between the male and female children. Normally, the male members are fed
before the female members of the family. According to Human Development Report,
in rural Punjab, 21% of girls in low income families suffer from severe malnutrition
as compared with 3 % of boys in the same family. Even the low income boys are far
better than upper income girls. Girl babies are less breast – fed than boy babies. 60%
of girl babies are born with low birth weight. Sometimes due to economic distress
and natural calamities like floods, droughts or earthquakes, the discrimination against
the female child increases. Moreover it has been confirmed by various studies that
the girl’s diet is inferior to the boy’s diet both in quality and quantity. Boys are
given more nutritive foods like milk, eggs, butter, ghee, fruits, and vegetables as
compared to girls. Due to this inferior quality diet, girls are more vulnerable to
infections and diseases. The reason again is that families spend less on medication
for girls than for boys.
Violation of “Right to Equal Oppertunity For Employment” and “Right to Get
Equal Wages for Equal Work”
The employment of the women in agriculture, traditional industries and in sizeable
section of new industries is declining at a very fast rate. The reason is that the
adoption of new technological changes requires new skill, knowledge and training.
And women in India, who constitute a large share of world’s illiterate lacks such
skills and knowledge. The studies have also showed that for the same task, women
are paid less than the males. Technological changes in agriculture and industry are
throwing out women from the production process. The women workers are concentrated
only for certain jobs which require so – called female skills. Thus, Indian labour
market is adverse to women workers. It shows that, the role of women in large scale
industries and technology based businesses is very limited. But even in the small-
scale industries their participation is very low. Only 10.11% of the micro and small
enterprises are owned by women today. Statistics show that only 15% of the senior
management posts are held by the women. In agriculture where women comprise of
the majority of agricultural labourers, the average wage of women on an average is
30 – 50 % less than that of men.
Violation of “Right to Live With Dignity”: Eve Teasing and Sexual Abuse
Eve teasing is an act of terror that violates a woman’s body, space and self –
respect. It is one of the many ways through which a woman is systematically made
to feel inferior, weak and afraid. Whether it is an obscene word whispered into a
woman’s ear; offensive remarks on her appearance; any intrusive way of touching
any part of women’s body; a gesture which is perceived and intended to be vulgar:
all these acts represent a violation of woman’s person and her bodily integrity. Thus,
eve teasing denies a woman’s fundamental right to move freely and carry herself
with dignity, solely on the basis of her sex. There is no particular places where eve
– teasers congregate. No place is really “safe” for women. Roads, buses, train, cinema
halls, parks, beaches, even a woman’s house and neighborhood may be sites where
her self – worth is abused.
Violation of “Right from Society, State and Family System”
Child Marriage
Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India and continues to this
date. Discrimination against the girl begins even before their birth and continues as
they grow. According to the law, a girl cannot be married until she has reached the
age of 18 at least. But the girl in India is taken as a burden on the family. Sometimes
the marriages are settled even before the birth of the child. Basically, this phenomenon
of child marriage is linked to poverty, illiteracy, dowry, landlessness and other social
evils. The impact of child marriage is widowhood, inadequate socialisation, education
deprivation, lack of independence to select the life partner, lack of economic
independence, low health/nutritional levels as a result of early/frequent pregnancies
in an unprepared psychological state of young bride.
Dowry Harassment and Bride Burning

The demand of dowry by the husband and his family and then killing of the
bride because of not bringing enough dowry to the in – laws has become a very
common crime these days. In spite of the Dowry prohibition Act passed by the
government, which has made dowry demands in wedding illegal, the dowry incidents
are increasing day by day. According to survey, around 5000 women die each year
due to dowry deaths and at least a dozen die each day in “kitchen fires”.
Rape
Young girls in India often are the victims of rape. Almost 255 of rapes are of girls
under 16 years of age. The law against rape is unchanged from 120 years. In rape
cases, it is very torturing that the victim has to prove that she has been raped. The
victim finds it difficult to undergo medical examination immediately after the trauma
of assault. Besides this, the family too is reluctant to bring in prosecution due to
family prestige and hard police procedures.
Domestic Violence
Wife beating, abuse by alcoholic husbands are the violence done against women
which are never publicly acknowledged. The cause is mainly the man demanding
the hard earned money of the wife for his drinking. But an Indian woman always
tries to conceal it as they are ashamed of talking about it. Interference of in – laws
and extra marital affairs of the husbands are another cause of such violence. The
pity women are unwilling to go to court because of lack of alternative support system.
Thus, all these violence done against women raises the question mark that how
these special rights being given to women are helping them? What are the benefits
of framing such laws for the women? Are they really helping them? Will the women
really be given an equal status to men one day? All these questions are still unanswered.
There is still long way to go to answer such questions
References
1. Crimes in India – 2010, NCRB, Ministry of Home Affairs.
2. Jalbert. E. Susanne., 2000. Women Entrepreneurs in the Global Economy, March 17, 2000
3. Shashi, Krishan. July 1, 2008. Indian Democracy and Women s Human Rights. Madhya
Pradesh Journal of Social Sciences.
4. United Nations Department of public Information DPI/1772/HR – February 1996.
5. Poonam Dhanda. 2012. Status of Women in India. RBSA publications. pp. 1-14.
6. Madhurima. 2010. Readings in sociology. New Academic publishing co. pp. 216-233.
Gender Discrimination and Status of Indian Women
Nimish Gupta*
Introduction
In the post modernization era, one of the issues which had attracted the attention
of the policy makers and social scientists was gender issues and concerns. Gender
issues mean the discussion on both men and women, though women who suffer
from gender inequality. From all gender issues, gender inequality is the most prevalent
in India. Consideration of gender inequality is now common in Government, Non-
Government organizations, and in the politics in India. The policy makers are strongly
believed that a positive commitment to gender equality and equity will strengthen
every area of action to reduce poverty because women can bring new energy and
new sights. A lot of debates are going on women and their development since last
few decades. Thus, several national and international organizations are trying to
promote the advancement of women & their full participation in developmental process
& trying to eliminate all forms of inequality against women. The importance of
feminism has been steadily growing and gaining intellectual legitimacy. In the world
only one-fourth of the families are headed by female. India is a male dominant
society and gender discrimination is customized habitually. Discriminations From
web to death females are facing lots of discrimination against them. Some of them
are ™ Abortion of female gravid with the help of scanning, giving raw paddy to
new born female baby, pressing the face by pillow or by breaking the female baby’s
neck, not giving enough and nutritious food, not allowing to go to school, not giving
needy health care while in ill health, early marriage, eve teasing, rape and sexual
harassment, dowry, divorce, destitution even for silly or without any reason.
Types of Gender Discrimination
According to Nobel Laureate Prof. Amartya Sen (2001), there are seven types of
gender discriminations at present in India. Here is a brief explanation of all the
types of gender inequality.
1) Mortality Discriminations
2) Natality Discriminations
* Associate Professor, Amity Business School, Amity University Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, U.P.
3) Employment Discriminations
4) Ownership Discriminations
5) Special Opportunity Discriminations
6) Basic-Facility Discriminations
7) Household Discriminations
Causes of Gender Discrimination
The causes of gender discrimination are educational backwardness, caste, religious
beliefs, culture, on the name of family history, customs and beliefs, low income,
unemployment, society, family situation and attitudes like male or even above them
female plays important role in the family and national development. But her contribution
is not recognized by the male dominant society.
Dunn, D. (1998), has focused on the situation of women in scheduled castes and
tribes groups which are considered to as „weaker sections of people and granted
special safeguards and concessions under the Indian Constituents. This paper
represented a descriptive picture of scheduled caste and tribe women s status in
Indian society and also suggested that socioeconomic development plays an important
role to reduce the disadvantage of scheduled group women.
Importance of Women in Development
Females are nearly 50 per cent of the total population but their representation in
public life is very low. Woman continues to bear the major load of the household
work. Her primary role is often viewed by the society as housewife.
In cardinal goals of democracy “of the people, by the people and for the people”
cannot be optimally accomplished if the female population remains out of political
empowerment. Subordination of women in society acts a structural constraint to
their participation in political activities. This constraint operates more or less for all
classes and communities of women. Prevalent culture which is very complicated and
often decisions are taken behind the scene may be regarded as another constraint in
this regard.
Legislation for Women
In India, several laws, legislations, policies and institutional reforms have been
enacted to carry out the gender action plan for the development of women. Legislation
is an important instrument for bringing about a change in the unequal economic and
social status in India. In pre-independent India, few laws were passed in response to
social demands and on the basis of humanitarian consideration. They are Bengal Sati
Regulation Act of 1829 and similar Anti-Sati laws in Madras and Bombay, Hindu
Widow Remarriage Act 1856, the Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act in 1937,
(The Muslim Personal Law) the Shariat Act 1937 and the Dissolution of Muslim
Marriages Act 1939.
After Independence, there have been important changes in legislation and litigation
which have facilitated the increased participation of women in political activities as
well as in the socio-economic development activities and the increase appear to be
more likely at the lower level than at the highest centres of decision making.
Article 14 of Indian Constitution says that the state shall not deny to any person
equality before or equal protection of the law, Article 15 says that no women can be
discriminated against on the ground of sex, Article 15 (3) emphasis that the state
shall make special provisions for women and children and Article 16 provides equality
of opportunity in matters relating to employment by the state.
In Article 39(a) emphasis that the citizens men and women equally, have the
right to an adequate means of livelihood, in Article 39(d) it says that the state should
secure equal pay for equal work for both men and women and in Article 34 it
provides that the state shall make provision for securing just and humor humane for
work and for maternity relief.
The 73rd and 74th Amendments of Indian Constitution in 1993 are the milestone
in the history of India, which provides lot of powers for the local bodies. It paves
the way for decentralisation, empowers the poor people as well as women.
According to these amendments not less than one third of the seats, meant for
direct election of members at each tier of Panchayats are to be reserved for women
and not less than one-third of the seats of chairperson at any level reserved for
women.
Solution for Gender Discrimination
Various movements, programmes are being carried out by the Government,
voluntary organizations and by lot of social activities for women’s development and
against the gender discrimination.
To solve the gender discrimination problem following factor would be very useful.
Education
Education develops the skills, imparts knowledge, changes the attitude and improves
the self-confidence. It provides employment opportunity and increases income. Hence
educating women is the prime factor to combat gender discriminate and for the
upliftment of women. Not only the female, the society must be educated to give
equal right for female.
Employment
Employment gives the income and improves the economic position of the women.
Employed women are given importance by the family members. Employment gives
the economic independence for the women.
Economic Independence
In India, mostly, women in the young age – depends her father, in the middle
age- she depends on her husband and in the older age – depends on her son. Woman
always depends on somebody for her livelihoods hence, independent in economic
aspects are imperative for women’s development.
Economic independence will free the women from the slavery position and boost
the self-confidence. Economic independence of women also helps in the national
economic development.
Empowerment
Empowering women with the help of laws, education and employment will make
the society to accept the women as an equal gender like male. Female also has all
the potential and empowering women will help to use her full capability and mitigate
the economic dependency of women.
Self-confidence
Due to prolonged suppresment, Indian women, an especially uneducated and
unemployed woman hasn’t had the self-confidence. Women need self-confidence to
fight against all the atrocities against her and to live self-esteemed life. Hence, boosting
the morale and self-confidence of the women, is the key to eliminate the inferior
complex of her.
Decision Making
Even in the family as well as in the society the decision making power of women
is denied. Mostly males make the importance decision in the family and in the society.
This makes women as voice less and destroys herself confidence and she feels less
important in the family as well as in the society. So, to end gender discrimination
women must empower with decision making power.
Conclusion
A nation or society, without the participation of women cannot achieve development.
If we eliminate gender discrimination, women will deliver all the potentials, skills,
knowledge to develop the family, the nation and the whole world.
References
1. Hazra, A. (2009), Gender Disparity in Education, Yojana, Vol.53, September 2009.
2. Seth, M. (2001), Women and Development: The Indian Experience, New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Gender Inequality in India: A Boon for Economic Growth
Himanshu Rastogi*
Prologue
Gender Inequality, in simple words, may be defined as discrimination against
women based on their sex. Women are traditionally considered by the society as
weaker sex. She has been accorded a subordinate position to men. She is exploited,
degraded, violated and discriminated both in our homes and in outside world. This
peculiar type of discrimination against women is prevalent everywhere in the world
and more so in Indian society. The poor state of indian women in India has been
reflected by UNDP’s Gender Inequality Index 2014 which states that India ranks 127
out of 152 countries in the List. This ranking is only above Afghanistan as far as
SAARC countries are concerned. The World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap
Index 2014 gives India 114 rank in the list of 142 countries of the world. This Index
examines gender gap in four major areas- economic participation and opportunity
134th rank, educational achievements 126th rank, health and life expectancy 141st
rank, political empowerment 15th rank.These two important Global Indices show
the sorry state of affairs in India as far as gender equality is concerned. Only in case
of ‘Political Empowerment’ India is doing fine which is a welcome sign. But other
indices are very poor and a lot need to be done to improve the same. Basically in
our country 7 types of gender inequality exists such as - Mortality Inequality, Natality
Inequality, Employment Inequality, Ownership Inequality, Special Opportunity
Inequality, Basic-Facility Inequality, Household inequality.
Literature Review
Seema Jayachandran (2014), Northwestern University, ‘The Roots of Gender
Inequality in Developing Countries’ discussed about gender inequality in education,
personal autonomy and many more.
Priti Jha, Niti Nagar in their study paper ‘A study of gender inequality in India’
International Journal of Indian Psychology discussed about the existence of gender
inequality in various region in India and has also been centered to understand’ how
* Associate Professor, Amity Business School, Amity University, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, U.P.
it stop the growth and economy of India’. In support of that an effort has also been
made to unearth few core factors that are accountable for this problem.
Chaudhary, & Sarkar, D. (2012), has tried to find out some factors i.e. educational
status, work participation, level of gender inequality, of the Cooch Behar, a district
of West-Bengal, India and suggested some relevant strategies implication for reducing
this gender inequality to promote the deprived women of this district.
1) To identify the factors which are responsible for gender inequality.
2) To give suggestions to reduce gender inequality.
Factors Behind Growing Gender Inequality
There are so many factors which are fully responsible for gender inequality in
India. These factors are as follows:
Economic Factors
Labor participation: There is wage inequality between man and woman in India.
A substantial number of women enter the labor market after thirties, generally after
completion of their reproductive roles of child bearing and rearing.
Access to credit: There are large disparities between men and women in terms of
access to banking services. Women often lack collateral for bank loans due to low
levels of property ownership and micro-credit schemes have come under scrutiny
for coercive lending practices.
Occupational inequality: Women are not allowed to have combat roles in military
services. Permanent commission could not be granted to female officers because
they have neither been trained for command nor have been given the responsibility
in India.
Property Rights: Although women have equal rights under the law to own property
and receive equal inheritance rights, yet in practice, women are at a disadvantage.
The Hindu Succession Act of 2005 provides equal inheritance rights to ancestral and
jointly owned property, the law is weakly enforced.
Women’s inequality in proper inheritance: Women are insignificantly deprived
of their proper inheritance culturally and religiously as well. The religious constitution
doesn’t give women equal inheritance; there is a segregation of giving the property
to women as they will not be given the property as men can have.
Employment inequality: Some common inequalities that take place in the workplace
are the gender-based imbalances of individuals in power and command over the
management of the organization. Women are not able to move up into higher paid
positions quickly as compared to men. Some organizations have more inequality
than others, and the extent to which it occurs can differ greatly. In the workplace the
men usually hold the higher positions and the women often hold lower paid positions
such as secretaries.
Social Factors
Education: The female literacy rate in India is lower than the male literacy rate.
According to census of India 2011, literacy rate of female is 65.46% compared to
males which are 82.14%.
Health: On health issue, the gender inequality between women s and men s life
expectancy and women live compared to men in good health because of lots of
violence, disease, or other relevant factors.
Patriarchal Society: Most of India has strong patriarchal custom, where men hold
authority over female family members and inherit property & title. It is the custom
where inheritance passes from father to son, women move in with the husband &
his family upon marriage & marriages include a bride price or dowry.
Dowry: The dowry system in India contributes to gender inequalities by influencing
the perception that girls are a burden on families. Such belief limits the resources
invested by parents in their girls and limit her bargaining power within the family.
Gender-based violence: Gender-based violence such as rape, sexual assault, insult
to modesty, kidnapping, abduction, cruelty by intimate partner or relatives, importation
or trafficking of girls, persecution for dowry, indecency and all other crimes are
practiced on women. These crimes show the high degree of inequality in India.
Women’s inequality in decision making: In India, Women have less authority
than men to legal recognition and protection, as well as lower access to public knowledge
and information, and less decision-making power both within and outside the home.
This is also one of the reasons for inequality in gender.
Cultural Factors
Old age support from sons: A key factor driving gender inequality is the preference
for sons, as they are deemed more useful than girls. They are supposed to support
the old age security of their parents.
Patrilineality system: It is a common kinship system in which an individual’s
family membership derives from and is traced through his or her father’s lineage It
generally involves the inheritance of property, names, or titles by persons related
through one’s male kin.
Role of sons in religious rituals: Another factor is that of religious practices,
which can only be performed by males for their parents’ afterlife. Sons are often the
only person entitled to performing funeral rights for their parents.
Son Preference: Boys are given the exclusive rights to inherit the family name
and properties and they are viewed as additional status for their family. Moreover,
the prospect of parents losing daughters to the husband s family and expensive
dowry of daughters further discourages parents from having daughters. There is a
strong belief that daughter is a liability.
Analysis & Interpretation
From the above factors, we can interpret that economic, social, cultural, legal and
political factors are responsible for gender inequality in India. India needs to deactivate
the gender Inequality. The needs of the day are trends where girls are able not only
to break out of the culturally determined patterns of employment but also to offer
advice about career possibilities that looks beyond the traditional list of jobs. It is
surprising that in spite of so many laws, women still continue to live under stress
and strain. To ensure equality of status for our women we still have miles to go.
Man and Woman are like two wheels of a carriage. The life of one without the other
is incomplete.
Suggestions
There is a solution of every problem. For reducing gender inequality in India, we
should offer high level of education to girls and increase women empowerment. We
should also give them opportunity in active politics & social activities so that social
integration in Indian society can be made. Government should make policies & strategies
regarding stopping the sex identification & abortions. In context of above NGOs can
also play an important role to eradicate Gender Inequality. Politicians should frame
out policies for increasing social welfare development regarding this issue. The
Campaign of our Prime Minister Mr. Narender Modi “Beti Bachao Beti Padhao” can
be successful, when the mindset of Indian society will be changed towards women.
Conclusion
India must take concrete steps needs to reduce the gender inequality. As persistent
gender inequalities continue, there is need to rethink the concepts and strategies for
promoting women’s dignity and rights. There is need for new kinds of institutions,
incorporating new norms and rules that support equal and just relations between
women and men. Man and woman are like two wheels of a carriage. The life of one
without the other is incomplete. The only fool proof method to stop gender inequality
is to bring about change in the mind sets of people. This problem can’t be solved by
few but everyone must join hands to eradicate this inequality.If we are able to make
dent on gender inequality there is no doubt that we will become the best country of
the world not only in terms of economic growth but also in terms of happiness
index where females will again find their dignity justifying our values where we say
that we worship women.
References
1. Jha Priti, Nagar Niti (2015), “A Study of Gender Inequality in India”, The international
Journal of Indian Psychology, Vol.2, Issue 3, ISSN: 2349-3429,pp. 46-53.
2. Kabeer, N (1999) ‘From Feminist Insights to an Analytical Framework: An Institutional
Perspective on Gender Inequality’ 4. Razavi, S (2003), ‘Women’s changing roles in the context
of economic reform and globalization’. Background paper for EFA Global Monitoring Report
2003/04
3. Santosh Ranganath N., Kama Raju T. (2009), “Gender Development in India: Dimensions
and Strategies”, Management Trends, Vol. 6, No. 1 & 2, ISSN: 0973-9203, pp. 120-126
4. Seguino, Stephanie. (2006). “Gender Equality and Economic Growth: A Cross-Country
Analysis”, World\ Development, Vol. 28, No. 7, pp. 67-71. 7. Singh, Ajit and Ann Zammit.
(2007), “International Capital Flows: Identifying the Gender Dimension”, World Development,
Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 1249-1268.
Role of Women’s Movement for Empowering Women in India
Veena Upadhyay*
Introduction
The goals and structures of women’s movements reflect the commonalities as
well as the differences among women. For example, feminist movements tend to be
associated with the aspirations, and the opportunities, of middle-class women. Feminist
movements include women’s rights movements focusing on the goals of equal rights
under the law and equal access to education, careers, and political power; women’s
liberation movements that challenge cultural patterns of male domination in the family
and personal life through strategies that raise the consciousness of women of their
own oppression, often within the context of women-only groups; Black feminist movements
that address racism along with sexism; and socialist feminist movements that see women’s
empowerment as tied to the role of government, labor, and civil society in securing
the entitlements of all citizens to equity and social security. The activists in feminine
movements tend to be working-class women organizing to address problems of poverty
and sexism and their devastating effects on the health and welfare of their families.
Womanist, a term coined by the writer Alice Walker, refers to the confidence, strength,
and wisdom of African-American women based in their cultures and long struggle
to support their children and communities and to end racism and all forms of injustice.
Women’s Movements in India: Pre-Independence Women’s Movements
The women’s movement in India began as a social reform movement in the
nineteenth century. The Western ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity were being
imbibed by the educated elite through the study of English. Western liberalism was
to extend to the women’s question and translate into awareness on the status of
women. In India, the tradition of women’s struggles and movements against patriarchal
institutions of gender injustice, have been weak when compared to the women’s
movements in the Western and European societies. In fact, women’s fight against the
oppression of patriarchy has been rather slow in emerging.
* Department of Economics, Shri Varshney P.G. College, Aligarh, U.P.

Most of the women’s writings of the eighteenth century reveal disenchantment
with the prevalence of patriarchy and gender injustices rather than any kind of active
resistance or revolt against them. Women did try to go against the male-dominated
world (for example, by joining the Bhakti Movement). The nineteenth century women
found themselves totally suppressed and subjugated by the male patriarchal ideologies
and attitudes of those times, though there was a feminist identity consciousness and
awareness of their plight. However, this awareness did not get translated into an
open and organized struggle for selfhood and survival.
Women’s Participation in the Struggle for Independence
The following quote from Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s Discovery of India best
illustrates the role of women in the struggle for Independence: Most of us men folk
were in prison. And then a remarkable thing happened. Our women came to the
front and took charge of the struggle. Women had always been there, of course, but
now there was an avalanche of them, which took not only the British government
but their own men folk by surprise. Here were these women, women of the upper or
middle classes, leading sheltered lives in their homes, peasant women, working class
women, rich women, poor women, pouring out in their tens of thousands in defiance
of government order and police lathi . The liberal ideas of the individual right to
freedom and equality were particularly championed by Mahatma Gandhi and that
laid the foundations of what later developed within the women’s movement as
autonomous women’s organizations fostering similar aims of self-determination and
independence. It was during this period that we have clear records of women’s
participation in struggle, although the enemy at that time was colonialism and not
patriarchy.
In the early years, however, Gandhi’s definition of women’s nature and role in
the freedom struggle was deep rooted in Hindu patriarchy. By the 1920s, however,
he began acknowledging the important role women could play in the struggle for
freedom, and called women to participate in the civil disobedience movement. Women’s
participation was not without restrictions, as politics dealt with the public life making
it ‘unsuitable’ for women.
Women’s Movements in India after Independence
There is a distinction between pre-independence and post-Independence women’s
movements in India. The pre-independence movements were essentially about social
reforms and initiated by men. In comparison, the post-independence movement
demanded gender equality, questioned gender-based division of labor and highlighted
the oppressive nature of the existing patriarchal structure.
In the euphoria of post-independence, it was believed that women’s status would
dramatically improve along with other marginalized groups because they were now
the masters of their destiny. However, when this was not achieved there was an
upsurge of various movements which raised a number of issues around diverse
subjects such as land rights, wages, security of employment, equality, etc. Some of
the issues on which women got together were work, population policies, atroci ties
on women, including rape and liquor.
After India gained independence from British rule in 1947, it was the Congress
party that came to power and formed the Government. The government made certain
attempts to fulfill the promises it had made to women during the pre-independence
period, and also in the initial period after independence. While framing the Constitution
of India, it included the very important aspect of equality of men and women in all
spheres of life. Article 14 of the Constitution of India states that, “The State shall not
deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws
within the territory of India”.
Discussion
Today, when we discuss the women’s movement or women’s collective action,
we should consider the contribution of feminists scholars as well as the widespread
and growing involvement of women in global politics, the participation of women in
popular movements together with men, the ongoing women’s specific demands and
the work of women in their ‘autonomous’ and ‘not so autonomous’ organizations.
Women’s struggles today and in the past have not only been about women-specific
needs and concerns. In the same breath we can also say that none of the issues of
the women’s movement in the 1970s and 1980s in India have ceased to be concerns
of the women’s movement today. In fact, some issues have become more complex
with the developments that have taken place in our society such as the growing
communalism, globalization, militarism, etc. However, it does seem that the activism
and the level of engagement with the struggle have under gone so much change that
it does seem like a thing of the past. While saying this, on the one hand, one cannot,
on the other hand, say with absolute confidence that this is not the voice of a nostalgic
activist. What is noticeable through this mapping exercise is that the recording of the
women’s movement began with the listing of ‘exceptional’ women and their experiences.
As we progress chronologically, we see the number of such ‘exceptional’ women
increasing and then finally it has become next to impossible to list out those who
have contributed and are contributing to the women’s movement today. This implies
above all else that the movement has grown in size and scope of its activities. Then
the volume of literature that is available today on the women’s movement can be
seen as an indicator of the success of the movement in carving a niche in society and
creating space for women’s voice. Looking back at the last four decades we can say
with a fair amount of certainty that women’s position in Indian society has changed.
This change has been to women’s advantage. There has no doubt been a wider
recognition of women’s rights, several steps taken towards equality among genders,
a greater sensitivity towards gender discrimination, etc. The women’s movement
comprising of autonomous women’s organizations, other women’s groups, women’s
studies centres, etc., has played no small role in the bringing about of this change.
We can, therefore, say without hesitation that, over the last 60 years, the women’s
movement has affected the socio-political environment in India. However, this change
has been at a gradual pace and has even affected certain sections more than others
leaving yet much to be desired. Despite the current fragmentation, women’s groups
have come together with one concerted voice on certain issues such as violence,
health, employment conditions including wages, legal rights and law reform. The
issues today are sexual harassment at the work place, the violence of development,
caste and communal violence, lobbying for increased political participation of women
in the highest levels of decision-making, etc. The list will go on as long as there is a
women’s movement. Indu Agnihotri and Vina Mazumdar 1995 have illustrated how
the women’s movement has not been static but has been compelled to respond to
changing political, social, economic and other national realities and not exclusively
influenced by women-specific issues and problems.
Suggestions
• Proper awareness for laws should be there that is law should not be restricted
to papers only but the implementation of law should be there so that every
woman can be familiar with her rights. Significant steps should be taken to
implement all the laws which are amended to facilitate detention, prevention
and punishment of crimes against women.
• Women education has to be made compulsory and women should be encouraged
• Strict implementation of the schemes and policies for women empowerment
should be done.
• Awareness camps for women should be organized where they can become
References
1. Shaila Desouza 2007 “women’s livelihood and rights”
2. Vina Mazumdar -1985
3. Gandhi and Shah- 1992 “Indian women’s movement”
4. Natarajan 1962; Sinha 1967
Role of Agricultural Products in Woman Employment
Vijay Laxmi* & Shambhu Nath Singh**
Introduction
India is a developing and predominantly agrarian economy. 70 percent of its
population is rural of those household 60 percent engaged in agriculture as their
main source of income. The agriculture sector is the backbone of an economy which
provides the basic ingredients to mankind and raw material for industries. Agricultural
products are providing employment to vast army of uneducated, backward and
unskilled labor as a matter of fact, if the process of economic development is to be
initiated and made self sustained it must begin for agricultural sector. Based on 2012
data, India is the home to fourth largest agricultural sector in the world. This research
paper makes an attempt to know the role of agricultural products in women employment
especially in rural area. In India, in over all farm production women‘s average
contribution is estimated at 55 percent to 66 percent .women provide one half of
labour in cultivation (unneveda and standard 1986). Women play a significant role in
agriculture. All in the world about 70 percent of the agricultural workers, 80 percent
of food producer and 10 percent of those who process basic food stuff are women
and they also undertake 60 to 90 percent of rural marketing; thus making up more
than two third of the workforce in agricultural production ( FAO 1985 ).
According to Subramanian the famous agricultural scientists “some historians
believe that it was women who first domesticated crop plant and there by initiated
the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting in search of food women
started gathering seeds from the native flora and began cultivating those of interest
from the point of view if food, fodder, fishes and fuel.”
Women plays a significant and crucial role in agricultural production and allied
field including in the main crop production, livestock production, horticulture, post-
harvest operation, agro-social forestry/ fisheries etc. is a fact long granted but also
ignored. The nature and extent of women’s involvement in agriculture, no doubt
varies greatly from region to region. Even with a region, their involvement varies
* Research Scholar, Institute of Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.
** Assistant Professor, Institute of Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P.
widely among different ecological sub zones, farming systems, caste, classes and
stages in the family cycle. But regardless of this variation there is hardly any activity
in agriculture production except ploughing in which women are not actively involved.
In some of the farm activities like processing and storage, women predominate so
strongly that men workers are numerically insignificant. (Aggarwal 2003) studies in
women in agriculture conducted in India and other developing and under developing
countries all points to collusion that women contribute for more to agricultural
production that has generally been acknowledged. Recognition of their crucial role
in agricultural should not obscure that fact that from women continue to be concerned
with their primary function as wives, mother and homemaker. According to 1991
census the male cultivator has increased in the country by 11.6 percent from 76.7
percent in 1981 to 85.6 million in 1991.The female cultivators however has increased
at much faster rate of 45.23 percent from 14.8 million in 1981 to 21.5 million in 1991.
Women Worker in Agriculture

Agriculture 1981 Census 1991 Census
Cultivators 14.8 % 21.5 %
Agricultural Labourers 20.8 % 28.2 %
The participation of rural women in agriculture is increasing in spite of scientific

and technological development the share of farmwomen in agricultural operation
has been shown in above table.
Share of Farm Women in Agriculture Operation

Activity Involvement
Land Preparation 32 %
Seed Cleaning and sowing 80 %
Inter cultivation activities 86 %
Harvesting , Reaping, drying cleaning, and storage 84 %
Source: Census of India 2001
Given information above shows that the average time spends by farmwomen in
household and agricultural activities, in the peak season active farmwomen spends
five to nine hours per day on the farm. Agriculture and allied activities almost take
the equal time and energy at per with household activities.
This research paper made an attempt to know the role of agricultural products in
women employment in Jhansi district of Bundelkhand U.P. region. According to 2001
census this region is home of 25 percent of people mostly landless and living under
poverty line, they have historically been surviving as agricultural labourers.

This study is based on two objectives.
• To study the Socio- economic conditions of street vegetable vender in Jhansi
district of Bundelkhand UP.
• To determine the level of per day earning.
Methodology of the Study
In this study both primary and secondary data has been used. Secondary data
has been collected from research papers, journals, and websites. Primary data has
been collected from interpersonal interview of vegetable women vendors in Jhansi.
These women are selected through purposive sampling method and information was
collected through personal questionnaire method. We have asked 12 questions related
to socio economic condition and per day earning. The data has been analysed through
table and percentage method.
Result and Conclusion
Data collected of the purpose of study was analysed and explained through simple
table. In the process of data collection we have asked 12 questions related to socio-
economic factor. In in table (1, 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3) we have shown age marital status,
educational status, no of family member regarding the age wise distribution mostly
respondents were related to less than 30 years and they were illiterate, married and
the no of family members is 3-5. In the table 2 is related to what kind of transport
they used to bring vegetable from market we analysed that they mostly bring it with
the help of public transport. And they live in urban area in hired house where only
electricity and sanitation facility is available.
Table 1
Age Less than 30 30 to 35 35 to 40 40 above Total
No of person 28 10 7 5 50
Percentage 56 % 20 % 14 % 10 % 100 %
Table 1.1
Marital status Married Unmarried Widow Total
No of person 32 1 03 50
Percentage 64 % 30 % 06 % 100 %
Table 1.2
Educational status Illiterate Up to 5th class 5th to 8th class 8th to 10th class
Percentage 62% 18 % 14 % 6%
Table 1.3
Family Members 3-5 persons 5-8 persons 8-10 persons 10-12
Percentage 46 % 30 % 16 % 8%
Table 2
Transport facility Own - 16 % Public- 42 %
Locality Rural -12 % Urban -38 %
House Own -14 % Rent- 43 %
Housing facility Sanitation- 70 % Electricity 96%
Table 3
Earning level No of person Percentage
Less than 500 20 40 %
500 to 1000 17 34 %
1000 to 1500 09 18 %
1500 to 2000 04 08 %
In the table we analysed that after working of 12 to 14 hours their earning is too
less out of 50 respondent 20 females were earning less than 500 rupees per day. 17
were earning 500-1000 and 9 were 1000-1500. 4 women condition were better because
they earning were 1500-2000 per day but their family were big. Overall all were
facing infrastructure problem and their socio- economic condition were not so good.
Suggestions
There are following suggestion for improving the condition of poor working women
in rural area.
• We must provide opportunities for better education in rural area for empowering
them and skill enchantment in all level.
• For improving condition of rural agricultural working women government should
fixed minimum wages and that can be revised after some intervals of time.
• We must improve work -place infrastructure in order to remove entry barriers
and attrition.
References
1. Roy C.N & Mishra Aseem November 2011 “Vendors and informal sector.”
2. K. Bhawmik and Debdulal Saha. June 2012. “Street vending in ten cities in India.”
3. Diptrekha Mohapatra July 2015. “Female worker in the unorganised sector in India.”
4. State of India 2015-16 “Government of India” Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer.
5. Bundelkhand.info.org.in.
Gender Inequality in Educational Opportunities in India
Manoj Kumar Mishra*
Introduction
Gender disparities remain deeply engrained, with twenty eight nations across
the developing world having nine or fewer girls in school for every ten boys. The
report alleged two-thirds of the total illiterate people are women. Of children who
enroll in primary school, only two-thirds reach the last grade. Country-level data
(UNESCO, 2010) shows India having been improved survival rates only marginally
in 2015 since 1999. Impact studies of cooked school meals indicate a positive participation
impact of such scheme in developing countries (Vermeersch and kremer, 2005; Ahmed,
2004). It has also positive impact on poor daily attendance of students (Ahmed,
2004). In a review of educational outcomes of school feeding programmes Kristjansson
et al. (2007) find that school-feeding programmes improve attendance, particularly
in rural, low-income schools in developing countries. While enrolment has been the
focus of most research on this issue, the practical need for fulfilment of the target of
a full course of primary schooling of all children is not only enrolment, but that
children must continue to attend classes.
Gender and Regional Issues
With pace of time research on primary education in India suggests that mid-day
meals enhance school participation. Jayaraman and Smith (2011) provide a large scale
assessment of the enrollment effects of India’s midday meal scheme based on District
Information System of Education (DISE). Using a panel data set from 2002 to 2004,
they find that mid-day meals increases primary school enrollment substantially. Provision
of mid-day school meals increased enrolment of girls (Dreze and Kingdon, 2000).
This favorable effect for girls is similar to Afridi (2014) who find that transition from
monthly distribution of free food grains to the daily provision of free cooked meals
have a significant impact on improving the average monthly attendance rate of girls
in grade one in a rural area of India. On the other hand, better infrastructure, more
developed education facilities and a reinforcement of the Constitutional requirement
* Assistant Professor, Economics and Quantitative Techniques, Amity University,
Patna, Bihar.
of mandatory education for children over the age of 5 years must lead to higher
school attendance in urban area compared to rural area. All this needs to investigate
if gender and regional disparities in school attendance still persist in India significantly.
Statistical hypotheses for this purpose have been formulated and test results are
discussed.
Empirical Methods
Data
The present study is based on the eighth quinquennial large sample survey on
employment and unemployment conducted in the 68th round of NSS during July,
2011 to June, 2012. The survey was spread over 7402 villages and 5252 urban blocks
covering 100957 households (59129 in rural areas and 41828 in urban areas) and
enumerating 459784 persons (281327 in rural areas and 178457 in urban areas).
4. Results and Discussion

In contrast, for children who ever attended but currently not attending school
(drop outs), on the whole, there is no significant difference in MPCE between the
2nd response group and all other response groups, establishing low MPCE as being
the key factor for drop outs.
Table 1: Percentage Distribution of Children (5-14 years) by General Level of

Education, All India, 2011-2012
General education
Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female

level*
10-14
10-14
10-14
5-14
10-4
5-14
5-14
5-14
5-9
5-9
5-9
5-9
01 22 05 13 23 07 15 15 03 09 16 03 10
02 02 00 01 01 00 01 02 01 01 01 00 01
03 73 31 52 72 29 50 78 24 51 78 23 50
04 04 45 25 04 47 25 04 49 26 05 49 27
05 00 19 09 00 17 08 00 22 11 00 24 12
06 00 01 00 00 01 00 01 01 01 00 01 01
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table 2: Distribution of Dropout Children by Level of Education, all India, 2011-12

Dropout Children
General Education Level*
Rural (%) Urban (%)
1 12.01 10.95
2 1.37 2.31
3 32.86 35.64
4 35.47 34.91
5 16.61 14.84
6 1.68 1.34
Total 100 100
*Classification of General Education Level is as Described in Table 1.

Source: Unit Level Data of NSS for 68th Round on Employment and Unemployment Situation in India.
Table 3: Test Results of Gender Disparity
Statistics Rural Urban
pm 0.916 0.928
pf 0.893 0.920
pmf 0.905 0.924
Nm 46,481 18,490
Nf 39,776 15,980
p mf 0.905 0.924
q mf 0.095 0.076
0.002 0.003
 pm  p f
Zmf 10.851 2.942
Source: Unit level data of NSS for 68th round on Employment and Unemployment Situation in India.
Concluding Observations
In this article education opportunities in India have been evaluated utilizing unit
level data of NSS for 68th round (2011-2012) on status of school attendance. It has
been done by testing the relevance of alternative responses of households explaining
reasons of currently not sending their children to school. Distribution of not attending
children by deciles classes of MPCE have been estimated to measure inequality in
education opportunity. Gender and regional bias in school attendance is a common
feature in developing countries, so that also has been tested. To reduce gender inequality,
women empowerment is one of the MDG. Present study examines whether empowering
of women in terms of education and workforce participation improve school attendance
rates of Indian children. The study also tries to identify other possible household
side variables affecting intra-household decision on child education so that policy
measures can be taken towards inducing demand for child education within the
households giving some insights to a sustainable solution to the problem. The issue
of inaccessibility to school emerges as being an important household side factor for
never attending school. This reasserts the inadequacy of school facilities in India,
even in urban areas. It needs more state expenditure on elementary education,
decentralized funding of education, the viability of small schools and the sustainability
of such provision; and also how these schools link with formal schooling.
Present study shows that even in terms of primary school attendance, India could
not achieve gender parity. Urban bias still persists. Our findings also highlight adult
education as having great consequence on school attendance of Indian children; the
higher the level of adult education in the family, greater is the likelihood of a child
being in school. Similar association is observed between adult female work force
participation and likelihood of a child being in school indicating women empowerment
as an effective means in improving school attendance, even in the presence of MPCE
as a control variable. Socio cultural variables (caste and religion) are still playing
considerable role in school attendance in India. Programs like Tribal Development
Program, provision of a primary school in every habitation with 200 and above for
SCs as against 300 and above for non-SC populated habitations have been instituted
to help traditionally disadvantaged groups. However educational access and retention
remains unsatisfactory.
References
1. Jayaraman, R. and Simroth, D. (2011): The Impact of School Lunches on Primary School
Enrollment, Evidence from India’s Midday Meal Scheme. Working paper, European School
of Management and Technology.
2. United Nations (2010): The Millennium Development Goals Report 2010. United Nations.
3. NSSO (2013): “Employment and Unemployment Situation in India, 2011-2012”. Ministry of
Statistics and Programme Implimentation, Government of India.
Women Entrepreneurship: Opportunities and Challenges in

India
Suman Joshi* & P.S. Bisht**
Introduction
Increasing numbers of women are becoming leaders of their own businesses, and
many are struggling to achieve success. A growing body of theory and research is
exploring how different women come to business ownership, their unique leadership
challenges and strategies for success, their personal change and the processes of
leadership development they experience. This study profiles women entrepreneurs
who own and manage small to medium sized businesses. It examined the problems
these women faced during the setting up and continued operation of their businesses,
and the work-family conflicts that these women faced. It also looked at their reasons
for starting a business and the self reported reasons for their success. The initial
problems faced by these women seem similar to those faced by women in western
countries. However, Indian woman entrepreneurs faced lower levels of work-family
conflicts and seem to differ in their reasons for starting and succeeding in business.
Women are an emerging economic force that policymakers cannot afford to ignore.
What are the implications of this for businesswomen throughout the world? How
can women’s business association’s best channel this potential and maximize it to
improve the status of women in the world economy? The world’s modern economy,
and in fact democracy, depends on the participation of both sexes. Since no such
system has ever existed, this system looks utopian, if not naive. However, governments
and institutions promoting democratic values make a real difference in women’s
business organization in newly emerging market democracies
What Makes A Women Good Entrepreneur
Have you ever thought about what qualities and characteristics are distinctive of
an entrepreneur? Ever wondered if you have what it takes to be an entrepreneur?
Fortunately, psychologists, sociologists, and historians have been studying the behavior
characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs for long enough to have come
* Lecturer, Department of Management, Pal College of Technology and Management,

** Professor, Department of Economics, DSB Campus Nainital, U.K.
up with a composite list of attributes and characteristics. Read the list and mentally
keep count of how many times you said, “Yes, that’s me!” At the end, you’ll tally up
the score and see if you have what it takes to be an entrepreneur.
1. She should have a strong desire for autonomy, to be your own boss, and live
life on your own terms.
2. She should be an independent self-starter, not needing or wanting others to
tell you what to do.
3. She should have a powerful drive to make money and accumulate wealth.
4. They are a calculated risk-taker with a higher-than-normal tolerance for failure
and consider failure a non-issue.
Literature Review
According to the Third All India Census of Small Scale Industries conducted in
2001-02 and subsequent estimates made, only 10.11% of the Micro and Small Enterprises
in India are owned by women while 9.46% of the MSE enterprises are managed by
women.
Why Women Choose to be an Entrepreneur
An international study says that women entrepreneurs, who own almost half of
all businesses in the United States, can be entrepreneurs due to many different reasons,
most of which share the same rational as their male counterparts—passion for their
ideas, the desire to become their own boss, and the need to address philanthropic
causes.
Demographic characteristics
Studies have shown that successful Women entrepreneurs start their businesses
as a second or third profession. Many of them have experienced a considerable amount
of dissatisfaction with their previous careers and in working for others. A significant
characteristic that many successful female entrepreneurs have in common is that
many of them have higher education degrees and they are not satisfied with their
present nature of job .
International Implications
From a large-scale perspective, female entrepreneurs encompass approximately
1/3 of all entrepreneurs worldwide. A recent international study found that women
from low to middle income countries (such as Russia and the Philippines) were
more likely to enter early stage entrepreneurship when compared to those of higher
income countries (such as Belgium and Sweden). A significant factor that may play
a role in this disparity can be contributed to the fact that women from low income
countries often seek an additional means of income to support themselves and their
families. As a result, many of them often resort to.
Strategy
Women business networks have also been found to be more generous in their
philanthropic contributions. At least seven out of ten women entrepreneurs of a new
business volunteer their time at least once per month to community-related causes.
In addition, 31% of them contribute $5,000 or more to various charities annually.
One of the advantages of working in a women-owned new business is that the
workforce is more diverse. Women entrepreneurs are more likely to employ a staff
that is more gender-balanced, comprising of 52% women and 48% men on average.
On the other hand, most male-owned businesses have a workforce that is often more
than 65% men. According to the Third All India Census of Small Scale Industries
conducted in 2001-02 and subsequent estimates made, only 10.11% of the Micro and
Small Enterprises in India are owned by women while 9.46% of the MSE enterprises
are managed by women.
Sources of Capital
The fact that more women entrepreneurs have risen in the past few years has
been made possible in part by the easy availability of business capital. Women
entrepreneurs tend to fund their startups with different sources of funding, including
“bootstrap” finances and commercial loans. However, despite the recent achievements,
research shows that it still remains difficult for women of color to get access to seed
funding. According to one recent study on women entrepreneurs, approximately
60% of Caucasian women business owners were able to obtain bank credit, compared
to 50% of Hispanic, 45% of Asian, 42 % of Native American, and 38% of African-
American women entrepreneurs.
Motivation
Much of a business woman’s drive to pursue entrepreneurship is due to the
immense passion she has for her work. Many women entrepreneurs are not afraid of
taking risks and are two times more likely to make above average risks than their
male equivalent, making monetary gain a less likely factor in their business pursuits.
Instead, they possess very strong business ideas and seek any and all means to share
their business ideas with others who may benefit from their discoveries. Another
motivating factor behind women entrepreneurs is the desire for control. Another
inspiring component that many successful women entrepreneurs share is the fact
they have the tendency to balance family life and career..
Future prospects
There are many promising predictions for women entrepreneurs in the near future.
More coalitions will be formed among female associates, enabling the establishment
of female business networks to flourish in the business world. Many women
entrepreneurs with home-based and service-related businesses will eventually shift
to the information technology industry, making this once male-dominated commerce
to be one of equal gender appeal.
Problems of Women Entrepreneurs in India
Women in India are faced many problems to get ahead their life in business. A
few problems cane be detailed as;
1. The greatest deterrent to women entrepreneurs is that they are women. A
kind of patriarchal – male dominant social order is the building block to
them in their way.
2. Entrepreneurs usually require financial assistance of some kind to launch their
ventures - be it a formal bank loan or money from a savings account. Women
in developing nations have little access to funds, due to the fact that they are
concentrated in poor rural communities with few opportunities to borrow
money
3. The male - female competition is another factor, which develop hurdles to
women entrepreneurs in the business management process.
Conclusion
Women entrepreneurs have become a strong driving force in today’s corporate
world. Not only are they able to equalize their duties of both motherhood and
entrepreneurship but they also comprise of almost half of all businesses owned today.
Many women entrepreneurs have an average age of 40-60 years old because they
have had previous careers in other areas. Their primary goal is not monetary reward
but rather personal satisfaction and community involvement. Many of them are educated
and assemble into groups in order to pool business ideas and resources together.
Women entrepreneurs also have more access to business capital and seed funding
than ever before. Yet despite the many opportunities, many prospective women
entrepreneurs are intimidated to move forward. Overall, there are many promising
forthcoming predictions for women business owners. They will continue to form
female business networks, transition towards information technology, and rely strongly
on e-commerce as their form of trade.
Bibliography
• Bruni. A, Gherardi. S, & Poggio. B. (2004). Entrepreneur-Mentality, Gender and the Study
of Women Entrepreneurs. Journal of Organizational Change Management. Vol. 17 No. 3. (pp.
256-268). Emerald Group Publishing Limited
• Helms. M. (1997) Women and Entrepreneurship: The Appealing Alternative. Business
Perspectives. Vol. 10, i1 (pp. 16-19). Gale Group – Information Integrity.
• Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship Publication Inc. (J.S.B.E. Inc.), vol.15, No. 4
Women in Dairy Development: A Winning Pair to Reduce

Carbon Footprint
Yogendra Verma*
Introduction
Uttar Pradesh (UP) is India’s most populous state, as well as the world’s most
populous sub-national entity. It is the second largest state economy in India. UP is
the largest contributor to the national milk production contributing around 18% of
total milk production in the country. It has got the second highest cattle population
and highest buffalo population in the country. Majority of the rural population of
the state is engaged either in the livestock breeding or dairying in one way or the
other. Thus, the contribution of livestock to agricultural income is 30% in the state.
The state is also equipped with a vast network of infrastructure and organizations
existing in the dairy sector. Most important and nodal agency of dairy development
in the state is Pradeshik Cooperative Dairy Federation established for achieving multiple
objectives of increasing milk production, processing and marketing of milk/milk
products and development of infrastructure to promote dairy industry within the
state.
Animal husbandry department of Government of Uttar Pradesh has commenced
‘KamdhenuandMini Kamdhenu Schemes’ for dairy farming. Under these schemes interest
free loan and subsidy would be given to the entrepreneurs. More than 1000 new
dairy farms of 100, 50 and 25 cattles have already been established through these
schemes. Uttar Pradesh is part of the National Dairy Plan (NDP) of the National
Dairy Development Board (NDDB).
According to census 2011 population of Uttar Pradesh is 19.98 cr. with majority
of men 104,480,510 and women are only 95,331,831, sex ratio of state is 912.
Overview of Pradeshik Cooperative Dairy Federation :
A milk cooperativ society in a village in Allahabad district set up in 1918 marked
the beginning of milk cooperatives in Uttar Pradesh; Successful efforts gave way to
formation of Lucknow Milk Union in 1938-the only Milk Union in the country -
* Research Scholar (JRF) Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

giving Uttar Pradesh the credit of being a pioneer state in the country in this segment;
PCDF was the chosen agency to implement the World Banks prestigious Operation
Flood programme in the state; At present PCDF lends its support and services to
6,00,000 rural milk producers through 59 District Milk Unions and about 13,500 Village
Dairy Cooperatives in the State; Parag is the brand name for a range of milk and
milk products including- Milk , Skimmed Milk Powder, Whole Milk Powder, Butter
, Ghee, and an array of indigenous milk products like Paneer,Curd,Peda,Milk Cake,
Khoa, Laddu, Mattha and Chhachh etc.; Plants in Meerut and Varanasi, are in constant
operation to supply balanced diet feed for milch animals owned by farmers of the
state; Training centres ,situated in Kanpur, Lucknow, Meerut, Varanasi, Agra and
Rae Bareilly,impart both skill and awareness based trainings; A Jersey Cattle breeding
unit is located in Rae Bareilly, for rearing of Jersey Bulls; At FFHC Unit in Moradabad
,Frozen Semen Doses of Good quality breed of milch animals are prepared for Artificial
Insemination Services; Fodder Seed Processing Plant located in Aligarh, produces
good quality Fodder Seeds for distribution to farmers for cultivation of good quality
fodder feed for milch animals
Barrier in the Success of Women
The poor rural and households need a whole package of supporting inputs and
services to develop dairying as an effective instrument of household livelihood. However
as the experience goes, there inputs are not always accessible to poor, rural women
major factors that hamper the success of women cooperatives are
1. Resistance to women as cooperative members; women are yet to be recognized
as farmers in their own right. In a mixed cooperative, lack of ownership of
land prevents women not only from becoming member but also from obtaining
credit, training, technical assistance. Women also do not have any say in the
decision making policies of the cooperatives and thus cannot help formulate
more policies to help themselves. Concrete strategies have to be devised to
help women get ownership and control over productive assets, individually
and collectively. It will be the single most important factor towards their
empowerment and economic well-being. Some of these assets include a plot
of land, housing, work shed, animals and shareholding of cooperatives.
2. Low Literacy
Understanding Carbon Footprint Of Dairy Sector And Role Of Women in
Reducing Carbon Footprint
The demand for milk and dairy products is expected to double by the middle of
the century due to population growth and change in consumption patterns. In the
same period, large emission cuts of global greenhouse gases (GHG) are required in
order to meet the target of keeping the temperature rise due to global warming to a
maximum 2ºC. The dairy sector therefore faces significant challenges. In response to
this, the dairy value chain has been actively working towards reducing green-house
gas emission associated with the production, collection and processing of milk and
delivery of dairy products, while satisfying the needs of the market place in the
most sustainable manner. Women is an integral part of dairy development so that
women can more understand and easily implement tools and ideas to reduce carbon
footprint form there filed compare to man.
Carbon footprint of milk - The product carbon footprint of milk is commonly
used to describe the total amount of CO 2, Methane CH4 and Nitrous oxide NO 2
gases emitted throughout the life cycle of the milk product with in system boundary
.(Carbon trust, 2008; Wiedmann and Minx, 2007). A carbon footprint is often expressed
as tons of CO 2 or tons of carbon emitted, usually on an annual basis (Growcom,
2008).
A Summary of the steps in Life Cycle Assessment : - Mapping the process (Setting
the goal)’ Setting scope & boundaries(Scope definition)’ Collecting data (Inventory)’
Calculating(Impact Assessment)’ Evaluation & Reporting (Interpretation)
Emission from Agriculture sector
Summary of GHG Emissions from the Agriculture Sector in Thousand Tons
CH4 N2O CO2 eq
13767.80 146.07 334405.50

Enteric fermentation 10099.80 212095.80
Manure management 115.00 0.07 2436.70

Dairy sector
Rice cultivation 3327.00 69867.00
emission
Soils 140.00 43400.00
Crop residue 226.00 6.00 6606.00
Source: India Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007, GoI
Reduction at the dairy- The main GHG emissions from industrial dairy production
are fossil CO2. Some emissions related to cooling agents can also be relevant, but
these are assumed to be of minor importance. The largest source of emissions at
dairy level is energy use for processing, transport and packaging, representing 7%,
3% and 3%, respectively, in industrialised countries (Gerber et al., 2010a). Inbound
transport of raw milk from farm to dairy site could be reduced by concentrating the
raw milk, as it consists mainly of water. Shifting to more fuel-efficient vehicles and
driving in a more eco-friendly manner are other ways to reduce fuel consumption
for both inbound and outbound transports. The choice of packaging can affect the
CF in various ways: choice of packaging material, amount of packaging per product
unit and packaging design. The waste management of the packaging at the disposal
stage also has an impact, and the preferred choice of packaging material can therefore
vary depending on the waste management system of the country where the package
is disposed.
Milk collection Concentrate milk and reduce volumes resulting in less transport
Energy use Reduce energy use and use renewable
Process planning Minimise product losses by utilising full capacity, optimise sequencing for e.g.
yoghurt
Product quality Extend shelf life to reduce losses at post-dairy chain
Packaging Choice of packaging material, adapt container sizes to consumer needs,
design to facilitate emptying at consumer
Distribution Load factor, energy-efficient vehicles
Conclusion
In Uttar Pradesh livestock production is largely in the hands of women instead
of men so women have responsibility to sustainably develop the dairy sector and
implement methods and ways how to reduce carbon footprint of dairy sector on
ground level or village level. Considerable amount of Gender inequalities found in
Rural dairy level. Therefore, there is a need to correct gender unfairness in livestock
sector. Efforts are needed to increase the capacity of women to negotiate with confidence
and meet their strategic needs.
Reference
1. Anonymous, (2010), India: Greenhouse gas emissions 2007, New Delhi, Ministry of Environment
and Forests Government of India.
2. Anonymous, (2009), Environmental /Ecological Impact of the dairy sector. Bulletin IDF
436/2009, Food and Agriculture organisation
3. Anonymous, (2017), Dairying in Uttar Pradesh. Noida. National dairy Development Board
Eliot’s The Waste Land as the Reflection of the Society and

the Tale of Gender and Sexuality
Bindiya Rahi Singh*
Introduction
As the title suggests The Waste Land an area where as nothing can survive and
lost its original form along with where people have forgotten their social duties due
to their involvement in the materialistic world. They have not their own feeling and
emotions in spite of it they have satisfy only their own selflessness desires and
cultural crises are the main point of destruction.
To explain this statement John Xiros Cooper has rightly said that, Eliot’s exploitation
of both religious and mythological materials in the poem has often been cited as the
principal factor in marking the poem’s deeper level of thematic unity. The poem’s
scatter, however cannot be so easily worked out. The dispersed or horizontal structure
of the text, the college like character of the assemblage of materials, points; it is said,
to Eliot’s critique of modern society. Fragmented, emptied of value, sterile, the modern
waste land is reflected in the poem’s artful disarray. But at a deeper level, Eliot’s
fertility symbolism and the end wining of pagan (Tiresias, Cumean Sibyl, Adonis)
and Christian (Grail, St, Augustine, Dante) materials yield, so the argument goes, a
familiar, compound narratives that moves from experiential failure, guilt, purgatorial,
suffering, and the hope (but the fact that) of spiritual rebirth… the figure of Tires as
is also the product of a highly imaginative cutting and splicing of given mythological
materials. The insistence of critics on the mythological solution to the poems scatter
can probably be set down to nostalgia for a lost unity, the very idea that the poem
itself seems to be marking out as the central failing of modernity 1.
The Waste Land is a long poem by T. S. Eliot. It is widely regarded as one of the
most important poems of the 20th century and a central work of modernist poetry
Published in 1922, the 434-line poem first appeared in the United Kingdom in the
October issue of The Criterion and in the United States in the November issue of The
Dial. It was published in book form in December 1922. Among its famous phrases
* Guest Assistant Professor, Betalghat Government Degree College Nainital Uttarakhand

and JRF (Research Scholar) HNBGU Garhwal University, Uttarakhand.
are “April is the cruellest month”, “I will show you fear in a handful of dust”, and
the mantra in the Sanskrit language “Shantih shantih shantih”.
Eliot’s poem loosely follows the legend of the Holy Grail and the Fisher King
combined with vignettes of contemporary British society. Eliot employs many literary
and cultural allusions from the Western canon, Buddhism and the Hindu Upanishads.
Because of this, critics and scholars regard the poem as obscure. The poem shifts
between voices of satire and prophecy featuring abrupt and unannounced changes
of speaker, location, and time and conjuring of a vast and dissonant range of cultures
and literatures.
The poem’s structure is divided into five sections. The first section, The Burial of
the Dead, introduces the diverse themes of disillusionment and despair. The second,
A Game of Chess, employs vignettes of several characters—alternating narrations—
that address those themes experientially. The Fire Sermon, the third section, offers a
philosophical meditation in relation to the imagery of death and views of self-denial
in juxtaposition influenced by Augustine of Hippo and eastern religions. After a
fourth section that includes a brief lyrical petition, the culminating fifth section,
What the Thunder Said, concludes with an image of judgment. 2
Eliot’s poem is only a life stage performance in the process, regeneration of self
and the world. The epiphany provoked by the poem is connected to faith and conviction
in that it positions the reader in the heartlands of a mystery that is to be unveiled
through the ensuing quest. So waste land for the reader, a prospect of experiences
that has presented through a base of religious dimension that is similar to the experience
of Myth and a study of the synchronic moment of aesthetic emotions.
Therefore there is no doubt to say that Eliot’s The Waste Land has succeeded to
create a bond between the experience of faith and conviction engendered by social
myth. Eliot’s poetry has got popularity due to his concept of a tension between
heteroglossia and monoglossia, along with a contrast between subjugation and
desubjugation.3
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land responded directly and immediately to the plight of
the postwar world by describing the wasteland of contemporary society. What makes
Eliot’s poem interesting and still meaningful there awarders of a century later is that
is he found a way to see in the condition of the world a reflection of the human
condition and of rampant spiritual decline and what allowed him to make this
connection was the myth he found in Jessie Weston’s from Ritual to Romance. Watson
had a wide – ranging knowledge of texts and was mare conversant with medieval
romance than almost any other scholar; and although many of the conclusions of her
book have subsequently been rejected, in its day from ritual to romance was a monument
of research, Eliot to would surely have been drawn to the cultural fluency displayed
in the book and seen in its use of myths…” 4
Eliot has presented the realistic point of view of life in his poetry in order to
illustrate the panic picture of the world. Sex, women and the spirituality are the
components of Eliot’s present poem which begins with a philosopher line such as;
April is the cruelest month, breeding lilacs out of the dead land, miming memory
and desire, stirring dull roots with spring rain. 5
Therefore Eliot’s poem starts with a problem of society and ends with a sense of
Christian faith and faith is present in the poem only through enigma, the positive
experience is of sickness in society and boredom with life.
In other words, the poem is the result of Poet’s interpretations of the society
through his personal neuroses and with his vivid evocations and his real experiences.
Consequently the poem is a study of Eliot’s depression which expresses through his
own line, a small house agent’s clerk.
The Waste Land associates with a morbid and unusual poem wither than a mirror
of English society; it is not a mirror, surely, but a distorting mirror, with the distortion
somewhere in the poet himself. What must interest us is the number of intellectuals
who clearly accepted it at its face value; why did Eliot’s extreme pessimism awaken
an echo in so many hearts? Fear of the future, and of international chaos, must be
one answer and fear of human nature are the other elements of Eliot’s Poem. 6
Conclusion
To conclude it can be said that T.S. Eliot was awarded with the Nobel Prize in
1948 for the contribution in the field of an English literature and through his works
he presents the realistic picture of the world. So his poetry is marked with the
sociological critical perspectives such as; feminism, corruption sexuality, modernity
and a path of spirituality and meditation. Therefore his poetry is a reflection of
introvert and extrovert routine of the human nature that also a study of psychological
and physical human nature. As the title denotes, it depicts the barrenness and infertile
attitude of the men which represents an absurd behavior towards life, sex and death
and he says that; it is not in his personal emotions, the emotions provoked by particular
events in his life that the poet is in any way remarkable or interesting.
Works Cited: Cooper Xiros, John. Modernism and the Culture of Market Society.
Cambridge University Press, 2004. P. 213
References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Waste_Land.
2. Balinisteanu, T. Violence, Narrative and Myth in Joyce and Yeats: Subjective Identity and Anarcho-
Syndicalist Traditions. Springer, 2012.p. Contents.
3. Singh, Rajni. Tennyson and T.S. Eliot: a Comparative Study. Sarup & Sons, 2008. P. 117
4. Eliot S. T. The waste Land other Poems. Broadview Press, 2010.p. 63
5. The New Cambridge Modern history. Volume XII. Cup Archive.p. 629
6. Ray Kumar, Mohit. Studies in Literature in English. Vol.12. Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 2002.
P. 137.
Issues on the Economics of Women Empowerment
Urjaswita Singh*
Introduction
Empowerment is when women herself defines their attitude strongly, with values
and behaviours in relation to their own interest with autonomy and claim their freedom
from existing male hierarchies, whether they live in traditional societies or modern
industrial societies. In its simplest form, empowerment of women means reorganisation
of power in favour of women. It is the manifestation of redistribution of power that
challenges patriarchal ideology and the male dominance. It is a transformation of the
structures or institutions that reinforces and perpetuates gender discrimination. Women
empowerment means empowering women socially, economically and politically so
that they can break away from male domination and claim equality with them. (avasthi
and Srivastava, 2001)empowering women means building nation in all respects firstly
with The concept of “demographic shift,” which generally represents the degree of
transition to modernity, involves some specific conditions like smaller family size,
higher longevity, increased maternal and infant survival rates, greater societal prosperity,
and increased political stability. These all go along with increased gender equality.
Second nation building activity is economic development which is strongly elevated
when women enter the marketplace. Women’s economic participation raises
development ,not only by decreasing the dependency ratio and increasing the proportion
of wage earners to dependents who must be supported, but also because women
have been found to be significantly more likely to reinvest their earnings in things
that benefit the family than men are.
1. The role of various institutions on women empowerment.
2. The Innovational aspects of women empowerment..
3. Ensuring social justice with women empowerment
* Assistant Professor, Economics, DAVPG College, Varanasi, U.P.

This paper is basically descriptive and analytical in nature. In this paper an attempt
has been taken to analyze the various aspects of women empowerment of in India.
The data used in it is purely from secondary sources according to the need of this
study.
Analysis of the Study
1. The Role of Various Institutions on Women Empowerment
a. Role of educational institutions
An education system should provide a complete set of strategies basically on
education, research/documentation, campaigns, networking ,influencing policies,
training as well as media and all these sets of strategies are interrelated to each
other. Education being a powerful tool of social transformation. Hence, education for
Women has to be paid special attention with Greater access for women to education
must be ensured in the educational system. Gender sensitivity must be developed. A
watchdog of media has to keep their eyes above the reasons for drop out rate of
girls and corrective measures with of help of campaigns, networking as well as
influencing policies should be taken to check the drop out rates of girls and special
initiative in terms of special checks should be considered like:
1. Reorienting and re-educating policy makers;
2. Securing equal access for boys and girls in education;
3. Holding workshops/seminars for teachers
4. Revising teaching materials;
5. Producing materials in local languages;
B. Role of Financial Institutions in Women Empowerment

Women in India and even in other developing countries face gender biasness and
at times working in government or private organizations which lead to many types
of exploitations like low wage rates as compared to their male counterparts, sexual
harassment, family pressure etc. Self-employed women or upcoming female
entrepreneurs are free from few of the above mentioned problems. For effective removal
of these financial problems there are so important measures has to be discussed in a
effective way like:
1. Financial inclusion with special reference to the women entrepreneurs.
2. Access to microcredit because it was largely targeted at women, and it has
also been seen as a key strategy for empowering women
3. Improving women’s financial knowledge and confidence that are typically
found to be the same as or lower than that of men
4. Enhancing financial capability/literacy show that women tend to do better at
day-to-day household money management
2. The Innovation Aspects of Women Empowerment
Innovation is the word firstly use by an economist Joseph Schumpeter in 1930
which means Generating high quality and more modified evidence, research and
data to better understand women’s needs, problems and opportunities as well as
meeting the needs of women consumers of the advancements made possible through
science, technology, innovation and partnershipsExpanding the number of women as
producers of science, technology and whether as researchers, entrepreneurs, academics
or business leaders. Innovation helps From the eradication of foot binding to foot
pedalled water pumps, from the Pill to property rights, innovation can transform
women’s lives.
3. Ensuring Social Justice with Women Empowerment

Social justice is “justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and
privileges within a society. “Justice especially ensured that individuals both fulfilled
their societal roles and received what were their dues from society. The World Summit
for Social Development (Copenhagen 1995) defines social justice as a concept refers
to inclusive society as a “society for all in which every individual, each with rights
and responsibilities, has an active role to play”. Such an inclusive society must be
based on respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms, cultural and religious
diversity, social justice and the special needs of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups,
democratic participation and the rule of law .
Conclusion
Thus given the objectives are the challenges to be sorted out sooner so that the
women empowerment becomes as a mission cum revolution for our economy. The
Empowerment of Women has become one of the most important concerns of 21st
century not only at national level but also at the international level. Government
initiatives alone would not be sufficient to achieve this goal. Society must take initiative
to create a climate in which there is no gender discrimination and women have full
opportunities of self decision making and participating in social, political and economic
life of the country with a sense of equality.
References
1. Duflo E. (2011) Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development, National Bureau of
Economic Research, Cambridge.
2. India: Women’s Empowerment - IFAD / OE, 2000. The Republic of India; TamiluNadu
Women’s Development Project : Completion Evaluation, Report 340 – IN Rome, April.
3. Baruah B. (2013) Role of Electronic Media in Empowering Rural.
4. Goswami, L. (2013). Education for Women Empowerment. ABHIBYAKTI: Annual Journal,
1, 17-18.
Women Empowerment Strategies
Pratibha Shah*
Introduction
Women empowerment means making women equal to men. Giving her equal
rights and privledge equal to men. Gender equality has been discussed and many
measures have been taken and at present scenario there has been drastic change in
the gender equality issue. When it is said that our country is far behind from becoming
the developed country then it is obviously becomes difficult to say that gender equality
can be removed totally it is an world issue. Empowering women just mean to give
her freedom to lead life.
Stauts of Women
In the vedic times it has been seen that women enjoy equal rights as of men.
They were given full freedom to go any where and enjoy life. Educated women were
given high stauts as well. Women were given equal right is evedent from the fact
that there were scholared women. Gargi, Maitrayi, Godha, Vishwashra are some of the
scholared women who remind us that they have full freedom to have their life.
Times have been changed we only read that after even acknowledging our history
the women of our country are still in the devastating stage. After many efforts and
with the advent of country development. This phrase is also detoriating slowly. Earlier
Women were pushed to stay at home and wait for the bread earner of their family
who was suppose to be the male one and they were only confined to household
chore and not allowed to go anywhere and made to work for men all day, these all
phrases have been changing day by day. Now women do help men in agriculture,
marketing and all other areas where they were earlier not allowed. At present the
stauts of the women have taken a drastic change.
Strategies for Women Empowerment
Medical Facilities
From the table it is clear that there has been increase in the population of the
women. Earlier female child was killed before there is any growth of her in the
* Assistant Professor, Sirifort College of Computer of Technology and Mangement, Delhi.

womb. But from the table we can measure that every year the ration of women is
increasing though not equal to men but it is increasing though the the numbers
differ in rural and urban area but is satisfactory that the poplulation is increasing.
Table 1: Rural Urban Sex Ratio in Post Independence India

Rural Urban
Sex Ratio Sex Ratio
Year Person Person
213.73 225.32 439.05 949 50.38 58.73 109.11 858

1971
255.37 268.50 523.87 951 74.59 84.87 159.46 879

1981
304.41 324.45 628.86 938 102.65 114.91 217.56 893

1991
360.95 381.67 742.62 946 135.57 150.55 286.12 900

2001
405.83 427.63 833.46 949 181.62 195.49 377.11 929

2011
Source : Office of Registrar General, India
Education Facilities
Earlier women were only consider for doing household chores they were not
consider to move out for work expect for the work which are related to kitchen.
Now the scenario has been changed now gilrs are given varied facilities to motivate
them for education. They are not hidden behind the house doors for the house work
only. They are given eduaction as well. There has been a vast change in the level of
eduaction of the women. They are also given equal right to increase their knowledge.
So many eduaction facilities have been provided to women of rural and urban area
which made their status of education at a increase level.
Table 2: Literacy Rate

Rural Urban
Year
Female Male Total Female Male Total
1971 15.5 48.6 27.9 48.8 69.8 60.2
1981 21.7 49.6 36 56.3 76.7 67.2
1991 30.17 56.96 36 64.05 81.09 67.2
2001 46,17 71.4 59.4 73.2 86.7 80.3
2011 58,75 78.57 67.8 79.92 89.69 84.1
Source: Census of India, Office of Registrar General, India

Employment
Women have been given opportunities to rean their living on their own. They are
also provided opportunities in which they can work along with women. Status of
women in agriculture sector have been improved. National Sample Survey (68th
Round) has conclude that there has been increase in the ratio of women labour
though they still lag behind man but they are increase is good news for women
polpulation.it has been stated that in the year 2011-12 the femail labour ratio was
24.8 as compared to men which were 54.3. Though the ratio indicate that the women
labour force is half of the men force but it can be calculated in numbers is enough
for the nation as compared to earlier times when there were no such numbers of
women labour force. There are various schemes for women which give them an
opportunities to make their living.
Table 3: Workforce Participation Rate

Rural Urban
Year
2004-05 32.7 54.6 16.6 54.9
2005-06 31.0 54.9 14.3 54.0
2007-08 28.9 54.8 13.8 55.4
2009-10 26.1 54.7 13.8 54.3
2011-12 24.8 54.3 14.7 54.6
Source: Census 2011
From the table it is evident that there has been increasing change in the labour
force of women.
Participation in Decision Making
If we talk about women participation in the decsion making process of our country
then we can see that apart from providing medical,education and financial facility. It
can be evident from the facts that eight out of 45 women were able to garner Ministerial
position in the central council of Ministers in the year 2015. This is not it there are 62
women MPs , among them 20 are in the age group of 41-50. Many of the women
have occupied the position of social and political worker who stood backbone of the
Indian constitution system. Women in rural are are also given equal advantage as of
women in urban it can be seen from the fact that 30% seats are reserved for the
women in gram Panchayat setup. Thesed all fact clearly state that no area can be
fulfill without the presence of women.
Government Programmes
Ministry for Women & Child Development : This was developed under the
Human Resource Development in the year 1985 for the upliftment of women and
child development. In 2006 it was given the ministrial status. This institution was set
up to create new plans and pocilies for the development of the women and child. It
were there to keep an eye on how their plans and plocies are effecting and what is
their progress. This programme is also initiated to look into the nurition supply to
the women and child, to conduct their health checkups amd immunization.
Swayamsidha Program : This programme is developed to to create women self
help group which strenghten the women by providing them all kind of resources
and skill which are required for their development. It will provide them financial
help so that they start their oun business . They will be given all the marketing
knowledge to enhance their business.
National Commission for Women : This is created to merge all the programmes
into one so that all the work related to women development can be done under single
window. This programme was late commissioned as “Mission Poorna Shakti”, for
empowering women in all area. For making the all round development of the women.
There were numbers of programes conducted for the upliftment of the women
some of them were Poverty Alleviation and Economic Empowerment of Women,
Schemes of Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying Fisheries, Scheme on
Development of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture, Scheme on Development of Marine
Fisheries, Infrastructure and Post harvest Operations, Scheme on Fisheries Training
and Extension. These all were durected for the development of the women. The
most important have been discussed. These all programes were established under
the above three programes only. There have improved the status of the women in
many ways.
Conclusion
These strategies have improved the situation of women in many ways. They
have actually brought development in women status. From health, education and
participation women have shown immense development. But still there are some
challegenges which need to be overcome. Some of them are maternal morality rate
though reduction has been witness in this but still there are some area where much
has to be done. 39% of women attended the primary education. Even after government
efforts still women are not able to fetch education due their family and orthodox
pressure.government is doing every bit of work to enhavce the status of women but
awareness and taking stand for their right is required at present scenario. Women
need to fight for their right to improve their situation.
References
1. https://www.nmew.gov.in/index.php?lang=1 accessed on 26th December 2013
2. Ibid
3. https://ncw.in/frmLLawsRelatedtoWomen.aspx accessed on 24th December 2013
4. https://www.gujaratindia.com accessed on 28th December 2013
5. “Schemes and Strategies for Women Empowerment in India”,Parul Padhi
A Study on Issues and Challenges of Women Empowerment

in India
Anshu Gupta*
Introduction
Women Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social, educational,
gender or economic strength of individuals and communities of women. Women’s
empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variable that include
geographical location (urban / ruler) educational status social status (cast and class)
and age. Policies on Women’s Empowerment exist at the national, state and local
(Panchayat) levels in many sector, including health, education, economic opportunities,
gender based, violence and political participation. However there are significant gap
between policy advancements and actual practice at the community level.
Empowerment of women is essentially the process of upliftment of economic,
social and political status of women, the traditionally underprivileged once, in the
society. It is the process of guarding them against all forms of violence. Women
empowerment involves the building up of a society, a political environment, wherein
women can breathe without the fear of oppression, exploitation, apprehension,
discrimination and the general feeling of persecution which goes with being a woman
in a traditionally male dominated structure.
Women constitute almost 50% of the world’s population but India has shown
disproportionate sex ratio whereby female’s population has been comparatively lower
than males. As far as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to
men in all the places. In the Western societies, the women have got equal right and
status with men in all walks of life. But gender discriminations are found in India
even today. The paradoxical situation has such that she was sometimes concerned as
goddess and at other times merely as slave.
Concept of Empowerment
Empowerment is a multi-dimensional process, which should enable women or
group of women to realize their full identity and power in all spheres of life (Surekharao
* HOD, Lecture in Economics, K.L.S.L. College, Raniya, Kanpur Dehat, U.P.

and Rajamanamma, 1999). It consists of greater access to knowledge and resources,
greater autonomy in decision making to enable them to have greater ability to plan
their lives, or to have greater control over the circumstances that influence their lives
and free from shocks imposed on them by custom, belief and practice. Generally
development with justice is expected to generate the forces that lead to empowerment
of various sections of population in a country and to raise their status specially in
case of women
Literature Review
Malik and Courtney (2011) studied that how higher education offers to women.
The economic independence and increased standing with family were the benefits of
higher education. It also enabled the women to impact discriminatory practices. Noreen
and Khalid (2012) explored the possibilities and opportunities for women empowerment
and how the participants in the study understand the role of higher education in
empowerment of women at home and at work. They found out that the women
should continue higher education and career by strategizing and acknowledging the
support of their family members.
The study was undertaken with the specific objective to assess the impact of
SHGs upon women empowerment and determine the current status of SHGs as far
as their impact upon women empowerment.
There was no study conducted in Ranchi district related specifically to assess the
impact of SHGs upon women empowerment and so this district was chosen for this
study. The rationale behind choosing the Bero block was the larger number of inhabitant
villages in this block as compared to the other blocks in the district. In Ranchi SHGs
function with the help of a President and Secretary. However, SHGs there are in the
initial stages of development. The members were selected randomly from 10 SHGs
with one leader and one animator from each group. Both qualitative and quantitative
methods have been employed critically explore the existing linkages between SHGs
and women empowerment and its impact upon their socio-economic status. Women
self- help group members were interviewed and selected case studies were conducted.
The interviews aimed at obtaining an idea of the problems envisaged and the prospects
of involving SHG in over-all empowerment of women joining the group. Select focus
group discussions (FGD) were conducted with group members from selected SHGs.
FGD were aimed at determining individual members’ perception about their roles,
expectations and their achievements in enhancement of socio-economic status as a
result of joining the self help group.
Challenges of Education
The vast majority of the world’s poor population is women. “Around the world,
healthy, educated, employed and empowered women break poverty cycles not only
for themselves, but for their families, communities, and countries too.” According to
United Nations World’s Women 2010 Trends and Statistics, two-third of the world’s
illiterate population is female. The majority of school age children, not in schools are
girls. Women all over the world are challenged by a number of obstacles that restrict
rapidly becoming a woman’s disease. Near about 60% of people living in Sub-Saharan
Africa were sufferings with HIV/AIDS. When we talk about our country, the country
has grown from leaps and bounds since its independence where education is concerned,
the gap between women and men is severe. While 82.14% of adult men are educated,
only 65.46% of adult women are known to be literate in India. Additionally, the
norms of culture that state that the man of the family is the be-all and end-all of
family decisions is slowly spoiling the society of the country.
Suggestion
Women Entrepreneur: According to a 2010 report Women Entrepreneurs Worldwide
by Global Entrepreneurs Monitor that included interviews with more than 90,000women
across 59 economies- in only one of them did more women participate in
entrepreneurship than men. Only eight out of 54 economies- Panama, Venezuela,
Jamaica, Guatemala, Brazil, Thailand, Switzerland, and Singapore-have equal
participation by men and women in entrepreneurship. The remaining economies show
lower female participation, some as low as a 1:10 ratio. Women entrepreneurs made
up between 1.5 percent and 45.4 percent of the adult female population in their
respective economies. Around 83 million women across those regions ran businesses
they had launched at least three and a half years before.
Conclusion
Education among women is the most powerful tool of attaining power in the
society. Higher Education of women plays a very important role in releasing their
energy and creativity and enabling them to meet the complex challenges of the preset
world. It helps in lessening inequalities and functions as a means for improving
their status within the family. The higher education increases the women to take
independent decisions, to reduce violence, women’s ability to claim legal rights,
participation in civic society, economic independence and many more. The biggest
challenge before the Government and NGO’s is to create awareness and sensitization
among people of all levels, especially in rural areas, about the special needs of women
and girls.
References
1. Role of Education and Employment in Women Empowerment in Indian Stream Research
Journal, Vol.2; Issue 8.
2. Higher Education as a Tool for Rural Women’s Empowerment. University News, Vol.50;
Issue 39.
3. Girls Education Empowerment and Transitions to Adulthood. International Center for Research
on Women (ICRW).
Strategies of Women Empowerment: A Comprehensive and

Inclusive Approach
Mohan Singh*
Introduction
Historically the world over, either by law or by custom the status of women is
undermined by asymmetrical power relationships in decision making and personal
and social rights (Thakur, 2009:81). Words of former President of USA, Bill Clinton,
women perform 66% of world’s work and produce 50% of food yet earn only 10% of
the income and own only 1% of the property, indicate that the policies of economic
development failed to incorporate women concerns and correction of gender inequality
and discrimination. Kofi Annan had rightly said - ‘There is no tool for development
more effective than the empowerment of women’ which is evidenced by a study in Brazil
showed that the likelihood of a child’s survival increased by 20% when the mother
controlled household income as quoted by World Bank President Zoellick in his
speech at the MDG3 conference, Copenhagen on 25 March, 2010. Inclusive growth
has to ensure opportunities for all sections of the population with a special emphasis
on the poor, particularly women who are most likely to be marginalized in every
form of social and economic institutions (Kabeer, 2012).
But this comprehensive, multilayered and complex dimensioned issue of women
empowerment had been taken isolately by different stakeholders. It is basically socio-
economic issue to be tackled by every corner with combined approach of scientific,
sociological, political, psychological, economical, personal and societal in the both
theoretical and practical perspectives. Thus the task of women empowerment is to
be dealt conductively with comprehensive approach.
This is basically a conceptual paper as an effort to undergo different aspect of
women empowerment. Obviously it is based on different literatures dealing with the
works, research and policy initiatives for the matter. The purpose of this paper is to
dig out the fundamentals of the issue of women empowerment and to make out the
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Army Cadet College, IMA, Dehradun,

Uttrakhand.
flaws for less effectiveness of the same. Efforts are also made to highlight the till
ignored aspect which is integral part of women empowerment not being addressed
properly resulted into low outcome of the movement. Eventually it is a qualitative
study based on secondary sources only. For ease and better assimilation, this paper
is segmented through the headings like concept, history and analysis. To understand
the whole issue holistically women empowerment in Indian context is taken into
discussion. At the end the finding of analysis is sum up in the conclusions.
Indian Scenario
The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its
preamble, fundamental rights, fundamental duties and directive principles. The
Constitution not only grants equality to women but also empowers the state to adopt
measures, a position; indiscrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of
democratic polity, our laws, developmental policies, plans and programmes are aimed
at women as advancement in different spheres. India has also ratified various
international conventions to secure rights of women. The women’s movement and a
widespread network of Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) having strong grass-
root presence and deep insight into women’s concerns have contributed in inspiring
initiatives for the empowerment of women. Women today are trying to understand
their position in the society. Women have become increasingly aware of sexual
inequalities in every sphere of life and are seeking ways to fight them (Bhuyan,
2006).
India ranks 131 out of 187 countries on the gender inequality index, according to
the United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 2015. The
gender inequality index measures the loss in a country’s progress and human
development because of gender inequality in three sectors: reproductive health, women
empowerment and labor market participation (Singh and Gupta, 2013: 54-63). India
ranks low partly because of its skewed sex ratio, with only 940 females every 1000
males, according to Indian government data. Indian families often prefer boys to
girls, and female feticide is tragically common. The UNDP study says that only
26.8% of Indian women above the age of 15 in 2015 were a part of the country’s
labor force, compared to 79.1% men. In Parliament, only 12.2% of lawmakers are
women. Only 35.3% women above 25 years received a secondary education in 2015,
compared to 61.4% of men. The report says that estimated gross national income per
capita for female in India was 2184 (2011 ppp$) as compared to that of male was
8897 (2011 ppp$) are the some data showing the actual position of Indian women
(UNDP, 2015). The Global Gender Gap Index, which tries to measure the ‘relative
gaps between women and men across countries in four key areas—health, education,
economics and politics (Mokta, 2014: 476-478) ranked India at 87 out of 144 countries
in the year 2016. It signifies the low status of women in reference to relative access
of socio-economic resources. There are other indices like WEI, GME etc in which
India’s position remained remarkably low.
A lot have been done in India on part of government which has been proved as
mile stone in way of women empowerment. Provisions made under the Constitution
of India like, Right to equality under Article 14 which guarantees to all Indian women
equality before law; Equal pay for equal work under Article 39(d), which guards the
economic rights of women by ensuring equal pay for equal work; and Maternity
Relief under Article 42, prompts the state to make provisions for insuring fair and
humane condition of work and maternity privileges for women. Dowry Prohibition
Act (1961) prohibits the request, payment or acceptance of a dowry which has been
a major cause for harassment of women. Creation of National Commission of women
in 1992 had been proved the greatest shield for women against all kind of discrimination
and crime. The National Policy for Empowerment of Women 2001 has as its goal
bringing about advancement, development and empowerment of women in all spheres
of life through creation of a more responsive judicial and legal system sensitive to
women and mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process. Protection
of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) provides a more effective protection of
the rights of women who are victims of domestic violence. Sexual Harassment of
Women at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act (2013) is very
useful tool to maintain conducive environment at the workplace for women as they
are protected from any sort of sexual harassment. In accordance with the Panchayati
Raj Institutions Act vide the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, all the local
body governances have one-third of their seats reserved for women which has become
a viable tool of social change through political participation and awareness. India is
also signatory of all international laws and convections which are enabled to eliminate
of all forms of discrimination against women and provide power to women to have
access, ability and control over resources to enjoy equal status in the society. Central
government of India is also running so many flagship program for women
empowerment such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme, One Stop Centre Scheme,
Women Helpline Scheme, UJJAWALA : A Comprehensive Scheme for Prevention of
trafficking and Rescue, Rehabilitation and Re-integration of Victims of Trafficking
and Commercial Sexual Exploitation, Working Women Hostel, Rajiv Gandhi National
Creche Scheme For the Children of Working Mothers, Ministry approves new projects
under Ujjawala Scheme and continues existing projects, SWADHAR Greh (A Scheme
for Women in Difficult Circumstances), Revision under IGMSY in Accordance with
National Food Security Act, 2013 in XIIth Plan, Support to Training and Employment
Programme for Women (STEP), NARI SHAKTI PURASKAR, Awardees of Stree Shakti
Puruskar, 2014 & Awardees of Nari Shakti Puruskar, Awardees of Rajya Mahila Samman
& Zila Mahila Samman, Archived Maternity Benefit Programme, Maternity Benefit
Programme, Mahila police Volunteers and Mahila E-Haat (MWCD, 2017).
Analytical Discussion
Indian society is very complex and has deep rooted customs. It is divided on the
basis of caste, creed, religion, region, cultures, economic conditions etc. and therefore
uniform empowerment policies have not produced the desired result. For example if
we see the Panchayati Raj system implemented to empower women had empowered
the women who are having some social and economic edge over the others. Supporting
women for more participation in economic activities outside the home by provisioning
reservation had snatched by upper economic and social class of every segment of
society- caste, class and religion. It is also noteworthy that mere more participation
in economic activities outside is not independent criterion to assess empowerment.
For example women of middle class participate in agricultural activities in the state
of Uttarakhand as compared to that of Bihar but cannot be said on only this ground
that the first group is more empowered. Actually more socially empowered women
in northern India participate less in external economic business whereas women of
low economic strata participate more but assumed to be less socially empowered.
Economic backwardness of women is also having rural-urban division so the same
policy of women empowerment is will not be feasible for both groups. Not only the
tool but the parameters of empowerment are also different for different group. The
women of Muslim community is still waiting for equal civil right which is not been
granted by the religion not protected by the government whereas the women of
other community are better empowered owing to the protection by law.
Conclusion and Suggestion
It is high time to look back the policy initiatives and prioritise the gargets. Right
to live and dignity of life are two important human principal which can be ranked
in similar order. Availability of resources for every human being is more important
than provisioning for women on the basis of preference principle. Hence, a country
where absolute poverty is the biggest challenge, the other areas can be compromised.
Therefore while formulating a policy to empower women to have access to resources,
their multilayered differences to be taken into account. Owing to the limitation of
resources it is more likely that economically and socially higher group of women
will grab the opportunity. More importantly the social, cultural and religious aspects
should not be ignored. State intervention to empower women economically is possible
in four key strategic forms: (i) An enabling policy environment for women’s economic
empowerment (ii) Practical interventions for women’s economic empowerment (iii)
Support to women’s collective actions and (iv) The private sector optimises its roles.
Hope a comprehensive, multidimensional and inclusive approach for women
empowerment will work better if based on realistic condition at micro level.
References
1. Bhuyan, Dasarathi, 2006, Empowerment of Indian Women: A Challenge of 21st Century, Orissa
Review, January 2006.
2. Ganeswamurthy,V.S., 2008, Empowerment of Women in India—Social Economics and Political,
New Delhi: New Century Publications.
3. Govt. of India, 2006, Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in India, National Family
Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2005-06, India.
4. Govt. of India, 2015, Report of High level Committee on the Status of Women in India, Min of
Women and Child Development, GoI.
Women’s Development Always Demand: Equality, Sustainability,

Empowerment
Swarnim Ghosh*
Introduction
The future of a country is shaped is shaped by the investment it makes in its
women, especially those from vulnerable sections of society.
• You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of women.”
—Jawaharlal Nehru
The questions surrounding women’s empowerment, the condition and position
of the women, have now become critical to the human rights based approaches to
development. The UNDP Human Development Report 1995 was devoted to women’s
empowerment and it declared that if human development is not engendered it is
endangered. Equality, sustainability and empowerment were emphasized and the
stress was on the understanding that women’s emancipation does not depend on
national income lurt is an engaged political process. The situation of women in the
Uttar Pradesh remains a cause of concern. This research paper looks at various aspects
of status of women in Uttar Pradesh like literacy, health, political and economic
participation, domestic violence, crime against women, government programmes and
policies etc; and underlines the measures which need to be taken to improve their
status and involve them in the development process.
The present paper is an attempt to analyse the contribution SHGs in women
development in the district of Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. The impact of these groups
on women’s development has been analysed by Gender Development Index (GDI)
which focused on the male-female differences in terms of longevity of life, knowledge
and economic betterment.
Objective
• Understand the concept of empowerment and to study the developmental
programmes of women and their impact on weaker section women especially
at the grass root level.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Government Degree College, Jakkhini,
Varanasi, U.P.
• Trace out the origin, growth and development of various programmes regarding
women’s development at Varanasi district in Uttar Pradesh.
• Study the socio-economic profile of the district and implementation of the
SHGs through various programmes.
• Analyse and access the impact of SHGs under in terms of employment, income
and savings of selected beneficiaries in the selected mandals of the district.
Hypothesis
A. Various programmes regarding women is not playing a significant role in
channelization of institutional credit to rural poor women under SHGs.
B. SHGs have no direct significant bearing on socio-economic empowerment of
poor women.
C. There is no significant change in SHGs income, employment and saving levels
of women beneficiaries.
The present study is based on the data from both primary and secondary sources.
The primary data have been collected from the SCs, STs, OBCs and other caste women
purposefully selected for the present study and the beneficiaries who were provided
assistance under SHGs during the year 2013-16 were selected. A well structured
interview schedule has been prepared and administered to the beneficiaries of SHGs,
personal visits were made to the selected villages to make on the spot study of
various socio-economic conditions if SCs, STs, OBCs and other caste of the women.
The secondary data has been collected from annual reports, action plans, reports of
various studies and government publications. Data also collected from various offices
like the District Rural Development Agency , Mandal Samabhyas, CSO, NIRD etc.
Sample Design
A three stage stratified random sampling method was applied in selecting the
mandal, villages and beneficiaries. All the mandals in the district are classified into
four groups;
a) Developed
b) Medium developed
c) Less developed
d) Tribal concentrated
Taking economic indicators, and human development indicators and infrastructural
development indicators as basis. From each group, on mandal was chosen. Then
from each mandal, 3 villages were selected by stratified random sampling method.
In the first stage: From each category, one mandal was selected in Varanasi district.
In the second stage: Three villages from each mandal were selected where SHGs
women were benefited.
Survey: The selected villages were surveyed twice. First, a census survey was
conducted covering all the women belonging to the SC, ST,OBC and Other caste
beneficiaries who were covered under SHGs. Secondly, a household survey was
conducted to find out the extent of income, employment and savings generated from
the various activities of SHGs.
Table 1: Spatial Dimension and Its Pattern (Blockwise Average Monthly Income
of Household Level, Varanasi District
Development Average monthly Average monthly Average monthly income of Index Value
Blocks income: male income: female male female differentials
Rs/Month Rs/Month Rs/Month
Varanasi city 7720 1852 5868 0.48

Sevapuri 6450 872 5618 0.42
Baragaon 6362 1058 5304 0.80
Pindra 9380 2100 7280 00
Harahua 5061 1278 3789 0.36
Ara ji lines 7137 1750 5387 0.54
Chiraigaon 8572 2421 6151 0.24
Cholapur 8111 3250 4861
Kasha vidyapith 10220 2085 8135
Index value: (vi – vmax)/(vmax – vmin )

Source: Field Survey(2016-2017).
Table 2: Blockwise Dietribution of Literacy at Household Level

Development Male female Index
Male no. Percentage Female no. Percentage Percentages
Blocks differences no. value
Varanasi city 319 91.40 318 87.12 1 4.28 0.18
Sevapuri 65 86.67 75 82.40 10 4.25 0.17
Baragaon 81 88.00 49 81.67 32 8.37 0.46
Pindra 103 97.14 88 90.72 17 6.42 0.46
Harahua 73 89.00 52 79.69 21 9.33 0.85
Ara ji lines 87 91.50 78 88.64 9 2.93 0.00
Chiraigaon 86 93.40 78 88.67 8 6.80 0.51
Cholapur 102 92.00 75 83.33 27 8.56 0.50
Kasha vidyapith 71 90.00 62 79.49 9 10.38 0.75
Source: Based on Personal Field Survey, 2016-2017
What Need to be Done?

There are several critical issues which require attention of the state government
if Uttar Pradesh is to emerge as a just, equitable and developing state with reference
to gender. These issues are highlighted briefly:-
• First and foremost, the state needs to look at its programmes not in the mode
of welfare for women but in terms of human rights. This would have given
pittance like widow pension, old age pension and marginal wages.
Table 3: Blockwise Distribution of Composite Index Value At Household Level

Development Age above 40 Index Value of Average Literacy Composite Index
Blocks Monthly Income Value (GOI)
Varanasi city 1.00 0.48 0.18 0.55
Sevapuri 0.33 0.42 0.17 0.31
Baragaon 0.16 0.34 0.46 0.32
Pindra 0.00 0.84 0.46 0.42
Harahua 0.41 0.00 0.85 0.42
Ara ji line 0.25 0.36 00 0.20
Chiraigaon 0.083 0.54 0.51 0.38
Cholapur 0.25 0.24 0.75 0.41
Kashividypith 0.083 1.00 1 0.69
Source: based on personal field survey, 2016-2017
Conclusion
From the field observation and data analysis, it can be concluded that women in
the Varanasi district have substantially benefitted from the SHGs. In addition, this
research shows that these SHGs have enhanced their awareness skills, the culture of
entrepreneurship and participation in the dynamics of decision-making processes.
This would lead the path towards the power of decision-making both at the
household level as well as at the group level. Thus, SHG creates confidence, prepares
platform to create awareness among them and construct vehicle for promotion of
economic activities among the deprived sections of women. To comprehend the impact
of programmes on the ground, it is essential to see the level of awareness about
governments programmes among women.
References
1. Chandra, Sushmita. (2001). Women and economic development, B.R. publishing corporation,
Delhi.
2. Sen, Amartya. (2001). Economic Theory Freedom and Human Rights: The works of Amartya
Sen, London; Overseas Development Institute, briefing paper.
Women’s Role in Economic Development
Manzoor Ahmad Khan*
Women play a major role in the economy of a nation, including housewives. Housewives
are the largest workforce in the world, the most underpaid and receive undue scoff. If
she is paid the role of a housewife’s duties can amount to billions of dollars annually. A
woman buying household goods not limited to food items, but clothing, accessories,
and many daily use items as simple as a scrub to wash dishes. She is the dictator of
large companies producing goods in manifold, she purchases the chips and cold-drinks
her child consumes and treats guests with, she decides which commodities will be used
and in what quantity. Most shopping outlets are directed towards women. Women are
ultimately the largest consumers in the market, especially so in the Indian market where
culture is upheld by women, where it’s the wifely duty to ensure all goods are stocked
in the house and family members are able to work without a hiccup. Yet women are the
most overlooked consumer of the market, and the corporates which target female-consumers
lack the female workforce within their company.
As women are the largest consumers in the market, any product targeted towards
them will surely become a success. The movie ‘Joy’ a biographical movie on Joy
Mangano presents to the world the miracle of a mop. She is a self-made millionaire
who has earned her worth by selling miracle-mops and hangers, items that are
purchased by women who tire of the tedious nature of daily chores. India has the
widely acclaimed Shahnaz Hussain, who produces beauty essentials directed towards
women who are again the largest consumers of self-care products. Adverts for Nirma,
Vim, even Bournvita is directed towards women from the perspective of motherhood
and being a good dutiful wife and caregiver.
Importance of Women to Economic Development
The most influential evidence on the importance of women to economic development
has come from research used to support the World Bank’s ‘Gender Mainstreaming
Strategy’ launched in 2001. This research highlighted that societies that discriminate
by gender tend to experience less rapid economic growth and poverty reduction
than societies that treat males and females more equally, and that social gender
disparities produce economically inefficient outcomes.
* Lecturer, SSD College, Diwai, Bulandshahr, U.P.

Full Potential of Women in the Process of Economic Development

Deal in the human capital, health and education, of women and girls is presented
as a key way forward as witnessed by the MDGs. The logic is that ‘educated, healthy
women are more able to engage in productive activities, find formal sector employment,
earn higher incomes and enjoy greater returns to schooling than are uneducated
women…’. Educated women are more likely to invest in the education of their own
children, and they are also more likely to have fewer children. Thus investment in
human capital has positive short and longer term/inter-generational outcomes and
is good for both productivity gains and limiting unsustainable population growth.
However, attention has narrowly focused on ensuring the equal access of girls to
primary education. Inequality of access to secondary and higher education persists,
as does the limited engagement of girls in the study of science and technology,
limiting the future life and employment options of adolescent girls.
India, estimates of employment are based on surveys conducted periodically (not
every year) by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO). It said that in 1999-2000,
35% of rural women and 17% of women over 15 years old were “working”, as regular
or casual wage workers, self-employed or unpaid helpers in family enterprises (like
farms or small shops). By 2011-12 (the most recent survey published), after a period
of rapid economic growth, this has declined to 25% in rural areas and remained at
the same pitifully low rate in urban areas.
Invisibility of such women workers is appalling because such work is essential
to the survival of society and provides a huge and unnoticed subsidy to the “formal”
economy. It is also inefficient and unjust, adding significantly to the relational inequalities
that are so entrenched in Indian society. It disempowers even paid women workers
since as a result what women do is undervalued, and contributes to large gender
gaps in wages. And it allows policymakers to forget about the conditions of hundreds
of millions of workers on whom the entire economy depends.
World Bank study has highlighted how the poor are less likely to engage in
higher riskreturn activities and the result is that the return on their assets is 25-50%
lower than for wealthier households. While not a gendered analysis, women’s relative
poverty, lack of assets, and lack of experience might mean they are particularly risk
averse keeping them from higher return economic initiatives. However, women have
been shown to use micro-finance effectively to develop small enterprises and are
recognized as good at paying back loans. When women are in paid employment,
they are more likely to be engaged in part time rather than full time work, in the
informal rather than the formal sector, and across the globe women earn less than
men for comparable work.
Through the recent financial crisis, measures to protect ‘the poor’ through
employment programmes have not considered the gendered dimensions of crisis,
yet women may have been more severely affected than men and in more diverse
ways. Economic and financial crises cannot be seen in isolation from food, fuel,
water, environment, human rights, and care crises. Women face particular risks during
disaster, which climate change may increase, and during conflict. In particular, the
risk of physical and sexual violence increases. Agencies not only fail to protect women
and girls, but their reproductive and particularly their productive needs are often
overlooked in crisis response and peacebuilding.
Priority Areas of Intervention Necessary to Unblock these Constraints
“Woman is the companion of man, gifted with equal mental capacity”- Mahatma
Gandhi.
Traditionally, in India, women’s participation in social changes, politics and decision
making remained significant. Who can undermine the role and contributions of
Chandbibi, Ahilyabai Holkar, Rani Durgawati, Rani Rashmoni, Kittur Rani Chennamma,
Jijabai, Rani Avantibai, Rani Laxmibai, Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu, Vijay Laxmi
Pandit, Indira Gandhi, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Mahashweta Devi, Mahadevi Verma,
Arundhati Roy, Sucheta Kriplani, Pratibha Patil, etc in bringing about all-round
development?
The involvement of women is omnipresent and all-pervasive in every sphere of
life as India seeks to march steadily towards the path of growth. All these become
possible only with the active participation of women who are the catalysts of qualitative
growth of future generation as well. Efforts during the post- Independence era got a
shot in the arm when Mrs Indira Gandhi became the first lady Prime Minister. Women
got empowered and moved to participate further in all spheres of services – financial,
administrative, judicial and education to name a few. Women in India are playing an
important role in the country’s governance. Many women have emerged as exemplary
leaders at the policy level as well as the community level. The presence of women in
various decision making bodies helped develop confidence among other women,
opening up possibilities for future.
When women are the advisor, the Lords of creation don’t take the advice till they
have persuaded themselves that it is just what they intended to do; then they act
upon it and if it succeeds, they give the weaker vessel half the credit of it; if fails,
they generously give herself the whole.
• Noted rural entrepreneurs such as Jashwantiben Popat who pioneered Lijjat
papad are proof of the strong capabilities of Indian women to mould positive
social change in India. From 7 women working in one building to over 43,000
lady workers, Lijjat papad is a corporate initiative that is fuelling the economy.
• Empowered Indian women can also pioneer self help groups and initiatives
for creating positive social change in rural or underdeveloped areas. There
are notable examples of women self help groups in India which have generated
employment and income for many families in villages and small towns.
• Women can also contribute to the social welfare of the country. Noted lady
activists have championed the cause of gender justice and equity. They are
shining examples of what India can accomplish if lady leaders are at the
helm. Women-friendly policies and laws will be framed as a result of this.
This can change the way the world looks at India.
• Stalwart women leaders such as Vijalakshmi Pandit and Sarojini Naidu played
a key role in the Indian freedom movement.
Our women entrepreneurs, social welfare workers, scientists, politicians and
economists are leading the way for a brighter future. Women in urban and rural
areas should be given access to good opportunities so that they can bring about
positive social change and contribute to the growth of the country.
In the short term, there is a need to create full, decent productive employment
opportunities for women and access to finance, as well as continue to provide social
protection, and more importantly promote and value women as ‘good with money’.
Key for economic growth is the promotion of women’s economic rights which entails
promoting a range of women’s rights: their sexual and reproductive rights and rights
to education, to mobility, to voice, to ownership, and to live free from violence.
References
1. AWID. Getting at the Roots: Re-integrating human rights and gender equality in the post-
2015 development agenda. Association for Women’s Rights in Development, October 2012.
2. Dollar, D and Gatti, R. Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth: Are Good Times Good for
Women? Gender and Development Working Papers, No. 1, May 1999.
3. Klasen, S. Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? Evidence from Cross
Country Regressions, Gender and Development Working Papers No. 7, November 1999.
4. Moser, C. Gender planning in the Third World: Meeting practical and strategic gender
needs, World Development (17 (11), p.1799–1825), 1989.
5. Sen, A. More than 100 million women are missing, New York Review of Books (37 (20),
1990.
6. UNFPA, From Childhood to Womanhood: Meeting the Sexual and Reproductive Health
Needs of Adolescent Girls. Fact Sheet: Adolescent Girls’ Sexual and Reproductive Health
Needs, 2012.
7. UNPFII. Study on the extent of violence against women and girls in terms of article 22(2)
of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Issues (E/C.19/2013/9),
2013.
8. WBGDG. Gender Equality and the Millennium Development Goals, World Bank Gender
and Development Group, April 2003. 15
9. Engendering Development Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice, New
York: Oxford University Press, 2001b —.
10. Integrating Gender into the World Bank’s Work: A Strategy for Action. Washington DC:
World Bank, 2002.
Child Sex Ratio and its Determinants in Uttar Pradesh:

An Empirical Investigation
Avinash Kumar Singh Yadav*
Introduction
Gender discrimination in India is embedded in its social structure which diminishes
the importance and contribution of women in social, economic and political spheres.
Gender discrimination starts from the womb with sex determination tests and abortion
of the female fetuses and continues in nutrition, medical facilities, schooling, higher
education, employment, wages, wealth ownership etc.
In Uttar Pradesh, a small decline in the CSR affects the sex composition in the
population at the larger scale because the child population in the state is the largest
in India. Its CSR has been declined 14 points from 916 to 902 between 2001 and 2011.
If the difference between natural sex ratio, which varies between 950 and 960, and
actual sex ratio is applied on the total child population, the result shows a huge
deficit of daughters in the population. So the paper aims at to analyze the trends
and regional variations in CSR, detect some factors which affect the CSR in Uttar
Pradesh.
There are following objectives that have been taken in the study:
1. To analyse the trends in the Child Sex Ratio in Uttar Pradesh.
2. To analyse regional variation in the child sex ratio among four regions of
Uttar Pradesh- Western U.P., Central U.P., Eastern U.P and Bundelkhand region.
3. To analyse the impact of sex ratio at birth and sex differential in mortality on
the child sex ratio in Uttar Pradesh.
Study Area- The study focuses on the trends and determinants of child sex ratio
in Uttar Pradesh. All districts of Uttar Pradesh have been included under the study.

For analyzing regional variations in the CSR, Uttar Pradesh has been divided
into four regions namely Western U.P., Central U.P., Eastern U.P and Bundelkhand
Region. There are 23 districts in Western U.P. and 12,29 and 7 districts in Central
U.P., Eastern U.P. and Bundelkhand region respectively.
Data Collection
The study is based on secondary data. Data have been collected from the Census
of India- 2001, 2011; Sample Registration System and Annual Heath Survey of Uttar
Pradesh 2012-13.
Research Methods
Data have been analysed through average, percentage and point variation in the
CSR and depicted through tables, pie charts, bar diagrams and line graphs. Multiple
regression model has been used to explore the relationship among variables.
Software
Stata has been used to analyse data.
Results and Discussion
Child Sex Ratio in Uttar Pradesh
The total population of Uttar Pradesh has been recorded 19.9 crores and the total
child population of Uttar Pradesh is 3.07 crores out of which 1.61 crores are males
and 1.46 crores are females. The child sex ratio of Uttar Pradesh has always been
recorded lower than the national average with a continuous trend of deterioration.
Table 1: CSR in U.P. and India

CSR (U.P.)
Year CSR (India)
Total Rural Urban
1991 927 928 927 945
2001 916 921 890 927
2011 902 906 885 919
Source: Census of India
Following Charts are revealing this situation more clearly (see the chart below)
Regional Variation in CSR in Uttar Pradesh
Regional variation in the CSR is not uniform in the state because the state is
large in terms of its geographical size and diverse in terms of culture and geophysical
conditions.
The child sex ratio in all four regions has been found low. In western Uttar
Pradesh, the CSR is lowest in comparison to other regions. However decadal change
is found higher in eastern U.P. where CSR has been declined by 21 points from 941
to 920 between 2001 and 2011. Following bar diagram shows regional variation in
the CSR more vividly.
Chart 1: Region Wise CSR
Increasing transportation facilities, rising number of ultrasound centres and people’s

greed to having sons in all four regions may be the reasons behind depleting CSR.
Determinants of CSR in Uttar Pradesh

To detect the relationship among variables, multiple linear regression model has
been used in which child sex ratio has been taken as the dependent variable and sex
ratio at birth(SRB), sex differentials in infant mortality rate and sex differentials in
under five mortality rate have been taken as the independent variables.
The regression equation is-
CSR = â0 + â1SRB + â2SDIMR + â3SDU5MR + U
Where,
CSR= Child Sex Ratio
SRB= Sex Ratio at Birth
SDIMR= Sex differentials in Infant Mortality Rate
SDU5MR= Sex differentials in under five mortality rate
U= Error term
Regression Results
Table 2: Regression Results Taking CSR as Dependent Variable
Variable Coefficient Std. Error T P>t
SRB .474951*** .0646215 7.35 0.000
SDIMR -.0518651 .996284 -0.05 0.959
SDU5MR -.4643716 .5955634 -0.78 0.438
Constant 475.7797 59.82466 7.95 0.000
R²=0.4620 Adj R-squared = 0.4372
F( 3, 66) = 18.61 Number of obs = 70
Prob > F = 0.0000
*p<0.10, ** p< 0.05, *** p< 0.01

In the model, R-squered value(0.46) shows that the model is statistically significant
and sex ratio at birth, sex differentials in IMR and sex differentials in U5MR explain
46.2 percent of the variability in the child sex ratio. The results show that sex ratio at
birth is positively related with the child sex ratio. The coefficient value of SRB is 0.47
and statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance. This means if SRB declines
by 100 points, the CSR would decline by 47 points. This finding from the regression
model is similar to the theoretical interpretation of the relationship between SRB and
CSR.
Conclusion
Thus we may conclude that the sex ratio at birth is an important determinant of
the child sex ratio in Uttar Pradesh. So there is need to identify all those socio-
economic and cultural reasons that raise the degree of son preference which is
responsible for the poor sex ratio at birth which is continuously unbalancing the sex
composition of the child population in Uttar Pradesh. Son preference, the most important
factor that affects the sex ratio at birth, is an outcome of our gender biased socio-
economic and cultural set up. People want to have sons because of their old age
financial security, carry lineage forward, salvation, keep wealth within the family
etc. whereas daughters are considered as a burden on the family because they move
away from their paternal homes after marriage and carry a large amount of money
and other essential things in the form of dowry that is often considered as ‘drain of
wealth’. So there is need to start several gender responsive efforts to raise the awareness
among several stakeholders of the society, strengthen the laws related to sex-selective
abortions and most importantly to alter the socio-economic and cultural set up in
which the value of women and girls could be equal to men.
References
1. Agnihotri, S.B. ( 2000), ‘Sex Ratio Patterns in The Indian Population: A fresh Exploration’,
Sage Publication, New Delhi, ISBN-0-7619-9392-4.
2. Annual Health Survey of Uttar Pradesh 2012-13
3. Bose, A. (2002), ‘Curbing Female Foeticide’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol-37, Issue
No-08, 23 Feb 2002.
Role of Co-Operative Banks in Empowerment of Women:

Special Reference to Uttar Pradesh
Vikash Singh*
Inroduction
Empowerment of women in social, economic and political life of the nation is
now on the increase. With the spread of education and new awareness, women
entrepreneurs role, that is family role and entrepreneurial role has increased. Now
the Indian constitution has guaranteed removing equal opportunity removing all
discrimination based on gender.
However in practice, women were not given social equality and they are deprived
of their human rights. Various Acts has been passed to prevent inequality in economic
cultural and social spheres. Women entrepreneurs are special group of people who
enjoy a distinct status and play a crucial role in the success of any business or trade.
The rate of economic growth of a nation depends on the level of entrepreneurial
talents in the country. To sustain economic growth, development of women
entrepreneurship must become imperative.
Scope of the Study
This study aims at examining the socio-economic impact of the women entrepreneurs
on the beneficiaries from District Central Co-operative Banks. It examines how far
the women entrepreneurs perceived their borrowings from the District Central Co-
operative Banks and has helped in raising the financial strength and in enabling
them to cross the social recognition. Hence, an attempt in made in the present study
“Financing of Women Entrepreneurs by DCCB Ltd. in Tamil Nadu” to analyze the
perception and to identify the problems faced by women entrepreneurs to obtain
borrowings from DCCBs. The present study is from the standpoint at District Central
Cooperative Banks in the study area.


1. To asses the Growth and Role of Entrepreneurs Developments in DCCBs in
Uttar Pradesh
2. To offer suggestions to improve the District Central Co-operative Bank Services
3. To offer suggestions to improve the women Empowerment in Uttar Pradesh.
Sample Plan
There are 75(DCCD)in Uttar Pradesh Among them Lucknow Central Co-operative
Banks Ltd. was excluded from the DCCBs and remaining 74 DCCBs in Uttar Pradesh
were considered. For the selection of the sample respondents, the researcher approached
through the lottery method within the 74 UTTAR PARDESH District Central Co-
operative Banks. From that three DCCBs are selected (Erode DCCB) as the study
area. An amount of 160:00000 women entrepreneurs have availed the credit facilities
form the District Central Cooperative Banks in Erode. The study has adopted the
stratified random sampling method from the each five years of the study period.
Membership Pattern And Performance Of The District Central Co-operative Bank
The District Central Co-operative Bank (DCCB) were started to provide cheap
credit to the farmers to relieve them from clutches of money lenders. At present,
there are 1, 12, 309 DCCB which works out to roughly one PAC for every six villages
in the country. The total membership of DCCB is reported to be around Rs. 12 cores.
The DCCB can be started with ten or more persons, normally belonging to a village
to become shareholders of the society. The value of each share is generally nominal
so as to enable even the poorest farmer to become a member. The members have
unlimited liability and management is honorary, the only paid member being the
Secretary-Treasurer. The loans are given for short periods, normally for the harvest
season, for carrying on agricultural operations and the rate of interest is fixed. Such
societies were expected to attract deposits from well-to-do members which could be
used to give loans and advances to needy members. But these failed to promote
savings and to attract deposits as a result of which the government has to bring into
existence Central and State Co-operative Banks to provide funds to DCCB which in
turn, will lend to farmers.
The members of co-operative Bank consist of persons such as businessmen, farmer
and employees from various organizations. Persons above eighteen years of age could
be admitted as member of the society. The society has two types of members namely
‘A’ class members and ‘B’ class members. ‘A’ class members share is Rs. 10 per share
and ‘B’ class members share is Rs.5 per share.
Growth in District Central Co-operative Bank
The growth of the District Central Co-operative bank like number of societies
membership, borrowers is depicted in Table 1. These indicators show the expansion
and coverage area of District Central Co-operative bank during the study period.
Average Compound Growth Rate is used this formula,
Y=abt
Where,
Y= Dependent variables
a= constant
b= slope of trend lines, t= time
Table 1: Growth of DCCB in Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow): 2001-2002 to 2010-2011
Year Interest paid Other Expenditure Loan & Advance Borrowings
2001-02 3453.56 891.54 24471.97 8518.7
2002-03 3173.66 1265.04 25460.89 4851.53
2003-04 2697.27 1393.04 27138.81 8591.89
2004-05 2482.93 1733.67 29886.34 7353.10
2005-06 2416.72 1270.92 35538.98 7039.37
2006-07 2950.58 1258.83 38598.38 7696.61
2007-08 3276.73 1173.85 52127.72 6674.10
2008-09 4791.61 955.44 62156.52 6212.12
2009-10 5240.00 894.20 69959.38 7817.76
2010-11 5651.90 916.59 82476.62 16605.74
Mean 3.613 1.175 4.478 8.1361
SD 1179.00 270.44 20691.52 3560.830
ACGR -3.129 4.665
Sources: Annual Report DCC Bank
Uttar Pardesh (Lucknow)

The above table reveals that deposits that the owned funds of District Central
Co-operative Bank has been increased from Rs. 7379.34 lakhs, average compound
growth rate of 0.04628%. The owned funds comprise of capital and reserves. The
share capital of District Central Co-operative Bank has been increased with higher
growth rate as compared to reserves. The total borrowings of these societies has
increased to Rs.47,84,797 lakhs in 2011 from Rs. 17,32,644 lakhs in 2001 with average
compound growth rate of 13.521%. The total deposits of District Central Co-operative
Bank in India was Rs. 21,30,109 lakhs in 2001. It has been increased to Rs. 65,66,638
lakhs in 2010 with 11.92% ACGR. The working capital of District Central Co-operative
Bank has been increased with 10.74% average compound growth rate.
Nature of Entrepreneurs
The DCCBs have selected a few medium and some small scale business units in
the respective districts. With these sources of information the nature of the business
unit in the study area has been segregated on basis of mineral chemical and polymer,
forest, engineering and non-conventional, agro and textile and khadi.
Most of the industrial unit have been started and in urban and rural areas of the
study. Due to the availability of the industrial units have registered as forest based.
Mineral based enterprises were the next dominant group. The least number of
respondents stated to be involved in textile and khadi based. This could be of because
of low demand for those products.
Purpose of Loan
The existing entrepreneurs have been availing the loan from the DCCBs regularly
in the select area of the study. The special area in Uttar Pardesh is Lucknow district.
Agricultural Credit
The District Central Co-operative Bank, there are important institutional sources
of agricultural credits. The agricultural credit system is dominated by DCC Bank . It
is evident from Table 1 that total amount of agriculture credits has increased from
RS. 438.39 lakhs from the period of 2010-2011. Every famer needs four types of credit,
Viz. development credit, production credit, (crop loan), marketing credit and
consumption credit. Production credit or crop loan is required by the farmer for crop
production. This type of credit is needed by the farmers to purchase of seeds, fertilizers,
manure, pesticides, etc.
Conclusion
1. It is found that the performance of District Central Co-operative bank is better
than the previous year’s most of the societies are faced continuous loss in 5
years period. Hence, it is suggested that government of Uttar Pradesh may
take necessary arrangements to wave the bad debts.
2. In the present study, it is observed that performance of District Central Co-
operative Bank is better than the previous year’s .Most of the Banks faced
continuous losses in 4 years out of the 5 years period. Hence, it is suggested
that the District Central Co-operative Bank has to increase the deposits.
This study explains the significant role the District Central Co-operative Bank in
the development of women Entrepreneurs. By conducting various tests and study, it
is obvious that the development of District Central Co-operative Bank . After facing
continuous losses till 2008-2009, majority of the District Central Co-operative Bank
considered for the study found progress in the year 2010-2011. Several suggestions
have been given based on the findings of the study. If these are properly carried out
and implemented, definitely desirable results could be achieved.
References
1. Shyam Charan Acharya and Ashok Kumar Mohanthy “Operational Analysis of Regional
Rural Banks” Kalpaz Publication Delhi, 2006.
2. www.rbi.org.com
3. Various issues of Annual Reports, NABARD.
4. www.co opertive Bank Gov.in
Female Labour Participation in India
Md. Babagana Shettima*
Introduction
India is the Second Most Populous Country in the World after China which tops
the highest. As at May 26, 2017 India has a population of 1.34 billion (134 crores),
where the female constitute 652 million which is 48.65% of the entire population, it
has one of the world’s most lopsided female participation rates in its labor force.
Despite India’s rapid Economic growth, its performance in female workforce
participation stood at 27%, significantly behind China (64%), Brazil (59%), Russia
(57%), and South Africa (45%).
Normally as income rises, countries often experience a fall in women’s labour-
force participation and they drop out of low-paying menial jobs, which is mostly in
agriculture. But typically as the economy develops further and education levels rises,
more and more women enter the labour force. But reverse is the case with that of
Indian economy where large number of women would be expected to enter the
labour force, based on evidence from other developing nations. And despite the fact
that more and more women are pursuing secondary and post-secondary education,
India’s women keep dropping out of the workforce. Since 2005, more than 25 million
Indian women have left the labour force. However, recent estimates project that
closing India’s gender gap in labour-force participation would generate a 27% net
increase in the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Assocham-Thought Arbitrage Research study noted.”However, if India’s gender diversity
in the workforce improves, this will result to women having a better standard of living and
as well make great contributions to the nations GDP.”Ultimately, from a macroeconomic
perspective, women’s participation and engagement in work and entrepreneurship
is very important if India is to sustain a high level of inclusive growth,” Verick said.
* Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur, Rajasthan.

Objectives
The main objective of this paper is to examine the female labour participation
rate in India which is said to be at a declining rate and as well recommend action
plans to reduce the gap in gender inequality and measures to increase the percentage
of women workforce in India.
Methodology
The paper is based on secondary data where Data is collected from various
publications, journals, magazines, newspapers, web etc.
Female Participation Rate in the Workforce
Female labour force participation is a driver of economic growth, therefore their
participation rate is a strong indicator which shows the potential for a country to
grow more rapidly. However it is considered that liberation of women goes hand in
hand with economic growth. But data available with the International Labour
Organization (ILO) shows otherwise for India. Between 2004 to 2011, when the Indian
economy grew at a healthy average of about 7%, there was a decline in female
participation in the country’s labour force from over 35% to 25%. This is quite an
amazing scenario because over the past few decades access to education for Indian
women has increased tremendously but still their participation rate has been declining
and most of them have stayed out of employment. The New York Times has analysed
the data to link it with age-old gender norms in India where in a male dominated
society, women are hardly encouraged to seek employment outside their homes.
There are also cases of Gender biasness against certain jobs which lead to poor
participation of women in the labour force.
Figure 1: Trends in Female Labour Force Participation Rates in South Asia (Per
Cent) (Various Years)
Note: Sri Lanka: 10+, excluding Northern and Eastern provinces.
Source: Based on data from national statistical offices.
Table 1: Female Labour Force Participation Rates, by Region & Age Groups
(various years). (Female)
Age Group Region 1994(%) 2000(%) 2005(%) 2010(%) 2012(%)
15-24 Rural 42 37 38 25 23
Urban 19 17 20 15 16
25-34 Rural 55 53 56 42 40
Urban 28 26 29 25 27
35-54 Rural 59 57 61 58 57
Urban 30 28 30 26 27
55 & Above Rural 30 28 32 28 27
Urban 13 11 12 10 11
Facts & Findings

The World Bank study, titled “Reassessing Patterns of Female Labor Force
Participation in India”, found that the decision to join the labour force is primarily
influenced by economic stability at home rather than social norms, educational
attainment and age. The study assessed the percentage of those that are self-employed,
those that earn their wages regularly and the casual workers in a given household’s
working-age population. It found out that, in both rural and urban areas, the percentage
of those that earn their wages regularly in households increased between 2004-05 to
2011-12, while that of the self-employed and casual workers decreased, signifying
the rising stability in family incomes. The percentage of those that earn their wages
regularly in urban areas was 20% more than that of the rural areas, which explains
the reason behind its low FLFP (female labour force participation) rates.
Therefore, as household incomes become more stable, fewer women join the labour
force, where instead they concentrate more on “status production” at home.
The World Bank analysis found out that secondary and higher secondary education
did not result to women participating in the labour market of India. While the lowest
incidence of FLFP rate is among those who had attained secondary (Grade X) and
post-secondary levels of education, followed by those with levels of education below
the secondary level in both rural and urban areas, theFLFP rate is said to be very
high among illiterates and college graduates in both rural and urban areas. This can
probably be explained by a lack of appropriate jobs in rural areas, or the expectation
of higher wages among those having secondary levels of education.
Other findings on the reasons behind the decline in FLFP rate in India could be
attributed to; Sexual harassment where today, almost all working women are faced
with the challenges of sexual harassment irrespective of their status, the type of
their jobs and personal characteristics. They face sexual harassment at working places,
in schools, hospitals, and even at home. With this traumatic experience they tend to
loose interest in continuing with their jobs or even get employed. Discrimination at
workplace is also another reason for the decline in FLFP where they often face outright
discriminations. They are being deprived promotions and growth opportunities though
it doesn’t apply to all working women, this mostly happens in factories and labour
oriented industries. Lack of proper family support is another issue that affects the
female labour force participation. They also oppose for women working late hours
in the office which also affects their performance and promotion. This in turn makes
them loose interest in the Job and they leave the workforce.
Action Plan
Gender inequality is not only an important social issue but also a critical economic
challenge. If women, who account for half the world’s working-age population, do
not achieve their full economic potential, there will be a negative impact on the
global economy. By increasing gender parity, India can add $700 billion to the global
GDP. The following points could serve as Action plans to be carried out by the
government in order to improved female participation rate in the labour force.
Vocational education: Educating girls with a career perspective can make a
difference, especially in rural sectors and small towns. In addition develop HRD and
training policy centered towards gender perspective, with an understanding of local
customs and traditions.
Conclusion
India’s national income will grow by 27% if women are allowed to participate
equally with men in the workforce, according to the International Monetary Fund
Managing Director Christine Lagarde. She also stressed out the point that “Empowering
women can be an economic game changer for any country,” “Where if women were
allowed to participate in the labour force at the same rate as men, national income
could increase by 5% in the US, 9% in Japan and 27% in India respectively.”
In a situation whereby women are provided with better economic opportunities
and equal pay, it will boost economic growth and make both parties make gains.
Government can play key roles by implementing initiatives that will ensure that
women get a fair chance in the labour market by increasing their access to finance
and removing legal barriers that still exist in most countries. Also smarter tax policies
and reforms could be implemented to help low-income families, which are
disproportionately headed by women,”
References
1. Kapsos, S (2013), Number of working women in India has been steadily falling . An article
published byInternational Labourorganization in 2013
2. Kapsos, S., Silberman, A. & Bourmpoula, E. (2014). Why is female labour force participation
declining so sharply in India?International labour Organisation Research Paper No. 10 PP(5-7)
Role of Commercial Banks in Women Empowerment
Nidhi Tripathi*
Introduction
Human resource is one of the most important and active factors of production.
Developing human skills and upgrading education is a sign of economic
development of a state. We cannot isolate women from development story of a
state as they constitute are the natural part of human resource. The founding
United Nations charter 1945 included a provision for equality between men and
women (chapter III, article 8). Women empowerment has been a major concern
for developing countries. They have been vehemently trying to promote women
empowerment. Much has been done; much more is yet to be done.
In India the situation is not different. Over the years government of India has
been making various efforts to promote the same.One such effort is the intervention
of the bankto make women financially strong as we cannot even think of
empowering women without making them financially strong. With the declaration
of 2001 as Women’s Empowerment Year, this Policy was announced to promote
the development of women in social-economic and political-cultural aspects. Two
specific objectives of the Policy are:
1. Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for
full development of women to enable them to realize their full potential.
2. Equal access to participation and decision-making of women in the social,
political and economic life of the nation.
The present paper is an effort to study the role of banking intervention in
empowering women. To check various schemes under which banks are promoting
women empowerment, to study about the programmes initiated by the banks to
finance to women. The paper will also will also study the effect of these initiatives
on the women.
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad U.P.

Reserve Bank of India Circular and Action Plan Highlights (2000) Meet the Credit
needs of Women
• Separate data on credit flow to women and submit quarterly reports to RBI to
create a separate database;
• RBI should assess the extent of financial assistance given to women in the
previous 2–3 years.
In present era the banks as well as the government are playing the pivotal role in
helping women to achieve social and economic independence. It is an well known
fact that we cannot even suppose to empower women without empowering them
financially. Banking system is the most important pillar of Indian economy and therefore
are an important agent to promote women empowerment. Since various initiatives
are taken by the banks and the government of India but still the role of women in
financial activity is very low due to social and cultural barriers that prevents women
from access to banking services.
If we look at the comparative static about the women and banking sector it paint
a rather gloomy picture, with women having only 24% of total operational bank
accounts in the country and 28% of total deposits. But if we talk about credit supplies
to women, it’s too low as only 12% of individual loan account belongs to women till
march 2016.
Loan Offered by Commercial Banks to Women
After the RBI guideline all major commercial public sector banks have announced
women centric and women only financing and loan schemes that offer financing
opportunities at concessional interest rates and relaxed loan rules. Below some major
women centric schemes have been discussed which are aimed at enabling and
empowering women financially.
Bhartiya Mahila Bank
Although initially reported as a bank exclusively reported for women the bank
will accept deposits flow from everyone but lending will predominantly for women.
After Pakistan and Tanzania India will be third country to have bank especially for
women.( First Post 2013)
Different schemes of the banks are as follows :-
BMB Annapurna Loan:- The scheme is meant for women entrepreneurs who
want to set up food catering units. The maximum loan amount provided on this
composite term loan is Rs. 50,000. The loan needs to be repaid in 36 monthly
installments.There is a one month ‘EMI free’ period after the loan is disbursed. This
loan requires a guarantor and assets to be submitted as collateral. The interest rate
applicable on this loan is as per market rates.
BMB Sringaar,BMB kitchen modernization loan, BMB parvarish, and BMB loan
again property are the loans offered by BMB for women.
PNB Mahila Udyam Nidhi- This schemeof PUNJAB NATIONAL BANK is mainly
targeted towards the small-scale sector. Women can get a loan up to Rs. 10 lakhs.
This soft loan is repayable within 10 years. The interest rates are dependent on
market rates and are revised from time-to-time.There are special loans catering to
beauty parlours, day care centers, buying auto rickshaws, two wheelers and cars.
PNB Mahila Samriddhi Yojna, schemes for financing Creches, PNB Kalyani Card
Scheme, PNB Mahila Shashaktikaran Abhiyan are initiated by PBN. Star Mahila Gold
Loan Scheme is the scheme of BOI . It offers loan to working or non wrking women
for purchage of gold arnament. The loan is offiered at cosessional rate. Akshay Mahila
Arthik Sahay Yojna is a scheme for women by BOB. Dena shakti scheme for women
enterpenures is initiated by Dena bank yo promote women enterpenureship. This
scheme offered by Dena Bank and aims at providing financial assistance to women
entrepreneurs. Women benefit from a 0.25% reduction on the interest rate.This loan
is available for entrepreneurs engaged in agriculture, manufacturing, micro-credit,
retail stores or small enterprises.
Stree Shakthi Package: This package is available for women entrepreneurs who
have 50% ownership in a firm or business. Most State Bank branches offer this scheme.
Udyogini Scheme
This scheme is promoted by Punjab and Sind Bank.This loan is available at
lower interest rates and on flexible terms.This loan can be used for agricultural activities,
retail, and small-business enterprises. in a nutshell it can be said that many banks
have started various women centric schemes to improve the credit facilities to women
but if we look at the overall picture it does not look glorious. In 2010, number of
accounts operated by females in all commercial banks was153.18 crore compared
with487.37 by male. Number of account operated by females was 31.4 percent of
males. The deposit amount was Rs 517209.74 crores for females and Rs. 1838826.25
crore for females. The women’s deposit was only 28.12 percent of that of male. Although
total credit to women has constantly increased over the years in terms of numbers of
accounts, from Rs10.6 million in 2009 to Rs 20.8million in 2015,as different steps
taken by RBI and other banks.
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojna 2014
FII data suggests that PMJDY has contributed to equalizing financial inclusion
across India. Due to PMJDY, the rate of opening account for Indian women has
increased by 24% between 2014 and 2015, compared with an increase of 14% among
men. Although the scheme is not explicitly targeting women, it’s evident that PMJDY
was particularly impactful for enabling women’s ability to access financial services.
May be as most women were not included in financial institute.This Pradhan Mantri
Jan DhanYojna has succeeded in bringing more and more women.
Conclusion
Women’s increased access to finance contributes to their economic empowerment.
Since finance is a instrument in achieving other valued goals as lack of women’s
access to banking and other opportunities has an economic cost,not only to women
but to the whole society.
Banks has made a significant progresstowards credit delivery and opening saving
accounts for women. A major step towards banking inclusion is BMB. The main aim
of women bank is to increase the saving habit of women. As this habit would positively
affect their decision making capacity and thus would increase the investment and
entrepreneur capacity of women. But there remain hurdles in around banking and
financial inclusion of women such as spread of banking services to women has not
been distributed fairly across various sections of women. The increase in spread of
bank deposits and credits has taken place primarily for urban women.
As these recent survey findings suggest, there is a need to shift the interventional
focus from simple access-oriented measures toward utilization and engagement-oriented
measures. There is a need for to organize awarenessworkshops and advocacy campaigns
for widespread dissemination of information. The different women-specific financial
products that have been developed by banks are being regularly updated to meet
the needs of evolving circumstances. Above all, to sustain these initiatives, the banks
have to focuse on strengthening their monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to
ensure strict supervision of the interventions, internally and also for co-coordinating
with partner organizations.
References
1. Bankable Frontier Association. 2010.Alliance for Financial Inclusion
2. National Sample Survey Office Statistics, Ministryof Statistics and Programme
Implementation,http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/site/inner.aspx?status=3&menu_id=31.
3. Reserve Bank of India. 2000. Action Plan forImplementation by Banks. RBI circular for
publicsector banks.
4. Uma Shashikant(2013-08-25) “ Must bank go to pink?” THE HINDU Retrived.(2013-11-20)
5. Manta, A. 2014. Financial Deepening of Products and Services for Women. International
Journal of Management. Vol 3, Issue 1
6. “BhartiyaMahila Bank : All You Need to Know about First Women Bank” First Post 2013-
03-07. Retrieved 2013-11-20
7. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/25502/7/7_chapter%201.pdf
Women and Development Gender Discrimination
Sumedha Pandey*
Introduction
Gender discrimination can be defined as when any human being is discriminated
on the basis of the sex. Discrimination is actually a bias in favour or against any
person, institution based on certain facets. In the case of gender discrimination it is
found that women are discriminated by the society in the context of education, career,
identity, economic advancement and political influence. This kind of discrimination
has been meted out to women from the very early ages and is prevalent in almost
all the societies. As the society began to civilise, reformers started to introduce various
rules, regulations to reduce or abolish gender discrimination but even today all over
the world, gender discrimination is prevalent in all walks of life e.g. social, cultural,
political and economical. The present paper analyses gender discrimination in the
context of India with special reference to employment, career opportunities and
remuneration.
India was under British rule and Indian economy was more or less primitive.
More than 80 percent of people lived in rural areas and 70 percent were illiterate but
the case of women was much worse. The literacy rate of women was hardly 16
percent and a very few women were active in the field of education, politics, social
welfare and others. There share in formal sector employment was less than 1 percent.
The present paper aims to study the gender discrimination occurring in India
particularly focussing on the employment aspect and tries to evaluate the relevancy
of various government initiatives, legislations and programmes for women
empowerment.
Methodology
Facts and figures of the following paper are based on secondary data collected
from various government surveys, reports and NSSO rounds.
* Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

Gender Discrimination in India

While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution, legal protection
has a limited effect where patriarchal traditions prevail. According to the Global
Gender Gap Report released by the World Economic Forum in 2015, India was ranked
108 on the Gender Gap Scale among 145 countries. There are many spheres of life
where women are denied opportunities.
The Invisibility of Women’s work: Women’s Work is Rarely Recognized
Many maintain that women’s economic dependence on men impacts their power
within the family. With increased participation in income-earning activities, not only
will there be more income for the family, but gender inequality could be reduced.
This issue is particularly salient in India because studies show a very low level of
female participation in the laborforce . This under-reporting is attributed to the frequently
held view that women’s work is not economically productive. If all activities —
including maintenance of kitchen gardens and poultry, grinding food grains, collecting
water and firewood, etc. — are taken into account, then 88 percent of rural housewives
and 66 percent of urban housewives can be considered as economically productive.
Wage Equality A Myth
The wage differential faced by women as against men can be estimated from the
following figures:
Daily Wage/ Salary of Regular Workers Per Day
. MALE (amount in rupees) FEMALE (amount in rupees)
URBAN 469.87 366.15

RURAL 322.28 201.56
Source: NCEUS Report 2011
Formal and Informal Sectors

Women in both areas rural and urban or educated and uneducated or in formal
or informal sector have been victims of discrimination more so in developing countries.
In the case of retrenchment they are generally thrown out first. They receive 30
percent less salaries in unorganised sector and are always denied equal access in
jobs, promotion or any other promotional venture.
Employment of Male and Female in Organised Sector Per Lakh Persons as on
31st March
1991 2012
Workers
Public Sector Private Sector Total Public Sector Private Sector Total
Male 167.1 62.42 144.57 90.67

Male 87.68% 81.32% 85.86% 82.10% 75.75% 79.03
Female 23.47 14.34 31.52 29.03
Female 12.32% 18.68% 14.14% 17.90% 24.25% 20.47
190.57 76.76 267.33 176.09 119.7 295.19
Source: NSSO Survey on employment and unemployment, Round 68
In public sector jobs have declined from 167.1 lakhs to 144.57 lakhs due to economic
reforms but the ratio of female was low 14 percent and has increased to 20.5 percent
which is still very low.
Sectoral Distribution of Male and Female Workers (UPSS)

Male Female
Sector
1993-94 1999-00 2004-05 2009-10 1993-94 1999-00 2004-05 2009-10
Primary sector 57.43 53.53 48.64 45.27 77.52 75.36 72.26 66.99
Secondary sector 16.76 18.16 21.09 24.02 11.24 12.00 13.96 16.82
Tertiary sector 25.81 28.31 30.27 30.71 11.25 12.64 13.78 16.19
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: NSSO survey on employment and unemployment, Round 68
Labour Force Participation Rates

The long term trend in participation rates over the last three decades has been
one of a decline. Also comparing the male and female labour force participation
rates, the gap has widened, with female participation declining. The difference between
male and female participation rates is a considerable one and reflects the gender
discrimination faced by women in the country.
13.4 percent of Indian working women had a regular salaried job in 2016 as
against 21 percent in 2011-12. Gender pay (wage gap) has shrinked a bit. Women got
57 percent of what men got in 2016 as against 55 percent in 2011-12.
Each Category of Employment as a Percentage of Total Workers (UPS)

Type of
Self-Employed Regular wage Casual wage
Employment
Survey Years 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12
Rural Male 28.86 28.35 28.99 4.58 4.68 5.42 19.24 20.09 18.66
Rural Female 12.03 9.62 8.95 0.92 1.04 1.24 8.22 7.26 6.28
Urban Male 9.46 9.81 10.49 8.71 10.13 10.95 3.06 4.03 3.62
Urban Female 1.97 1.74 1.99 2.04 2.20 2.64 0.86 1.04 0.78
All Persons 52.31 49.53 50.42 16.30 18.04 20.65 31.38 32.43 29.34
Source: NSSO, Employment and Unemployment surveys, various rounds
Government Efforts to Eliminate Gender Discrimination in India

Since independence Government has made various legislations for women
empowerment like- The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956, The Dowry Prohibition
Act, 1961 (28 of 1961) (Amended in 1986), Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
Act, 2005, The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (PREVENTION,
PROHIBITION and REDRESSAL) Act, 2013. Government has also initiated various
programmes for women empowerment.
Suggestions And Recommendations
• Women education has to be made compulsory and women should be encouraged
• Strict implementation of the schemes and policies for women empowerment
should be done.
• Awareness camps for women should be organized where they can become
• Government may formulate laws for women grievance cell for private sectors
with government, where women can directly lodge their grievances.
To truly understand what women empowerment is, there needs to be a sea-
change in the mind-set of the people in the country. Not just the women themselves,
but the men have to wake up to a world that is moving towards equality and equity.
It is better that this is embraced earlier rather than later, for our own good.
References
1. Government of India (various years), Economic Survey, New Delhi, Ministry of Finance.
2. Government of India, Report on Effect of Economic Slowdown in India, Labour Bureau,
Ministry of Labour and Employment (various quarterly reports).
3. NCEUS (2006) Social Security for Unorganised Workers, New Delhi, National Commission for
Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector, New Delhi, Government of India.
Women’s Participation in Agricultural Employment with

Special Reference to Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand in India
Neha Vishwakarma*
Introduction
Agriculture sector developed and emerged with the infusion of science and
technology but it has not been accepted women as key labour yet. The women work
in agriculture as farmers on their own account, as unpaid workers on family farms
and as paid or unpaid laborers on other farms and agricultural enterprises. They are
involved in both crop and livestock production at subsistence and commercial levels.
They produce food and cash crops and manage mixed agricultural operations often
involving crops, livestock and fish farming. All of these women are considered part
of the agricultural labour force. The agricultural labour force includes people who
are working or looking for work in formal or informal jobs and in paid or unpaid
employment in agriculture. That includes self-employed women as well as women
working on family farms. It does not include domestic chores such as fetching water
and firewood, preparing food and caring for children and other family members.
(FAO 2010)
A worker, according to the 2001 Census and 2011 Census, is a person whose
main activity was participation in any economically productive activity. Such
participation could be physical or mental in nature. Work involved is not only actual
work but also effective supervision and direction of work. It also included unpaid
work on farm or in family enterprise. Following are some of the important ‘Concepts’
used by the office of the Registrar General of India which would help understand
the tables presented in this issue.
Rao et al 2016 examined the trends and pattern of women’s employment in India
using secondary data for the time period from Census 1981 to Census 2011. All
states and union territories of India as population and seven states from high per
capita income states and seven states from low per capita income states were selected
* Doctoral Research Scholar, Department of Economics, Faculty of Social Science, BHU,

Varanasi, U.P.
as sample states for the study. Result indicated that high variation in percentage of
female workers to total worker ratio across the states.
Ghosh & Ghosh 2014 analyzed the women participation in agriculture across
diverse Indian states. He found that that women participation in agriculture was
increased but discrimination of wages and in working status still prevails for women
labour.
Methodology
The study is mainly based on secondary data obtained from the Government of
India reports. The main sources of the data are Statistical Profile on Women Labour,
Labour Bureau Government of India and participation in economy, men and women
in India 2016, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of
India. The time period we consider for our study is from 2001 to 2011census years.
The study covered 2 census rounds on women statistics from 2001 to 2011. Statistical
Profile on Women Labour covered 2001-2011 years of all India as well as selected
states such as Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The overall objective of this paper is
to analyze the women employment scenario in Indian agriculture sector. The specific
objectives of the study are:
a) To analyze the level and nature of female labour force during the study period;
b) To examine the differences regarding female work participation between the
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
c) To measure the extent of female work participation growth during the study period.
Discussion
India is male dominated country which is also seen by Establishments and
employment in agricultural proprietary. The percentage of male is higher in both
establishments and workers in agriculture whereas the percentage of female participation
shows the larger gender differences in economic activity in India.
The following table: 1 shows that although the total female population is higher
in Uttar Pradesh than the Uttarakhand but the percentage of total Female worker is
higher in Uttarakhand than the U.P. in both the years 2001 and 2011.
Table 1: Distribution of Female Workers in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand
All India Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand

Census Female Total Female Total Female Total
% % %
Year Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker Worker
2001 127220248 402234724 31.6 13002266 53983824 24.1 1137859 3134036 36.3
2011 149877381 481743311 31.1 15967953 65814715 24.3 1320354 3872275 34.1
Source: Statistical Profile on Women Labour, Government of India.

According to census of India, female work participation Rate is defined as the
percentage of total female workers to total female population. As we see Fig.2 in
census 2001 the FWP ratio for all India is 25.63 percent which declined by 0.12
percent in 2011 shows that escalating the gender gap in work participation in Indian
economy. Although comparing the two states of India i.e. Uttar Pradesh and
Uttarakhand, it is observed that FWP is higher in Uttarakhand than U.P in both the
census years 2001 and 2011. The FWP of Uttarakhand is more than 9.33 % and 10.79
% in comparison to U.P with respective years but FWP has declined by 0.65 percent
and increased by 0.21 percent in U.P.
Figure 1: Female Work Participation Ratio
Table 2: Female’s Participation in Agricultural Employment (Uttar Pradesh)

Uttar Pradesh Percentage to Total Female Workers
Total Female Female Female Agricultural Female Agricultural
Year Worker Cultivators (%) Labourers (%) Worker (%)
Census 2001 1,30,02,266 36.05 39.65 75.7
Census 2011 1,59,67,953 22.21 38.43 60.64
Source: Statistical Profile on Women Labour, Government of India.
In Uttar Pradesh, it is observed that the female agricultural worker is decreased

by 15.06 percent with decline in both female cultivators and agricultural laborers by
13.84 percent and 1.22 percent respectively in 2011 census year.
Table 3: Female’s Work Participation in Agricultural Employment (Uttarakhand)

Uttarakhand Percentage to Total Female Workers
Female Female Agricultural Female Agricultural

Year Total Female Worker
Cultivators (%) Labourers (%) Worker (%)
Census 2001 11,37,859 77.84 6.08 83.92
Census 2011 13,20,354 64 8.84 72.84
Source: Statistical Profile on Women labour, Government of India.
In Uttarakhand, it is found that although the female agricultural worker is decreased

by11.08 percent with decline in female cultivator’s percentage by 13.84 but female
agricultural laborers has increased by 2.76 percent in census 2011.
Conclusions
It is concluded that although the female population is higher in U.P. but female
work participation is higher in Uttarakhand. The growth of female work participation
almost remains constant. The level and nature of female labour force during the
study period is poor. There are several causes one of them may be female labour
force in Indian states still faces the oppressive status of being majorly responsible
for family, children and household maintenance.
References
1. F.A.O., 2010, ‘Gender dimensions of agricultural and rural employment: Differentiated pathways
out of poverty Status, trends and gaps’, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, the International Fund for Agricultural Development and the International Labour
Office, Rome, 2010.
2. F.A.O., 2011, ‘Women in agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development’, the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, the International Fund for Agricultural
Development and the International Labour Office, Rome, 2010.
3. Ghosh, M. M. & Ghosh, A., 2014, ‘Analysis of Women Participation in Indian Agriculture’,
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19(5), 01-06.
4. Rao, P. M., Kumar, Y. A., Kataih, CH. B. and Naik, J. N., 2016, ‘Trends in women employment
in India during census 1981 to 2011’, Economic Affairs, 61(3), 561-573.
5. Shiva, V., 1991, ‘Most farmers in India are women’, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome.
Prospects of Ecotourism in Livelihood of Women
Seema Yadav*
Introduction
Concept of Ecotourism
The word ‘Ecotourism’ is derived from the word ‘Ecotour’ which came into existence
in 1973.According to Oxford English Dictionary, the meaning of the word ecotourism
implies that a visit of an area of ecological interest, usually with an educational
elements. In recent days, Ecotourism means a responsible travel to natural areas
conserving the environment and improving the well-being of the local people. The
word Ecotourism also known by several other names i.e. sustainabletourism, Nature
based tourism, Responsible tourism, Cultural tourism etc.
Livelihood Perspective of Ecotourism Focused on Women

Taking note of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Agenda -21,The
International Ecotourism Society(TIES) recommendations, National Tourism policy
2002, National Environment policy 2006, National Ecotourism policy 2009, it has
been concluded that the best way of providing livelihood to women in Ecotourism is
based on the inclusion of local community in this sector through reviving traditional
practices. Now a day’srampart commercialization of tourism destroyed the true sense
of ecotourism which was based on traditional practices, natural conservation and
diversification of livelihoods.
Interrelationship between Sustainable Livelihood and Ecotourism:

The United Nations conference on Human environment (Stockholm 1972) made
the first attempt of establishment of the world conservation strategy in 1980 in
connection with the other three big international conservation organizations i.e.
International Union for Conservation of Natural Resources (IUCN), United National
Environment Programmed (UNEP)and World Wide Fund for nature (WWF). In this
Conference three major objectives as strategies are being adopted: maintaining of
essential ecological process and life support system, preservation of genetic diversity
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P

and sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem. Agenda 21 of the Earth summit
underlines 39 themes including economic development, Environmental protection,
Resource management and participation of civil society. Ecotourism is considered
the fastest growing market in tourism industry with an annual growth of 5% worldwide
representing 6% of GDP and 11.4% of all consumers spending overall. In addition,
protecting and conserving the environment ecotourism is proving to be effective in
enhancing socio economic well- being of the rural people and is thus deincentivizing
migration of rural population to the urban area. The means of livelihoods are being
easily generated in the local community by the collaborative efforts of government,
NGOs and Civil society.
What literatures say?
Today, the effort to achieve environmental sustainability and sustainable livelihoods
goes parallel to each other. In this paper, several reviews and literature surveys
supports this opinion and in a very lucid way a gist has been mentioned in following
related to (a)sustainable livelihoods and (b)conservation of natural resources, in other
word promoting ‘Ecotourism’.
The general aims and objectives of the study is to examine the opportunities of
livelihood specially the women’s participation in the emerging area of the tourism,
that is, Ecotourism. Some major objectives of the study are as following -
• To identify the income generating ecotourism related activities in the local
community.
• To examine the level of female participation in the development of Ecotourism.
• To extend the further suggestion for more involvement of women and local
community in the livelihood opportunity provided by ecotourism.
Methodology employed in the study
Since the entire study is qualitative and follows the approach of exploratory
research. So, secondary data sourced from ministry of tourism. Government of India
has been analyzed to find out certain results and conclusion as per line with objectives
stated in the study. Data from tourism statistics at a glance (1999-2016) is the source,
from where inferences and overview on tourism havebeen derived. Data has also
been taken from books, journals, reports, magazine and various concerned websites.
When study drifts from tourism to ecotourism, the data has been coined out from
the ministry of environment, government of India to analyze the impact of ecotourism
on conservation of nature and livelihood of local community.
Explanations in the Study
To Identify the Income Generating Ecotourism Related Activities in the Local
Community
Several incomes generating initiatives has been created by government as well as
private sectors specially, emphasis on opening private investment, opening eco sensitive
areas for ecotourism. Impacts of unregulated ecotourism on livelihoods of local
communities that are dependent on the natural resources is hardly acknowledged.
Competition for resources between resource intensive tourismindustry that sees natural
resources as economic commodities and the local communities and consequent impact
on conservation is not recognized. Wildlife Protection Act saw creation of protected
areas and community conserved are as by displacement of local communities for
conservation of wildlife and biodiversity. The same Forest Departments are now
playing a key role in promotion of ecotourism, though participation of local communities
is minimal and benefits are routed majorly to the state exchequer.
To Examine the Level of Female Participation in the Development of Ecotourism

Women’s participation in the tourism initiative in Uttarakhand Hills (MSI) is
largely prescribed by social norms - the roles that women are allowed to participate
in are decided by the community first and then their family and this is accepted by
women girls are being trained in mountaineering, does not mean that families are
sending their daughters on regular expeditions. The other example is relying on
women’s traditional skills in carpet weaving. Thus traditional knowledge and skills
are the basis for including women into the tourism loop Most employ women in
areas where they need least additional training and can leverage on socially prescribed
or traditional knowledge and skills such as care giving To some extent it also recognizes
the time intensive nature of women’s work who being involved in agricultural activities
are less likely to have the time to engage with tourists More agricultural work in
addition to household chores, fuel wood and fodder collection. women are involved
in comparatively low-profile jobs like running petty shops for selling fish and fruit
have lower employment opportunities even within tourism much like in other sectors.
Success story is of three women who got together as members of a self-help group
to start an eatery in Havelock Island. They are in contact with the guides in Port
Blair who refer tourists to their eatery. However, the tale is not all good for other
women on Havelock Island.
Major Challenges Loom Over Ecotourism and its Livelihoods

Community-owned tourism initiatives are still playing a marginal role compared
to the other tourism schemes, which are often labelled as ecotourism and developed
by large, often global, tour operators. They consider ecotourism as a source of sustainable
livelihood supplement and not to compete for markets. It is extremely hard for
communities to compete with a market that is fiercely competitive and which controlled
by financial interests in tourist destinations.
Ecotourism is targeting areas that have been protectedat the cost of communities,
where Communities have been displaced from theirtraditional habitats for the sake
of conservationthrough convolutedpolicies that see no balancebetween conservation
and people’s rights. Communities have taken the initiatives for conservation and
done a better job of it thangovernment-led and international financialinstitution-
supported schemes.
To Extend the Further Suggestion for more Involvement of Women and Local Community
in the Livelihood Opportunity Provided by Ecotourism
Conservation could help in enhancing livelihoods, if at least one or more ofthe
following criteria are followed:
1. If there is regulation being put in on ecotourism development in terms of
infrastructure, or activities;
2. If tourism profits are deployed for conservation purposes; and
3. If there are genuine ecotourism efforts that would not have allowed mass-
tourism to mushroom,thereby controlling development and hence leading to
conservation.
4. The management should develop a town plan or map to further strengthen its
ecotour offerings which include home and village tours (visit to the chief ’s
palace, traditional homes and sacred grove) and pick-up tours should be expanded.
Findings & Conclusions
“Sustainable tourism has proven to be one of the most effective ways of providing
economic and employment opportunities while protecting and conserving the natural
resources”. In addition to protecting and conserving the environment, ecotourism is
proving to be effective in enhancing socio-economic wellbeing of the rural people
and is thus disincentivizing migration of rural population to the urban area.The
tourism sector is a major contributor to socio-economic development and can be
used as a tool to reduce poverty at the national, regional and rural areas .community-
based ecotourism project has gained a considerable dint of success and also presented
challenges for other community-based ecotourism destinations as it has a moderately
strong infrastructural base and diversified tourism related income generating activities
that are offered as a package to visitors from which revenue is derived to enhance
the livelihood of the community members.
References
1. Ecotourism as a market based conservation scheme, A report by the global forest coalition
and the pagination, March 2007, p.3
2. National tourism Policy 2002, Department of Tourism, Ministry of tourism & culture,
Government of India.
3. Das,M and Chatterjee (2015), Ecotourism a panacea or predicament? Tourism Management
prospective, 14, pp. 3-16.
4. India Tourism Statistics at a glance -2015.
Women and Poverty in India: A Case Study of Dobhi Block,

Jaunpur District
Garima Maurya* & Vaibhav Agraval**
Introduction
In recent years there has been an increasing trend to incorporate the gender
dimension in analysis of poverty. The feminization of poverty is a term used to
describe the overwhelming representation of women among the poor. As Diana Pearce
coined the term ‘feminization of poverty’ which implies a new phenomenon, “women
have always experienced more poverty than men.Women tend to be disproportionately
represented among the poor… the poorer the family the more likely it is to be headed
by a women”. Poverty studies from both developed and developing countries show
that woman more than men are subjected to relative as well as absolute poverty. The
World Bank estimates that 1.29 billion people live in absolute poverty, 70 percent are
women among them (Rodenberg 2004). Globalization and World Trade Organization
policies have negatively affected women all over the world. (2002:12) argued women’s
poverty is not only multi experienced in different ways, at different times and in
different spaces. and domestic unpaid labor. The role of women is still under utilization
in spite of 21 century. As we are living in patriarchal society so women are subjected
to dishonor, exploitation, discrimination and violence. Women are deprive in terms
of basic needs like right to eat, health, education, decision making and employment
as compared to men and the female/male poverty ratio 3:1 is quite shameful (UNDP
Report, 2014).
Review of Literature: Gender dimensions of poverty often gain significance from
the notion that women constitute the poorest of the poor, being the lowest in social
and economic hierarchies. However, gender and poverty are two distinct forms of
disadvantage and therefore, collapsing them into a ‘feminization of poverty’ notion
of women as the poorest of the poor is not adequate (Jackson and Palmer – Jones,
2000).

** Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
Temporal Dimensions
Household duties and child care are mostly the responsibilities of women. To
earn livelihood in order to help their families financially, they may also contribute in
tiring agriculture work in developing countries. So women have no time to contribute
towards Compensative jobs and as a result their earning is less than their male
counterpart.
Spatial Dimension
To search jobs away from their families, females have limited mobility because of
their engagement in performing child caring and household tasks.
Employment Segmentation Dimension
Due to absence of choice and opportunities, women may join sectors which lack
high compensation and stability such as textile factory, children caring, teaching and
the elderly domestic servitude.
The Valuation Dimension
Unpaid responsibilities which are done by women are less valuable as compared
to jobs which require education and technical training
This section discuss the methodology employed by this study. The relevant data
for the study was collected through primary and secondary sources. Quantitative
and Qualitative methods both are applied for the discussions. Research tools such as
interview schedule and participant observation were used. The Survey was based on
sampling techniques with case study approach and focus group discussion.
Sampling Technique
Two village of Dobhi block, Jaunpur district has been taken for the present study.
selection of the Villages have been randomly named, Taraw and Senapur.
Purposive sampling technique has been used to select the samples from population.
The total population is stratified on the basis of gender, that is., male headed household
and female headed household. Since female headed households approximately account
for only 8 to 10 percent of total population, so samples are selected accordingly. Out
of 60 samples the study takes into account 20female headed households.
Econometric Model
The study employs a logit model to estimate male and female – headed households
for both types of households (Anyanwu, 1997,2011; Anyanwu and Erhijakpor, 2009,
2010).This is logistic regression model where the probability of being poor is represented
by cumulative distribution function F (Z) which is regress on exogenous variables.
A simple and broadly used measure of female poverty is the proportion of household
whose Monthly per capita expenditure falls below the poverty line. The dependent variable
is defined as 1 if average per capita household consumption expenditure is below the
poverty line and 0 if it is above the poverty line. Household head is dichotomous taking
value 1 if household is male and o otherwise. Age of household is measured as continuous
variable. For Employment, dummy takes value 1 if household head is employed and 0
otherwise.
Since logistic model is non linear, the marginal effects of each independent variable
on dependent variable are dependent on the values of independent variables. (Greene
2003). Thus to analyze the effects of independent variables upon probability of being
poor we looked at the change of odds ratio as dependent variable changes. Odd ratio is
the probability of being poor divided by probability of being non poor.
Findings
Table1: Binary Estimation Results have been Presented in the Following

Variables Coefficients S.E. Exp(B)/Odd ratio
Household size .089 .639 .960
Type of Family .061 .568 1.767
Gender of the Head 0.032 0.457 3.381

Education O.O82 0.639 .029
Level of Employment 0.026 0.589 1.34
Income from agriculture 0.021 0.348 1.074
Benefited from Employment Programme -0.031 .994 3.507
Dependency ratio -0.028 0.556 1.13
Note: *Indicates significant at 1 % & ** indicate significant at 5 % & 10%***.
Results and Conclusion

Analysis the table the clear indication about feminization of poverty reflect that
if a family is headed by a women it is more likely to remains poor.
Results reported in table (1) it suggest that Except Wage Employment Programme
like MNREGA and Dependency ratio, all other variables such as House hold size,
Type of Family, House hold head with no or primary education, Employment of
Household Head are positively correlated with the probability of house hold being
poor. all these variables are significant at least at 5 and 10 percent level of significance.
The odd ratio shows that, risk poverty increases for house hold if the head of the
Family is female. This implies that the probability of being poor increases if house
hold head is female.
Interesting Characteristic has been seen in the family of female headed household.
Most of the female headed household are nuclear families. Despite family have more
children of age less than 15, Dependency ratio is Lower of female headed family
comparison in Male Headed Families. The reason behind the lower dependency ratio
in female headed families is that the family income is quite low and most of the
children has to work to earn and support the family. It leads to another social problem
of child labour. In such families generally the girls so with their mother and help as
domestic help and at very early age they become independent earner. Girls of the age
of 7 and 8 become domestic help. This leads to exploitation physical, mental and
otherwise .Although the number of earning people in such families is more but their
earning or less, for society this is a great loss. because of its direct impact on their
education. They are initially deprived of early education, especially with girls, this
problem is high. In the absence of education and skill development they are unable to
attain economic opportunity, they are trapped in poverty trap, never get out of poverty.
The one another variables which is negatively correlated with probability of being
poor is beneficiaries of MNREGA, The odd ratio shows that the poor female headed
household get more opportunities (3.507 times) in MNREGA against the Male headed
poor household. This means that the poor woman has benefited from MNREGA, it
is the concept of equal pay for equal work under MNREGA, that has been an attempt
to reduce gender disparity at the rural level, , As we know that in the informal and
private sector, women are given less pay than men, which discourages women’s
participation in labour force. Odds ratios reported in the table above indicate that
House hold head being female increases the odds of being poor by 3.321 times more
than the house hold head being the male. The survey report also shows that Compared
to the income received from agriculture, male headed family receives more income
than women headed family.
Policy Recommendations for the Reduction of Women Poverty
Results of this study shows that The existence of the problem of feminization of
poverty indicates that the higher GDP growth rate is not a gender neutral. To rectify
this problem, It’s immediately need to review the macro policies of the nation. It is
the need of the hour to do investment in women’s development((on their health,
education training and employment).Otherwise the benefits of growth rate will by
pass women and aggrevate their problems. Education is important in reducing poverty,
so cash transfer to female headed families and expenditures for education are effective
measure to reduce poverty among masses.
References
1. Rustagi, Preet (2006). “The Deprived, Discriminated and Damned Girl Child: Story of Declining
Child Sex Ratios in India, Women’s Health and Urban Life – An International and Interdisciplinary
Journal, Volume V, Issue 1, (University of Toronto), July 2006, pp. 6-26.
2. Rodenberg and Brite (2004), “Gender and Poverty Reduction: New Conceptual approaches in
International developmentcooperation”: Reports and working Papers 4/2004. (Bonn : German
Role of SHGs in Empowering Women
Nitu Saini*
Introduction
Empowerment of women has emerged as an important issue in our country. In
India nearly half of population consist of women. In India their work participation
rate is less than half that of men. The role of women in the development of nation is
very important now a days. So women should be respected both in the society as
well as in the family. To increase the status of the women, they must be empowered
in all aspects such as economically, socially, politically and culturally. To empower
women government has introduced various schemes such as DWCRA, TRYSEM and
SGSY. One among them is Self Help Groups.
Rekha Goanka in her study concluded that the movement of SHGs can significantly
contribute towards the reduction of poverty and unemployment in the rural sector
of the economy and the SHGs can lead to social transformation in terms of economic
development and the social change.
Naila kabeer in her study apparently concludes that while access to financial
services can and does make important contributions to the economic productivity
and social wellbeing of poor women and their households,it does not
“automatically”empower women – any more than do education, political quotas,
access to waged work or any of the other interventions.
M.Anjugam in her study observed that socially backward, landless and marginal
farm house holds participate more in the self help group programme. Possession of
livestock and consumer goods by the member households has been found to deter
the joining of group.
• To study the origin and concept of Self help groups.
• To study the impact of Self help groups on women.
• To provide some suggestions for better functioning of SHGs.
* P.G. Department of Economics, D.S.P.G. College, Aligarh, U.P.

Origin and Concept of SHGs

The origin of Self Help Groups (SHGs) is the brainchild of Grameen Bank of
Bangladesh, founded by Prof. Mohammed Yunus in 1975, who tried out a new approach
to rural credit in Bangladesh. Grameen gave loans without asking borrowers either
to provide collateral or engage in paper work. In India NABARD initiated SHGs in
the year 1986-87 But the real effort was taken after 1991-92 from the linkage of SHGs
with the banks. A SHG is a small economically homogeneous affinity group of the
rural poor voluntarily coming forward to save a small amount of money regularly,
which is deposited in a common fund to meet the members emergency needs and
to provide collateral free loans decided by the group. The SHGs have been recognized
as useful tool to help the poor and as an alternative mechanism to meet the urgent
credit needs of poor through thrift.
The SHGs in India are small, informal and homogenous groups of not more than
twenty members each. Among them a member is selected as an animator and two
members are selected as representatives. The animator is selected for a period of two
years.
The SHG is a viable alternative to achieve the objectives of rural development
and specially women empowerment. Through the SHG the micro credit is disbursed
to rural women for the purposes of making them enterprising women and encouraging
them to enter entrepreneurial activities. Credit needs of rural women can be fulfilled
totally through the SHG. The group member save a regular amount of Rs. 20 to Rs.
100 every month. The group rotates the money to the needy members for various
purposes at a specified interest rate. As the repayment is cent percent and the recycling
is fast, the savings amount increases rapidly owing to the accumulation of income
from interest. The savings habit helps the members to escape clutches of money
lenders.
It paves the way for the empowerment of women and build confidence in them
to stand on their own feet. After the group stabilizes over a period of six months or
more in the management of its own funds. It conducts regular meetings, maintains
saving and gives loans to members on interest. The SHGs are linked with the banks
for external credit under the project of rural development. The bank provide assistance
for various entrepreneurial activities such as setting up small shops, vegetable shops,
tailoring units, charcoal making units, dairies etc.
The borrowers repay the bank loans properly. The SHGs repay more than 90
percent loans of the banks on time. Besides focusing on entrepreneurial development
and empowering women, SHGs concentrate on all round development of the
beneficiaries and their village as a whole. The groups undertake the responsibility of
delivering non credit services such as literary health and environmental issues. The
concept of SHG moulds women as responsible citizens of the country achieving
social and economic status.
Objectives of SHGs
• To create employment opportunities to rural woman.
• To improve the living standard of rural people.
• It makes easy access to institutional credit facilities and mobilize rural savings.
• It makes optimum utilization of rural resources.
• It helps the member in decision making.
• It creates confidence and capabilities of the members.
• It engage rural people in development process of the country.
SHGs Activities
• All the group members taken loans from their savings and they are investing
it in various productive activities like agriculture, candle making, papad &
pickle making, Hotel business, Toy making etc.
• Awareness camp has been organized to improve health related issues like
personal hygiene, communicable diseases, effect of mal nutrition and sanitation
etc. Awareness of the rights of women as prescribed by the constitution.
• Vocational Training programmes has been organized to improve the condition
of the women as well as the youths. SHGs provided training in skills such as
tailoring, knitting, bag making, toy making etc.
• Women development programmes includes income generating skill /
encouraging income generating activities.
Socio-Economic Impact of SHGs on Women
The impact of Self Help Groups on socio-economic status of women were found
significant. Change is found in the areas of education, housing facilities, exposure of
mass media, occupation, size of holdings and material possessions. Self Help Group
have provide a platform where the women discuss among themselves the burning
issues of family and society as well as get an opportunity to interact in public and
with senior officials of the administration. This exposure has helped women gain
confidence in themselves and the courage to fight against oppression. The phenomenal
growth of self help groups indicates that the weaker section of the society is also
capable to sharpen their micro-entrepreneur skill with the help of their own savings
and additional bank credit.
1. Increased Saving : SHG’s helped to generate and collect small savings from
rural women who were hitherto considered incapable of having any capacity
to save. The regular savings, though they were small, provided a fund for
rural poor women.
2. Extended Credit Facility : The SHGs to facilitated the rural women to fulfill
their credit requirements both meeting emergent consumption needs as well
as small production requirements. This has been achieved without requirements
of collateral complex loan and at a low transaction cost.
3. Regular Repayment of Loans : The SHGs have been able to build social
collateral and peer pressure to ensure that payments come on time. NPAs is a
non issue in SHGs linkage programme. The SHGs have been successful in
building an impersonal markets relation between financial intermediaries and
the clients by breaking the earlier patron-client relation.
4. Changed Life Styles : The long standing SHGs bought attitudinal change
among their members. By making their activities commercial, the SHGs created
a sense of productive partners among members. They are trained in discharging
group responsibilities. Thought majority of them are illiterate they have learnt
keeping accounts. The SHGs imbibed in them the sense of democratic spirit
and secular approach.
5. Commercialization of Economic Life : In order to earn money the members
of SHGs have to necessarily increase commercial production. What was formly
produce for domestic consumption or for gifts now began to produce for
marketing after forming the SHGs. This has resulted in the growth of market
and development of the spirit of capitalism.
Problems of SHGs
1. Lack of understanding and co-operation among SHG.
2. Conflicts between SHG leadership and membership based on caste and location
of resident.
3. Monopolistic power in the hand to NGOs and banking agency.
Suggestions to Government
• Government should encourage and support NGOs to attempt group approach
and create favourable policy environment for SHGs to easily open their bank
account.
• Government should encourage export of goods which are produced by the
group member and Government should bear the discount amount which is
allowed by the groups on the sale of their products.
Suggestions to Bankers
• Individual loan, housing loan, etc. should be provided to the members through
Self Help Groups.
• Delay in sanctioning loan and also red tapism is in the banks must be curbed
by proper supervision by the sincere and honest officers.
References
1. Neera Burra, Micro Credit Poverty and Empowerment – linking Traid, UNDP, New Delhi,
2000.
2. Basu K. and Jindal, Micro Finance Emerging Challenges, Tata McGrow Hill Publishing
Company, New Delhi, 2000.
Women Empowerment & Entrepreneurship as the Way for

Economic Development
Kailash Bharti Goswami*, Padam Singh Bisht** & Shakti***
Introduction
Entrepreneurship is necessary to initiate the process of economic development of
both developed and developing countries. Entrepreneurship refers to combining the
available resources of production in such a new way that it produces the goods and
services more satisfactorily to the customers. Entrepreneur is a catalytic agent of
change. It is also instrumental in sustaining the process of economic development.
Every country tries to achieve economic development for prosperity and better living
standard of its people. Development has economic, social and political dimensions
and is incomplete without the development of women who constitute about 50 per
cent of total population. Therefore, contribution of women is essential in economic
activities for healthy nation building. The role of women entrepreneurs has changed
over the years in the world. Participation and their importance have been commendable
in the country’s economic growth and development. The World Development Report,
2015 represents that women owned businesses show great potential source of future
for economic growth and job creation. Empowerment of women has emerged as an
important issue in recent times. In Comparison to other countries, the development
of women entrepreneurship is very low in India, especially in rural areas. However,
middle class women are not too eager to alter their role due to fear of social backlash.
The progress is more visible among upper class families in urban areas.
The economic empowerment of women is being regarded these days as a Sine-
quo-non of progress for a country; hence, the issue of economic empowerment of
women is of paramount importance to political thinkers, economists and reformers.
Women entrepreneur has been recognized during the last decade as an important
* Department of Economics, Research Scholar, D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University Nainital,
Uttarakhand, India.
** Professor, Department of Economics, D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University Nainital,
Uttarakhand, India.
*** Department of Economics, Research Scholar, D.S.B.Campus, Kumaun University Nainital,
Uttarakhand, India.
untapped source of economic growth. Women entrepreneurs create new jobs for
themselves and others and by being different solutions to management. In Indian
scenario, women have to face many problems in carrying out any economic activities
or undertaking any entrepreneurial task. Women have to face various socioeconomic
and other problems as entrepreneurs as they are not treated equally to men due to
social and cultural traditions.
• To study the role of women entrepreneurs
• To study Development of Women Entrepreneurs
• To find the problems encountered by women in starting business Enterprises
Policies and Schemes for Women Entrepreneurs in India
In India, the Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises development organizations,
various State Small Industries Development Corporations, the nationalized banks
and even NGOs are conducting various programmes including Entrepreneurship
Development Programmes (EDPs) to cater to the needs of potential women
entrepreneurs, who may not have adequate educational background and skills. The
Office of DC (MSME) has also opened a Women Cell to provide coordination and
assistance to women entrepreneurs facing specific problems. There are also several
other schemes of the government at central and state level, which provide assistance
for setting up training cum-income generating activities for needy women to make
them economically independent. Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
has also been implementing special schemes for women entrepreneurs. In addition
to the special schemes for women entrepreneurs, various government schemes for
MSMEs also provide certain special incentives and concessions for women entrepreneurs.
At present, the Government of India has over 27 schemes for women operated by
different departments and ministries.
Table 1: Total Women Workers in India – 2011 Census

Population/Worker Female
Total Population 587,447,730
Workers Total 149,877,381
% of Workers 25.51
Workers Rural 121,834,467
% of Workers 30.02
Workers Urban 28,042,914
% of Workers 15.44
Source: Office of Registrar General, India

Table 2: Percentage of Female main Workers to Total Female Population under
Broad Categories - 1991 to 2011
% of Female Main Workers

Census
Year Female Main Agricultural Household Other
Cultivators
Workers laborers Industry Workers
1991 15.93 5.51 7.05 0.55 2.82
2001 14.68 5.11 4.51 0.95 4.11
2011 25.5 24 41.1 5.7 29.2
Table 3. Work Participation Rate of Women in India

% of Female Main Workers
Census
Year Female Main Agricultural Household Other
Cultivators
Workers laborers Industry Workers
1991 15.93 5.51 7.05 0.55 2.82
2001 14.68 5.11 4.51 0.95 4.11
2011 25.5 24 41.1 5.7 29.2
Table 4: Some States Ranked According to Women Worker Participation

Rate- 2001 & 2011
States Female Work Participation Rate Rank
2001 2011 2001 2011

Uttarakhand 27.3 26.7 17 17
Uttar Pradesh 16.5 16.7 31 30
Jammu Kashmir 22.5 19.1 21 23
Himanchal Pradesh 43.7 44.8 2 1
Punjab 19.1 13.9 25 33
Challenges Faced by Women Entrepreneurship

• Gender gaps in education.
• Not Being Taken Seriously.
• Fear of taking risks.
• Wanting to please everyone.
Contributions of Women Entrepreneurs

The role of women in the economic development of the nation cannot be neglected.
In fact, they have to be encouraged and motivated to take active part in any business
activity. Women occupy a larger share of the informal economy and in the micro and
small enterprise sector in India. The acceleration of economic growth requires an
increased supply of women entrepreneurs (Shah, 2012). Women entrepreneurs play
the role of change makers both in the family and also in the society and inspire
other members of the society to take up such activities.
Conclusion
Women entrepreneurship is both about women’s position in the society and about
the role of entrepreneurship in the same society. Women entrepreneurs face many
obstacles, speciûcally in marketing their product that have to be overcome in order
to give them access to the same opportunities as men. The entry of rural women in
micro- enterprises must be encouraged and aggravated. Rural women can do wonders
by their effectual and competent involvement in entrepreneurial activities. The rural
women have the basic indigenous knowledge, skill, potential and resources to establish
and manage enterprise. Now, the need is for knowledge regarding accessibility to
loans, various funding agencies, procedures regarding certiûcation, awareness on
government welfare programmes, motivation, technical skill and support from family
government and other organization. Moreover, formation and strengthening of rural
women entrepreneur’s network must be encouraged. The banking institutions must
offer formalized credit facilities, and this sector must be included in the registered
sector category by the government to promote entrepreneurship among rural women.
This support will help the women to strengthen their family bonds through ûnancing
their businesses, and thus help in the economic growth of the country. The importance
and need of the rural women entrepreneurs to be included in the government’s
registered sector, which would pave the way for economic development of the country.
Thus, it can be asserted that women entrepreneurs can perform better, both in urban
and rural areas, given that the government provides them ûnancial support by including
them under the registered sector.
References
1. Baporikar, N. (2007) Entrepreneurship Development & Project Management- Himalaya
Publication House.
2. Binitha. V. Thampi, (January 2007), A thesis on Economic Roles of Women and its Impact
on Child Health and Care: A Study in Kerala.
Impact of Skill Development Related Education on Women

in India: Employment and Entrepreneurship Perspective
Sudip Mukherjee* & Anirban Sarkar**
Introduction
Women form a significant proportion of the work force in India; however, they
are largely concentrated in the informal sector, engaged in vocations characterized
by low earning, low productivity, poor working conditions and lack of social protection.
The following table presents the current scenario of women workforce in India; one
can clearly observe the huge concentration of female workforce in favour of the
informal sector.
Table 1: Female Workforce in India (Nos. in Millions)

Female Workforce in India 148
Female Workforce in Informal Sector 135
Female Workforce in Formal Sector 13
Fresh Women Workforce added to Labour market every year in informal Sector 3.5
Fresh Women Workforce added to Labour market every year in formal sector 0.2
2
Source: Dilip Chenoy, op cit
Source: Dilip Chenoy, op cit 2
Now days, Government of India (GOI) is promoting different skill development

related education specifically targeted towards women. Realizing the great untapped
potential, the Government has been making concerted efforts to channelize the skills
and talent of women towards economic and business generating activities. Specially,
to develop the entrepreneurship skill or to make women self-dependent the GOI
introduces different technical and vocational education programmes.
India has one of the largest technical manpower in the world. However, compared
to its population it is not significant and there is a tremendous scope of improvement
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Dinabandhu Mahavidyalaya, Bongaon.

** Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce & Management, West Bengal State University.
in this area. In India, the emphasis has been on general education, with vocational
education at the receiving end. This has resulted in large number of educated people
remaining unemployed.
Technical and Vocational Education System in India
Technical and Vocational Education plays a vital role in human resource development
of the country by creating skilled manpower, enhancing industrial productivity and
improving the quality of life.
Data and Methodology
This study uses 68th round (2011-12) Employment and Unemployment Survey
(EUS) unit level data of the National Sample Survey Office (NSS) of Government of
India. The employment unemployment survey is comprehensive cross-sectional survey,
an important source of information related to labour force in India. These surveys
not only provide information on individual employment and unemployment status,
but also give information on different demographic and socio-economic variables
like educational attainment, marital status, social group (caste), etc. The study uses
numerous tables to explain the employment scenario of women worker with vocational
training and technical education across the country. The study uses logistic regression
to determine vocational training or technical education, which is responsible for a
woman to be women proprietary entrepreneur. The statistical package STATA is used
for the analysis.
Findings and Results
According to the 68th round survey, the estimated number of women worker was
8, 54, 33, 272, out of which only 2.33% have technical education and only 13.62%
have vocational training. The relationship between women worker with vocational
training and technical education and religion, social group status, status of the worker
and enterprise type is shown in table 2.A through table 2.D.
Table 2A represents the social group wise percentage distribution of women worker
with vocational training and technical education.
Table 2a: Percentage of Women Worker with Vocational Training and Technical
Education in Terms of Social Group
Social group Vocational training Technical education
General 28.4 46.55
OBC 43.27 34.85
SC 14.62 8.26
ST 13.71 10.34
Table 2b depicts the picture of the status of work of the women worker with
vocational training and technical education.
Table 2b: Percentage of women worker with vocational training and technical
education in terms of status of work.
Status of the worker Vocational training Technical education
own account worker 29.43 9.89
employer 0.58 1.09

unpaid family worker 28.03 5.81
worked as regular salaried/ wage employee 29.88 81.4

worked as casual wage labour: in public works 0.52 0.27
worked as casual wage labour: in other types of work 11.56 1.54
Table 2c: Percentage of Women Worker with Vocational Training and Technical
Education in Terms of Enterprise Type
Enterprise type Vocational training Technical education
proprietary: male 29 16.93

proprietary: female 36.88 12.07
partnership: with members from same hh 1.79 2.53
partnership: with members from different hh 1.36 2.34
Government/public sector 18.62 40.13
Public/Private limited company 5.37 15.62

other 6.97 10.38
The Logistic Regression

The Logistic Regression is used for describing and testing hypotheses about
relationships between a categorical dependent variable and one or more categorical
or continuous explanatory variables. Specifically, logistic regression was chosen to
answer the research question for two reasons. First, logistic regression provides an
effective and reliable way to obtain the estimated probability of belonging to a specific
population and the estimate of odds ratio of individuals’ characteristic on their
employment status (Peng, Lee, & Ingersoll, 2002; Peng, Manz, & Keck, 2001; Scott,
Mason, & Chapman, 1999). Second, logistic regression is a procedure by which estimates
of the net effects of a set of explanatory variables on the dependent variable can be
obtained (Morgan and Teachman, 1988).
From equation 2, the quantity Pi/ (1 – Pi) is the odds ratio. In fact, equation 2
has expressed the logit (log odds) as a linear function of the independent factors
(Xs). Equation 2 allows for the interpretation of the logit weights for variables in the
same way as in linear regressions. For example, e?n (in equation 1) is the multiplicative
factor by which the odds ratio would change if X changes by one unit. An odds ratio
of 1 represents no effect of a variable; a ratio greater than 1 indicates that the
characteristic increases the odds of that job category compared to base, and a ratio
less than 1 indicates that it diminishes the odds. For instance, an odds ratio of 0.75
signifies that the chance that a woman worker with the given characteristic gets a
given job status is 75 percent of the chance of being job status as women proprietary
entrepreneur. An odds ratio of 1.5 implies a 1.5 times greater chance of being in the
given category than the other. The larger the odds ratio, the stronger the relationship,
so these provide an implicit ordering of woman workers with vocational training
and technical education across the two groups.
Table 3: Determination of Woman Proprietary Entrepreneurship Status:

Logistic Regression Estimates
Odds Ratio p-value
vocational training 2.51 .000
technical education 0.435 .000
Conclusion
It is clear from the above analysis that most of the women with technical education
are in Government and private sector. The percentage of women with technical education
in self-employment is very small. In the contrary, the percentage of women with
vocational training in self employment is quite satisfactory. The study also suggests
that women worker having vocational training is more likely to be engaged as
proprietary entrepreneur, however, women with technical education is more likely
to be not engaged as proprietary entrepreneur. Henceforth, the Government must
promote vocational training programme rather than technical education courses for
entrepreneurship development.
Enrolment in training and providing employment opportunities alone would not
be sufficient. It is crucial to evaluate the progress and the quality of training provided
in order to check discrepancies, whether it is between the needs of the trainees and
the nature of training provided, or between the kind of skill being imparted and the
demand from the local industry. A proper monitoring and evaluation system consistent
with gender equality perspective would help in informing corrections needed in
time and assure quality of training for sustainable skill development.
References
1. Bennell, P (1999), “Learning to Change: Skills Development among the Economically Vulnerable
and Socially Excluded in Developing Countries”, Employment and Training Papers, 43,
Employment and Training Department, International Labour Office, Geneva
2. Chenoy, D (2012), “Empowering Women through Skill Development: Challenges and
Opportunities”, Power Point Presentation at the GEPD forum II, Institute of Social Studies
Trust and Heinrich Boll Foundation, at the India Habitat Centre, 24 April 2012.
Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Global

Challenge
Bansh Gopal Yadava*
Introduction
The word gender describes the socially constructed roles and responsibilities that
societies consider appropriate for men and women. Gender equality means that men
and women have equal power and equal opportunities for financial independence,
education and personal development.
Globally, women have fewer opportunities for Economic than man, less access to
basic and higher education, greater health and safety risks, and less political
representation. Guaranteeing the rights of women and giving them opportunities to
reach their full potential is critical not only for attaining gender equality but also for
meeting a wide range of international development goals. Empowered women and
girls contribute to the health and productivity of their families, communities and
countries, creating a ripple effect that benefits everyone.
Women’s Empowerment is a critical aspect of achieving gender equality. It includes
increasing a woman’s sense of self-worth, her decision making power, her access to
opportunities and resource, her power and control over her own life inside and
outside the home and her ability of effect change. Education plays an essential role
in gender equality and women empowerment. Although the world is making progress
in achieving gender parity in education, girls still make up a higher percentage of
out of school children than boys. Approximately one quarter of girls in the developing
world do not attend school. Typically, families with limited means who cannot afford
costs such as school fees, uniforms and supplies for all of their children will prioritize
education for their sons. Families may also rely on girl’s labour for household chores,
carrying water andchildren, leaving limited time for schooling. But prioritizing girl’s
education provides perhaps the single highest return investment in the developing
world. An educated girl is more likely postpone marriage raise a smaller family,
have health their children and send her children to school. She has more opportunities
to earn an income and to participate in political progress.
* Junior Research Fellow, Department of Economic, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, (U.P.)
Globally, no country has fully attained gender equality. Scandinavian countries

like Iceland, Norway, Finland and Switzerland the world in their progress toward
closing the gender gap. In these countries, there is relatively equitable distribution
of available income, resource and opportunities for men and women. The greatest
gender gaps are identified primarily in the Middle East, Africa and South Asia.
However, a number of countries in these regions, including Lesotho, South Africa
and Srilanka outrank the United States in gender equality.
Objective
The Research paper has the following objectives:
• To study the status ofproportion of women aged 20 to 24 years who were
married before ages 15 and 18, 1990 & 2015 at global level.
• To study the challenges of women education at global level.
• To study the challenges of seats held by women in single or lower houses of
national parliament at global level.
Methodology
The Research paper is based on secondary data. The main source of data is Human
Development Report 2016, UNDP Report 2016.
Source: UNDP Report 2016
Source: UNDP Report 2016

Source: United Nations Report 2015

Note: 1990 Figure for Caucasus and Central Asia is not available.
2000 Figure for Oceania is not available.
Considerable progress has been made in expanding primary education enrolment

since 1990, particularly since the adoption of the MDGs in 2000. Yet in some developing
countries many children of primary education age do not attend school, and many
children who begin primary school do not complete it.
We see the figure-3; we find that Progress has been erratic since 1990. Between
1990 and 2000, the enrolment rate in the developing regions increased from 80 per
cent to just 83 per cent. After 2000, improvement accelerated, and the adjusted net
enrolment rate in primary education reached 90 per cent in 2007. After 2007, progress
stalled. The enrolment rate has not increased significantly, and projections based on
the extrapolation of trends between 2007 and 2012 indicate that nearly one in ten
primary-school-age children remain out of school in 2015.
A threshold of at least 97 per cent is frequently used to determine whether universal
enrolment has been attained. Based on this threshold, enrolment in primary education
is now universal or nearly universal in Eastern Asia and Northern Africa. The target
is close to being reached in all regions except sub-Saharan Africa.
Sub-Saharan Africa faces daunting challenges. These include rapid growth of the
primary-school-age population (which has increased 86 per cent between 1990 and
2015), high levels of poverty, armed conflicts and other emergencies. However, sub-
Saharan Africa has made the greatest progress in primary school enrolment among
all developing regions. Its enrolment rate grew from 52 per cent in 1990 to 78 per
cent in 2012. In absolute numbers the region’s enrolment more than doubled over
this period, from 62 million children to 149 million.
The figure-4 shows that the proportion of seats held by women in single or
lower houses of parliament rose to 23 per cent in 2016. This represents an average
increase of 0.6 percentage points a year since 2006 and a rise of 6 percentage points
over a decade. Slow progress in this area contrasts with more rapid developments
for women in parliamentary leadership positions. In 2016, the number of women
speakers of parliament increased from 43 to 49 (out of the 273 posts globally); women
accounted for 18 per cent of all speakers of parliament in January 2016.
Conclusion
Thus, the attainment in the field of income, parliament and in educational front, the
scenario of women empowerment seems to be comparatively poor. The need of the
hour is to identify those loopholes or limitations which are observing the realization of
empowerment of women and this initiative must be started from the women folk itself
as wellas more importantly policy initiative taken by the state and society. Let us take
the oath that we want an egalitarian society where everybody whether men or women
get the equal opportunity to express and uplift one’s well-being and well-being of the
society as whole. Thesestruggles have also been supported by many men who have
been outraged at injustice against women. Women represent half the world’s population
and gender inequality exists in every nation on the planet. Until women are given the
same opportunities that men are, entire societies will be destined to perform below their
true potentials. The greatest need of the hour is change of social attitude to women.”When
women move forward the family moves, the village moves and the nation moves”. It is
essential as their thought and their value systems lead the development of a good family,
good society and ultimately a good nation. The best way of empowerment is perhaps
through inducting women in the mainstream of development. Women empowerment
will be real and effective only when they are endowed income and property so that they
may stand on their feet and build up their identity in the society. The Empowerment of
Women has become one of the most important concerns of 21st century not only at
national level but also at the international level. Government initiatives alone would not
be sufficient to achieve this goal. Society must take initiative to create a climate in
which there is no gender discrimination and women have full opportunities of self-
decision making and participating in social, political and economic life of the country
with a sense of equality.
References
1. Duflo E. (2011) Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development.National Bureauof Economic
Research. No.12, December, pp1-13.
2. Beman, L. Duflo, E,Pandey, R. Topalova, P. (2012). Female Leadership Raises Aspirations and
Educational Attainments for Girls: A Policy Experiments in India, Economic PoliticalWeekly. No.45,
January, pp49-55.
3. Baruah, B. (2013). Role of Electronic Media in Empowering Rural.Economic PoliticalWeekly. No.36,
March, pp102-110.
4. Goswami, L. (2013). Education for Women Empowerment. ABHIBYAKTI: AnnualJournal.No.1,
September, pp17-18.
5. Masta, D. A. (2011).Gender: Working towards Greater Equality, Gender Equality as a Smart
Economics. Economic PoliticalWeekly. No.78, March, pp69-80.
6. Ganguli, I. Hausmann, R,Viarengo, M.(2011).The Closing of The Gender Gap in Education: Does
it Foretell the Closing of the Employment, Marriage and, MotherhoodGaps? HKS Working Paper.
No.85, March, pp32-41.
7. WHO. (2006). Human Development Report. United Nations Development Programme, New York.
8. WHO. (2011). Preventing gender-biased sex selection.United Nations Development Programme,
New York. Available from: http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/shared/documents/publications/
2011/preventing_gender_biased_sex_selection.pdf.
Impact of MGNREGA on Women Empowerment: A Case Study

of Pratapgarh District of Uttar Pradesh
Amit Singh*
Introduction
Empowerment of women has emerged as a developmental issue after the inception
of the concept of capability approach for development. But womens empowerment
has not been clearly defined and segregated from other closely related concepts like
gender equality. Women empowerment is treating them with same status with that
of men in all the fields of the society. We have restricted our perceptions to only
upliftment of women from the value of an object to the value of a living being but
what is required in present period is something beyond it. Women empowerment is
their capacity to participate as equal partner in cultural, social, economical, and political
system of the society. This in a certain respect demands a revolutionary change in
the socio- cultural values of the society. Although the world economy has developed
into global economy, gender bias and beliefs are playing as chief obstacles for the
development of women worldwide. Thus it is no real surprise that women
empowerment in India is hotly discussed topic.
Status and Challenges of Women
Indian cultural history has a very old and long roots. There are many evidences
that women in ancient India enjoyed equal status with men in all aspect of life but
during the middle period and in the era of slavery our society allowed a sudden fall
in the dignified position occupied by the Indian women. In emerging India as far as
women is concerned this factual inequality is expected to be taken care of by the
paternalistic role which the state is expected to play, legal paternalism is inherent in
the constitution of India.
Furthermore there are many challenges that are currently plaguing the issues of
women’s rights in India as education, poverty, health, and safety. However the status
of women in India indicates they are a vital part of the economy as one third of the
national labour force yet remain at a disadvantage, concerning issues of survival,

health, nutrition, literacy and productivity. Most rural Indian women are unskilled
have no control over land and other productive assets and are unable to obtain
institutional credit.
MANAREGA is the most significant act in the history of employment generation
programmes, like gross root level participation of Panchayati Raj institutions through
democratic structure, multi layered social audit and transparency mechanism by
involvement of civil society and comprehensive planning at village level.
Jaffer P.C. (2008): While studying the impact of NREGS in Gulbarg District of
Karnataka explained that the Scheme has a positive impact on the house hold income
level. A majority of the beneficiaries reported increase in their consumption, health
expenditure and saving. Some of the beneficiaries reported that about 50% of the
income earned under the scheme is either saved at home or at banks.
Objectives
The main focus of the present study is on analyzing the socio- economic impact
of MGNREGA on women. More specifically, the study seeks to
• To study the impact of MGNREGA on the socio-economic status of the rural
women who are wage workers under the scheme.
• To identify the problems and challenges in the implementation and availing
of the scheme in the study area.
Methodology
This study is based on primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected
from 100 NREGA workers of the Patti block of the Pratapgarh district. Random
sampling method was used for selecting the sample. Direct personal interview along
with scheduled questionnaire was used for collecting primary information. The simple
statistical tools like average, percentage, cross-section analysis have been used in
this study.
Data Representation and Analysis
Figure A.1: Share of Women person days (in %) of job generated in Indian
States/UT — 2013-14
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Table 1.1: Qualitative questions related to Functioning of NREGA (In Percent)
Description Yes No
Where was the job card With card holders 95.00 0.00
generally kept
With Gram Pradhan or Gram Rojgar Sevak 5.00 0.00
Are you employed in response to an application for work 75.00 25.0
if applied, did you get a receipt for application 80.00 20.00
Did you get a work within 15 days of application 85.33 14.67
Work application
In case of failure to provide work within 15 days is 34.14 65.86
unemployment allowance paid
Mode of payment Post office 10.00 0.00
Bank 90.00 0.00
other government official 0.00 0.00
Complaints regarding There were delays in wage payments 0.00 100.00
wage payment
Wage paid less than the minimum wage 0.00 100.00
Wage paid less than asked for sign/ thumb impression 0.00 100.00
Economic Usefulness of Work is useful to the village 91.00 0.00
the work
Work is not particularly useful to the village 9.00 0.00
How has NREGA Did any one of your family migrated out for job after 25.00 75.00
affected labour migration implementation of NREGA
Are wages higher in city 90.00 10.00
Any family members migrated back to village to work under 11.00 89.00
NREGA
Potential benefits of NREGA enhanced food security 100.00 0.00
NREGA
NREGA provided protection against extreme poverty 100.00 0.00
NREGA helped to reduce distress migration 100.00 0.00
NREGA helped to reduce indebtedness 100.00 0.00
NREGA gave greater economic independence to women 100.00 0.00
Sources: Field survey
Labour migration is an important issue and micro analysis of the date reveals
that the migration has been reduced since beginning of the programme but it is still
continued among young age group and especially who are educated at least graduation
level. In reference with the potential benefit 100% of the respondents replied positively.
Table 1.2: Some Socio-Economic Issues Related to the Beneficiary Households

(In Percent)
Description Yes No
Is NREGA in the support of your social, economic and political freedom 100.00 0.00
The positive impact has realized in abolition of castism in rural area. 80.00 20.00
Having bank account or post office account 100.00 0.00
Use institutional credit facilities for borrowing 20.00 80.00
Having any stock/bond/shares or similar assets 0.00 100.00
Having any insurance through LIC 82.50 17.50
Sources: Field Survey
Expenditure of Wages
Items Share
Food grains 70%
Medical expenses 15%
Education 15%
Conclusion & Suggestions

These improvements have been attributed by NREGA. Still there are some scopes
for improvement in functioning of NREGA in the context of U.P. which are suggested
as follows:
• There is a more need to strengthen Gram Panchayat bodies to proper execution
of works under NREGA.
• There should be full transparence in issuing the job cards.
• Payment of wage should be made through banks at any cost to root-out the
corruption in the payment of wages.
• The payment of wage to labours should be made after proper monitoring of
their allotted works.
• The monitoring cell of NREGA should be more vigilant to make more
transference in the different activities of NREGA.
• The foul payment and wrong entry in job cards should be strictly prohibited
to make the responsible to Gram Panchayat etc.
References
1. Raghupathi P. (2016)”Impact of rural development programmes on landless
Dalits”.
2. Sharma Ajay Kumar “Impact of I.R.D.P. on economic status of SCs/STs
community with special reference to Fatehpur district” from the catalogue of
department economics, University of Allahabad.
3. Maurya H. (2012)’’Impact of micro finance on poverty eradication through
SHGs: A case study of Pratapgarh district”.
The Schemes of Women Empowerment in India
Divya Pal* & Kiran Singh**
Introduction
Women is an incarnation of ‘Shakti’ –the Goddess of
Power. If she is bestowed with education, India’s
Strength will double.
Narendra Modi
“Empowering women is prerequisite for creating a good nation, when women
are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is essential
as their value system lead to the development of a good family, good society and
ultimately good nation”
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Women are the integral part of our society and they play major role in making a
Nation. If we become successful in including them into mainstream of economic
development then they will become moreempower. Women Empowerment is
multidimensional process. It described a process where a woman gets right to take
decision which affects their own life and all the sphere of life. Women Empowerment
as a concept was introduced at the International Women conference in 1985 at Nairobi,
which explained it as redistribution of social power and control of resources in favour
of women.The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNDFW) incorporated
the following factors in its definition of women Empowerment:
• Acquiring knowledge and to understand the gender relation along with the
way these relation can be change.
• To build the sense of self progress, a belief in one’s ability to secure wanted
changes and to be the right to control one’s life.
Baltiwala (1974) defined ‘Empowerment’ the process which challenges the existing
power and to attain more control over the source of power.
* Research Scholar, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

** Associate Professor, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
The Parameters of women Empowerment are given below:

• To increase self confidence and self esteem of women
• To wipe out all type of violence and discrimination against girl child and
women.
• To develop the decision making power related to her life and all the spheres
of life.
• To ensure women participation in all areas.
• To provide information, knowledge, skills for self-employment.
• To end the discrimination against women ‘participation in the areas of:
1. Access to food
2. Equal wages
• Gender sensitization training is must in schools, colleges and other professional
institutions for bringing institutional changes (Mamta Mokta, Indian Journal
of public Administration).
• Work Participation Rate in India of women
Total workers Number Rate (%)
Persons 404,234,724 39.1%
Males 275,014,476 51.7%
Females 127,220,248 25.6%
Main Workers
Persons 313,004,983 30.4%
Males 240,147,813 45.1%
Females 72,857,170 14.7%
Marginal Workers
Persons 89,229,741 8.7%
Males 34,866,663 6.6%
Females 54,363,078 11%
Source: www.censusindia.gov.in
The above table shows the work participation rate of women in India. There is
need to increase it met the goal of inclusive and sustained growth of India.
Women empowerment can be done through proper education, health facilities,
nutrition etc. The government of India started many programme to empower the
women and other vulnerable people of our society. Gender budgeting started in
2005 in India to give especial focus on that programmes which were related to women
and children. The names of some programme are given below which directly and
indirectly helped in women Empowernment.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act(2005)- This
programme provide 100 days of employment in a financial year to every
households whose adults members are willing to do unskilled manual work.
There is provision that at least one third of beneficiaries shall be women who
have registered and requested for work under this act. The participation of
women in MGNREGA has increased in 2015-16 in comparison to last three
years. A total of 33.18 lakh women participated in MGNREGA till March
2016, which is 50.94% of the total 650.14 lakh persons having participated in
2015-16. In 2012-13, a total of 797.341 lakh persons had participated in the
scheme of whom 374.97 lakh were women, constituting 47.03%. In 20134,14,
738.90 lakh persons took part in the programme and the number of women
was 354.48 lakh, which was 47.97%. In 2014-15, a total of 621.69 lakh people
had participated under this programme, of whom women 312.26 lakh,
constituting 50.23%. In state wise performance, Puducherry was on First place
in women representation in MGNREGA (www.dnaindia.com). The highest
participation of women registered since the programme started. Thus it is
clear that this programme is empowering the women economically. Now the
decision making power of women in related to household matters has increased.
• Indira Awas Yojana–It was started in 1985 to provide housing assistance for
constructing the dwelling unit to the BPL households in rural areas. The
Beneficiaries are Sc and ST people, Minorities, widows and unmarried women,
physical handicapped people and ex-servicemen of army etc. It is necessary
that IAY houses are to be allotted in the name of women members of the
household, otherwise in the joint names of husband and wife. In present
time, the name of this scheme has converted into the name of Pradhan Mantri
Awaas Yojana-Gramin w.e.f. 1st April 2016.The amount of financial assistance
has increased from 70.000 to 1 lakh twenty thousand rupees in plain area.
Thus this scheme is helping to increase the confidence of women and it ensures
the social and economic security of women. This programme has indirect role
in financial inclusion also because the financial assistance come into the bank
account of beneficiaries so they have to open account in banks and if house is
in the name of women they have to go bank to withdraw money from bank
account. Now women and adolescent girls of household feel better security
against many offences which may occur with them before Pucca house. The
sanitary latrine and smokeless chulha are the integral part of this programme.
This programme may have positive impact on health of women if the houses
were constructed according the guidelines of this programme. The total number
of dwelling units sanctioned the period 2012-13 was 2215637 out of which
1329550 (60%) houses were sanctioned in the name of women and 561962(25.36%)
houses were sanctioned jointly in the name of husband and wife(Annual report
of Rural development). Houses completed 293,374(2011), 1,078,065(2012-13),
1,057,863(2013-14), 1,652,000(2014-15), 1,830,000(2015-16), 3,214,564(2016-17) in
each financial year (www.rural.nic.in).
• STEP (Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women)-It was
started in 1986-87 with the aim of upgrading skills for self and wage employment.
• Rajiv Gandhi Scheme For Empowerment of Adolescent Girls – SABLA- It

is centrally sponsored scheme and its aim to overall development of adolescent
girls. It was started in 2010-11 and it aims to make the girls self reliant by
improving their health, hygiene and nutrition status and to promote awareness
about health and other things which are necessary for them.
• Swadhar-The vision of this scheme to provide helps those women who are
suffered adverse circumstances in her life so that she could lead her life with
dignity and confidence.
• Ujjawala-A scheme for prevention of Trafficking and rescue, Rehabilitation
and Reintegration
• National Rural Health Mission
• JananiSuraksha Yojana etc.
Conclusion
Thus many others programmes are running by the government to empower the
women and the entire programme have positive impact on women directly and
indirectly which are mentioned above. Women represent the half population of India
and without empowering them sustained and inclusive growth are not possible. So
that Women empowerment is must for progressive country and it is still pose a big
challenge before the government. To empower the women not only government but
also Male and female both have to come together in this context. A empower woman
can make a empower society, state and nation.
References
1. Mokta Mamta (2014), “Empowerment of Women in India: A critical Analysis”, Indian Journal
of Public Administration, pg no.473 to 488.
2. Meenakshi C.S.,and Kumar Ajith( 2000), “Women’s participation in rural housing scheme:
A case study of Kerala “published by Kerala Research Programme on Local Development,
Centre for Development studies, Thiruananthapuram
3. Annual report of rural development on women Empowerment
4. Kurukshetra Magazine on Women Empowerment.
Indian Women in Development: In the Context of Global

Scenario
Sushma Saini* & Abha Saini**
Introduction
“Yatra Naryastu Poojyante, Romante Tatra Devta” – Manu
(Women are honoured where, divinity blossoms there)
Above quotation shows the importance of women in ancient India but the conditions
of women became very poor in the medieval period. Now in Modern India the
deprived woman has come in a long way. The situation has improved with some
facts like improving literacy rate, political improvement and having decision making
power etc.
The knowledgeable Indian women have to go a long way to achieve equal rights
and position because customs are deep rooted in Indian society where the sociological
set up has been a male dominated one. Despite all the social hurdles, India is brimming
with the success stories of women. They stand tall from the rest of the crowd and
are applauded for their achievements in their respective field.
Women empowerment is as a re-distribution of social power and control of resources
in favor of Women (Goswami, 2013). So, it is a multidimensional social process that
helps people to gain controls their own lives and thus enhancing their position in
the power structure of the society (Baruah, 2013).
The objectives of present study are -
(1) To know the historical perspective about the development of women.
(2) To analyze the social, economic & political status of women.
(3) To identify the challenges and crime against women.
* Head & Associate Professor (Department of Economics)D.A.V. (PG) College, Muzaffarnagar

(U.P.) INDIA
** Head & Associate Professor (Department of Political Science)J.K.P. (PG) College,
Muzaffarnagar (U.P.) INDIA
(4) To know the steps taken by the Indian Government.

(5) To offer useful suggestions.
The present study is based on secondary data from Books, Journals, Websites
and Various Reports (National & International) etc.
Social, Economic & Political Status of Indian Women
The status of woman cannot be visualized with single dimension. So we can see
the status of woman in terms of employment, education, health and politics in terms
of gender gap index prepared by World Economic Forum in 2016.
Table 1: Global Gender Gap Index - 2016 (Out of 144 Countries)

India
Overall Index Year 2006 Year 2016
Rank Score Rank Score
Global Gender Gap Index 98 0.601 87 0.683
Economic Participation and Opportunity 110 0.397 136 0.408
Educational Attainment 102 0.819 113 0.950
Health and Survival 103 0.962 142 0.942
Political Empowerment 20 0.227 9 0.433
Rank out of 115 - 144 -
Source: Global Gender Gap Index, 2016 by World Economic Forum, 2016
Effects of Globalization on Women in India

The positive effect of globalization is that it has opened up broader communication
lines and attracted more companies as well as different organizations into India.
This provides opportunities for not only working men, but also women, who are
becoming a larger part of the workforce. With new jobs for women, there are
opportunities for higher pay, which raises self–confidence and brings about
independence. This, in turn, can promote equality between the sexes, something that
Indian women have been struggling with their entire lives. Globalization has the
power to uproot the traditional treatment towards women to afford them an equal
stand in society.
With the changing times and globalization, employability has seen an increasing
trend. Owing to the inherent nature of woman which identifies with empathy and
benevolence combined with strong determination and sharp business acumen, many
firms have had significant success with a woman on the decision making chair. Women
have proved to be good team leaders. Indra Nooyi’s climb to the 2nd rank of Fortune’s
2016 list of powerful women exemplifies this. The success of brand name firms with
women as chief executives has been impressive. The kinds of Kiran Mazumdar Shaw,
Naina Lal Kidwai, Sullajja Firodia Motwani, Vidya Chhabria and Indra Nooyi, who
dare to change the rules of game, are gradually paving their success path nudging
aside the obstacles.
Challenges & Crime Against Women
The barriers to women’s empowerment are manifested in various ways. Deep-
rooted ideologies of gender bias and discrimination like the confinement of women
to the private domestic realm, restrictions on their mobility, poor access to health
services, nutrition, education and employment, and exclusion from the public and
political sphere continue to daunt women across the country. Other parameters that
reflect the status and position of women in society are work participation rates, sex
ratio in the age group of 0–6 years and gender based violence which remain heavily
skewed against women.
Steps taken by the Government
Development of women has been a policy objective of the government since
independence.
At present, the Government of India has many schemes for women operated by
different departments and ministries. Some of these are: MGNREGS Scheme,
National Rural Health Mission, Integrated Childhood Development Scheme, Women
Helpline Scheme, UJJAWALA Yojana, SWADHAR Greh etc.
Suggestions
Political empowerment of women is necessary for their emancipation. In recent
years many steps have been taken so as to increase the participation of women in
the political system. Apart from these, strict implementation of programs and acts
should be there to curb the malpractices prevalent in the society. Strict measures
should be taken for the implementation of Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act 1994,
which prohibits any prenatal diagnostic techniques and sex selective abortions. Dowry
prohibition acts and other legislations pertaining to woman emancipation must be
implemented strictly.
Conclusion
It can be said that today we are in a better position wherein women participation
in all field of is increasing at a considerable rate. Efforts are being taken at the
economy as brought promise of equality of opportunity in all spheres to the Indian
women and laws guaranteed equal rights of participation in political process and
equal opportunities and rights in education and employment were enacted.
No doubt women have the potential to achieve an equal footing with men. But,
it is the social practices and male attitudes that are making an effective and invisible
barrier preventing women from rising above a certain point. Empowerment of women
could only be achieved if their economic and social status is improved. This could
be possible only by adopting definite social and economic policies with a view of
total development of women and to make them realize that they have the potential
to be strong human beings. Swami Vivekananda had said “That nation which doesn’t
respect women will never become great now and nor will ever in future” and in
pursuit of making India a great nation, let us work and strive hard in empowering
women to the maximum.
References
1. Collier, Paul (December 1988), Women in Development: Defining the Issues. World Bank.
2. Pattnaik, Avaya Kesari Parichha (1996), “Women in Development”. In S. N. Tripathy.
Unorganised women labour in India. Discovery Publishing House. ISBN 81-7141-325-0.
Health and Employment Dynamics of Public Transport on

Urban Poor’s: A Case Study of Allahabad City
Kiran Singh* & Reena Yadav**
Introduction
The relationship between poverty and urban transport is poorly understood.
Transportation infrastructure can alter the spatial distribution of the urban poor. The
relationship between transportation and population density changes as incomes rise,
and one of the main negative externalities is displacement of the poor. This survey
explores public transport dynamics in urban slum areas that have high population
densities and high poverty levels. The main focus is on the relationship between
public transport and the growth of cities and the related impact of transportation
infrastructure development on displacement of the urban poor.
Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon. “The urban poor live with many
deprivations including limited access to employment opportunities and income,
inadequate and insecure housing and services, violent and unhealthy environments,
few social protection mechanisms and limited access to health and education services.
“The most visible indicator of poverty in many cities of India is the presence of
slums and squatter communities. As cities expand spatially, poor people are compelled
to live in inner-city slums or on the urban periphery. The spatial configuration of
urban areas often shows concentrations of the urban poor in inner-city areas where
old and dilapidated housing can be rented cheaply, or on the urban periphery as a
result of government resettlement programs or spontaneous settlements set up by
squatters forced out of or evicted from inner-city locations. In both inner-city and
peripheral areas, the urban poor tend to have inadequate access to urban infrastructure
and services.
In recent years little attention was paid to the poverty implications of transport
investments: it was assumed that investments in urban and rural roads stimulated
economic growth and social development. Recent research has shown that transport
investments tend to benefit the ‘non-poor’ most, and that investments must be
consciously designed to avoid further impoverishing poor people. Where transport
investments have stimulated economic growth, the poor have often benefitted only
marginally – in many cases, they have not had the resources to take advantage of
* Associate Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
** D.Phil. Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
the opportunities afforded by better access. Good transport infrastructure is a necessary

condition for economic growth and poverty alleviation, but transport investments
alone cannot address the problems of the poorest households.
Transport infrastructure and means of transport (including transport services) are
crucial to overcoming the potentially fatal ‘three delays’ in health care (particularly
peril-natal care) - the decision to seek health care, the travel to reach care and the
treatment within the healthcare system (including referrals) all depend on access to
transport. Where people are far from roads, their decision to travel is influenced by
the problems of travelling by human porter age, stretchers, animals, bicycles or
motorcycles. Good access to infrastructure and transport services are needed to ensure
medical staff and supplies are available in health centers. Evidence from India, Nepal
and other countries suggests that constructing and maintaining rural roads, paths
and bridges leads to improved health outcomes and healthier rural communities
(although there can be complex interactions and externalities that affect poor people).
Methodology
The present study is based on primary and secondary data. Structured schedule
has been prepared for primary survey. It contained multiple choice questions. It has
been prepared to observe the employment and health aspect of public transport on
urban poor’s. Schedule contains 32 questions, it was divided into 2 sections, one is
from employment aspect and other is from health aspect. 1st sections contain personal
information and employment aspect and 2nd section contain health aspect.
1. The area has been selected purposively, on the basis of residence selected
group (urban poor’s). Hence we selected two areas from authorized slums
(mahamaya, allapur and nagarnigam colony). And two areas from unauthorized
slums i.e. (daraganjpoonapatti and gaughat). We have selected total 100
respondents randomly, out of which 45 are from authorized slums and 55 are
from unauthorized slums.
2. The respondents in each area were selected through random sampling. SPSS
20 was used and hypothesis tested by X2 test and interpretation has been
drowning according to it.
Objectives
1. To analyse the accessibility of public transport for health/medical facilities to
urban poor.
2. To study the comparative preference of public transport between medical and
employment purpose by urban poor.
Hypothesis
1. HO: There is no significant impact of public transport on access to medical/
health facility to urban poor’s.
H1: There is significant impact of public transport on access to medical/health
facility to urban poor’s.
2. HO: There is no significant difference between the preference of public transport
for medical and employment purpose.
H1: There is significant difference between the preference of public transport
for medical and employment purpose.
Sample Characteristics
In our Survey for this study we have taken the sample of 100 respondents, who
are urban poor’s. Out of these 100 respondents 55 belongs to the unorganized sector
and 45 belongs to the organized sector. This can be clearly seen in the given table-
We can also see the characteristics of the sample of this study on the basis of
gender, there are 86 male and 14 female respondents in this study.
Among these 100 respondents 44 are APL card holders, 26 are BPL card holders,
20 are antyodya card holders and 10 are those, whom any of these card have been
issued. We have also found that 33 respondents are illiterate and other is literate.
Analysis of Data
On the other hand the availability and given preference of public transport is
equal for respondent living in authorized slums that is 51%.Whereas 28% of urban
poor’s are using private transport being available to them. Out of 59 (95%) people
who are using public transport 78% prefer it because public transport is a cheap
means of transport for them, 17% are those who use it because of its accessibility.
To Analyze the Accessibility of Public Transport for Health/Medical Facilities to
Urban Poor
We all know that “Health is wealth”, it plays an important role in everybody’s life.
We have found in our study that urban poor are also so much concerned for their
health; a major proportion of them went to the doctor during their illness.
In order to get the medical facility they went to the doctor, for which they use
different means of transport. Urban poor’s are not in very good economic condition,
they do not have their own vehicle, so public transport is playing an important role
for them as a good means of transport to go to the doctor
To study the comparative preference of public transport between medical and
employment purpose by urban poor:
Out of 87 respondent 59 preferred to go to their workplace by public transport
and the rest one uses the private vehicles for the same. On the other hand 57 respondents
(65) preferred to go to the medical facility if fell ill by public transport. It is clear
from the above table that the share percentage of public transport as medium of
travel is higher (87.69%) for medical purpose, where the share percentage for the
public transport is 67% when they go to their workplace
Thus the study shows that public transport is a cheap and easily accessible means
of transport for urban poor’s, by which they can easily go to the doctor or to get
medical facility during their illness.
Major Findings
1. There is strong significant impact of public transport on urban poor’s in their
preference (95) to go to their work place to Allahabad city.
2. Public transport is playing an important role for urban poor’s as a means of
transport to go to take medical facility in Allahabad city, more than 64% (84
respondent) prefer to go to medical facility from public transport if fell ill.
Conclusion
Indian cities cannot afford to cater only to private cars and two-wheelers and
there has to be general recognition that policy should be designed in such a way
that it reduces the need to travel by personalize mode and boost public transport
system thus require both, an increase in quantity as well as quality of public transport
and effective use of demand as well as supply side management measure. Transport
system is among the various factors affecting the quality of life and the safety of the
city. The urban transport situation in large city is deteriorating, characterized by
huge traffic, congestion, rising fare prices.
Commuting pattern of low income people as compare to other are significantly
different as observed, since 50% to 60% of urban poor’s resides in unauthorized
slums and settlement having a average income of 2000 per month. For them bus,
bicycle, and pedestrian walking continued to be the important mode of transport.
People living in the urban poverty, whom are heavily dependent on non-motorized
vehicles and public transport, are the main victim of road traffic. The urban poor’s
“who are also the transport poor’s” are responsible for creating environmental friendly
travel pattern depend on non-motorized modes, short trip length and high share of
public transport use.
Suggestions
• There is lack of awareness regarding ambulance facilities by government hospitals
thus they were compelled either to go to nearest private medical facility or
forced to hire costly means of transport to reach at distant medical facility
.Hence a government health campaign should be redesigned to look after this
problems.
References
1. AIMA (1994), The Automobile industry- Statistical Profile 1994, Mumbai: Association of
Indian Automobile Manufactures”.
2. Badami, M.G. & et al (2004). Access and Mobility for the Urban Poor in India: Bridging the
gap between policy and needs. Paper Presentation at the Forum on Urban Infrastructure
and Public Service Delivery for the Urban Poor Organized by the Woodrow Wilson International
Center for Scholars, Washington, DC and National Institute of Urban Affairs. New Delhi.
Problems of Women Entrepreneurs in Aligarh District:

An Analysis
Shobha Jain*
Introduction
Entrepreneurship plays an eminent function in creating an avenue for employability
for rural urban communities, providing self-employment for those who have started-
up a business of their own and enhancing the economic status of the rural sector as
well. Entrepreneurship has transformed many entrepreneurs into successful business
persons and generated income for rural communities. Entrepreneurs in rural area
have transformed their vicinity into trading hubs thus enabling them to become
urbanized areas.
Entrepreneurs pay the pivotal role in shaping the economic destiny of a nation.
It is enterprise of a few in a society that help change the growth profile of the
economy and diversify its economic base. Entrepreneurs not only launch and run
business but also contributes to employment creation, output, growth, technological
up-gradation and improvement in the quality of goods and services by altering
production function. It is widely recognized that lack of entrepreneurship is a major
reason for relative backwardness of the developing economy. Augmenting the supply
of entrepreneurs who pereeive new opportunities, convert them into viable business
propositions, undertake business related risks and contribute to the growth of the
economy by harnessing available but dormant resource potentials- capital, labour,
technology and markets is therefore, essential for development of any region, country
or economy.
Review of Literature.
Joshi Bhavika, Shekhar Serene and Sanwal Sarita (2015), reveals that the
entrepreneurship has positive impact on economic development in India.
Saravanan R., Srithar P. and Meganathan M. (2015), identify the barriers faced
by Dalit entrepreneurs. The result depicts that lack of finance, marketing opportunity,
low profit, inadequate credit facility, cut-throat competition are the major barriers
faced by the dalit entrepreneurs in study area.
* Department of Economics, D.S. PG College Aligarh.

Objectives of the Project

1. To investigate the backward and forward linkages between socio-economic
status of entrepreneurs and their problems/hurdles affecting performance of
entrepreneurial activities
2. To suggest appropriate yardsticks for further strengthening strategies for enhance
entrepreneurship in the economy.
The universe of the study will be confined to Aligarh district of western Uttar
Pradesh.
Sample Design
In this study, an attempt will be made to investigate women entrepreneurs engaged
in various entrepreneurial activities in rural as well as urban areas of the study. It
will be very difficult to cover all women entrepreneurs in selected district for intensive
study Both rural as well as urban areas will be taken into account. Therefore, in
order to select the sample, Multistage stratified Random Sampling Technique will be
adopted for intensive study.
Further 50 respondents will be selected after taking various aspects in view like
age, caste, sex, education, training and skills, occupation, business background, size
of family and infrastructural facilities.
Tools and Techniques
This purposed study will be mainly based on primary sources of data and
information. Secondary data will also be used to supplement the primary data. Primary
data will be collected with the help of schedule cum Questionnaire by using personal
interview method.
Problem Faced by Women Entrepreneur in Aligarh Distrct
1. Patriarchal Society: Entrepreneurship has been traditionally seen a male preserve
and idea of women taking up entrepreneurial activities considered as a distant
dream. Any deviation from the norm is frowned and if possible, immediately
curbed. Women also have to face role conflict as soon as they initiate any
entrepreneurial activity. It is an uphill task for women to face such conflicts
and cope with the twin role.
2. Absence of Entrepreneurial Aptitude: Many women take the training by
attending the Entrepreneurship Development Programmes without
entrepreneurial bent of mind. As per a study, involvement of women in small
scale sector as owners stands at mere 7 percent. Women who are imparted
training by various institutes must be verified on account of aptitude through
the tests, interviews etc.
3. Quality of EDPs: All women entrepreneurs are given the same training through
EDPs. Second-generation women entrepreneurs don’t need such training as
they already have the previous exposure to business.
4. Marketing Problems: Women entrepreneurs continuously face the problems
in marketing their products. It is one of the core problems as this area is
mainly dominated by males and even women with adequate experience fail
to make a dent.
5. Financial Problems: Obtaining the support of bankers, managing the working
capital, lack of credit resources are the problems which still remain in the
males domain. Women are yet to make significant mark in quantitative terms.
Marketing and financial problems are such obstacles where even training doesn’t
significantly help the women. Some problems are structural in nature and
beyond the control of entrepreneurs.
6. Credit Facilities: Though women constitute about 50 per cent of population,
the percentage of small scale enterprise where women own 51 percent of
share capital is less than 5 percent. Women are often denied credit by bankers
on the ground of lack of collateral security. Therefore, women’s access to risk
capital is limited.
7. Shortage of raw-materials: Women entrepreneurs encounter the problems of
shortage of raw-materials. The failure of many women co-operations in 1971
such as these engaged in basket making were mainly because of the inadequate
availability of forest-based raw materials.
8. Heavy Competition: Many of the women enterprises have imperfect
organizational set up. But they have to face severe competition from organized
industries.
9. High cost of production: High cost of production undermines the efficiency
and stands in the way of development and expansion of women’s enterprises,
government assistance in the form of grant and subsidies to some extent enables
them to tide over the difficult situations.
Conclusion
It can be said that today we are in a better position wherein women participation
in the field of entrepreneurship is increasing at a considerable rate. Efforts are being
taken at the economy as brought promise of equality of opportunity in all spheres to
the Indian women and laws guaranteed equal rights of participation in political
process and equal opportunities and rights in education and employment were enacted.
But unfortunately, the government sponsored development activities have benefited
only a small section of women i.e. the urban middle class women. Women sector
occupies nearly 45% of the Indian population. At this juncture, effective steps are
needed to provide entrepreneurial awareness, orientation and skill development
programs to women. The role of Women entrepreneur in economic development is
also being recognized and steps are being taken to promote women entrepreneurship.
Suggestions
1. Finance cells: A large number of various finance cells may be open to provide
easy finance to women entrepreneurs. These special cells should provide finance
to women entrepreneurs at low and concessional rates of interest and on easy
repayment facilities. Even these finance cells should manned by women officers
and clerks. Efforts should be made to provide finance at the local level.
2. Marketing Co-operatives: Marketing co-operatives should be established to
encourage and assist to women entrepreneurs. Government should give
preference to women entrepreneurs while purchasing their requirements. These
marketing cooperating will help the women entrepreneurs to sell their products
on remunerative prices. This will help in eliminating the middlemen.
3. Supply of raw-materials: The required, scare and imported raw-materials should
be made available to women entrepreneurs at priority basis at concessional
rate. 4. Educational and awareness: The educational and awareness programmers
should be arranged to change the negative social attitudes towards women.
The attitude of elders needs to be changed about the potential of girls and
their due role in society.
References
1. Joshi Bhavika, Shekhar Serene & Sanwal Sarita (2015), Entrepreneurship: A Way out for
Unemployed Youth in India, International Journal in Management and Social Science, Vol.03
Issue-02, (February, 2015) ISSN: 2321-1784
2. Goutam Supriya & Sarkar Rishiraj (2015), Role of Technology in Entrepreneurial Development:
Facilitating Innovative Ventures, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering, Volume 5, Special Issue 1, April 2015.
dqekÅW dh d`f”k esa layXu tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f”k Jfed½ dk v/;;u

¼xzke egksyh taxy ds fo’ks”k lUnHkZ esa½
fu’kk ijohu*] vfuy dqekj VEVk** ,oa ine ,l- fc”V***
efgyk,sa Hkkjrh; dk;Zcy dks ,d vfHkUu vax cukrh gSa jftLVªkj tujy vkWWQ bf.M;k }kjk iznku dh
xbZ lwpuk ds vk/kkj ij efgykvksa dh Je esa Hkkxhnkjh nj 2001 esa 25-63 izfr”kr Fkh ;s xzk eh.k {ks= esa
30-79 rFkk “kgjh {ks=ksa esa 11-88 izfr”kr jgh FkhA 2004&2005 ds nkSjku ns”k esa dqy Je “kfDr dk vuq eku
455-7 fefy;u yxk;k x;k ftlesa efgyk Jfedks dh la[;k 146-89 fefy;u Fkh dqy Jfedks dk dsoy
32-2 izfr”krA bu efgyk Jfedks esa yxHkx 106-89 fefy;u ;k 72-8 izfr”kr efgyk,sa d`f’k dk;Z djrh FkhA 1
¼Je jkstxkj ea=ky;] 2017½
jk’Vªh; Je vk;ksx ds vuqlkj d`f’k Jfed og gS tks ewy:i ls vdq”ky rFkk vlaxfBr gS vkSj ftlds
ikl thfodksiktZu ds fy, Je ds vfrfjDr yxHkx vkSj dqN ugh gksrk gS bl rjg ,sls Jfed dh vk; dk
vf/kdk”ak Hkkx [ksrh ls izkIr etnwjh@vk; ij fuHkZj djrk gS 2 ¼feJ% 2005%17½
dqekÅ¡ {ks= dh lkekftd ,oa lkaLd`frd fofo/krk esa ;gk¡ tutkrh;ksa dh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gSA ;gk¡ pkj
izdkj dh tutkrh;k¡ fuokl djrh gS “kkSdk ¼HkksfV;k½] Fkk:] cqDlk] jkth! dqekÅ¡ ds mŸkj esa cQhZyh pks fV;ksa
ds lehi HkksfV;k o jkth tutkrh;ksa ds yksx fuokl djrs gSa ogha nf{k.k Hkkx ds rjkbZ dh mitkÅ Hkwfe ij
cksDlk o Fkk: tutkrh;ksa dk fuokl gS vkfFkZd n`f’V ls ;s tutkfr ,d vkRefuHkZj tutkfr gS tks viuh
vko”;drk ls lEcfU/kr lHkh oLrqvksa dk Lo;a gh mRiknu dj ysrh gSA budk eq[; O;olk; d`f’k gSA d`f’k
;ksX; Hkwfe dk ncko c<rh tula[;k dh izfØ;k ds dkj.k tutkrh; lekt Hkh Hkwfeghu gksrk tk jgk gS ;gk¡
d`f’k Hkwfeghu d`’kd ifjokj d`f ’k Jfed dk dk;Z djrs gS muds lkFk ifjokj dh efgyk,sa Hkh ifjokj ds
fuogZu gsrq d`f’k Jfed ds :i esa etnwjh ij dk;Z djrh gSa izk;% ;s yksx [ksrksa esa vius iMkslh leqnk;ksa ds
[ksrksa esa Qly dVkbZ] cqokbZ dk dk;Z djrs gSaA ¼fo’V% 2011%45½
dqekÅ¡ {ks= esa dqy tutkrh; tula[;k 154649 gS tks dqy tutkrh; tula[;k dk 3-6 izfr”kr Hkkx
gS dqy tutkrh; tula[;k esa 48-49 izfr”kr Hkkx efgykvksa dk o 50-11 izfr”kr Hkkx iq:’kksa dk gSA ¼tula[;k%
2011½ pw¡fd d`f’k dqekÅ¡ dh vFkZO;oLFkk dk eq[; vk/kkj gS blfy, tutkrh; lekt dk eq[; O;olk; Hkh
* “kks/ kkfFkZuh] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] Mh0,l0ch0 ifjlj] dqekÅW fo”ofo|ky;] uSu hrkyA
** lhfu;j fjlpZ QS yks] i;ZVu foHkkx] dqekÅW fo”ofo|ky; uSuhrkyA
*** izksQ s lj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] Mh0,l0ch0 ifjlj] dqekÅW fo”ofo|ky; uS uhrkyA
d`f’k gh gSA ;gk¡ [kk|kUu Qlyksa dk mRiknu fd;k tkrk gS xsgw¡] pkoy] xUuk bR;kfn izeq[k Qlysa gSaA ;gk¡
dh tutkrh; efgyk;sa eq[; :i ls d`f’k o d`f’k Jfedksa ds :i esa iq:’kksa ds lkFk ifjokj ds thou&fuoZg u
gsrq lg;ksx nsrh gSA ;gk¡ jkstxkj dk izeq[k lk/ku d`f’k o d`f’k ls lEcaf/kr O;olk; gSA efgykvksa }kjk d`f’k
o d`f’k Jfed ds :i esa dk;Z dj vk; dk vtZu fd;k tkrk gS lkFk gh ;s efgyk;sa i”kqikyu] pVkbZ cquuk]
feV~Vh ds crZuks dk fuekZ.k] vukt ds Hk.Mkj.k ds fy, dqfB;k cukuk] vkSj Mfy;k cukuk bR;kfn dk;Z esa Hkh
fuiq.k gksrh gaSA
xzke egksyh taxy tuin Å/ke flag uxj ds fodkl [k.M cktiqj esa fLFkr gSA egksyh taxy xzke dh
dqy tula[;k 2011 ds vuqlkj 1508 gS ogh ;gk¡ tutkrh; tula[;k 299 ¼2011½ gSA xzke egksyh taxy
“kgj ls 15 fdeh0 nwjh ij fLFkr gSA egksyh taxy dks v/;;u gsrq pquus dk mÌs”; ;gk¡ d`f’k ,oa d`f’k
lEcfU/kr dk;Z vkthfodk dk eq[; lk/ku gksuk gSA ftlesa vf/kdka”k Hkkxhnkjh efgykvksa dh jgrh gSA ¼tux.kuk
% 2011½
mn~ns’;
• U;kn”kZ {ks= ds vUrxZr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dh lkektkfFkZd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
• U;kn”kZ {ks= ds vUrxZr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ ds f”k{kk ds Lrj dk v/;;u djukA
• U;kn”kZ {ks= ds vUrxZr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj gsrq lq>ko izLrqr
djukA
‘kks/k izfof/k
“kks/kkFkhZ }kjk tuin Å/keflaguxj ds xzke eksgyh taxy tks fodkl[k.M cktiqj ds vUrZxr vkrk gS
ls 30 tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½dk p;u nSo&funsZ”ku iz.kkyh }kjk fd;k x;k gS muls vuqlwph ds
ek/;e ls lk{kkRdkj }kjk rF;ksa dks ,d= dj fo”ys’k.k fd;k tk,xkA
lhek,W
• ;g v/;;u xzke egksyh taxy dh 30 tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ rd lhfer gSA
• v/;;u esa dsoy xzke egksyh taxy nkSyr dh 15 o’kZ ls vf/kd vk;q okyh efgykvksa dks lfEefyr
fd;k x;k gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% U;kn’kZ {ks= ds vUrxZr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f”k Jfed½ dh vU;
O;olk; ls izkIr vk; dk fooj.k
Ø0la0 oxkZUrjky Lak[;k e/; ewY; fixi izfr”kr
1 0-50 01 25 25 03%
2 50-100 01 75 75 03%
3 100-200 02 150 300 07%
4 200-300 15 250 3750 50%
5 300-400 06 350 2100 20%

6 400-500 05 450 2250 17%
;ksx 30 100%
izkFkfed losZ ij vk/kkfjr
£ fixi = 8350/30 = 278.34
dqy vk; = d`f’ktfur etnwjh + vk; O;olk; ls izkIr vk;

= 2110 + 278-34 = 2388-34
rkfydk la[;k 2% U;kn’kZ {ks= ds vUrxZr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f”k Jfed½ dh ekfld
O;; dk fooj.k
Ø0la0 oxkZUrjky Lak[;k e/; ewY; fixi izfr”kr
1 1000-1500 02 1250 2500 07%
2 1500-2000 17 1750 29750 57%
3 2000-2500 10 2250 22500 33%
4 2500-3000 01 2750 2750 03%
;ksx 30 57500 100%
izkFkfed losZ ij vk/kkfjr
£ fixi = 57500/2 = 1916.67
dqy cpr dk fooj.k = dqy vk; & dqy O;;

= 2388-34 & 1916-67
= :- 471-67
U;kn’kZ {ks= dk v/;;u djus ds i’pkr fuEu fLFkfr izkIr gqbZA

 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dh ifjokj esa fLFkfr vPNh gS os ?kj ds
cMs&NksVs lHkh izdkj ds vge~ QSlys ysrh gSaA ifjokj esa eqf[k;k ds in ij vklhu efgyk d`f’k
Jfedksa dk izfr”kr 77 gS vkSj tks eqf[k;k ugh gS mudk izfr”kr 23 gSA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ l;qDr ifjokj dh vis{kk ,dy ifjokj
esa jguk vf/kd ilUn djrh gSA 67 izfr”kr efgyk d`f’k Jfed ,dy ifjokj o 33 izfr”kr la;qDr
ifjokj esa jgrh gSaA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ ds vkokl dh fLFkfr ds vuqlkj buds
vkoklksa dh fLFkfr vPNh ugha gSA 50 izfr”kr tutkrh; efgyk;sa dPps vkoklksa esa] 17 izfr”kr iDds
vkoklksa esa rFkk “ks’k 33 izfr”kr tutkrh; efgykvksa ds vkokl fefJr ik;s x;s gSA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= ds v/;;u ds i”pkr~ ;s Kkr gksrk gSA rh fd tutkrh; efgykvksa ds }kjk d`f’k Jfed
ds :i esa jkstxkj dh vof/k ds vuqlkj 20 izfr”kr efgykvksa dk 1&3 ekg jkstxkj izkIr gksrk gSA
80 izfr”kr efgykvksa dks 3&4 ekg rd jkstxkj izkIr gksrk gSA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dk d`f’k esa yxus okys le; ds vuqlkj
5-94 ?k.Vs izfrfnu dk;Z djuk ik;k x;k gSA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dh vkSlr ekfld vk; :0 2110 es ikbZ
xbZ gS rFkk vU; O;o;k; ls izkIr vkSlr ekfld vk; :0 278-34 ikbZ xbZ gSA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dk vkSlr ekfld O;; :0 1916-67
ik;k x;k gSA
 U;kn”kZ {ks= dh vUrZxr tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dh vkSlr ekfld cpr :0 471-67 ikbZ xbZ gSA
lq>ko
dqek¡Å {ks= dh d`f’k esa lyaXu tutkrh; efgykvksa ¼d`f’k Jfed½ dh lkekftd vkfFkZd o “kSf{kd fLFkfr
ij /;ku nsus ij vko”;drk izrhr gksrh gSA d`f’k Jfedksa ds :i esa budh fLFkfr vPNh ugha gS ;s efgyk;s a
d`f’k {ks= esa d`f’k Jfedksa dk dk;Z djus ds vykok nqljs vU; dk;ksZa ls Hkh vk; dks vftZr dj ldrh gS a tSls
Mfy;k cukuk] pVkbZ cukuk bR;kfnA ;s efgyk;s budks cspuk ilan ugha djrh gS bldk ,d dkj.k ;g gS
fd ;s viuh dyk dk foØ; ugha djuk pkgrh vkSj nwljk dkj.k ;g fd bu efgykvksa dks viuh dyk dk
izn”kZu djus ds fy, u rks fdlh laLFkku }kjk mfpr ekxZn”kZu feyrk gS vkSj u gh mfpr ewY;] vkSj u gh
mfpr foØ; LFkyA tutkrh; efgykvksa dks mfpr f”k{kk izkIr gks lds o d`f’k Jfed ds :i esa dk;Z ds
?k.Vs dks fuf”pr djuk] U;wure etnwjh dk fu/kkZj.k] dk;Z ds le; lqj{kk dh xkjUVh] d`f’k Jfed efgykvks a
ds cPpksa ds j[kj[kko dh O;oLFkk dh tkuh pkfg,A
lUnHkZ
1- Je o jkstxkj ea=ky; 2017
2- fe+J] t;izdk”k ¼2005½ d`f’k vFkZ”kkL=]lkfgR; Hkou ifCyds”kal] vkxjk] i`- la0&157
3- tux.kuk 2011
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh Jecy esa ?kVrh Hkkxhnkjh % dkj.k o mik;
T;ksfr ;kno * ,oa lh-ch- flag**
la{ksi
vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa rst vkfFkZd o`f)] iztuu nj esa fxjkoV] jkstxkj l`tu dk;ZØeksa o uhfr;ksa esa cnyko
efgykvksa dks l”kDr cuk jgk gSA blds lkFk efgyk Je dh Hkkxhnkjh esa cM+h rsth ls fxjkoV ntZ dh xbZ
gSA bl “kks/k i= esa Hkkjr esa Jecy dh Hkkxhnkjh nj dk o.kZu fd;k gSA bl “kks/k i= esa f}rh; vkdM+ksa ds
vk/kkj ij efgyk Jfedks dh lgHkkfxrk esa vk;h fxjkoV esa laHkkfor dkj.kksa dks irk djus dh Hkh dksf”k”k dh
gSA lkekftd] “kSf{kd] fyax] foHksnhdj.k] ljdkj dh uhfr vkfn us Hkkjr esa efgyk Je cy esa Hkkxhnkjh dks
izHkkfor fd;k gSA
izLrkouk
Je cy lgHkkfxrk dk rkRi;Z efgyk ds ml fu.kZ; ls gS fd og jkstxkj esa gS ;k csjkstxkj gS ftlls irk
pyrk gS fd og vkfFkZd :i ls fØ;k”khy gSA Je cy esa efgyk lgHkkfxrk o fodkl ds chp ,d tfVy
lEcUèk gS tks fd vkfFkZd fØ;kvksa esa ifjorZu] f”k{kk izkfIr iztUku nj] lkekftd fu;e ,oa vU; miyfC/k;ksa esa
fn[kkbZ nsrk gSA vkt efgyk,sa vkfFkZd {ks= esa c<+&p<+ dj fgLlk ys jgh gSaA Hkkjr esa dqy tula[;k esa efgykvksa
dk izfrfuf/kRo 48-4 izfr”kr gSA tc fd efgyk Je esa Hkkxhnkjh iq:’kksa ls vk/ks ls Hkh de gSaA
mn~ns’;
1- efgykvksa dh Je cy esa Hkkxhnkjh nj o csjkstxkjj nj dks le>ukA
2- efgyk Je cy esa Hkkxhnkjh dh ?kVrh nj ds dkj.kksa dks Kkr djukA
3- efgyk Je cy esa Hkkxhnkjh c<+kus ds fy, uhfr o lq>ko nsukA
vuqla/kku fof/k
bl “kks/k i= esa vUos’kh vuqla/kku fof/k ¼ Exploratory Research Design½ viuk;h xbZ gS rFkk izdkf”kr
fofHkUu lzksrksa tSls jk’Vªh; lkaf[;dh; losZ{k.k laxBu ¼ NSSO½ }kjk o Je C;wjks ls fd;s x;s nkSjksa ls f}rh;d
vk¡dM+s izkIr fd;s gSaA
* “kks /k Nk=k] thokth fo”ofo|ky;] Xokfy;jA
** çksQslj] cSafdax] vFkZ'kkL= ,oa foÙk foHkkx] cqUnsy[k.M fo'ofo|ky;] >k¡ lhA
vkadM+ksa dk fo’ys”k.k ,oa ifj.kke

NSSO 2011 ds jkstxkj o cs jkst xkj los Z{k.k ds vuqlkj 55-6 izfr”kr iq:’kksa dh rqy uk esa ek= 23
izfr”kr efgykvksa dh dk;Zcy esa lk>snkjh FkhA
2011&12 esa BRICS fczDl jk’Vªksa esa efgyk Jfed cy Hkkxhnkjh ¼FLFP Rate½ nj phu dh 64 izfr”kr]
czkthy dh 59 izfr”kr] :l dh 57 izfr”kr] nf{k.kh vÝhdk dh 45 izfr”kr o Hkkjr dh FLFP nj ek= 27
izfr”kr FkhA oSf”od jkstxkj VsªM fjiksVZ 2013 ds vuqlkj efgyk Je cy Hkkxhnkjh ¼ Woman Labour Force
Participation½ 131 ns”kksa dks “kkfey fd;k x;k] ftlesa Hkkjr dh jSfdax 120 FkhA
rkfydk la[;k 1% Jecy Hkkxhnkjh nj

efgyk ¼ dk;ZHkkxhnkjh nj ½ iq :"k ¼dk;Z Hkkxhnkj nj½
Round nj 'kgj xzkeh.k nkSj Round 'kgj xzkeh.k
43rd Round 15-2 32-3 43rd Round 50-6 53-9
50th Round 15-5 32-8 50th Round 52-1 55-3
55th Round 13-9 29-9 55th Round 51-8 53-1
61th Round 16-6 32-7 61st Round 54-9 54-6
66th Round 13-8 26-1 66th Round 54-3 54-7
68th Round 14-7 24-8 68th Round 54-6 54-3
2015-16 16-2 26-7
Jksr % NSSO Surveys 2013
csjkstxkjh nj
csjkstxkjh dh nj mu yksxksa dk vuqikr gksrh gS tks dke ds fy, miyC/k gS] ysfdu mUgsa dke ugha fey
jgk vkSj os vc Hkh dke dh ryk”k dj jgs gSaA 2015&16 ds nkSjku 18 & 29 o’kZ vk;q oxZ ds ;qokvksa dh
csjkstxkjh nj 13-2 izfr”kr FkhA ¼rkfydk&2½ tks fd 30 o’kZ dh vk;q oxZ ds Jfedks dh csjkstxkjh nj ls 8
xquk vf/kd FkhA ¼1-6 izfr”kr½A buesa efgykvksa dh csjkstxkjh nj 20 izfr”kr FkhA] tks iq:’kksa dh rqy uk esa
¼11-3 izfr”kr½ yxHkx nks xquh gSA xzkeh.k bykdksa dh rqyuk esa “kgjksa esa] iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa efgykvksa esa
csjkstxkjh nj vf/kd gSA “kgjh bykdksa esa efgykvksa dh csjktsxkjh nj 28 izfr”kr ds lkFk cgqr vf/kd mPp
gS] “kgjh bykdksa esa ;qodksa esa csjkstxkjh nj 11-5 izfr”kr FkhA ;gk¡ bl ckr dh vksj /;ku nsuk egRoiw.kZ gS
fd 15&17 o’kksZ ds vk;q oxZ ds dqN gh yksx jks txkj djuk pkgrs gS A bl vk;q oxZ ds fy, yksxksa dh
csjkstxkjh nj 18&29 o’kZ ds vk;q oxZ ds yksxsa ds leku mPp gSA f”kf{kr ;qokvksa ds chp csjkstxkjh vkSj c<+
jgh gSA ;g Hkh /;ku j[kuk t:jh gS fd f”kf{kr efgykvksa dks f”kf{kr iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa vf/kd csjks txkjh
>syuh iM+rh gSA
rkfydk la[;k 2% fofHkUu vk;q oxksZ esa csjkstxkjh nj ¼;wih,l½ 2015&16

{ks= 15 & 17 o"kZ 18 & 29 o"kZ 30 & o"kZ ls vf/kd
iq:"k efgyk O;fDr iq:"k efgyk O;fDr iq:"k efgyk O;fDr
xzkeh.k 18-4 22-8 19-5 11-2 17-9 12-7 0-9 3-7 1-6
'kgjh 22-1 21-4 22-0 11-5 27-9 15-1 0-7 5-3 1-5
dqy 18-8 22-7 19-8 11-3 20-0 13-2 0-9 4-0 1-6
;wih,l&;wtvy fizafliy LVsVl] iq& iq:’k] e&efgyk] O;&O;fDr]
L=ksr% Je C;wjks ;qok jkstxkj ,oa csjkstxkjh ds ifjn`”; ij fjiksVZ [k.M] f}rh; 2015&16 Hkkjr ljdkj
efgyk Je cy esa ?kVrh nj ds dkj.k

1- efgykvksa esa f’k{kk dk Lrj
f”k{kk dk mi;ksx efgykvksa dh fLFkfr esa cqfu;knh ifjorZUk ykus ds fy, fd;k tkrk gSA efgykvksa esa
lk{kjrk izlkj rFkk muesa ck/kkvksa dks nwj djuk pkfg;sA ftuds dkj.k os izkjfEHkd f”k{kk ls oafpr jg tkrh
gSaA fofHkUu Lrjksa ij rduhdh vkSj O;kolkf;d f”k{kk esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh ij fo”ks’k /;ku nsus dh
vko”;drk gSA iq:’kksa ,oa efgykvksa eas f”k{kk ds {ks= esa fdlh Hkh izdkj ls HksnHkko ugha fd;k tkuk pkfg;sA
rduhdh rFkk O;kolkf;d ikB~;Øeksa esa ikjaEifjd joS;ksa ds dkj.k pys vk jgs fyaxewyd foHkktu dks lekIr
fd;k tk ldsA xSj ijEijkxr vk/kqfud dke&/kU/kksa esa efgykvksa dh fgLlsnkjh c<+ ldsA gekjs ns”k esa ckfydk;as
izkjfEHkd f”k{kk esa gh ugh cfYd ek/;fed Lrj dh f”k{kk esa izos”k izkIr dj jgh gS vkSj ftlds dkj.k mudh
Je cy esa Hkkxhnkjh de gqbZ gSA
2- ifjokj dh dqy vkenuh
dqN efgyk,sa ftudh] dqy ifjokj dh vkeanuh vf/kd gksrh gS os ?kj ls ckgj Je cktkj esa tk dj dke
ugha djuk pkgrh gSA
3- fyax foHksnhdj.k o etnwjh esa fHkUurk
gekjs ns”k esa efgykvksa dh Jecy esa Hkkxhnkjh blfy, Hkh de gS fd dk;ZLFkyksa esa efgykvksa dks iq:’kksa
dh vis{kk de etnwjh nh tkrh gSA dbZ O;olk;ksa esa tgk¡ uxn etnwjh feyrh gS ogk¡ mUgsa izos”k ugha fn;k
tkrk gSA vuqlwfpr tkfr@tutkfr tks fd vkfFkZd :i ls fiNM+s gSa rFkk tula[;k dk ,d pkSFkkbZ fgLlk
gS] ds lkFk ,slk gh crkZo gksrk gSA
4- O;kolkf;d vyxko
dqN fo”ks’k m|ksx ,sls gS a ftuesa dsoy efgyk,sa gh dk;Z djrh gS aA tSls vpkj] eqjCck cukuk] ikyZj]
foØ;&nqdkusa] fjlSIlfuLV vkfn ftlls vFkZO;oLFkk ds rduhdh {ks=ksa esa volj de feyrs gSaA
5- lkekftd vk;ke
efgykvksa dk dk;Z djus ds fy, Jecy esa Hkkxhnkjh dbZ lkekftd cU/ku ls fu/kkZfjr gksrh gSS tSls
“kknh&fookg] iztUku {kerk] /keZ] {ks=] lkekftd lewg vkfn Hkh fu.kkZ;d fcUnq gksrs gSaA ftlds dkj.k dksbZ
efgyk ?kj ls ckgj dke dj ldrh gSA
6- mik; ,oa lq>ko
efgykvksa dh Je cy esa Hkkxhnkjh c<+kus ds fy, mik; %&
1- efgykvksa dks dq”ky Jfed cukus ds fy, ljdkj }kjk pyk;s tk jgs fofHkUu dkS”ky fodkl dsUnksa
ij izf”k{k.k ds volj iznku djuk pkfg;sA
2- efgykvksa dks Hkh iq:’kksa dh rjg f”k{kk izkIr djus ds leku volj o ?kj ij mUgsa f”k{kk dk okrkoj.k
nsuk pkfg;sA
3- ?kjsyw dk;ksZ esa efgyk,sa vf/kd O;Lr jgrh gSa tgk¡ mudks dksbZ vkfFkZd ykHk ugha fn;k tkrk gS vr%
iq:’kksa dks Hkh ?ksjyw dk;ksZa esa gkFk c¡Vkuk pkfg;sA ftlls og efgyk,sa Je cktkj esa viuh Hkkxhnkjh
cuk ldsA
4- efgykvksa dks dk;ZLFky ij lqj{kk] muds vuqdwy okrkoj.k iznku djuk pkfg;sA mUgsa xSj ljdkjh
ukSdjh esa Hkh volj iznku djuk pkfg;sA
5- efgykvks a ds fy, HksnHkko fojks/ kh dkuwu ,oa efgykvksa esa tkx:drk dh vko”;drk gSA ftlls
efgykvksa ds Je cy ds Hkkxhnkjh c<+k;h tk ldrh gSA
fu”d”kZ
mHkjrs ¼EMERGING½ ns”kska dh rqyuk ls Kkr gqvk fd Hkkjr esa efgyk Je cktkj esa Hkkxhnkjh vR;Ur
de gSA ;fn efgyk Je cy dks Hkkjr esa c<+k;k tkrk gS rks gekjh vFkZO;oLFkk vkfFkZd o`f) nj c<+ tk;sxhA
efgykvksa esa jkstxkj c<+kus ds fy, f”k{kk] fyax uhfr] lkekftd fu;e] ljdkjh dkuwu o dk;Z dh izd`fr
vkfn fu/kkZjd rRo gSaA
ljdkj dks efgykvksa dks Hkh fodkl dsUnz esa j[kdj ;kstuk,sa cukuh gksaxhA ftlls mudks dsoy etnwjh
gh ugha cfYd vFkZO;oLFkk ds rhuksa {ks=ksa d`f’k] m|ksx o lsok ds leLr ?kVdksa esa jkstxkj izkIr gks ldsaA
ftlls efgyk,sa vkfFkZd :i ls LokoyEch cusaxh vkSj ns”k le`) gksxkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1. Choudhury P.K., (2014) ‘What Explains the Gender Discrimination in Employment and Earnings of Engineering
Graduates in India ?’, DSAI Working Paper, 2014/003.
2. Indian Labour Journal (A Monthly Publication) Volume 54, February 2013, No. 2.
3. National Sample Survey Organization. 1993-1994, ‘Employments-Unemployment Situation in India, Round, Round
50th’, Report No. 409, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, New Delhi.
l’kDr efgyk l’kDr lekt
fo’oukFk ik.Ms;*] ine ,l- fc”V** ,oa fp=k ik.Ms***
Lokeh foosdkuUn us dgk Fkk ^^lekt :ih x:M+ ds L=h vkSj iq:’k nks ia[k gksrs gSaA ;fn ,d ia[k lcy
rFkk nwl jk nqcZy gks rks mlesa xxu dks Nwus dh “kfDr dSls fufeZr gksxhA^^ blesa dksbZ lansg ugha gS fd
L=h&iq:’k ,d gh xkM+h ds nks ifg, gSaA ;fn ,d Hkh ifg;k detksj gksxk rks xkM+h vkxs c<+sxh dSlas\
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fo’k; ij tc Hkh ge fopkj djrs gSa rks ,d ckr Li’V :Ik ls ifjyf{kr gksrh
gS fd Hkkjrh; lekt esa T;knkrj fgLlksa esa yM+fd;ka vlqfo/kkvksa] cks> vkSj Hk; ds Mj rys thou fcrkrh gSaA
os mis{kk] HksnHkko dk cks> mBkrh gSa] ?kjsyw dkedkt dk cks> mBkrh gSa] HkkbZ&cguksa dh ns[kjs[k dk cks>
mBkrh gSa] ?kj ls ckgj dke djus dk cks> mBkrh gSA yM+fd;kW Hk; ds lkFk thrh gSa& dks[k esa gh [kRe dj
fn, tkus dk Hk;] misf{kr gksus vkSj dky dk xzkl cuus fn, tkus dk Hk;] ;s ,d rF;kRed lR; gS bls gesa
Lohdkj djuk pkfg,A blesa dksbZ lansg ugha gSa fd gtkjksa o’kksZ ls pyh vk jgh bl fyaxkuqHksn vk/kkfjr
fofoèkrk dks jkrksajkr Bhd ugha fd;k tk ldrk gSA ,sls esa vkt orZeku essa tgka ge gSa] bl ij fopkj djuk
t:jh gks x;k gSA vkt dh efgyk ;ksX;rk ds ekin.M ij rks fodkl dj jgh gS ijarq iq:’k iz/kku lekt
esa vHkh Hkh lkekftd n`f’Vdks.k esa cnyko ij tksj nsuk gksxkA l”kfDrdj.k ,d leFkZdkjh izfØ;k gSa tc
LokLF;] f”k{kk] lqj{kk vkSj foRrh; lfgr vU; izdkj dh lqj{kk ds ekeys esa efgykvksa dh gkyr esa lq/kkj
gksxk] rHkh mUgsa l”kDr ekuk tk,xkA
LokLF; ds Lrj ij ns[ksa rks Hkkjr dh efgykvksa dh LokLF; n”kk fparktud fLFkfr esa gSA efgykvksa esa
iks’k.k dh deh ns”k dh ,d cgqr cM+h pqukSrh gS D;ksafd gekjs ;gka ,d frgkbZ ¼35-6 izfr”kr½ efgykvksa dk
ckWMh ekl baMsDl ¼ch,evkbZ½ cgqr de gSA blh rjg ns”k dh vf/kdrj efgykvksa esa dqiks’k.k dk Hkh cqjk vlj
gksrk gSA gekjs ns”k dh gj rhljh efgyk dqiksf’kr gS vkSj gj nwljh efgyk esa [kwu dh deh gSA Hkkjr es a
ekr`Ro e`R;qnj izfr ,d yk[k thfor tUes cPps ij djhc 212 gSA ekr` e`R;q nj vuqikr ¼,e0,e0vkj0½ dks
de djus ds fy, ljdkj }kjk dbZ mik; fd, x,A buesa laLFkkxr izlo dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, tuuh lqj{kk
;kstuk] lkoZtfud LokLF; dsanzksa esa lHkh xHkZorh efgykvksa ds lhtsfj;u lfgr eq¶r ,oa lLrs izlo ds fy,
tuuh f”k”kq lqj{kk dk;ZØe ¼ts,l,lds½] ekrkvksa vkSj cPpksa ls lacaf/kr tPpk&cPpk laj{k.k dkMZ] izlo iwoZ]
izlo ,oa izlo mijkUr ns[kHkky dks lqfuf”pr djus ds fy, tPpk cPpk fuxjkuh iz.kkyh] lkFk gh mi;qDr
* vflLVs aV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] ,p0,u0ch0ih0th0 dkyst [kVhek] Å/keflag uxj ¼mRrjk[k.M½

** izksQs lj] vFkZ”kkL=] Mh0,l0oh0 ifjlj] dqekÅ fo”ofo|ky;] uSu hrky ¼mRrjk[k.M½
*** “kks/ k Nk=k] vFkZ”kkL=] Mh0,l0oh0 ifjlj] dqekÅ fo”ofo|ky;] uSuhrky ¼mRrjk[k.M½
Lrj ij dk;Zokgh djus ,oa izlwfr ns[kHkky dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj djus ds fy, Vhdkdj.k lsok rFkk ekr`Ro
e`R;q leh{kk ¼ ,e Mh vkj ½ “kkfey gS ,sls lHkh iz;klksa ds dk;kZUo;u esa ljkguh; izxfr gqbZ gSA 13 jkT;ksa
ds fy, ,u,Q,p,l&4 ¼2015&16½ ds uohure vkadM+ksa ds vuqlkj] ;g dgk x;k fd xHkkZoLFkk ds nkSjku
efgykvksa ds fy, csgrj LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa ls Hkkjr esa ekr` e`R;qnj esa deh vkbZ gS vkSj cPpksa dh mRrjthfork
esa lq/kkj gqvk gSA blesa iq:’k ulcanh vkSj xHkZfujk/kdksa ds mi;ksx dks c<+kus ds y{; dk Hkh mYys[k gSA
jk’Vªh; mijk/k fjdkWMZ C;wjks ds eqrkfcd ns”k dh vkfFkZd jkt/kkuh esa o’kZ 2014 esa nq’deZ ds 391 ekeys
ntZ fd, x, FksA ;gh fLFkfr ns”k ds lHkh NksVs&cM+s “kgjksa dh Hkh gSA jkT;ksa dh ckr djsa rks e/; iz ns”k esa
o’kZ 2014 esa nq’deZ ds 4335 ekeys] jktLFkku esa 3285 ekeys] egkjk’Vª esa 3063 ekeys vkSj m0iz0 esa 3050
ekeys ntZ fd, x, A dqy feykdj ns”k dk gj Hkkx efgykvksa ds fy, lqjf{kr ugha jg x;k gSA bl lanHkZ
esa D;k gesa dsoy dkuwu O;oLFkk dks gh nks’k nsrs jguk pkfg, ;k fQj gekjs lekt dh Hkh dksbZ ftEesnkjh
curh gSA
vkt ns”k esa efgykvksa ds izfr gksus okys vijk/kksa esa dsoy nq’deZ gh “kkfey ugha gS cfYd efgykvksa dks
ns”k esa nks;e ntZs dh ukxfjdrk Hkh lekt us ns nh gSA efgykvksa dks dke djus rFkk viuh iw.kZ {kerk dk
mi;ksx djus ds fy, lqjf{kr okrkoj.k iznku fd;k tkuk pkfg,A blds fy, fyax vk/kkfjr fgalk ls fuiVus
gsrq gky gh esa dbZ dkuwu cuk, x, gS ;s gS& vkijkf/kd dkuwu ¼la”kks/ku½ vf/kfu;e 2013] ,flM geys] ;kSu
mRihM+u] fNidj ns[kus vkSj ihNk djus] efgyk dks fuoZL+= djus tSls u, vijk/kksa dks Hkkjrh; naM lafgrk
esa “kkfey fd;k x;k gSA
*csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+kvks* igy Hkh Hkkjr esa ckfydkvksa ds dY;k.k vkSj mTtoy Hkfo’; dks lqjf{kr djus
dks yf{kr gS vkSj bldk ,d mn~ns”; fyax vuqikr ¼ lh0,l0vkj0½ dks de djuk rFkk thou Ik;ZUr efgykvksa
dh v”kDr tSls eqn~nksa dk lek/kku djuk gSA
bruk gh ugha] ukjh laosnh iqfyl lsok vkSj uhfr;ksa] izksVksdkWy vkSj lapkyu izfØ;kvksa es ukjh lac/kh
eqn~nksa dks ,dhd`r djus ds fy, ,d ubZ ;kstuk dks ik;yV vk/kkj ij “kq: fd;k x;k gSA tehuh Lrj ij
efgykvksa vkSj iqfyl ds chp ,d dM+h cukus ds fy, jkT; vkSj dsan “kkflr izns”kksa esa efgyk iqfyl Lo;alsodksa
¼,e0ih0oh0½ dh HkrhZ dh tk jgh gSA ,eihoh dk mn~ns”; vkl&ikl ds bykdksa esa ?kjsyw fgalk] cky fookg]
ngst mRihM+u tSls ekeyksa dh fjiksVZ djuk gSA
efgykvksa dh fLFkfr esa f”k{kk dk cgqr egRo gS ysfdu f”k{kk ds ykHkksa ij vc rd Ik;kZIr cy ugha fn;k
tk ldk gSA mRre f”k{kk vkSj n{krk iznku djus ds fy, ljdkj us izkFkfed] ek/;fed vkSj mPp ,oa rduhdh
f”k{kk ds {ks= esa vusd dk;ZØe ykxw fd, gSaA gkykafd Hkkjr esa efgykvksa us fofHkUu {ks=ksa es izHkko”kkyh Ikn
gkfly fd, gSa vkSj mPpf”k{kk ds {ks= esa ubZ Åapkb;kW NqbZ gSa ysfdu fyaxHksn vc Hkh ekStwn gSA ;qokvksa dks
ySafxd HksnHkko ds izfr laosnu”khy cukus vkSj ldkjkRed lkekftd ekun.Mksa dk l`tu djus ds fy,] tks
yM+fd;ksa vkSj muds vf/kdkjksa dk ewY; le>s] ns”k Hkj ds dkystks esa tsaMj pS fi;al dks layXu djus ds
izkoèkku fd, tk jgs gSaA fo”ofo|ky; vuqnku vk;ksx us lHkh fo”ofo|ky;ksa ds dqyifr;ksa dks bl lac/k esa
vf/klwpuk vkSj dk;kZUo;u ds fy, fn”kk&funsZ”k tkjh fd, gSaA
efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k dk vFkZ gS efgyk laca/kh leL;kvksa dh iwjh tkudkjh ds fy, mudh
;ksX;rk o dkS”ky esa o`f) dj lkekftd ,oa laLFkkxr vojks/kksa dks nwj djus dk volj iznku djuk] lkFk gh
vkfFkZd xfrfof/k;ksa esa Hkkxhnkjh dks c<kuk nsuk] rkfd os vius thou dh xq.koRrk esa O;kid lq/kkj yk ldsaA
Hkkjr tSls ns”k esa efgykvksa ds O;kid l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, vkfFkZd :Ik ls xzkeh.k efgykvksa dks etcwr
cukus ds fy, Lo;algk;rk lewg ,d loksZRre lk/ku gSA l”kfDrdj.k ls lacf/kr uhfr;ksa dk fØ;kUo;u bl
izdkj ls djuk gksxk fd oafpr efgykvksa dks vkfFkZd :Ik ls ykHk izkIr gks lds rFkk blesa vkus okyh nS fud
leL;kvksa dks nwj fd;k tk ldsA
mi;qZDrfyf[kr iz;kl Hkkjr tSls ,d cM+s yksdra= esa fuLlansg egRoiw.kZ dne dgs tk ldrs gSaA fQj
Hkh fir`lRrkREkd ekufldrk ds lkFk fofHkUu {ks=ksa es a efgykvksa dks iks’k.k f”k{kk vkSj jkst xkj ds gd ls
eg:e djuk vkSj muds f[kykQ fgalk dk iz;ksx djuk vc Hkh ,d pqukSrh gSA izfØ;kvksa dks lesfdr djus
dh fn”kk esa iz;kl “kq: fd, tk pqds gSaA efgykvksa dks l”kDr cukus dh j.kuhfr ij dke fd;k tk jgk gSA
mudh rjDdh dks fdlh Hk; ;k “kadk es :Ik esa ugha ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A vkt tgka iq :’k ekufldrk esa
cnykc dh vko”;drk gS] ogha efgykvksa dks Hkh cnyrs ifjos”k esa mu nkf;Roksa dk fuoZgu djuk gksxk tks
vHkh rd iq:’kksa ds fy, fu/kkZfjr FksA efgykvksa ds fy, ,d jkg eqf”dy vo”; gS fdUrq ukeqefdu ughaA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- la/;k JhokLro] efgyk l”kfDrdj.k cnyrh ifjfLFfr;k] dq:{ks=] tuojh 2016A
2- dqlqe dq”kokgk] jktuhfrd lgHkkfxrk efgyk “kfDrdj.k dk l”Dr ek/;e] ;kstuk] ekpZ 2004A
lekos’kh fodkl o ySafxd vlekurk
euh”k dqekj * ,oa ,l-ds- prqosZnh **
izLrkouk
Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk ,d fodkl”khy vFkZO;oLFkk gS fo”o dh rhoz xfr ls c<+ jgh vFkZO;oLFkkvksa esa ls
,d gSA Lora=rk ds i”pkr rFkk izFke iapo’khZ; ;kstuk (1951-1956) dh “kq:vkr ds lkFk gh mPp vkfFkZd
lao`f) nj dks izkIr djus dk ,d izeq[k mn~ns”; j[kk D;ksafd blds }kjk gh mPp vkfFkZd fodkl ds ifjiFk
dks izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gS ftlds lkFk gh ;kstuk ds ^dsUnzh;d`r* LoHkko dks Lohdkj fd;k x;k vkSj lkFk
gh ;g Li’V fd;k x;k fd ^fjlko izHkko* ds }kjk vkfFkZ d fodkl ds ykHk lekt ds fupys rcds rd
igq¡psxkA fdUrq le; ds lkFk ,slk u gqvk vkSj yxkrkj lekt dk ,d rcdk vkfFkZd fodkl ds ykHk ls
oafpr gksrk x;kA mnkjhdj.k ds i”pkr 11oha iapo’khZ; ;kstuk ¼2007&2012½ esa fo”ks’k rkSj ls bl ckr dks
izeq[krk nh x;h vkSj lekos”kh fodkl dks ;kstuk dk eq[; “kh’kZd cuk;k x;k ogha 12oha iapo’khZ; ;kstuk
¼2012&2017½ ds “kh’kZd rhoz lrr~ vkSj vf/kd lekos”kh lao`f) j[kk x;kA mnkjhdj.k ¼1990&91½ ds igys
rFkk blds ckn Hkkjr ljdkj ds }kjk ySafxd HksnHkko dks gj Lrj ls lekIr djus dh vksj dne mBk;s x;s
fdUrq ifj.kke T;knk mRlkgtud ugha jgsA tSlkfd ySafxd vlekurk lwpdkad (GII) 2015 esa Hkkjr dk
LFkku 125okW gS ogha Hkkjr ds iM+ kslh ns”kksa ls rqyuk djsa rks ekynho&64okW] Jhyadk&87] usiky&115okW]
HkwVku&110okW] caXykns”k&119oka] ikfdLrku&130okW gSA ;g lwpdkad ekuo fodkl dk gh Hkkx gS ;fn ySafxd
fodkl lwpdkad ¼GDI½ dh ckr djsa rks fLFkfr blls Hkh [kjkc gS ySafxd fodkl lwpdkad 2015 esa Hkkjr dk
LFkku 132okW gSA ogha blds iM+kslh ns”kksa esa HkwVku o ikfdLrku dks NksM+dj ckdh lcdh fLFkfr blls vPNh
gSA ySafxd fodkl lwpdkad esa rhu cqfu;knh igyqvksa dks “kkfey djrs gSaA mRrjthfork] f”k{kk ,oa vk; dh
izkfIr esa ySafxd vlekurk dk ekiu fd;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ySafxd vlekurk] f”k{kk] jkstxkj] lkekftd
o vkfFkZd] LokLF; mfpr ikSf’Vd vkgkj] fu.kZ;u {kerk bR;kfn ds {ks= esa vklkuh ls ik;h tkrh gSA
lekos”kh fodkl j.kuhfr izkjEHk djus ds ihNs dqN izeq[k dkj.k jgs ftlesa ySafxd fo’kerk Hkh ,d dkj.k FkkA
‘kks/k i= ds mn~ns’;
1- ySafxd vlekurk dks tkWpukA
* “kks/k Nk=] vFkZ” kkL= foHkkx] bykgkckn fo”ofo|ky;] bykgkckn] m-izA
** izksQs lj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] bykgkckn fo”ofo|ky;] bykgkckn] m-izA
2- lekos”kh fodkl j.kuhfr dk ySafxd vlekurk ij D;k izHkko iM+k vkSj blus ySafxd vlekurk dks
fdruk de fd;kA
3- ySafxd vlekurk esa deh ds dkj.k efgyk l”kfDrdj.kA
lekos’kh fodkl j.kuhfr
lekos”kh lao`f) dk rkRi;Z gS fd vkfFkZd fodkl ds ykHk lekt ds mu rcdksa o nwj&njkt bykdksa rd
igq¡pkuk gS tks fd lekt dh eq[;/kkjk ls vyx&vyx ;k iwjh rjg ls dV x;s gSaA bu rd dsoy vkfFkZd
fodkl ds ykHk gh ugha igq¡pkuk cfYd budks vkfFkZd fodkl dh izfØ;k esa lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh dks lqfuf”pr
Hkh djuk gSA la;qDr jk’Vª fodkl dk;ZØe (UNDP) o fo”o cSad us lekos”kh fodkl dks vlarqyuks a rFkk
vlekurkvksa esa lq/kkj djus dk lqfuf”pr lk/ku o vPNk xUrO; ekuk gSA Hkkjr vkt HDI dh jSafdax esa
131osa ¼2016½ LFkku ij gSA lekos”kh fodkl j.kuhfr ds }kjk gh efgykvksa ds lkekftd o vkfFkZd lekos”ku
ds eafty dks ik;k tk ldrk gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% Hkkjr esa efgyk&iq:’k lk{kjrk vUrjky

tux.kuk O;fDr iq:"k efgyk;sa efgyk iq:"k lk{kjrk vUrjky
o"kZ ¼izfr'kr esa½
1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.30
1961 28.30 40.40 15.35 25.05
1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.98
1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62
1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84
2001 64.83 75.26 53.67 21.59
2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68
L=ksr& Hkkjr dh tux.kuk&2011 (Census of India 2011)
rkfydk la[;k 2% ySafxd izkFkfedrk lwpdkad ¼Hkkjr½

1990-91 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
izkFkfed f'k{kk 0.76 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.98 1.00 1.00
lsd sUMªh f'k{kk 0.60 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.85 0.85 0.88
mPp f'k{kk 0.54 0.71 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.74
L=ksr% ekuo lalk/ku fodkl ea =ky;A

rkfydk la[;k 3% efgykvksa ls lEcfU/kr lwpd

lwpd iq:"k Efgyk
lk{kjrk nj 82.14 65.46
ekr` e`R;q nj (MMR) ¼izfr 1 yk[k thfor tUe ij½ SRS 2009-10 - 212
fyaxkuqikr ¼tux.kuk&2011½ 1000 943
f'k'kq fyaxkuqikr ¼0&6 o"kZ½ tux.kuk ¼2011½ 1000 914
dk;Zdkjh tula[;k dk izfr'kr ¼izfr 1000½ 819 336
MPs yksd lHkk ¼izfr'kr esa½ 89-18 10-82
lekos”kh fodkl j.kuhfr dss }kjk dbZ egRoiw.kZ ;kstuk;sa “kq: dh x;h ftlds }kjk fL=;ksa dh lkekftd
o vkfFkZd fLFkfr dks etcwr djus ds lkFk gh L=h&iq:’k ds chp vUrjky dks Hkh ikVus esa dkQh lgk;d dh
Hkwfedk fuHkk;h gSA
eujsxk (MGNREGA)
egkRek xk¡/kh jk’Vªh; xzkeh.k jkstxkj xkj.Vh ;kstuk dh ‘kq:vkr 2006 esa Hkkjr ds 200 lkS ftyksa ls dh
tkrh gSA fdUrq vkxs bls ns”k ds lEiw.kZ ftyksa esa ykxw dj fn;k x;kA
2006&07 ls 2015&16 rd efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh 57 izfr”kr rd gks x;h tcfd U;wure 33 izfr”kr
budh Hkkxhnkjh dks fu/kkZfjr fd;k x;k FkkA
tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk (JSY)
bl ;kstuk dh “kq:vkr 2005 esa dh xbZ Fkh tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk dk y{; laLFkkxr izlo dks c<+kok
nsdj ekr` e`R;qnj (MMR) dks uhps ykuk gSA bl ;kstuk ls ykHk ikus okyh ekrkvksa dh la[;k 2005&06 esa
7-38 yk[k ls c<+ dj 2011&12 es a 1-09 djksM+ ls vf/kd gks xbZ gSA vkS j ogha laLFkkxr izl o dh la[;k
2005&06 esa 1-08 djksM+ Fkh tks c<+dj 2011&12 ds nkSjku 1-75 djksM+ gks xbZ gSA
,dhd`r cky fodkl lsok (ICDS)
,dhd`r cky fodkl lsok Ldhe dk mn~ns”; 6 o’kZ ls de vk;q ds cPpksa dk lexz fodkl vkSj xHkZorh
efgykvksa rFkk Lruiku djkus okyh ekrkvksa ds fy, mfpr iks’k.k vkSj LokLF; f”k{kk gSA
lcyk
lcyk ns”k ds 205 pqfua nk ftyksa es a dk;Z jr gS ftldk mn~ns”; 11&18 o’kZ ds vk;q oxZ dh fd”kksj
yM+fd;ksa dk lexz fodkl rFkk mUgsa LokoyEch cukuk gSA buesa fo”ks’k rkSj ls Ldwy u tkus okyh yM+fd;ksa
ij fo”ks’k /;ku fn;k x;k gSA ftlds rgr mUgsa iks’k.k rFkk fodklkRed xfrfof/k;ksa ij cy fn;k x;kA
jk”Vªh; efgyk dks”k

;g ;kstuk thou&;kiu laca/kh fØ;kdykiksa gsrq ØsfMV ds ek/;e ls fu/kZu efgykvksa vkSj muds l”kfDrdj.k
ij vf/kd /;ku nsrk gSA blds ek/;e ls efgykvksa dks ekbdksØsfMV ds }kjk vkRefuHkZj cukus ij fo”ks’k cy
fn;k x;kA vc rd 7-19 yk[k ¼2012½ efgyk;sa blls ykHkkfUor gks pqdh gSA
jk”Vªh; ckfydk f’k{kk dk;ZØe ¼2004½
bl ;kstuk dk eq[; mn~ns”; ckfydk f”k{kk dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, vf/kd ek=k esa foRrh; lqfo/kk;sa
iznku dh tkrh gS ftlds ek/;e ls izkFkfed Lrj ij ckfydk f”k{kk ds Lrj dks c<+k;k tk ldsA
feM Ms ehy ;kstuk (MDM)
f”k{kk esa ySafxd vUrjky dks lekIr djus ds fy, Hkkjr ljdkj 1995 esa feM&Ms&ehy ;kstuk “kq: dh
ftlds ek/;e ls d{kk 1 ls 5 rd ds cPpksa dks ikSf’Vd Hkkstu iznku djus dk y{; j[kk x;k vc bls d{kk
8 rd dj fn;k x;k gSA bl ;kstuk ds }kjk ySafxd vUrjky esa deh vk;h gS tks ,d vPNk lwpd gSA
iapk;rh jkt
iapk;rh jkt esa efgykvksa ds fy, 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.k dh O;oLFkk ls efgykvksa dks jktuhfrd :i ls
l”kDr djus ij tksj fn;k x;k ftlls budh mifLFkfr dks lqfuf”pr fd;k tk lds rkfd ;g viuh ckr
dks etcwrh ds lkFk j[k dsA iapk;rh jkt ds ykxw gksus ds i”pkr iapk;r dh fofHkUu laLFkkvksa esa efgykvksa
dh Hkkxhnkjh c<+h gS tks fd 42 izfr”kr ls vf/kd gks x;h gSA
fu”d”kZ rFkk lq>ko
efgyk;sa lekt dh /kqjh gSa ftuds fcuk lekt dh dYiuk Hkh ugha dh tk ldrh budh lekt esa tks
HksnHkkoiw.kZ fLFkfr gS bls lekIr djuk furkar vko”;d gSA tSlkfd ljdkj ds }kjk lekos”kh fodkl j.kuhfr
ds vUrxZr bl vksj vius dne c<+k fn;s gSaA blds ifj.kke Hkh ldkjkRed fn[kkbZ nsus yxs gSaA D;ksafd tgka
efgykvksa dh fLFkfr fcYdqy ugha Fkh ogka ij Hkh viuh mifLFkfr dks ntZ djk jgh gSaA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k
ds {ks= esa fodkl ;kstuk;sa êhy dk iRFkj* fl) gks jgh gSA mijksDr ds vk/kkj ij ;g Li’V gksrk gS fd
lgL=kCnh fodkl y{; (MDGs) dk rhljk y{; tks ySafxd vlekurk dks gj Lrj ls lekIr djus dh
odkyr djrk gS mlls vHkh ge cgqr nwj gSa ftls ikus ds fy, dkQh vf/kd rhoz o lrr~ iz;kl dh vko”;drk
gSA blds fy, ljdkj dks O;kid Lrj ij efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dks lq/kkjus rFkk lqn`<+ djus ij /;ku nsuk
gksxkA rHkh ,d fodflr lQy o [kq”kgky Hkkjr dk liuk ‘VISION-2020’ iwjk gks ik;sxkA
lanHkZ lwph
1. Mahbub ul Haq Human Development Centre (2000) : Human Development in South Asia, Oxford Universiy Press.
2. UNDP (2015) : Human Development Report, New York.
3. The Times of India (2013): Ínfant Mortality Down by 30% in Past Decade”, The Times of India, New Delhi, 22 October.
f’k{kk vkSj efgyk l’kfDrdj.k
jke d`”.k mik/;k; *
vktknh ds lkr n”kd ckn Hkh efgykvksa dh fLFkfr esa visf{kr fodkl ugha gks ldk gSA ;|fi izxfr gqbZ
gS vkSj efgykvksa dh igq¡p gj {ks= esa gqbZ gS] tgk¡ dHkh iq:’kksa dk gh ek= cksyckyk Fkk ogk¡ efgykvksa us viuh
vPNh mifLFkfr vkSj ;ksX;rk fl) dh gS ijUrq tula[;k ds vuqikr dh n`f’V ls ;g ux.; gS] izxfr /kheh
vkSj vlUrqfyr jgh Hkh gSA
okLro esa Hkkjr dk v/k%iru rks rHkh ls “kq: gks x;k] tc vU; tkfr;ksa dks osn&ikB dk vukf/kdkjh
?kksf’kr fd;k x;k vkSj lkFk gh fL=;ksa ds Hkh lHkh vf/kdkj Nhu fy;s x;sA ugha rks osnksa rFkk mifu’knksa ds
;qx esa eS=s;h] xkxhZ vkfn izkr% Lej.kh; fL=;kW czºe fopkj esa _f’krqY; gks x;haA gtkj osnK iafMrksa dh lHkk
esa xkxhZ us xoZ ds lkFk ;kKoYD; dks czºe Kku ij “kkL=kFkZ ds fy, pqukSrh nh FkhA bu vkn”kZ fonq’kh fL=;ksa
dks tc mu fnuksa v/;kRe esa vf/kdkj Fkk rks fQj vkt Hkh fL=;ksa dks og vf/kdkj D;ksa ugha jgsxk\ ,d ckj
tks gks pqdk gS vkSj mlds dkj.k gh ge fo”o xq:] lksus dh fpfM+;k vkSj nw/k&ngh dk ns”k dgs x,] og iq u%
D;ksa ugha gks ldrk vFkkZr vo”;~ gksuk pkfg,A bfrgkl ck;&ck; ¼vyfonk½ ugha djrk vfirq iqujko`fRr dh
ckr djrk gSA
vk/kh vkcknh ds l”kfDrdj.k dk ewyea= f”k{kk gSA ,0ih0ts0 vCnqy dyke] ^^ns”k ds fodkl dh jh<+
f”k{kk gSA** bl izdkj tSls&tSls efgyk,a lk{kj gksaxh] vius vf/kdkjksa ds izfr lpsr gksaxhA rHkh os l”kDr
dgyk,axhA vkadM+ksa ij utj Mkysa rks ikrs gSa fd o’kZ 1951 esa ns”k esa efgyk lk{kjrk 8-9 izfr”kr Fkh tks
2011 esa 64-6 izfr”kr gks x;h FkhA vkt Hkh ns”k esa yxHkx 30 djksM+ ls vf/kd yksx fuj{kj gSa vkSj muesa Hkh
vf/kdrj efgyk,a gSaA fo”o Hkj esa izkFkfed f”k{kk ls oafpr cPpksa dk lkB Qhlnh Hkkx yM+fd;ksa dk gSA Hkkjr
esa Ldwy tkus okyh vk;q dh yxHkx 3 djksM+ ckfydk,a i<+us ugha tk jgh gSaA izkbejh Lrj ij nkf[kyk ysu s
okyh yM+f d;ksa esa ikapoha ikl gksus ls igys gh yxHkx 30 izfr”kr Ldwy NksM+ nsrh gSaA buesa yxHkx 40
izfr”kr yM+fd;ka nwljh d{kk Hkh ikl ugha dj ikrh gSaA dsoy 25 izfr”kr ckfydk,a gh fefMy Ldwy ikj dj
ikrh gSaA mPp f”k{kk esa yM+ds&yM+fd;ksa dk vuqikr 100 % 45 dk gSA mPp f”k{kk esa ek= 31 izfr”kr gh
efgyk,a izos”k ysrh gSa] ftuesa ls dsoy 6 izfr”kr gh foKku] izkS|ksfxdh esa izos”k ysrh gSaA iz”kklu ,oa mPp
izcU/kdh; O;oLFkk esa iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa yxHkx 6 izfr”kr efgyk,a gSaA Hkkjrh; iqfyl lsok esa 2418 iq:’kkas
dh rqyuk esa ek= 21 efgyk vf/kdkjh FkhaA Hkkjrh; iz”kklfud lsok esa 100 esa dsoy 7-5 izfr”kr vFkkZr 4209
iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa 339 efgyk,a gSaA
* v/;{k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] dqW oj flag ih0th0 dkyst] cfy;k] m-iz-A
/kkfeZd vk/kkj ij efgyk vkadM+ksa dks ns[kus ls Kkr gksrk gS fd lokZf/kd efgyk lk{kjrk tSu /keZ esa
92-9 izfr”kr rFkk lcls de 55-4 izfr”kr eqfLye efgyk /kekZoyfEc;ksa esa ik;k x;k] bldks tc iztuu
nj@tUe nj ls tksM+k x;k rks ik;k x;k fd lcls de tUenj tSu /keZ ¼5-4 izfr”kr½ rFkk lcls vf/kd
eqf Lye /keZ ¼24-6 iz fr”kr½ esa ik;k x;kA blls ;g Hkh izekf.kr gks rk gS fd ns” k dh lcls cM+h leL;k
tula[;k o`f) nj tks tula[;k foLQksV dh vksj c<+ jgh gS mldk Hkh lcls cM+k dkj.k vf”k{kk gh gSA tc
bls “kgjh vkSj xzkeh.k n`f’V ls ns[krs gSa rks ikrs gSa fd “kgjh {ks=ksa esa tula[;k o`f) 1-8 izfr”kr gS tcfd
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa ;g 2-5 % jgkA bldk Hkh dkj.k f”k{kk] LokLF; ,oa rhljk dkj.k euksjatu Hkh gks ldrk gS
ftlds dkj.k “kgjh {ks=ksa esa xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh rqyuk esa vf/kd miyC/k jgrh gSA e`R;qnj Hkh “kgjksa esa 27 izfr
gtkj rFkk xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa 44 izfr gtkj jgh gSA ekuo fodkl lwpdkad rFkk gSIihus”k bUMsDl dh n`f’V ls
f”k{kk vkSj LokLF; izeq[k ?kVd gSaA ;g Hkh ns[kk tk jgk gS fd tgkW f”k{kk dh O;oLFkk mfpr gS ogkW ifjokj
fu;kstu dh fLFkfr vPNh gS] ogkW le> Bhd gksus ds dkj.k ifjokj lUrq’V vkSj lq[kh Hkh ik;s tk jgs gSaA vr%
;fn Hkkjr dks lq[kh] le`)] lEiUu vkSj “kkfUr dh fLFkfr pkgrs gSa rks lEiw.kZ Hkkjr esa f”k{kk foLrkj dks izFke
izkFkfedrk nsuk vifjgk;Z gSA
;|fi fd orZeku ;qx esa efgyk,W gj {ks= esa iq:’kksa ds lkFk&lkFk vkxs c<+ jgh gSa fQj Hkh vHkh vR;fèkd
esgur vkSj iz;kl dh vko”;drk gSA Hkkjr 2011 rFkk Hkkjr 2017 ds vkadM+s crkrs gSa fd fyax ds vuqlkj
lk{kjrk vkSj lk{kjrk nj esa efgyk,W iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa ¼iq:’k& 80-88 izfr”kr rFkk efgyk,W 64-63 izfr”kr½
dkQh ihNs gSaA “kSf{kd ladsrd rkfydk ls Li’V gks tk jgk gS fd pkgs fo|ky; dh la[;k esa xq.kksRrj Js. kh
esa o`f) D;ksa u dj yh tk, ijUrq “kSf{kd LrjksUu;u esa lekUrj Js.kh esa gh o`f) ik;h tk jgh gS tks vR;Ur
fpUrktud vkSj Hk;kog gSA vr% “kh?kzkfr”kh?kz fuEukafdr fcUnqvksa ij /;ku nsus dh l[r t:jr gS %&
1- ftu {ks=ksa esa efgyk,W cgq r de gS a] mudh igpku dh tk, rFkk mudh lk{kjrk c<+k us ds fy,
leqfpr j.kuhfr viuk;h tk,A
2- ckfydkvksa dh vf”k{kk ds :f<+xr lkekftd dkj.kksa dks nwj djus ds fy, lekt esa efgykvksa esa
f”k{kk ds izfr tkx:drk yk;h tk,A
3- dU;k vkJe rFkk ckfydkvksa ds fy, vkoklh; ikB”kkykvksa ¼dLrwjck ikB”kkyk½ esa tgk¡ rd lEHko
gks lds o`f) dh tk; rFkk Nk=koklksa dk izcU/k ,oa lapkyu dq”kyrkiwoZd fo”okl ds lkFk fd;k
tk,A
4- fofHkUu vk;q lewg dh efgykvksa dh f”k{kk vkSj O;olk;] f”kYi izf”k{k.k] Lojkstxkj] O;olk; ekxZn”kZu
tSls ikB~;Øe pykdj LFkkuh; ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds vuqlkj f”k{kk iznku dh tk,A
5- xSj&vkSipkfjd f”k{kk dh fo’k; oLrq ij u;s fljs ls fopkj fd;k tk; vkSj bl {ks= esa iwjs mRlkg
ls dk;Zokgh djus dh mPp izkFkfedrk nh tk,A
6- efgykvksa ,oa ckfydkvksa ds fy, “kS{kf.kd lqfo/kk,W miyC/k djus okyh laLFkkvksa dks fn”kk&funsZ”k
nsdj mUgsa dk;kZfUor fd;k tk,A
7- efgyk lfefr;ksa dk xBu djds mUgsa efgyk f”k{kk ds mUu;u dh ftEesnkjh nh tk,A
8- tks vfHkHkkod xjhch js[kk ds uhps thou&;kiu dj jgs gSa mu ij ls f”k{kk dk cks> iwjh rjg ls
[kRe fd;k tk,A
9- fnO;kax o cslgkjk yM+fd;ksa dks vfrfjDr lqfo/kk,W nsdj mUgsa vkRefuHkZj cukdj LokfHkeku ds lkFk
thus dk rjhdk crk;k@fl[kk;k tk,A
ekuo lekt esa efgyk&iq:’k nksuksa xkM+h ds nks ifg, ds leku gSaA nksuksa dks fodkl gsrq vf/kdkf/kd
{ks=ksa esa yxHkx leku :i ls volj Hkh izkIr gSa ijUrq gekjh lkekftd O;oLFkk o ijEijkvksa us tUe ls gh
yM+ dk o yM+fd;ksa ds ikyu&iks’k.k] jgu&lgu] f”k{kk&nh{kk o fpfdRlk lEcU/kh lqfo/kkvksa dks miyC/k
djkus esa vf/kdkf/kd foHksn ik;k tkrk jgk gSA yM+ds dks tgk¡ dqynhid ikfjokfjd le`f)] ;”k o izfr’Bk
dk izrhd le>k tkrk jgk gS ogha yM+dh dks ijk;h lEifRr o ngst vkfn dkj.kksa ls cks> o vfHk”kki le>k
tkrk jgk gSA bldk eq[; dkj.k efgykvksa esa f”k{kk] lk{kjrk o le> dk vHkko jgk ftl dkj.k os /kkfeZd
/kekZU/krk] :f<+okfnrk] lkekftd cqjkb;ksa ls f?kjh jgrh FkhA ns”k dh vktknh ds 70 o’kZ ckn Hkh efgyk f”k{kk
dk lk{kjrk esa rks vo”; vR;f/kd ifjorZu ¼o’kZ 1951& 8-9 izfr”kr rFkk o’kZ 2011&64-6 izfr”kr½ vkdM+ks a
us crk;s ijUrq mudh le>] lkekftd lksp vkSj lEeku esa vHkh Hkh vR;f/kd ifjorZu dh vko”;drk gSA ;g
vuqHko fd;k x;k gS fd ekuoh; lalk/ku dk iw.kZ fodkl] cPpksa ds pfj= fuekZ.k o ns”k ds pgq¡eq[kh fodkl
ds fy, efgyk f”k{kk iq:’kksa dh f”k{kk ls vf/kd egRoiw.kZ vkSj mi;ksxh gSA blh fy, efgyk f”k{kk dks fodkl
dk vk/kkj ekuk x;k gS D;ksafd lqlaLd`r ,oa iw.kZ lekt dh jpuk f”kf{kr efgykvksa ls gh lEHko gSA
okLro esa efgyk f”k{kk o lk{kjrk ds izfr leiZ.k cks/k vkSj fu”Ny iz;klksa dh t:jr gSA vkus okys
le; esa mDr lq >koks a ls efgyk f”k{kk o lk{kjrk ds {ks= es a izxfr dk ek=kRed ,oa xq. kkRed Lo:i esa
mRrjksRrj fu[kkj vk;sxk rFkk efgyk lk{kjrk o f”k{kk dks lgh fn”kk feysxhA
lanHkZ lwph
1- Hkkjrh; i{k % fodkl dk lUnHkZ ,oa Lo:i& ds0,u0 xksfoUnkpk;Z] uoEcj 2008A
2- vk/kqfud f”k{kk cnyrs vk;ke& mes”k pUnz vxzoky] dq:{ks= xzkeh.k fodkl ea=ky;] flrEcj 2006] ubZ fnYyhA
3- mPp f”k{kk] yks dra= vkSj cktkj& Mk0 ujs ”k izl kn HkksDrk] iwokZ laokn] f”k{kk cpkvks fo”ks’kkad] fo”o lao kn dsU nz]
xksj [kiq jA
4- f”k{kk dk vkn”kZ& Lokeh foosdkuUn] lEiknu ,oa vuqokn& Lokeh fonsg kuUn] jked`’.k eB] /kUrksyh] ukxiqj 440012A
5- f”k{kk o fo|k& ia0 Jh jke “kekZ vkpk;Z] v[k.M T;ksfr laLFkku] eFkqjk] 281003A
6- Hkkjr&2017A
7- f”k{kk n”kk o fn”kk& izks0 bZ”oj “kj.k vLFkkuk] vdknfed ,DlsysUl] fnYyh&10031A
8- tkxj.k& okjk.klh] 14 ebZ 2017A
9- tkxj.k& okjk.klh] 30 vizSy 2017A
mRrj izns’k ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh Hkwfedk
bUnq ok”.ksZ; *
izLrkouk
mRrj izns”k esa efgyk m|ferk us tgk¡ efgykvksa esa vkRefuHkZjrk dh Hkkouk fodflr dh gS] ogha muds
LokfHkeku ,oa igpku dks Hkh ,d u;k vkdk”k miyC/k djk;k gSA os vkRefuHkZj gksdj tgk¡ vius ifjokj ds
vkfFkZd i{k dks etcwr cukrh gSa] ogha jk’Vª dh csVh gksus dk Hkh drZO; fuHkkrh gSaA cSadksa ,oa foRrh; laLFkkuksa
us Hkh efgyk m|fe;ksa ds fy;s fo’ks”k izdks’B LFkkfir fd;s gSaA foxr dqN o’kks± esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh la[;k
esa dkQh o`f) gqbZ gSA
izLrqr ‘kks/k ds mn~ns’;
1- efgyk m|fe;ksa dh vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
2- izns”k esa efgykvksa }kjk lapkfyr m|ksxksa dk Lo:i vkSj bu m|ksxksa dk izns”k dh vFkZO;oLFkk esa
egRo dk v/;;u djukA
‘kks/k ifjdYiuk ¼Research Hypothesis½
1- izLrqr “kks/k dk;Z esa efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk vkfFkZd fodkl esa ;ksxnku gSA
2- efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk lapkfyr m|ksxksa ds fodkl vkSj mudh mRikndrk ,oa fu;kZr {kerk esa o`f)
gqbZ gSA
mRrj izns”k ds fo”ks’k v/;;u {ks= vyhx<+ tuin esa efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk lapkfyr fofHkUu vkS|ksfxd
bdkb;ksa dh fLFkfr dk foospu fuEukuqlkj gSA
p;fur U;kn”kZ esa 400 efgykvksa ftlesa 200 vyhx<+ ds xzkeh.k {ks= vkSj 200 “kgjh {ks= ls yh xb± rFkk
muls lk{kkRdkj ds ek/;e ls muds }kjk pyk;s tk jgs fofHkUu vkS|ksfxd bdkb;ksa dk fo”ys’k.k izLrqr fd;k
x;k gSA
mRrj izns’k dh dqy tula[;k esa efgyk ,oa iq#”k m|fe;ksa dk vuqikr
mRrj izns”k ds gekjs fo”ks’k v/;;u {ks= vyhx<+ tuin dh fLFkfr dk foospu fuEu izdkj gSA
* ,lksfl,V izks Qslj ,oa v/;{k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] /keZ lekt egkfo|ky;] vyhx<+
rkfydk la[;k 1% vyhx<+ tuin dh dqy tula[;k esa efgyk ,oa iq#”k m|fe;ksa dk vuqikr
Ø-la- efgyk ,oa iq#’k ¼fyax½ Izfr’kr
1- 2- 3-
1- iq#’k 53-57%
2- efgyk 46-43%
;ksx 100%
lzksr% losZ{k.k }kjk izkIr vk¡dM+s
rkfydk 1 ds voyksdu ls Li’V gS fd vyhx<+ tuin dh dqy tula[;k esa efgyk ,oa iq#’k m|fe;ksa
dk vuqikr esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dk izfr”kr 46-43 vkSj iq#’k m|fe;ksa dk izfr”kr 53-57 gSA
rkfydk la[;k 2% efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk lapkfyr m|ksxksa ds jkstxkj ,oa mRiknu dh fLFkfr
Ø-la- jkstxkj efgykvksa dh ekfld vk; ¼:i;ksa okf’kZd vk;
la[;k esa½ ¼:i;ksa esa½
1- 2- 3- 4- 5-
1- C;wVhf”k;u 44 20]000 2]40]000
2- fpfdRld 20 25]000 3]00]000
3- odhy 8 20]000 2]40]000
4- Ldwy lapkfydk 24 20]000 2]40]000
5- cqVhd 40 22]000 2]64]000
6- O;kikj layXu 164 25]000 3]00]000
7- Øsp 8 15]000 1]80]000
8- fVfQu 16 22]000 2]64]000
9- xYlZ isbax xsLV gkml 16 21]000 2]52]000
10- baVhfj;j fMtkbuj 16 20]000 2]40]000
11- dEI;wVj lsaVj 4 20]000 2]40]000
12- cSaD;wV gkWy 4 25]000 3]00]000
13- gLrdyk lEcU/kh dk;Z 4 15]000 1]80]000
14- IykUV ulZjh 4 15]000 1]80]000
15- fte lapkyu 4 22]000 2]64]000
16- ,l0Vh0Mh0@vkbZ0,l0Mh0 12 16]000 1]92]000
@ih0lh0vks0
17- elkyk filkbZ ,oa fcØh 12 15]000 1]80]000
dsUnz
lzksr% losZ{k.k }kjk izkIr vk¡ dM+s
lapkfyr m|ksxksa ds jkstxkj ,oe~ mRiknu dh fLFkfr

efgyk m|eh viuh f”k{kk ,oa ;ksX;rk dk ykHk ysus ds fy, ;g vuqHko djus yxh gSa fd muds fy,
fu;fer ukSdjh dh rqyuk esa viuk Lo;a dk dk;Z vf/kd vuqdwy gS ftlesa og vius vuqlkj jkstxkj dk
lapkyu dj ldrh gaSa vkSj viuh ;ksX;rk vuqlkj mls mRiknu gksrk gS vFkkZr~ vius jkstxkj ls mUgsa vf/kd
vkenuh gksrh gS rFkk viuh {kerk ds vuqlkj iw¡th yxkdj dk;Z izkjEHk dj ldrh gSa vkSj mlls vPNk
mRiknu vkSj vPNh vk; izkIr gksrh gSA mudk lgh izs’k.k dj m|ksx] O;kikj lapkfyr dj vius dks vkRefuHkZ j
cuk ldrh gSaA okLro esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk mfpr ek/;e Lojkstxkj gS vkSj vyhx<+ tuin dh efgykvksa
us bls djds fn[kk;k gSA
rkfydk 2: ds voyksdu ls Li’V gS fd Lojks txkjr efgykvks a dh izfr efgyk vkSl r ekfld vk;
:- 22]220 gSA
efgykvksa }kjk lapkfyr m|ksxksa dk izns’k jktLo esa ;ksxnku
oSl s rks m|ferk ds {ks= esa iq #’k oxZ dk gh opZLo jgk gS] ysfdu fiNys dqN o’kks ± esa efgykvksa dks
lekurk dk ntkZ feyus ds ckn ls m|ksx O;olk; ds {ks= esa efgyk,¡ Hkh rsth ls vkxs c<+ jgh gSaA Hkkjr
ljdkj us efgyk m|eh dks ,d miØe esa fu;kstu rFkk lerk lgHkkfxrk ds :i esa i`Fkd <ax ls crykus
dk iz;kl fd;k gSA blds vuqlkj efgyk m|eh ls vk”k; ,slh m|eh ls gS tks ,sls miØe dh Lokeh ,oa
fu;a=.kdrkZ gS ftles a U;wure 51 iz fr”kr iw¡t h ij mldk foRrh; fgr gS vkSj tks miØe }kjk l‘ftr
jkstxkj dk 51 izfr”kr Hkkx efgykvksa dks iznku djrh gSA
efgyk m|eh ,d ,slh etcwr dM+h gS tks ns”k dks vkxs c<+kus ds fy, gj lEHko iz;kl djrh gS vkSj
ns”k ds mRFkku esa viuk ,d vPNk ;ksxnku nsrh gSA
1- fd vyhx<+ tuin dh efgyk m|eh vius O;olk; dks /;ku esa j[kdj Hkh cpr djrh gS vkSj
viuh cpr dks vius O;olk; esa yxkdj mls vkxs c<+kuk pkgrh gS vkSj O;olk; vkxs c<+sxk rks
jktLo dks izksRlkgu feysxkA vyhx<+ dh efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk izns”k ds jktLo esa ,d vPNk ;ksxnku
fey jgk gSA cpr vkSj fuos”k dk lh/kk lEcU/k gSA ;fn cpr vf/kd gksxh rHkh fuos”k dks izksRlkgu
feysxkA m|eh efgykvksa }kjk lapkfyr m|ksxksa ls mUgsa ,d csgrj vkenuh izkIr gksrh gS vkSj csgrj
vkenuh gksus ij mudk jktLo esa ;ksxnku Hkh vPNk gksxk vkSj bl ek/;e ls u dsoy mRiknd
xfrfof/k;ksa dks c<+ kok fn;k gS cfYd O;olk; dh Hkh mUufr dh gSA vyhx<+ tuin dh m|eh
efgyk,¡ m0iz0 ds vU; ftyksa ds fy, Hkh izsj.kk lzksr gSaA
lanHkZ
1- nslkbZ] uhjk ,oa BDdj] Å’kk ¼2001½] ^ôwesu bu bf.M;u lkslkbVht**] us”kuy cqd Vª LV] ubZ fnYyhA
2- nkl xqIrk] ekul] ^^fjlpZ esFkksMksykW th bu bdksuksfeDl**] nhi ,.M nhi ifCyds”kUl] ubZ fnYyhA
3- ewfrZ] ,l0 ¼2008½] ^^lksf”k;ks bdkW uksfed ikVhZflis”ku vkW Q owe su bu buQkeZy lsDVj**] vkj0ch0,l0,0 ifCy”klZ]
t;iq jA
ukjh mRFkku esa thfodk dh Hkwfedk dk fo’ys”k.kkRed vè;;u
‘kksHkk jkuh* ,oa fp=k xqIrk**
Hkwfedk& Lokeh foosdkuan us dgk gS& fdlh Hkh jk’Vª dh izxfr dk loksZRre FkekZehVj ogkW dh efgykvksa
dh fLFkfr gSA
oLrqr% lkekftd ra= dks larqfyr j[kus ,oa lqpk: :i ls lapkfyr djus ds nks vk/kkj LraHk gSa& L=h
,oa iq:’kA buesa vlarqyu gksus ij lekt esa folaxfr vkSj fod`fr mRiUu gks tkrh gSA nwljs “kCnksa esa ;s nksuksa
,d nwljs ds iwjd gSa vkSj cjkcj egRo ds gSSA bl rF; dks izkphu Hkkjrh; _f’k eqfu;ksa us Hkh Lohdkjk gSA
osnksa esa Hkh mYYkf[kr gS& *;= uk;ZLrq iwT;Urs jeUrsa r= nsork* “kk;n ;gh dkj.k Fkk fd oSfnd dky es a
fL=;ksa dks lekt esa mPp mnkr LFkku izkIr FkkA Hkkjrh; laLd`fr esa lHkh vkn”kZ L=h :i esa LFkkfir gS A fo|k
dk vkn”kZ ljLorh “kfDr dk vkn”kZ nqxkZ] /ku dk vkn”kZ y{eh] ifo=rk dk vkn”kZ xaxk esa fufgr gSA ;gk¡
rd fd loZO;kih bZ”oj dks Hkh txr tuuh ds uke ls lq”kksfHkr fd;k x;k gSA ijUrq le; ds izokg esa ;s lkjs
vkn”kZ foyqIr gks x;s A ;s vkn”kZ bfrgkl ds iUuksa ij gh vafdr gks dj jg x;sA dfri; dkj.kksa ls efgykvksa
dks pkjfnokjh ds vanj dSn dj fn;k x;kA mudh Lora=rk muds vf/kdkj muls foeqDr gks x;sA izkphu
Hkkjr dh ekaxfyd dU;k vfHk”kIr gks xbZA
Lora=rk izfIr ds i”pkr~ Hkkjr ds uhfr fuekZrkvksa us Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dh n;uh; fLFkfr dks ns[kk]
eglwl fd;k vkSj muds mRFkku gsrq Hkkjrh; lafo/kku esa leku vf/kdkj ¼vuqPNsn A½] jkT; }jk dksbZ HksnHkko
ugha djus ¼vuqPNsn 15½] volj dh lekurk ¼vuqPNsn 16½] leku dk;Z ds fy, leku osru ¼vuqPNsn 19
¼?k½½ dk izko?kku fd;kA
le; ds ifjorZu ds lkFk yksxksa dh eukso`fr esa Hkh ifjorZu vkuk izkjaHk gqvkA ljdkj ltx vkSj laosnu”khy
gqbZ rFkk efgykvksa dks jk’Vª dh eq[; /kkjk ls tksM+us dh izfØ;k izkjaHk dh xbZA vkfFkZd lkekftd mRFkku gsrq
fofHkUu ;kstuk,¡ fØ;kfUor dh xbZ muesa xzk eh.k thfodksiktZu ifj;kstuk iw.kZr% lQy fl) gks jgh gSA
D;ksafd ;g ifj;kstuk xzkeh.k nfyr “kksf’kr fu/kZu efgykvksa dks u flQZ vkfFkZd voyEcu iznku djrk gS
cfYd lkekftd] jktuhfrd] “kS{kf.kd voyEcu Hkh iznku djrk gSA ltxrk vkSj tkx:drk muds prqfnZd
fodkl dk ekxZ iz”kLr djrh gS& muds vf/kdkj vkSj drZO; dk Kku cks/k djkrh gSS& vius izfr gkss jgs
vU;k; vkSj fgalk dks n`<+rk ls izfrjks/k djus dh {kerk dks cyorh djrh gSA
* ,lksfl;sV iz ksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] efgyk dkW yst] [kxfM+;k] fcgkjA

** ,lksfl;sV izksQslj] vxzsth foHkkx] efgyk dkW yst [kxkSy] iVuk] fcgkjA
mís’;
fo”o cSad ls lgk;rk izkIr thfodksiktZu ifj;kstuk jkT;ksa dh fuxjkuh esa fØ;kUof;r fd;k tkrk gS
ftldk eq[; mís”; fuEu gS&
1- xjhc ifjokjksa ds fy, nh?kZdkfyd thfodksiktZu ds lk/kuksa dk fodkl djuk rFkk
2- mudh [kk|kUu dh miyCyrk dks lqfuf”pr dj lkekftd lqj{kk ds vo;oksa dks izHkkoh cukuk A
ifj;kstuk ds dk;Z
thfodk vius fofHkUu laxBuksa }kjk vius mís”;ksa dks ifj.kke rd igqWpkrh gSA tks xzkeh.k fu/kZu efgykvksa
ds mRFkku ds fy, dfVc) gSA thfodk ds dE;qfuVh vkWijs”kuy eSuqvy ds vuqlkj& *Lo;a lgk;rk lewg*
xjhc efgykvksa dks ifjokj vkSj lekt esa viuh ftanxh ij [kqn dk fu;a=.k LFkkfir djus dh fn”kk esa
dkjxj dne mBkus ds fy, ekSdk vkSj lgkjk nsrk gSA Lo;a lgk;rk lewg] lewg fuekZ.k ds tfj;s Lokoyacu
dh cqfu;kn j[krk gS tks Hkfo’; esa efgykvksa ds fy, fodkl vkSj l”kfDrdj.k dk iFk iz”kLr djrk gS vkSj
fu/kZuksa ,oa cslgkjk yksxksa ds chp [kqn enn djus dh {kerk iSnk djrk gSA
laxBu esa izd`fr gS ds vk/kkj ij Lo;a lgk;rk lewg xjhc Js.kh ds reke ifjokjksa dks laxfBr dj laLFkk
dk xBu djrh gS ftlds ek/;e ls xjhc yksx fodkl izfØ;k esa viuh Hkkxhnkjh fuHkkrs gS ;g mUgsa ,d
lgk;rk rax iznku djrk gSA bdëk gksdj efgyk,¡ rkdroj eglwl djrh gSa vkSj vius le{k mRiUu ck/kkvksa
dks lkewfgd :i ls izfrdkj djrh gSA bldk izR;{k mnkgj.k gS& fcgkj esa “kjkccanh ds leFkZu esa& efgykvksa
}kjk “kjkc Hkëh dk rksM+k tkukA ifjokj esa “kjkc ihus dk izfrjks/k fd;k tkukA
u”kkeqDr lekt ds fuekZ.k esa mudh ;g Hkwfedk ljkguh; gSA
dk;Z fof/k
mijksDr dk;ksaZ ds laaiknu gsrq ifj;kstuk dh fof”k’V dk;Zfof/k fu/kkZfjr gS&
1- xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds l”kDr laxBu dk fuekZ.k dj vkthfodk laca/kh xfrfof/k;ksa dk laiknu rFkk
cgq mís” kh; miknd lewgks a dk fuekZ.k djukA bl gsr q fo”o cSad us 264-60 djksM+ :0 dh jkf”k
lgk;rk Lo:i iznku fd;k gSA jkT; ljdkjsa Hkh vius jkT; esa SHG ds lapkyu gsrq jkf’k miyCèk
djkrh gSaA SHG ds fy, fcgkj ljdkj us 29-40 djksM :i;s miyC/k djk;sA
2- xzkeh.k efgykvksa dks laxBuksa dks vkfFkZd :i ls lqn`<+ cukus gsrq cpr djus] vkarfjd ysu&nsu
rFkk fujarj vnk;xh lqfuf”pr dj vko”;drkuqlkj ckgjh foÙkh; laLFkkvksa ¼cSad½ ds lkFk tksM+ukA
3- xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds laxBu dks rduhdh lg;ksx ,oa tkudkjh miyC/k djkuk vkSj muds dkS”ky
dk fodkl djrs gq, mudks Lo&izcaf/kr laLFkk ds :i esa fodflr djukA
ifj;kstuk dh miyfC/k&ik= nl o’kksZ dh vYikof/k ¼2007 ls izkjaHk½ esa Lo;a lgk;rk lewg us vius
l”kDr fØ;kdyki ls bfrgkl jpk gSA
fcgkj ds [kxfM+;k {ks= dk cNkSrk xkao] e/ksiqjk ftys dk jkexat xkao] eqt¶Qjiqj dk cq/kuxjk xkao]
eèkqcuh ftys dk jkWVh&xkao x;k ftys dk cfu;k cjkSu xkao] iwf.kZ;k ftys dk dkWi iapk;r] ukyUnk ftys dk
lhek xkao] jktxhj dk nksxh] xkao& lHkh ds lHkh fiNM+s {ks= esa vuqlwfpr gSaA bu {ks=ksa dh lkekftd ,oa
vkfFkZd fLFkfr esa lq/kkj ykus gsrq Lo;a lgk;rk lewg us o`gr~ dk;ZØe pyk;kA lewgksa dk fuekZ.k fy;k x;k
vkSj yksu ds :i esa vkfFkZd lgk;rk iznku dh xbZA xzkeh.k efgykvksa us izkIr ^yksu* ls NksVs&NksVs O;olk;
izkjaHk fd;kA vYikof/k esa gh budh vkfFkZd fLFkfr esa lq/kkj vk x;k ifjokj esa [kq”kgkyh Nk xbZA
;g laxBu u dsoy vkfFkZd voyEcu iznku djrk gS cfYd tkx:drk c<+kus vkilh fo”okl dks c<+kus
lw pukvksa dks QS ykus vkSj ljdkjh rFkk xSj &ljdkjh ;ks tukvksa dk ykHk ysus rFkk lkeqn kf;d Lokoya cu
c<+kus ,oa lkewfgd dk;Zokgh fodflr djus dk ,d mfpr ek/;e gSA Lo;a lgk;rk lewg usr`Ro dh {kerk
Hkh fodflr djrk gSA usr`Ro dh {kerk efgykvksa esa vkRefo”okl dh Hkkouk Hkjrk gS ftlls fo’ke ifjfLFkfr;ksa
ls yM+us dh {kerk vkrh gS A ,sl fd;s x;s losZ{k.k ls ifjyf{kr gksrk gS& cNkSrk {ks = esa lapkfyr Lo;a
lgk;rk lewg dh lfjrk nsoh] cq/kuxjk xkao dh equpqu nsoh] jk¡Vh xkao dh eksfdek [kkrqu] Nfcyk xkao dh
jfu;k nsoh tSlh fdruh efgykvksa dks fofHkUu izdkj dh leL;kvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+k ysfdu laxfBr
jgus ds dkj.k mu yksxksa us fgEer ugha gkjh vkSj varr% viuh eafty ikus esa lQy gqbZA
fu”d”kZ
dgus dh vko”;drk ugha fd Lo;a lgk; lewg dh lgk;rk ls vui<+ fu/kZu] nfyr “kksf”kr xzkeh.k
efgykvksa us u flQZ vius O;fDrRo vkSj viuh {kerk dk fodkl fd;k cfYd vius ikfjokfjd fodkl ds
lkFk&lkFk leqnk; vkSj lekt ds fodkl vkSj izxfr esa vge~ Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ vkSj lHkh ds fy, izsj.kk dk lzksr
cuhA
lanHkZ lwph
1- nso ukjk;.k ;kno] Hkkjrh; lekt esa efgykvks a& dh fLFkfr% ,d jktuhfrd fo”ys ’k.k&“kks /k i= fcgkj dk vkfFkZd
ifjn`’;] tqykbZ&fnlEcj 2015] i`0&07
2- lqeu] eerk] efgyk l”kfDrdj.k% laoS/kkfud] ljdkjh ,oa O;ogkfjd iz;kl efgyk,¡ fdruh vktkn i`- 82-
3- Bkdqj] vfuy laikndh;] efgyk,¡ fdruh vktkn] ehuk{kh izdk”ku fnYyh 110092 i`- 06
4- dE;qfuVh vkW ijs”kuy thfodk fcgkj xzkeh.k thfodksiktZ u eSuqvy [kaM&1] SHG ifj;kst uk& 2008
5- dq:{ks=] ekpZ 2015
6- fcgkj dk vkfFkZd] ifjn`’; “kks/k if=dk& tqykbZ fnlEcj 2015
7. Dr. Anil Thakur, An Economic Analysis of - Women Empowerment Through SHG.
8. B.K. Singh, Women Empowerment Through Self Help Group.
efgyk m|fe;ksa dh leL;k;sa ,oa lq>ko
izhfr dqekjh ok”.ksZ; * ,oa bUnq ok”.ksZ; **
vkt Hkkjrh; efgykvksa us iwjh nqfu;k ds fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa viuk lEekfur LFkku cuk;k gSA jk’Vª ds fodkl
dh vxznwr cuh efgykvksa us ns”k gh ugha oju~ fons”kksa esa Hkh vius jk’Vª dk ijpe ygjk;k gSA foxr n’kdksa esa
gekjs ns”k esa Ñf’k] m|ksx] lapkj] f”k{kk] LokLF; vkfn {ks=ksa esa dkQh rsth ls fodkl gqvk gS ftlesa efgykvksa ds
izR;{k vkSj vizR;{k ;ksxnku dks udkjk ugha tk ldrkA o’kZ 1995 esa ekuo fodkl fjiksVZ esa dgk x;k gS fd
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa dh dk;Z lgHkkfxrk dk izfr”kr fujUrj c<+ jgk gSA Hkkjrh; Je esa efgykvksa dk
;ksxnku ,d frgkbZ gS tcfd xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa 90 izfr”kr efgyk;sa vlaxfBr {ks=ksa esa dk;Zjr gSaA
vk/kqfud ;qx esa vkt efgyk;sa vkRe fuHkZj vkSj LokoyEch gSa vkSj ns”k ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa egRoiw.kZ
Hkwfedk fuHkk jgh gSaA Hkkjrh; m|eh efgykvksa ds :i esa izFke oxZ xjhc vkSj fuj{kj efgykvksa dk gSA bl
oxZ dh efgyk;sa Ñf’k] pk; ckxkuksa] [kkuksa] Hkou fuekZ.k m|ksx vkfn esa dk;Z dj jgh gSaA nwljk oxZ mPp ,oa
e/;eoxhZ; efgykvksa dk gSA orZeku esa bl oxZ dh efgykvksa us foKku o rduhdh f”k{kk dh vksj dne
mBk;s gSaA ysfdu bu efgykvksa dk izfr”kr cgqr de gSA rhljk oxZ futh Lrj ij vusd izdkj ds dk;ks± o
O;olk;ksa esa layXu gSA cM+s&cM+s uxjksa esa f”k”kq x`g ¼fdM~l xkMZu½ tSlh O;oLFkkvksa dk lapkyu] C;wVh ikyZj]
cqVhd] vkarfjd ltkoV] x`g lTtk] Qy laj{k.k] iq’i lTtk] flykbZ cqukbZ dsUnzksa vkfn O;olk;ksa esa efgykvksa
us lQyrk izkIr dh gSA
mRrj izns”k esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dk vkfFkZd fodkl esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku gSA izns”k esa vf/kdka”k efgyk;sa
m|e”khyrk viuk;s gq;s gSa ftuds }kjk fofHkUu izdkj ds m|ksx lapkfyr fd;s tk jgs gSaA izns”k ds xzkeh.k
{ks=ksa esa Hkh efgyk;sa vusd izdkj ds xzkeh.k m|ksx /kU/kksa dks lapkfyr dj jgh gSaA
o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj mRrj izns”k esa dqy deZdkjksa dh la[;k 540 yk[k gS ftlesa 222 yk[k
Ñ”kd] 134 yk[k Ñf’k Jfed] 30 yk[k ikfjokfjd m|ksx esa yxs Jfed] 154 yk[k vU; dk;ks± esa yxs gSaA
vkfFkZd tux.kuk fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj 1988 ls 2005 ds nkSjku “kgjh m|ksxksa dh la[;k esa 3-41 izfr”kr rFkk
xk¡oksa esa 5-33 izfr”kr dh o`f) gqbZ gSA Je ea=ky; ds uewuk losZ{k.k ds vk¡dM+ksa ds vk/kkj ij de ls de 11
djksM+ 80 yk[k efgyk m|eh gSa tks fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa dk;Z dj jgh gSaA ,d vuqeku ds vk/kkj ij bu efgyk
m|fe;ksa dks ldy ?kjsyw mRikn esa ;ksxnku 20 izfr”kr gSA
* vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] /keZ lekt egkfo|ky;] vyhx<+A
** ,lksfl,V izksQslj ,oa foHkkxk/;{kk] vFkZ” kkL= foHkkx] /keZ lekt egkfo|ky;] vyhx<+A
efgyk m|fe;ksa dh leL;k,¡

m|eh efgyk,¡ fu%lansg vius jkstxkj dks tks mUgksaus p;u fd;k gS] iw.kZ vkRefo”okl] {kerk vkSj yxu
ls dj jgh gSa ftlds fy, mUgsa 12 ls 14 ?kaVs rd vius O;kikj@O;olk; dk;Z ds fy, le; nsuk iM+rk gSA
bl lcds ckotwn os vius&vius dk;Z dks c[kwch dj jgh gSaA mUgksaus vius dk;Z{ks= esa izfr’Bk vftZr dh gS
vkSj lekt esa viuh izfrHkk dks LFkkfir fd;k gSA fu%lansg efgyk m|fe;ksa us ;g lQyrk;sa vkSj LFkku cgqr
vklkuh ls izkIr ugha fd;k gS A mUgs a fujUrj vus dksa leL;kvksa vkS j dfBukb;ksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+ k gS
ftuls os tw>h gSa vkSj bl la?k’kZ us mUgsa vkSj etcwr cuk;k gSA muds le{k vius dks lkfcr djus dh pqu kSrh
lnSo lkeus jgrh gSA mUgksaus m|eh efgykvksa ds izfr fofHkUu izdkj dh Hkzked o feF;k /kkj.kkvksa dks xyr
lkfcr fd;kA ,d efgyk ds lkeus lekt ls ,d pqukSrh feyrh gS] og ,d vkSjr gS] og D;k dj ldrh gS\
,d iq#’k ds lkeus mls ckSuk le>k tkrk gS ftls mUgksaus >qByk fn;k gSA
¼d½ f’k{kk ,oa tkx#drk dk vHkko
¼i½ efgykvksa dk vf/kd f’kf{kr gksuk iq#”kksa ds fy, dq.Bk dk dkj.k % iq#’k efgykvksa dks Lo;a
ls T;knk i<+k fy[kk gksus ij “keZ eglwl djrs gSa tks mUgsa dq.BkxzLr dj nsrh gSA tks muds ifjokj
esa ruko iSnk dj nsrk gS vkSj lekt ds O;fDr mUgsa eglwl djrs gSa
¼ii½ efgykvksa ds fy, mfpr f’k{kk dk vHkko gksuk % tuin esa efgykvksa ds fy, mfpr f”k{kk dk
vHkko gksuk efgyk m|fe;ksa ds fy, ,d lcls cM+h ck/kk dk dkj.k gSA
¼iii½ efgykvksa dh f’k{kk ds izfr de tkx#drk % yksxksa dk va/kfo”oklh vkSj vf”kf{kr gksuk ,d cgqr
cM+h foMEcuk gSA ,sls yksx efgykvksa dk vR;f/kd i<+k fy[kk gksuk mfpr ugha le>rsA vf/kdrj
yksxksa dh vkt Hkh ;g ekufldrk gS fd ;fn yM+dh vR;f/kd i<+h fy[kh gksxh rks ?kj okyksa ij viuk
gqDe pyk;sxhA vR;f/kd NksVh lksp efgykvksa dh f”k{kk ds izfr de tkx#drk iSnk djrh gSA
¼iv½ ukjh dk fiNM+k gksuk % tuin esa ukjh dk fiNM+kiu nwj djus ds fy, mls f”kf{kr cukus dh fo’ks”k
lqfo/kk feyuh pkfg,A fpjdky ls yns fiNM+siu dks nwj djus ds fy, f”k{kk dh furkar vko”;drk gSA
blds fy, yM+fd;ksa dks Ldwyh&f”k{kk dh lqfo/kk feyuh pkfg, vkSj Ok;Ld efgykvksa ds fy, izkS<+&f”k{kk
dk izcU/k gksuk pkfg,A
¼[k½ izf’k{k.k lqfo/kkvksa dk vHkko
efgyk m|fe;ksa dks izf”k{k.k lqfo/kk dk izns”k esa vR;f/kd vHkko gS tks efgyk m|fe;ksa ds fy;s ck/kk dk
dkj.k gSA ukjh leL;k ds fofHkUu igyqvksa ij tu lk/kkj.k dk iwjk&iwjk /;ku dsfUnzr gks vkSj gj O;fDr dks
bl deh dks le>us dk volj feys rHkh vkØks”k txk;k tk ldrk gS] tks cM+s ifjorZu dh Hkwfedk izLrqr
djrk gSA
¼x½ ikfjokfjd lg;ksx dk vHkko
¼i½ efgyk dk vf/kd dekuk iq#”k ds fy, viekutud % tuin esa dqN oxZ ds yksx efgykvksa ds
}kjk vf/kd /ku dekus dks viekutud ekurs gSa vkSj bls xyr crkrs gSa vkSj [kqn ds ?kj dh vkSjrksa
dks rks ckgj ugha fudyus nsrs vkSj tks vkSjrsa dk;Z djrh gSa] muds ckjs esa xyr dgrs gSa vkSj muds
?kj ds iq#’k lnL;ksa dks xyr lykg nsrs gSa ftlls os iq#’k vius ?kjksa esa vlarks’ktud fLFkfr iSnk
dj nsrs gSaA
¼ii½ vlarqfyr oSokfgd thou % efgyk m|fe;ksa dks vius dk;Z dh O;Lrrk rFkk ?kj vkSj ckgj nksuksa
dkeksa dks laHkkyus esa dgha u dgha dksbZ deh jg tkrh gS ftls ifr rFkk ifjokj okys cnkZ’r ugha dj
ikrs vkSj ?kj dk ekgkSy [kjkc djrs gSaA
¼iii½ cPpksa dh ijofj’k lEcU/kh dfBukb;k¡ % vk/kqfud ifjos”k esa gesa lkewfgd ifjokj ns[kus dks de
gh feyrs gSaA tuin esa vf/kdka”kr% ,dy ifjokj gh ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA dksbZ lkewfgd ifjokj esa
ugha jguk ilan djrkA
¼iv½ efgykvksa dks ifjokj dk izeq[k ugha le>uk % tuin esa vf/kdka”kr% iq#’kksa esa izeq[krk dk ntkZ
fn;k tkrk gS] vkSj efgykvksa dks blls foeq[k j[kk tkrk gSA
¼?k½ foRrh; lqfo/kkvkas dk vHkko
¼i½ m|e gsrq foRrh; lgk;rk u feyuk % efgyk m|fe;ksa dks vius m|e ds fy, foRr dh leL;k
lnSo jgrh gSA lkekU;r% efgykvksa ds ikl bruh iw¡th ugha gksrh fd os viuk O;olk; lqpk: :i
ls pyk ldsaA m|e gsrq mUgsa foRrh; lqfo/kk cSad _.k feyus esa dbZ rjg dh fnDdrksa dk lkeuk
djuk iM+rk gSA
¼ii½ foRrh; laLFkkuksa ds fo’okl ij efgyk m|fe;ksa dk grksRlkgu % efgyk m|fe;ksa dks ;g
vPNh rjg ls irk gS fd ljdkj }kjk mUgsa viuk m|e pykus ds fy;s _.k dh lqfo/kk feyrh gSA
dqN efgyk;sa vius O;olk; ds fy;s lkjk le; vkSj ÅtkZ lefiZr dj ldrh gSa] ij foRrh; laLFkkvksa
ds fo”okl ij efgyk m|eh grksRlkfgr gSaA
¼M½ dPps eky dh leL;k
fofHkUu lzksrksa ls dPpk eky] rFkk Fkksd eky izkIr djus ds fy, ml ij D;k fMLdkmaV] izkfQV vkSj
ekftZu dk fu/kkZj.k Hkh mfpr gksuk pkfg, ugha rks m|e esa ykHk dekuk vklku ughaA dPps eky ds fy, fuEu
Lrj dh ckrphr vkSj lkSnsckth] dkS”ky dh miyC/krk dh deh gksus ij ;g efgyk m|fe;ksa ds m|e dks
izHkkfor djasxhA
¼p½ foi.ku lEcU/kh leL;k
¼i½ efgyk m|fe;ksa dk dk;kZy; ds deZpkfj;ksa ,oa fcpkSfy;ksa ij fuHkZj jguk % efgyk m|fe;ksa
ds dk;Z esa ;g lcls vf/kd ck/kk dk dkj.k gS fd os vius dk;kZy; ds deZpkjh ,oa fcpkSfy;ka ij
t:jr ls T;knk fuHkZj jgrh gSaA ftlls muds m|e ds vf/k”ks’k ;k ykHk dk izeq[k fgLlk e/;LFkksa
dks izkIr gks tkrk gS vkSj esgur rFkk le; nksuksa [kpZ djus ij Hkh os ?kkVs dk lkeuk djrh gSaA
¼ii½ cktkj dk iw.kZ Kku u gksuk % efgyk m|fe;ksa dks foi.ku lEcU/kh dk;Z esa cktkj dk iw.kZ Kku
ugha gksrk D;ksafd os iq#’kksa dh rjg viuk T;knk le; cktkj esa ugha xqtkjrh ;k cktkjksa] nqdkuksa
ij ?kaVksa&?kaVksa cSB dj cktkj dh dherksa ds mrkj p<+ko ls ysdj fMLdkmaV] izkWfQV dh Hkh vR;fèkd
tkudkjh ugha j[k ikrhaA T;knkrj efgyk,¡ fcpkSfy;ksa ij fo”okl j[k viuk dk;Z djrh gSa ftlls
mudks iq#’kksa dh vis{kk ykHk dh izfr”krrk esa deh vk tkrh gS ftldk vlj muds m|e ij iM+rk
gS A
lq>ko
efgyk m|fe;ksa dh leL;kvksa ds fujkdj.k ds fy;s fuEu lq>ko izLrqr gSa %&
¼i½ efgykvksa esa tkx:drk dh vko’;drk (Need of Awareness Amongst Women)
vkt ds ;qx esa tgk¡ efgyk;sa gj {ks= esa ijpe QSyk jgh gSA ogha dqN efgyk;sa ;ksX; gksrs gq;s Hkh viuh
;ksX;rk dks igpkuus esa vleFkZ gSA t:jr gS rks ,slh dqN lfefr;k¡ ¼ NGOs½ cukus dh tks mudks viuh
;ksX;rk dks lgh mi;ksx djus esa enn djsaA
¼ii½ efgykvksa esa f’k{kk dk izlkj (Extension of Education Among Women)
efgykvksa dks vKkurk vkSj mis{kk ds dkj.k T;knk c<+us dk ekSdk ugha fn;k tkrkA lekt vkSj ifjokj
dh :f<+;ksa ds dkj.k mudh uSlfxZd ;ksX;rk nc dj jg tkrh gSA vxj lekt vkSj ifjokj ds yksx bl ckr
dks le>sa mudh ;ksX;rk ds vuqlkj lqfo/kk;sa muds ikl gh miyC/k djk nsa rks le; dh deh vkSj :f<+;ksa
dks rksM+dj mldh ;ksX;rk dks fu[kkj nsa rks u flQZ ifjokj o lekt dk Hkyk gksxk cfYd lEHko gS fd jk’Vª
dks Hkh ,d etcwr LrEHk fey tk;sA
¼iii½ lafo/kku esa iznRr efgykvksa ds leku vf/kdkj dks O;ogkj esa ykus dh vko’;drk ¼ Need of
Practical Application of Equal Rights of Women as given by Constitution ½
lafo/kku esa fn;s x;s muds vf/kdkjksa dh j{kkFkZ dk;Z gksuk pkfg;sA bl gsrq vko”;d dkuwu izHkkoh <ax
ls dk;Z djsa] ;g lqfuf”pr fd;k tkuk pkfg;sA mudks HksnHkko dk lkeuk gj txg djuk iM+rk gSA ftls
jksdus dk gj laHko iz;kl mu efgykvksa dks mUufr esa ;ksxnku nsxk ftldk vfUre ykHk lekt dh mUufr
esa feysxkA
¼v½ Lojkstxkjjr efgykvksa dh ,lksfl,’ku dk fuekZ.k ¼Formation of Association of Self Employed
Women½
yksdrU= esa laxBu ds vHkko esa lgh ckr Hkh ncdj jg tkrh gSA yksdrU= esa laxBu vkSj tuer dk
cM+k egRo gksrk gSA vr% efgyk m|fe;ksa dks vius&vius laxBu dk fuekZ.k djuk pkfg,A ;s efgyk laxBu
dsoy fn[kkoVh ,oa ltkoVh u gksa cfYd Bksl /kjkry o dk;Z djus okys cusa ftlls okLrfod vFkks± esa
efgyk m|fe;ksa dk fgr gks ldsA efgyk m|fe;ksa dks vius la?k ¼ Association½ cukus ds fy;s izsfjr fd;k
tkuk pkfg;s vkSj bu lewgksa@la?kksa }kjk viuh leL;kvksa ds fuokj.k ds fy;s iz;kl fd;k tk;s vkSj fofHkUu
eapksa ij la?k dh inkf/kdkjh] efgyk m|fe;ksa dh leL;kvksa dks mBk;sa ftlls fd mudk lek/kku gj Lrj ij
gks ldsA
lanHkZ
1- nslkbZ] uhjk ,oa BDdj] Å’kk] ^ôwesu bu bf.M;u lkslkbVht**] us”kuy cqd Vª LV] ubZ fnYyh] 2001
2- xkSre] “kkfyuh] ^^vlaxfBr {ks= esa dk;Z”khy efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd lgHkkfxrk dk ewY ;kadu ¼vyhx<+ tuin ds fo”ks’k
lanHkZ esa½**] ih&,p0Mh0 Fkhfll] vkxjk fo”ofo|ky;] 2002
3- xhrk ,u0] ^ôwesu ,.M yscj ekdZZsV~l & ekbØks bdksuksfeDl LVMh**] oh0oh0 fxjh ,u0,y0vkbZ0] uks,Mk] 2000
mŸkjk[kaM ds fodkl esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh Hkwfedk dk v/;;u
eerk * ,oa vkj-,l- usxh **
izLrkouk
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls vk”k; gS fd efgykvksa dh ;ksX;rk] dkS”ky o mudh l`tukRed “kfDr dks igpkuuk
o mudks lekt esa fcuk fdlh HksnHkko ds iq:’kksa ds cjkcj ntkZ nsuk rkfd os Lo;a vkRefuHkZj o LokoyEch
cu lds ftlls lekt esa mudh lkekftd] vkfFkZd] jktuSfrd thou ds izR;sd {ks= esa mudh lfØ; lgHkkfxrk
dks ljkguh; iz;kl fey ldsA
Hkkjr esa efgyk m|ferk fodkl dks vkfFkZd izxfr dk egRoiw.kZ L=ksr ekuk tkrk gSA efgyk,a vius
lksp vkSj n`f’Vdks.k ls O;kikj lapkfyr djus dh {kerk j[krh gSaA efgyk m|eh vius fy, vkSj vU; yksxksa
ds afy, u, dk;Z l`ftr djrh gSa vkSj lekt dks izca/k] laxBu ,oa O;olk; leL;kvksa ds fHkUu&fHkUu lekèkku
miyC/k djkrh gSaA fQj Hkh efgyk m|fe;ksa dh la[;k dkQh de gSA lekt ds fofHkUu {ks=ksa dh rjg m|ksx
{ks= esa Hkh efgykvksa dks HksnHkko dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS HksnHkko ds vfrfjDr efgykvksa dh dkfcfy;r ij
Hkh loky mBk, tkrs gSaA blh dkj.k ls o’kZ ¼2015½ esa efgyk m|ferk lwpdkad dh lwph esa “kkfey 77 ns”kksa
esa ls Hkkjr 70osa LFkku ij gSA m|ferk fodkl dk;ZØe eq[;r% efgykvksa dks lkekftd&vkfFkZd :i ls
ldkjkRed xfr”khyrk dks mRizsfjr djus ds fy, lapkfyr fd;s tkrs gSaA m|ferk fodkl dk eq[; mn~ns”;
efgykvks dks Lo% m|e dh vksj mUeq[k djuk gS] rkfd efgyk,W vkRefuHkZj o LokoyEch cu ldsA xzkeh.k
{ks=ksa esa vHkh Hkh efgykvksa dk izeq[k m|e d`f’k gh gSA
v/;;u ds mn~ns’;
*mŸkjk[kaM esa m|ferk ds {ks= esa efgykvksa ds fodkl dh Hkwfedk dk v/;;u* djus dh vko”;drk dks
/;ku esa j[krs gq;s “kks/k i= gsrq fuEufyf[kr mn~ns”;ksa dks fy;k x;k gS %&
 mŸkjk[kaM esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh orZeku fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
 mŸkjk[kaM esa efgyk m|ferk fodkl ds fy, ljdkj dh uhfr ,oa fØ;kUo;u dk v/;;u djukA
* “kks/k Nk=k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ikSM+h ifjlj] gs0 u0 c0 x<+oky fo”ofo|ky;] Jhuxj x<+oky] mŸkjk[kaMA
** ,lksfl,V izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ikSM+h ifjlj] gs0 u0 c0 x<+oky fo”ofo|ky;] Jhuxj x<+oky mŸkjk[kaMA
‘kks/k fof/k
izLrqr “kks/k i= esa f}rh;d vkadM+ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA f}rh;d vkadM+ksa dk iz;ksx gsrq fo”ofo|ky;
ds iqLrdky;ksa ls] ekfld if=dk izd k”kd] b.Vjus V osclkbV] “kks/k laLFkkuksa] Hkkjr ljdkj ea=ky; dh
fjiksVZ] mŸkjk[kaM vkfFkZd x.kuk fjiksVZ vkfn ds ek/;eksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA
Xkzkeh.k jkstxkj l`tu vkSj iz/kkuea=h jkstxkj l`tu dk;ZØe ds rgr o’kZ 2008&09 ls 2011&12 ds
nkSjku djhc 37 yk[k 40 gtkj u, jkstxkj l`tu dk vuqeku Fkk] ij fofHkUu iz;klksa ds ckotwn vuqekfur
y{;] [kkl rkSj ls efgykvksa ls tqM+s jkstxkj dk y{; gkfly ugha gks ik;kA bu dk;ZØe ds rgr ns”k esa o’kZ
2007&08 esa dqy 44285 m|e LFkkfir gq,] ftuesa efgykvksa }kjk LFkkfir m|eksa dh la[;k djhc 12500 ¼28
izfr”kr½] o’kZ 2008&09 esa dqy 25500 m|eksa esa efgykvksa }kjk LFkkfir m|eksa dh la[;k djhc 6400 ¼25
izfr”kr½ vkSj o’kZ 2009&10 esa djhc 40 gtkj m|eksa esa efgykvksa }kjk 8640 ¼22 izfr”kr½ m|e LFkkfir
fd, x,A
mijksDr vkadM+kas esa efgyk m|fe;ksa dh la[;k fujarj ?kV jgh gSA ftlls ljdkjh vuqnku ij fuHkZj
jgus okyh vuqlwfpr tkfr] tutkfr ,oa fiNM+s oxZ dh efgyk m|eh vf/kd izHkkfor gks jgh gSaA iz/kkuea=h
jkstxkj l`tu dk;ZØe ds rgr o’kZ 2011&12 esa efgykvksa ds LokfeRo okys djhc 14 gtkj m|eksa dks 3
vjc 21 djksM+ 65 yk[k 30 gtkj dh /kujkf”k vkSj o’kZ 2012&13 esa 13612 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks djhc 2-94
vjc dh vuqnku jkf”k iznku dh xbZA bl ;kstuk ds rgr o’kZ 2011&12 esa lcls vf/kd if”pe caxky esa
1981 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks 21 djksM+ 32 yk[k :i,] rfeyukMq easa 1142 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks 23 djksM+ 36
yk[k] mŸkjizns”k esa 1434 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks djhc 57 djksM+ 19 yk[k] vle esa 1071 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks
8 djks M+ 60 yk[k dh vuqnku jkf”k iznku dh xbZ o’kZ 2012&13 esa vle esa lcls vf/kd 1541 efgyk
m|fe;ksa dks 9 djksM+ 82 yk[k] if”pe caxky esa 1483 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks 15 djksM+] mŸkjizns”k esa 1076
efgyk m|fe;ksa dks djhc 35 djksM+] egkjk’Vª esa 980 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks djhc 22 djksM+ vkSj vksfM”kk esa
883 efgyk m|fe;ksa dks djhc 20 djksM+ :i;s dh /kujkf”k iznku dh xbZA
mŸkjk[kaM jkT; esa efgyk m|ferk fodkl dh orZeku fLFkfr
6oha vkfFkZd x.kuk ds vuqlkj mŸkjk[kaM jkT; esa dqy 31419 efgyk m|eh ik;s x;s ftuesa ls 20279
xzkeh.k rFkk 11140 uxjh; {ks=ksa esa lapkfyr gSaA dqy efgyk m|eksa esa 26828 Lodk;Z m|e rFkk 4591 de
ls de ,d oSrfud O;fDr lfgr m|e ik;s x;sA d`f’k fØ;kdykiksa ls lEcfU/kr xzkeh.k m|eksa dh la[;k
9219 rFkk uxjh; m|eksa dh la[;k 1061 ik;h x;hA blh izdkj xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa xSj d`f’k m|eksa dh la[ ;k
11060 rFkk uxjh; {ks=ksa esa 10079 FkhA bl izdkj efgyk }kjk lapkfyr 10280 d`f’k rFkk 21139 xSj d`f’k
m|e ik;s x;sA
m|e ftuesa dsoy efgyk;sa dk;Zjr gSa

,sls m|e ftuesa dsoy efgyk;sa gh dk;Zjr gSa dh la[;k 25250 gSA ftuesa ls 16698 xzkeh.k rFkk 8552
uxjh; gSaA
Tkuin m|ekss dh la[;k ftuesa dsoy efgyk;s a dk;Zjr ik;h x;h
Lodk;Z m|e de ls de ,d oSrfud ;ksx
O;fDr lfgr
mÙkjdk”kh 496 17 513
Pkeksyh 742 36 778
:nziz; kx 214 21 235
fVgjh x<+oky 655 33 688
nsgjknwu 3637 416 4053
ikSM+h x<+oky 1011 85 1096
fiFkkSj kx<+ 2733 43 2776
Ckkxs” oj 316 16 332
vYeksM+k 3111 69 3180
pEikor 632 20 652
uSuhrky 2033 178 2181
m/keflag uxj 3308 277 3585
gfj}kj 4895 286 5181
dq y 23753 1497 25250
L=ksr% mŸkjk[kaM 6oha vkfFkZd x.kuk dh fjiksVZ 2012&13
Hkkjr esa efgyk m|ferk fodkl ds fy, ljdkj dh uhfr ,oa fØ;kUo;u
dkS”ky fodkl & 15 tqykbZ 2015
LVSaMvi bafM;k ;kstuk & 6 tuojh 2016
eqnzk ;kstuk
lw{e] y?kq vkSj e/;e m|e ea=ky; ¼,e,l,ebZ½ ea=ky; dh ;kstuk,a
O;kikj lac) m|ferk lgk;rk ,oa fodkl ;kstuk ¼VªhM½ &
efgyk ds;j ;kstuk &
mŸkjk[kaM esa efgyk m|ferk fodkl ds fy, ljdkj dh uhfr ,oa fØ;kUo;u
mŸkjk[kaM ljdkj us ns”k fons”k dh efgyk m|eh dks mŸkjk[kaM esa viuk dkjksckj dj lds blds fy,
ljdkj dh vksj ls :nªiqj esa 200 gsDVs;j {ks= esa efgyk m|ferk ikdZ [kksyk tk,xkA ikdZ dh LFkkiuk dk
eq[; mn~ns”; vkxkeh 3 o’kksZa esa 10 gtkj efgyk m|fe;ksa dks rS;kj djuk gSA efgykvksa dks fj;k;rh njksa ij
Hkwfe miyC/k djkbZ tk,xhA mŸkjk[kaM ns”k dk igyk jkT; gS tgka efgyk m|fe;ksa ds fy, vkS|ksfxd ikdZ
dh LFkkiuk dh tk jgh gSA m|ferk ikdZ esa fLFkr bdkb;ksa esa efgykvksa dks ukSdfj;ksa esa vkj{k.k dh O;oLFkk
dh tk,xhA jkT; ljdkj }kjk efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa vkSj cM+h bdkb;ksa dh LFkkiuk ij
ykHkh gsrq ,d ,d&f[kM+dh Nkrk laxBu (Single-Window Umbrella Oraganization) dh LFkkiuk dh tk,xhA
fu”d”kZ
mijksDr “kks/k i= esa *mŸkjk[kaM esa m|ferk ds {ks= esa efgykvksa ds fodkl dh Hkwfedk dk v/;;u* fd;k
x;k gSA ftlesa efgykvksa dh orZeku fLFkfr o ljdkj }kjk efgyk m|ferk ds fy, lapkfyr ;kstukvksa dk
v/;;u fd;k x;k gSA jk’Vªh; Lrj ij lapkfyr ;kstukvksa esa fLdy bafM;k] LVSaMvi ;kstuk] eqnzk ;kstuk
ftudk eq[; mn~ns”; efgykvksa esa m|ferk dk fodkl djuk gSA orZeku le; esa ;fn mŸkjk[kaM esa efgykvksa
dks fLdy bafM;k dk izf”k{k.k fn;k tk, rks mudh fLFkfr cny ldrh gSA mijksDr “kks/k v/;;u ls Kkr
gksrk gS fd mŸkjk[kaM esa efgykvkas dk fodkl m|ferk ds {ks= esa gqvk gSA mŸkjk[kaM esa 6oha vkfFkZd x.kuk
2012&13 dh fjiksVZ esa efgykvksa }kjk 23 ,sls d`f’k vkSj xSj d`f’k m|e gSa] ftuesa efgyk;sa lcls vf/kd
i”kqikyu O;olk; esa dk;Zjr gSaA Ekfgyk m|ferk gekjh vkfFkZd izxfr dk ,d egRoiw.kZ ek/;e gSA fcuk
efgykvksa dks Lokoyach cuk, ge efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds LoIu dks Hkh lkdkj ugha dj ldrs gSaA mŸkjk[kaM
ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd fLFkfr esa ifjorZu gh {ks= dh vkfFkZd izxfr dk
|ksrd gSA mŸkjk[kaM dh vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk vf/kd izHkkoh ,oa fu.kkZ;d gSA ;fn efgykvksa
dks m|e LFkkfir djus ds fy, izsfjr o izf”k{k.k fn;k tk, rks og /khjs&/khjs Lokoyacu dh vkSj c<+ ldrh
gSA mŸkjk[kaM esa vf/kdka”k xzkeh.k efgyk,a dqVhj m|ksaxksa /kU/kksa esa dke djrh gSaA mŸkjdk”kh] peksyh] :nziz;kx]
fiFkkSjkx<+] ,oa pEikor ;s ftys mPPk fgeky; dh Js.kh esa vkrs gSaA vr% ;gka ij ioZrh; Hkwfe gksus ds dkj.k
dqVhj m|ksxksa dh vf/kd laHkkouk, gSaA ogha nsgjknwu] gfj)kj] uSuhrky ,oa m/keflag uxj ftys rjkbZ&Hkkoj
dh Js.kh esa vkrs gSaA vr% ;gka ij efgyk fo”ks”k dk;ZØe esa ;s ftys vf/kd lQy jgs gSaA vr% efgyk m|eksa
ij dsfUnzr fof”k”V m|ferk fodkl dk;ZØe bu {ks=ksa esa vk;ksftr djds efgykvksa dks m|ksx LFkkiuk dh
vksj izsfjr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- MkW - ukjk;.k flag fc’V] ¼2003½ *mRrjkapy fgeky;h jkT;% ioZrh; {ks= esa vkS|ksxhdj.k*
2- MkW - v:.k dqdlky] ¼2004½ *mŸkjkapy esa m|ferk fodkl*] foulj ifCyf”kax dEiuh]
3- MkW - vuhrk eksnh] ¼2011½] *efgyk l”kfDrdj.k fofo/k vk;ke*] okbZfdax cqDl izdk”kd
30
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ,oa xzkeh.k fodkl % iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk ds lanHkZ esa
fo’ys”k.kkRed v/;;u
vfuy Bkdqj *
ifjp;
vkt oS”ohdj.k] cktkjokn vkSj mÙkjvk/kqfudrk ds bl nkSj esa ukjh l”kfDrdj.k egRoiw.kZ gks x;k gSA
ukjh l”kfDrdj.k vkS j fyax lekurk dks Third Millennium Development Goal ( M.D.G-3) ds vUrxZr
ekuk tk jgk gS A l”kfDrdj.k dk rkRi;Z efgykvksa esa vkRelEeku] vkRefo”okl dh Hkkouk dks fodflr
djuk] efgykvksa dks iq#’kksa ds led{k oS/kkfud] jktuhfrd] “kkjhfjd] ekufld ,oa vkfFkZd {ks=ksa esa muds
ifjokj] leqnk; ,oa jk’Vª dh lkaLd`frd i`’BHkwfe esa fu.kZ; ysus dh Lora=rk] f”k{kk ,oa jkstxkj izkIr djus
ds vf/kdkj ls gSA ukjh lekt dh ,d egRoiw.kZ ?kVd gSA izkphudky esa ukfj;ksa dks lekt esa mPp LFkku
izkIr FkkA mUgsa lq[k] le`f)] “kkafr] oSHko vkSj Kku dk izrhd ekuk tkrk FkkA ;|fi Le`frdky] /keZ”kkL=dky
rFkk e/;dky esa muds vf/kdkj lhfer gksrs x;s vkSj iq#’kksa dh rqyuk esa mudh fLFkfr esa fxjkoV vkrh
x;hA os ijra=] fuLlgk; ,oa fucZy gksus ds lkFk&lkFk fofHkUu izdkj ds “kks’k.k o mRihM+u dk f”kdkj gksrh
xbZ rFkkfi Lora=rk izkfIr ds i”pkr~ ifjfLFk;k¡ cnyus yxh gSaA”krkfCn;ksa ls fldqM+s] fleVs vkSjrksa ds O;fDrRo
dks Lora=rk izkfIr ds i”pkr~ ,d foLr`r vk;ke feyk gSA nks;e ntsZ ds #i esa O;og`r gksus okyh vkSjrksa us
?kj dh pgkjnhokjh dks yk¡?kdj viuh ,d ubZ igpku cukbZ gSA ekr`”kfDr us flQZ iRuh vkSj izs;lh ds #i
esa tkuh vkSj ekuh tkus okyh feFkd dks rksM+us ds lkFk mPp f”k{kk izkIr dj fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa lQyrk dk
ijpe ygjk;k gSA iz”kklu] jktuhfr] U;k;ikfydk] odkyr] lekt lq/kkj] foKku] O;kikj] dyk] lkfgR;]
i=dkfjrk] [ksydwn] fluse k] ,oa] QS”ku gj {ks= esa mlus viuh igpku o lk[k dk;e dh gS A f”k{kk ds
izpkj&izlkj vkSj oSpkfjd Økafr ds QyLo#i vkt dh ukfj;k¡ vius laoS/kkfud rFkk vU; vf/kdkjksa ds izfr
igys dh vis{kk vf/kd tkx#d gks xbZ gSaA muesa vkRecy] vkRefo”okl vkSj LokfHkeku dk lapkj gqvk gSA
vkSjrksa dh bl lQyrk ds ihNs mudh viuh izfrHkk ds lkFk&lkFk ljdkj dk ldkjkRed n`f’Vdks.k Hkh gSA
ljdkj dh fofHkUu dY;k.kksUeq[kh ;kstukvksa ds dkj.k vkSj rsa vkfFkZd #i ls lqn `<+] ekufld #i ls
l”kDr vkSj lkekftd #i ls izfrf’Br gqbZ gSaA jktuhfr esa Hkh viuh lgHkkfxrk c[kwch fuHkk jgh gSaA jktuhfr
esa vkSjrksa dks feys vk{kj.k fo”ks’kdj dqN jkT;ksa esa iapk;r Lrj ij 50 izfr”kr vkj{k.k us vkSjrksa dks ,d
etcwr lacy iznku fd;k gSA vkSjrsa vc fu.kkZ;d dh Hkwfedk esa lQyrkiwoZd mrj jgh gSaA mUgsa vc Lora=
* laiknd] fcgkj fjlpZ tuZy] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] dks”kh dkW yst] [kxfM+;k] fcgkjA
vfLrRo ds #i esa igpku fey jgh gSA cgqr lh iapk;rksa esa efgyk tuizfrfuf/k u flQZ Lora= fu.kZ; ysus
yxh gS cfYd iapk;rksa dks fodkl ds eqdke rd igq¡pk jgh gSA Li’V gS fd 21oha lnh dh ukjh l”kDr gks
jgh gSA ysfdu ;fn ;FkkFkZ ds /kjkry ij ns[ksa rks fLFkfr dqN vkSj gh gSA lp rks ;g gS fd vkt Hkh efgyk
dks csVh] cgw rFkk iRuh ds #i esa fofHkUu vR;kpkjksa ,oa izrkM+ukvksa ls xqtjuk iM+rk gSA tcfd efgyk,¡
ekuo vkcknh dk vk/kk fgLlk gS ijarq mUgsa thou ds izR;sd {ks= esa mis{kk vkSj HksnHkko dk lkeuk djuk
iM+rk gSA ?kj gks ;k ckgj mUgsa ;krukvksa dk f”kdkj gksuk iM+ jgk gSA x`gy{eh dh laKk ls foHkwf’kr vkSjrsa
vDlj ekjihV dh f”kdkj gksrh gSaA iq#’k opZLo ,oa ngst bl nqO;Zogkj ds izeq[k dkj.k gSaA fgalk dk f”kdkj
gksus ds ckotwn os viuh tqcku can j[krh gSaA gky ds losZ{k.k ls Kkr gksrk gS fd f”kf{kr efgykvksa dh vis{kk
vf”kf{kr efgykvksa dks ;krukvksa dk f”kdkj vf/kd gksuk iM+rk gSA Lksok {ks= esa Hkh efgykvksa ds lkFk vR;fèkd
HksnHkko RkFkk ekufld “kks’k.k ds vfrfjDr “kkjhfjd “kks’k.k dh f”kdk;rsas ns[kus ,oa lquus dks feyrh gaSA
vkfFkZd fLFkfr;ksa ls etcwj gksdj efgykvksas dks ?kj ls ckgj fudydj vDlj NksVs Lrj ds ijEijkxr ,oa
de vk; okys /ka/ks djus iM+rs gSaA de vk; okys O;olk;ksa esa efgykvksa dh vf/kdrk ,oa izca/kdh; O;oLFkkvksa
esa [kkfe;ksa ds dkj.k iq#’kksa vkSj efgykvksa ds ikfjJfed esa varj c<rk x;k gSA blds vykok dke esa rjDdh
efgykvksa ds fy, vkerkSj ij dfBu gksrk gSA osru ds ekeys esa gekjs ns”k esa lafo/kku dk O;kid mYya?ku
gks jgk gSA dk;ZLFky ij efgykvksa dks ftl rjg ds mRihM+u dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS] og ,d izdkj ls
ekuokf/kdkj dk mYya?ku gSA ;|fi ;kSu mRihM+u jksdus ds fy, ljdkj us dbZ dkuwu ikfjr fd;s gSa ysfdu
O;ogkj esa ;g fdruk lQy fl) gqvk gS ;g foospuk dk fo’k; gSA
rF; ,oa fo’ys”k.k
vktknh ds ckn ;|fi efgykvksa ds dY;k.k ds fy, dbZ oS/kkfud iz;Ru fd;s x;s] ftlds QyLo#i
muesa f”k{kk dk izpkj gqvkA os tkx#d gqbZ gSa vkSj vkfFkZd #i ls vkRefuHkZj Hkh gqbZ gSaA Hkkjr ds fodkl esa
efgyk lk{kjrk dk cgqr cM+k ;ksxnku gSA fiNys dqN n”kdksa ls T;ksa&T;ksa efgyk lk{kjrk esa o`f) gksrh vkbZ
gS] Hkkjr fodkl ds iFk ij vxzlj gqvk gSA gkyk¡fd blesa vkSj izxfr dh xqatkb”k gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k
dh tc Hkh ckr dh tkrh gS rc flQZ jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k ij ppkZ gksrh gS ij lkekftd
l”kfDrdj.k dh ppkZ ugha gksrhA ,sfrgkfld :i ls efgykvksa dks nwljs ntsZ dk ukxfjd ekuk tkrk jgk gSA
efgykvksa dks ,sfrgkfld :i ls f”k{kk ls oafpr j[kus dk ‘kM;a= blfy, fd;k x;k fd u og f”kf{kr gksaxh
vkSj u gh og vius vfèkdkjksa dh ekax djsaxhA vFkkZr~ mUgsa nks;e ntsZ dk ukxfjd cuk;s j[kus esa lgwf y;r
gksxhA blh otg ls efgykvksa esa f”k{kk dk izfr”kr cgqr gh de gSA ysfdu ckfydk f”k{kk dk egRo dsUnz vkSj
jkT; nksuksa ljdkjksa dh le> esa vk x;k gS vkSj bl fn”kk esa nksuksa ds }kjk egRoiw.kZ d+ne mBk;s tk jgs gSaA
;g ,d “kqHk ladsr gSA bl lanHkZ esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk vFkZ] ukjh ds Lofoosd] ikfjokfjd] lkekftd]
jktuSfrd {ks=ksa esa lfØ; gLr{ksi djuk] iq:’kksa ds fo:) vuqfpr dk;ksZa ds izfr fo:) [kM+s gksus dh {kerk
ls yxk;k tk ldrk gSA jktuhfrd {ks= esa efgykvksa ds ;ksxnku dks foLe`r ugha fd;k tk ldrkA ljdkj
}kjk lqjf{kr inksa ij p;fur efgykvksa dh le`f) ,oa foosd”khyrk dks ns[kk tk ldrk gSA ljdkjh igy ls
efgykvksa esa tq>k: izo`fÙk iuius yxh gSaA iz/kku] CykWd izeq[k] ,e0,y0,0] ,e0ih0] eq[;ea=h] jkT;iky]
izèkkuea=h] jk’Vªifr vkfn inkas ij efgykvkas us viuh izfrHkk dk yksgk euok;k gSA dkuwuh igy dk vkJ;
ikdj efgykvksa esa vius vf/kdkjksa ds izfr ltxrk c<+us yxh gSA erkf/kdkj] ngst ,DV] L=h f”k{kk] ?kjs yw
fgalk] vkanksyu rFkk fØ;kfUor ;kstukvksa esa efgykvksa dh vfuok;Zrk ls izxfr dk ekxZ iz”kLr gks jgk gSA
efgyk,sa lekt ds fodkl ds ekxZ esa ck/kd ugha oju~ lk/kd gS] ;g ckr fl) gks xbZ gSA
;g loZfofnr gS fd ukjh dh lfØ; Hkwfedk dks ladq fpr j[kus dk nq’ ifj.kke flQZ ukjh tkfr rd
lhfer ugha jgrk cfYd laiw.kZ ekuo dks leku :i ls izHkkfor djrs gSaA bfrgkl bldk izR;{k izek.k gS fd
ukjh dh mis{kk dk izfrQy g`n; foIyo ds lkFk jk’Vª foIyo ds :i esa lkeus vk;kA 1995 esa chftax eas
lEiUUk fo”o lEesyu erkf/kdkj rFkk ekuokf/kdkjkas ds izfr tkx:drk ij dsfUnzr FkkA izxfr”khy lekt dh
uhM+ esa efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk [kkn dk dk;Z djrh gSA fdlh lekt dh mUufr dk vuqeku bl ckr ls
yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd ml lekt dh efgykvksa dh mUufr fdruh gqbZA
iapk;rhjkt O;oLFkk ykxw gksus ds ckn] efgyk,¡ tks fd dqy tula[;k dk yxHkx vk/kk fgLlk gS] dh
Hkkxhnkjh cgqr vko”;d le>h x;h gS] rkfd os yksdrkaf=d vkSj jktuhfrd izfØ;kvkas esa izHkkoh vkSj Lora =
:i ls Hkkx ys ldsa vkSj fu.kZ; ysus dh izfØ;k esa viuh izHkkoh Hkwfedk fuHkk ldsA bls lerkoknh lekt
rFkk efgykvkas ds fodklkRed y{;ksa dks izkIr djus ds ekè;e ds :i esa ,d dne ekuk x;k gSA blh fn”kk
esa dne c<+krs gq, 1992 esa 73osa lafo/kku la”kks/ku dj fn;k x;k ,oa iapk;r pquko esa efgyk lhV vkjf{kr
dh x;hA ;g Hkh dgk x;k fd iz R;sd jkT; bl ds Unzh ; vf/kfu;e ds vuq: i viuk vf/fu;e ikl dj
ldsxkA iapk;rksa ds pquko gj ik¡p o’kZ esa vfuok;Zr% djk;s tk,¡xs rFkk iapk;rksa dks jkT;ksa ls iz”kklfud o
foÙkh; vf/kdkj gLrkUrfjr gksaxs ftlls iapk;rsa vkRe&l{ke o vkRefuHkZ j gks ldsaA blds vfrfjDr ;g
O;oLFkk Hkh dh x;h fd efgykvksa ds izfrfuf/kRo gsrq ,d frgkbZ iapk;r lhVsa vkjf{kr dh tk,¡ rkfd usr` Ro
muds gkFk tk ldsA bl ;kstuk esa iapk;rksa dh lHkh efgyk lnL;ksa ds fy, mfpr izf”k{k.k nsus dh vko”;drk
dk Hkh lq>ko fn;k x;k gS] ftlls os i;kZIr :i ls vius vf/kdkjksa dks le> ldsa rFkk mi;ksx dj ldsaA
mYys[kuh; gS fd izf”k{k.k dk leqfpr :i ls “kq: Hkh fd;k x;k gS ysfdu bldk fo”ks’k ykHk ugha gqvk gSA
D;ksafd efgyk,¡ gekjs lekt esa vis{kkd`r f”k{kk o lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh ls ges”kk ls oafpr jgh gS] ftlls jk’Vªh;
izksUur ;kstukvksa ds foLrkj dks djkjk >Vdk yxkA bldk eq[; dkj.k gS :f<+okfnrk] vf”k{kk vkSj muds
ekuokf/kdkjksa dk guuA
Hkkjr ljdkj us o’kZ 1999&2000 dks ^xzkelHkk o’kZ* ds :i esa eukus dk fu.kZ; fy;k FkkA ;g ekU;rk gS
fd xzkelHkk lgHkkfxrkiw.kZ iztkra= vkSj fodsUnzhdj.k ds fy, lcls egRoiw.kZ vkSj l”kDr laLFkk gSA 17 ekpZ
1999 dks lHkh eq[;eaf=;ksa@iz”kkldksa ls vuqjks/k fd;k x;k fd os ^xzke lHkk o’kZ* ds nkSjku ,d iSdst tks
fd lkr lw=h; Fkk] mlds vuq:i xzke lHkk dks “kfDr”kkyh cukus dk mik; djsaA blesa efgykvkas dh usr`Ro
,oa Hkkxhnkjh dh vfuok;Zr k dh ckr Hkh “kkfey FkhA vc tc gtkjksa efgyk inkf/kdkjh fuokZfpr gksdj
iapk;rh&jkt O;oLFkk esa inklhu gSa vkSj efgyk izfrfuf/k;kas us fodkl ,oa jpukRed dk;ksZa dks eUn ugha
iM+us fn;k gS] rks ge dg ldrs gSa fd efgykvksa us izR;sd Lrj ij viuh Hkkxhnkjh dh mikns;rk lqfuf”pr
dj QsgfjLr yEch dh gSA muds dne c<+rs tk jgs gSaA o’kZ 2001 dks êfgyk l”kfDrdj.k o’kZ* ds :i esa
?kksf’kr dj ljdkj us mudh Hkkxhnkjh dks iq[rk vk/kkj iznku fd;kA iapk;r lfefr;ksa esa ;s efgyk,¡ vus d
inksa ij fo|eku gSa vkSj fodkl dh u;h ØkfUr ykus esa vxz.kh cu jgh gSA efgyk vkSj cky fodkl foHkkx
ds vuq lkj 1995 esa djhc nl yk[k efgyk izf rfuf/k iapk;rks a ea s FkhaA ,d egRoiw.kZ rF; ;g Hkh gS fd
jktusrkvkas ds ifjokjksa dh efgykvkas dh Hkkxhnkjh vR;f/kd gSA efgykvksa ds pqus tkus ij ;s lkFkZd Hkwfedk
dk fuokZg djus o fodkl djus esa l{ke gks jgh gSA efgyk izfrfuf/k;ksa }kjk reke leL;kvksa vkSj fojks/ kksa ds
ckotwn fodkl dk;Z Hkh O;kid iSekus ij fd;s x;s gSaA
xzkeh.k efgyk ds l”kDr gksus ls lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd i{k FkksM+k etcwr gqvk gS tSls %&
• efgykk f”k{kk dk Lrj c<+k gS 2011 esa efgyk lk{kjrk nj 65-46% izfr”kr gqvk gSA
• dU;k Hkzw.k gR;k ij tkx:drk vk;h gSA
• ifjokj vkSj lekt dh dbZ leL;k,¡ /khjs&/khjs lqy>us yxh gSaA
• yM+fd;ksa ds lkFk HksnHkko esa deh vk;h gSA
fu”d”kZ
bl izdkj mijksDr fcUnqvksa ls Li’V gksrk gS fd efgykvksa dh fodkl dh vksj bu c<+rs dne ls vk”kk
dh fdj.k tkxrh gS fd vo”; gh lekt ,oa ns”k dk fodkl gksxkA D;ksafd efgyk,¡ gh ifjokj] lekt ,oa
ns”k dh izxfr dh uhao gksrh gSA blfy, uhao dks l”kDr ,oa etcqr cuk, tkus ij gh lqn`<+] fo”kky ,oa HkO;
bekjr dh dYiuk dks lkdkj fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g rHkh lkFkZd gksxk tc ljdkj] lekt ,oa Lo;alsoh
laxBu dks efgyk fodkl ,oa l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, dh tkus okyh dk;ZØeksa ds lQy fØ;kUo;u ds ekxZ esa
fo|eku fofHkUu vojks/kksa dk fuokj.k djds buds lQy lapkyu ,oa izxfr dks lqfuf”pr djus ds fy, gj
laHko iz;kl fd;k tk,xkA
lq>ko
1- vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, vko”;d gS fd efgykvksa dks fofHkUu xfrfof/k;ksa esa ftuls vFkksZiktZu
gksrk gS] leqfpr Hkkxhnkjh iznku dh tk;A m|ferk ds {ks= esa Hkh efgyk;sa cgqr vPNk dk;Z dj
ldrh gSa D;kasfd mUgkasus vius fofHkUu Lrjksa ij lekftd ,oa ikfjokfjd bdkb;ksa dk izca/ku fd;k
gSA vkfFkZd rkSj ij dk;Z djrs le; ;fn bu efgykvksa dks fofHkUu rjg ds m|ksxksa vkSj O;olk;ksa
ds voljksa dh tkudkjh le;≤ ij nh tk; rks bl {ks= esa os vkSj vPNh rjg ls dk;Z dj
ldsaxhA
2- iapk;rksa ds fodkl esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh c<+kbZ tk,A
3- orZeku le; esa ukjh l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, cuk;s tk jgs dkuwu esa ftruh rsth ls o`f) gks jgh gS
mruh gh rsth ls bldk nq#i;ksx Hkh gks jgk gSA dkuwu ds nq#i;ksxksa dk ifjR;kx dj blds vfèkdkfèkd
lnqi;ksx ij cy fn, tkus dh t:jr gSA
4- ns”k Hkj esa efgykvksa ds fy, vusdkusd ;kst uk;sa pykbZ tk jgh gaS fdUrq vf/kdka”k ;kstuk,¡ rks
dkxtks a ij gh fleV dj jg tkrs gSa A ykHkkfFkZ;ks a dks fofHkUu jkT; Lrjh; ,oa jk’Vª h; Lrj ds
;kstukvksa dk iw.kZ ykHk dSls feys bldh vko”;drk gSA
5- Hkkjr dk lesfdr fodkl rHkh gksxk tc xkoksa dk fodkl gksxk tks efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fcuk
laHko ugha gSA vr% xzke fodkl esa efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk c<+kuk vko”;d gSA
lanHkZ lwph
1- vgwywokfy;k] gjthr % ;kstuk] i`-la- 19] vxLr 2001 vkfFkZd Lora=rk cuke lkekftd Lora=rkA
2- mtkyk] MkW - lqjs”k % mÙkj izns”k] i`0la0 18] fnlEcj 2006] lwpuk ,oa tulaidZ foHkkx] y[kumA
3- fd”kksj] d`’.k % vU;Fkk] i`0la0 216] twu 2008] yqf/k;kuk] iatkcA
4- tSu] iq[kjkt % izeq[k jktuSfrd fopkjd] i`0la0 75] o’kZ 1998] lkfgR; Hkou ifCyds”ku] vkxjkA
Hkkjr esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds iz;kl& pqukSfr;k¡] j.kuhfr;k¡ ,oa lEHkkouk,sa
lkgc flag*
Hkkjr fo”o dh fo”kkyre~ yksdrU=kRed ,oa lkekftd ijEijkvksa vkSj e;kZnkvksa dk fuoZgu djus okyk
laoS/kkfud jk’Vª gS tgk¡ iz R;sd ekuo dks mlds ekSfyd vf/kdkj izkIr djus dk laoS/ kkfud vf/kdkj gSA
U;kf;d O;oLFkk ds vfrfjDr Hkkjr fo”o ds lHkh ns”kksa esa vkn”kZ vkpj.k ds :i esa xq: ekuk x;k gS] vkSj
;gk¡ fofo/k lkaLd`frd ekU;rkvksa] ijEijkvksa] :f<+;k¡ ,oa /keksaZ ds ckotwn lHkh ukxfjd ,d vkn”kZ vkpj.k
ds iz.ksrk gSa] tgk¡ rd ns”k esa efgykvksa ds O;ogkj] vkpj.k] mudh fØ;kdykiksa ,oa lekftd uhfr&jhfr;ksa
dk iz”u gS Hkkjr esa efgyk dks loksZPp LFkku iznku fd;k x;k gS blhfy, ns”k dks Hkkjr ekrk dk ntkZ feyk
gS A
Hkkjr ljdkj ds lcdk lkFk lcdk fodkl & lexz fodkl dh vo/kkj.kk dks lkdkj cukus ds fy, ns”k
dh vk/kh vkcknh&efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh Hkwfedk dks egRoiw.kZ LFkku nsuk gksxk vkSj mlds vuU; iz;kl
visf{kr gSaA vukfndky ls gh gekjs ns”k Hkkjr esa Hkkjr ekrk dk lcls Åij j[kk x;k gSA lekt esa ukjh dk
;ksxnku vkSj Hkwfedk lekt ds fy, izsj.kk dk lzksr jgh gSaA ikfjokfjd] vkfFkZd “kfDr dk ldsUnz.k Hkh efgykvksa
ds }kjk vuk;kl gh ns[kus dks fey tkrk gSA
orZeku izns”k esa ns”k dh ljdkj ds }kjk vuU; iz;kl ckfydk ,oa efgyk fodkl ds fy, fd;s tk jgs
gSa] ckotwn blds vkt Hkh efgyk f”k{kk] lk{kjrk] m|ferk] jkstxkj] dkS”ky] fu.kZ;u {kerk vkfn {ks=ksa esa
efgyk;sa iw.kZ :Ik ls l”kDr ugha cu ldh gSaA dk;Z;kstukvksa] j.kuhfr;ksa] fu;eksa ,oa izk:Ik esa fdruk gh
ifjorZu D;ksa u dj fy;k x;k gks ysfdu efgyk l”kfDrdj.k vHkh ldy mPp Lrj ij ugha igq¡p ldk gSA
bl gsrq izR;sd Lrj ij iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gSa ysfdu efgyk dks mPp xq.koRrk;qDr ,oa dkS”ky ;qDr rFkk
jkstxkjijd ugha cuk;k tk ldk gS vkSj ;s fLFkfr xzkeh.k vapyksa esa vkSj Hkh n;uh; gSA
Hkkjr esa foxr n”kkfOn;ksa ds fodkl vkSj vkadM+ksa dk losZ{k.k ;g O;DRk djrk gS fd ns”k esa vkt efgyk;sa
izR;sd {ks= esa viuk ijpe ygjk jgh gSa vkSj ,slh fLFkfr esa ns”k dh “kklu O;oLFkk us mUgsa jktuhfr esa Hkh
33 izfr”kr dk vkj{k.k iznku dj muds xkSjo dks cjdjkj j[kk gS] ckotwn blds vkt Hkh fo”ks’k :i ls
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa tgk¡ f”k{kk dk Lrj fuEu gS efgykvksa dh fLFkfr vPNh ugha gSaA Mk0 jktsUnz flag us vius “kksèk
xzUFk ¼2007½ xzkeh.k :ikUrj.k esa xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk esa fu’d’kZ fudkyk gS fd vkt Hkh xzkeh.k
{ks=ksa esa efgyk;sa ?kj dh eqf[k;k] xzke iz/kku ;k izeq[k jktusrk gksus ds ckotwn os Lo;a fu.kZ; ugha ys ikrha
* ,lksf l,V izksQs lj ,oa foHkkxk/;{k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ih-lh-ckxyk ¼ih-th-½ dkyst] gkFkjl] m-iz-A
vkSj lHkh dk;ksaZ ,oa fu.kZ;ksa esa ?kj ds iq:’kksa dh gh Hkwfedk vge gksrh gS rFkk os fodkl ds fofHkUu vk;keksa
esa Hkh mruk egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku ugha dj ikrhaA “kgjh {ks=ksa esa Hkh deksos”k] vf”kf{kr efgykvksa esa Hkh ,slh gh
fLFkfr gSA ;g dguk vfr”;ksfDr ugha gS fd efgyk l”kfDrdj.k esa Hkkjr us vkt u;h ÅapkbZ;ksa dks Nqvk gS
ysfdu vHkh xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k mruk lEHko ugha gks ldk gS ] ljdkj ds vusdksa iz;kl bl
gsrq fd;s x;s gSaA rkfd xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh efgykvksa dks l”kDr cuk;k tk ldsA vHkh efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh
leL;kvksa dks lEk>rs gq, ljdkj ,oa lekt }kjk blds fy;s izHkkoh j.kuhfr;ka cuk;k tkuk visf{kr gS rHkh
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh pqukSfr;ksa dk eqdkcyk fd;k tk ldsxkA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh fLFkfr lEiw.kZ ns”k
esa lq/kkj dh vksj vxzlj gqbZ gS ysfdu mPp Lrj dh lQyrk vHkh rd gkafly ugha gks ldh gS
bl rF; esa fcYdqy lansg ugha gS fd f”k{kk ds {ks= esa ljdkjh rFkk futh iz;klksa ls mYys[kuh; lq/kkj
gks jgk gS ysfdu tgk¡ ij efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds lEcU/k esa dqN egRoiw.kZ rF; lkeus vkrs gSa ftu ij gekjk
efgyk lekt Lk”kDr gksus ds fy, fuHkZj gSA
• efgyk Lk”kfDrdj.k dk f”k{kk ,d vko”;d vax gS blds lkFk ;g O;oLFkk gS fd okrkoj.k ;k
lekt esa efgyk ds izfr D;k n`f’Vdks.k gS\ ;g O;oLFkk efgyk f”k{kk dks fdl :i eas ns[krk gSA
f”kf{kr efgyk Lo;a ds ifjokj ;k iM+kslh lekt ij ldkjkRed izHkko Mkyus easa leFkZ gS ;k ugha\
;g iz”u dsoy efgyk f”k{kk ls tqM+k gksus ds lkFk&lkFk lEcfU/kr lekt esa iq#’kksa dh f”k{kk] vkfFkZd
fLFkfr] O;olk;] jktuSfrd o /kkfeZd O;oLFkkvksa ls tqM+k gqvk gSA f”k{kk ,d efgyk ds fy, l”kfDrdj.k
dk lk/ku gS ysfdu mldk iz;ksx djuk dsoy f”kf{kr efgyk dh f”k{kk mlds thou esa fdruh
dq”kyrk rFkk {kerk,sa fodflr dj ikrh gSa\
• fdlh jk’Vªh; Lrj dh jktuhfr dh us=h rFkk oSKkfud ,oa jkt?kjkuksa dh efgykvksa dh lkekftd
o vkfFkZd lqn`<+rk ds vk/kkj ij nwf’kr lkekftd okrkoj.k] xanh jktuhfr rFkk vkfFkZd leL;kvksa
ls tw>us okyh f”kf{kr efgyk ds fy, ,d ekxZn”kZd ;k izsj.kkLkzksr cuuk vko”;d ugha gksus ds lkFk
vklku ugha gSA mDr {ks=ksa esa l”kfDrdj.k djus okyh efgyk,sa dgha u dgha vius ifjokj ;k lewg
dh j.kuhfr;ksa dk ,d gh Hkkx gksrh gSaA vc iz”u vkrk gS fd D;k f”kf{kr lkekU; efgykvksa dk
“kks’k.k mu foHkkxksa }kjk ugha gksrk gS ftudh eq[; ftEesnkjh lqn`<+ efgykvksa ij gSA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds iz;kl
bl lUnHkZ esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, ,d vko”;d n”kk cuk;s j[kus ds lkFk lkekftd izHkkoksa dh
izklafxdrk ij /;ku fn;k tkuk vR;Ur vko”;d gS fQj Hkh bl fn”kk esa ljdkjksa }kjk vusd egRoiw.kZ
iz;kl fd;s gSa ftudh mfpr fØ;kUo;ork esa ge lcdh lgHkkfxrk lqfuf”pr gksuh pkfg,A bl lUnHkZ esa
;gk¡ ij dqN egRoiw.kZ ljdkjh iz;klksa dk mYys[k fd;k x;k gSA
jkT; efgyk vk;ksx dh LFkkiuk
efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa ds laj{k.k ,oa muds dY;k.k rFkk fodkl gsrq jkT; efgyk vk;ksx dk xBu fd;k
x;kA bl vk;ksx dk xBu mRrj izns”k jkT; efgyk vk;ksx vf/kfu;e 2004 ds vUrxZr vxLr 2004 dks
fd;k x;kA orZeku esa jkT; efgyk vk;ksx efgyk vf/kdkfj;ksa dk loksZRre laj{kd ekuk tkrk gSA
efgyk dY;k.k fuxe

mRrj izns”k ds efgyk ,oa cky fodkl foHkkx ds vUrxZr êfgyk dY;k.k fuxe dh LFkkiuk 1988 eas dh x;hA
bl fuxe dk eq[; mn~ns”; fu/kZu ,oa fucZy oxZ dh efgykvksa dk lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd fodkl djuk gSA bl
fuxe }kjk efgykvksa ds lokZaxh.k fodkl gsrq vusd ;kstuk,sa lapkfyr gSa ftuesa eq[;r% “kkfey gSa %&
• LokoyEcu ;kstuk %& bl ;kstuk ds vUrxZr vkfFkZd :i ls fucZy xzkeh.k rFkk “kgjh efgykvksa
dks fofHkUu izdkj ds ikjEifjd rFkk xSj&ikjEifjd VsªM~l esa fu%”kqYd izf”k{k.k iznku djus dh O;oLFkk
gS A
• Lo;a fl)k ;kstuk %& bl ;kstuk esa efgykvksa dks Lo;a lgk;rk lewgkssa esa laxfBr djds mudks
vkfFkZd :i ls l”kDr cukus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA
• fiz;nf’kZuh ;kstuk %& bl ;kstuk esa Hkh efgykvksa dks tuin ds dqN tuinksa esa vkRefuHkZj cukus
dh fn”kk esa iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA
• ifjokj fu;kstu chek ;kstuk %& ulcanh ds nkSjku e`R;q gksus ij vkfFkZd lgk;rk iznku dh tkrh gSA
• tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk %& efgykvksa dks igys nks thfor izloksa ij bl ;kstuk dk ykHk izkIr gksrk gSA
• oUrsekrje~ ;kstuk %& xHkZorh efgykvksa dks fu%”kqYd mipkj miyC/k djk;k tkrk gSA
• fd’kksjh “kfDr ;kstuk %& fd”kksfj;ksa dks iztuu] LokLF; leL;kvksa ,oa vf/kdkjksa ds izfr tkx:d
djus ,oa jkstxkj ds volj iznku djus ds mn~ns”; ls ;g ;kstuk lapkfyr dh x;hA
• Lok/kkj ;kstuk %& ;g ;kstuk 2001&02 esa izkjEHk dh x;h ,oa mudks vkfFkZd :i ls vkRefuHkZj
cukus dk dk;Z fd;k x;kA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh pqukSfr;k¡
ljdkj }kjk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, pyk;s x;s fofHkUu dk;ZØeksa ds ckotwn Hkh ns”k vkSj izns”k esa
efgyk,s a Lora=] LoPNUn lqjf{kr ,oa lajf{kr ugha gSa A ns [kus esa ;gh vkrk gS fd bu iz;klksa dk ewyHkw r
mi;ksx rHkh lEHko gS tc iq#’k tkfr dh ekufld fod`fr nwj gks vkSj efgykvksa ds izfr ldkjkRed Hkh gksA
efgyk,sa l”kDr rHkh gks ldrh gSa tc lksp muds izfr mn~ns”;iw.kZ gks ojuk vkt Hkh efgykvksa ds le{k fuEu
pqukSfr;k¡ cuh gqbZ gSa&
• xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa f”k{kk o dkS”ky rFkk rduhdh f”k{kk dk vHkko vkt Hkh O;kIr gSA
• lekt esa iq:’k iz/kkurk vkt Hkh fo|eku gSA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh laHkkouk;sa
ljdkjh iz;klksa ds ckotwn vusdksa lEHkkouk,sa LFkkuh; Lrj ij lEHko gSa tSls &
• efgykvksa dks Hkh ifjokj esa fu.kZ; ysus dk vf/kdkj cus tks ifjokj }kjk lEHko gSA
• O;fDr;ksa dh ekufld o lkekftd fod`fr;k¡ dks nwj djus ds fy, LFkkuh; Lrj ij efgyk ,oa iq#’k
laxBuksa dk lg;ksx fy;k tk ldrk gSA
• efgykvksa ds lkFk nqjkpkj ,oa dVk{k djus okyksa dks lekt ds yksx bUgsa LFkkuh; Lrj ij n.M nsus
dh LorU=rk nsaA
fu”d”kZ
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fofHkUu v/;;uksa] fo”ys ’k.kksa] vk[;kvksa ] rF;ksa rFkk vkad M+ksa dk fo”ys ’k.k ;g
Li’V djrk gS fd vktknh ls iwoZ vkSj mlds ckn efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh fLFkfr esa ldkjkRed ifjorZu vk;s
gSaA v/;;u ;g crkrs gSa fd lekt esa QSyh fod`fr;ksa&lrhizFkk] ckyfookg izFkk] vU; lkekftd dqizFkkvks a]
dqjhfr;ksa esa dkQh cnyko ns[kus dks feys gSaA efgyk f”k{kk esa foLrkj ,oa lq/kkj gksus ls vkt efgyk;sa ?kj
ls ckgj fudyh gSaA vkfFkZd :Ik ls l”kDr ,oa vkRefuHkZj cuh gSaA 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.k us blesa vkSj Hkh
ldkjkRed ifj.kke fn;s gSaA vkt efgyk;sa u dsoy f”k{kk] LokLF; ,oa vkfFkZd :Ik ls lcy gq;h gSa cfYd
lHkh {ks=ksa esa viuk ijpe ygjk jgh gSaA og fnu nwj ugha tc lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd {ks=ksa ds gj igyqvksa esa
efgyk Lk”kDr gksdj iq:’kksa ls Hkh vkxs fudysaxhA ysfdu ;{kiz”u vkt Hkh cuk gqvk gS tgk¡ f”k{kk] lk{kjrk]
jkstxkj] m|ferk] vkfFkZd foiUurk] vkfFkZd vlekurk] dqjhfr;k¡] :f<+;k¡] lkekftd ijEijk;sa fo”ks’k :Ik ls
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vkt Hkh budh fLFkfr vPNh ugha gSA budk izpkj&izlkj cgqrk;r es a gSA blfy, efgyk
l”kfDrdj.k xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vHkh cgqr [krjukd ,oa pqukSrh Hkjk dk;Z gSA ljdkjksa dh ;kstukvksa vkSj dk;ZØeksa
dk fØ;kUo;u xzkeh.k vapy ,oa /kjkry ij fd;k tkuk dfBu gks jgk gSA vHkh efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds vikj
iz;kl djus gksaxs rHkh ns”k dk lexz fodkl gksxk vkSj efgyk l”kfDrdj.k esa lQyrk gkfly gksxhA
lanHkZ
1- lnk] jkds”k ¼2012½ mRrj izns”k] vfjgUr ifCyds”kUl ¼b-½ izk0 fy0] esjBA
2- vxzoky vfer ¼2011½ Hkkjr esa xzkeh.k lekt] foosd izdk”ku] fnYyh&7A
3- “kekZ] oUnuk ¼2011½ efgykvksa dh jktuSfrd lgHkkfxrk] lkbu xzkfQDl] cjsyhA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dk vkfFkZd l’kfDrdj.k
fdju ekS;kZ* ,oa mfeZyk nsoh**
la;qDr jk’Vª la?k dh fjiksVZ ^Hkkjr esa efgyk,¡ fdruh vktkn fdruh cjkcj\* ds vuqlkj efgykvksa dh
Je “kfDr esa Hkkxhnkjh] vFkkZr~ o;Ld efgykvksa dk izfr”kr tks okLro esa dke dj jgh gSa] efgykvksa ds ntZs
dk ladsrd gS rFkk la;qDr jk’Vª fodkl dk;ZØeksa dh ekuo fodkl fjiksVZ esa tsaMj l”kfDrdj.k ekid ¼tse½
dk vge ?kVd gSA o’kZ 2001 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj Hkh efgykvksa dh ?kjsyw dk;ksZ dh x.kuk ugha gksrh gS A
ekjFkk lh- uqloke ds vuqlkj] ^êfgyk,¡ fnuHkj nksgjs dk;ZHkkj esa O;Lr jgrh gSaA cPpks o ifr dh ns[kHkky
ds dk;Z esa os viuk le; vkSj “kfDr yxkrh gSa] lkjk fnu “kkjhfjd :i ls Fkdus ds ckn muds ikl [kqn ds
fy, le; ugha gksrkA ;gk¡ rd fd os ikSf’Vd Hkkstu] vkfFkZd lqj{kk o vkjke ls Hkh oafpr jgrh gSaA mUgs a
viuh {kerk ds fodkl ds fy, nks fodYiksa ikfjokfjd nkf;Ro rFkk dSfj;j fuekZ.k esa ls fdlh ,d ds pquko
dk volj ugha feyrkA ukscy iqjLdkj fotsrk veR;Z lsu Hkh Lohdkj djrs gS fd efgykvksa dks ?kj ls ckgj
tks dk;Z feyrs gSa os fupys ntsZ ds gksrs gS rFkk mUgsa osru Hkh iq#’kksa ls de feyrk gS ;s mudh lkekftd
gSfl;r o gd ds foijhr :i ls izekf.kr djrs gSa ¼lsu@vxzoky 2004½A
dk;Zdkjh efgykvks a dh cgqr NksVh&lh la[ ;k dks ljdkjh vk¡dM+ks a es a LFkku fey ikrk gS] T;knkrj
efgyk,¡ vlaxfBr {ks=ksa tSls& d`f’k] i”kqikyu ds dk;ksZa esa layXu jgrh gSA lp rks ;g gS fd losZ{k.k ds
nkSjku ;s efgyk,¡ vius vkidks ?kjsyw vkSjrsa gh dgrh gSaA gkykafd os vkenuh ds fy, 14 ls 16 ?k.Vs jkst
dke djrh gSaA bl lanHkZ esa mYys[kuh; gS fd 80 izfr”kr efgyk,¡ d`f’k {ks= esa dk;Zjr gSA dsoy 6 izfr”kr
efgyk,¡ gh vkS|ksfxd {ks=ksa esa dk;Z djrh gSA blesa mPp inksa ij mudh mifLFkfr vHkh Hkh ux.; gSA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds lgk;d dkjd
mUuhloh rFkk chaloha lnh ds vkjaHk esa jktk jkeeksgu jk; rFkk vk;Z lekt ds iz;Ruksa us ftl L=h&f”k{kk
dks izkjEHk fd;k Fkk] mlesa vkt O;kid izxfr gqbZ] Hkkjr esa Lora=rk ds le; tgk¡] 1]000 fL=;ksa esa dsoy
54 izfr”kr lk{kj Fkha] ogh vkt ;g la[;k c<+dj 540 gks x;h gSA bl le; fofHkUu vk;q lewgksa dh yxHkx
5 djksM+ ls vf/kd yM+fd;ksa Ldwyksa vkSj dkWystksa esa f”k{kk izkIr dj jgh gSA fczfV”k dky rd yM+fd;ksa dks
f”k{kk nsuk ,d v/;kfRed dk;Z ds :i esa ns[kk tkrk Fkk] ogha vkt yM+fd;ksa us foKku] dyk vkSj okf.kT;
* izo Drk] vFkZ”kkL=

** fMxzh dkyst] cjkSr] bykgkckn] m-izA
dh f”k{kk ds lkFk O;olkf;d vkSj jktuhfrd f”k{kk ds {ks= esa Hkh viuh Js’Brk dks izekf.kr fd;k gSaA f”k{kk
ds izlkj ls fL=;ksa u dsoy ,d u;h lkekftd psruk fodflr gqbZ cfYd mUgksusa mu dqjhfr;ksa ls Hkh NqVdkjk
ik fy;k tks mUgsa nklrk dh tathjksa esa tdM+s gq, Fkha] viuh “kS{kf.kd miyfC/k;ksa }kjk fL=;ksa us ;g izekf.kr
dj fn;k fd ekufld Lrj ij os fdlh Hkh rjg iq#’kksa ls fuEu ugha gSA
vkfFkZd n`f’Vdks.k ls vkt fL=;ksa dh izfLFkfr mPp gS] os dsoy ifr ij gh vkfJr ugha gS] f”k{kk dh
izxfr rFkk cnyh gqbZ eukso`fŸk;ksa ds izHkko ls vc lHkh {ks=ksa esa dke&dkth efgykvksa dh la[;k esa rsth ls
o`f) gks jgh gS] mPp Lrj dh iz”kklfud vkSj iqfyl lsokvksa esa Hkh fL=;ksa dh la[;k c<+rh tk jgh gSA foxr
o’kksZ esa m|ferk ds {ks= esa fL=;ksa dk lQyrkiwoZd izos”k djuk lHkh ds fy, ,d lq[kn vk”p;Z gSA vkt
fL=;k¡ cM+s cM+ s m|ksxks dk lap kyu dj jgh gS a rFkk fpfdRldks a ,oa lykgdkjh lsokvksa es a budh la[ ;k
fujUrj c<+rh tk jgh gS] vkfFkZd {ks= esa tSls&tSls fL=;ksa dh iq#’kksa ij fuHkZjrk de gksrh tk jgh gS ifjokj
vkSj lekt esa Hkh mudk lEeku c<+rk tk jgk gSA
vkt Hkkjr esa fofHkUu eq[; /kU/kksa esa ukSdjh djus okyh fL=;ksa dh la[;k 12-72 djksM+ ls Hkh vf/kd gSA
bruk gh ugha lu~ 1956 ds fgUnw mŸkjkf/kdkj vf/kfu;e ds }kjk fgUnw fL=;ksa dks ekrk] iRuh vkSj iq=h ds :i
esa iq#’kksa ds leku gh lEifŸk lEcU/kh vf/kdkj izkIr gks x;k gSA
Lora=rk ls iwoZ lHkh fL=;ksa dks oksV nsus dk vf/kdkj u Fkk] ijUrq vkt Hkkjr dh izR;sd ukjh dks] ftlus
18 o’kZ dh vk;q izkIr dj yh gS] oksV nsus dk rFkk Lo;a Hkh yksdlHkk] fo/kkulHkk vkfn ds lnL; ds fy,
mEehnokj gksus dk vf/kdkj gS] vc rks iapk;r] uxj ikfydk vkfn ds pquko esa dkQh la[;k esa lhVsa efgykvksa
ds fy, vkjf{kr o fjtoZ dj nh x;h gSaA
vc dsUnzh; iapk;rh jkt vf/kfu;e] 1992 ds vuqlkj lHkh jkT;ksa ds fy, ;g vko”;d gks x;k gS fd
xzke iapk;r] fodkl iapk;r rFkk ftyk iapk;rksa esa fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa ds 33 izfr”kr LFkku fL=;ksa ds fy,
lqjf{kr jgsaxs] fofHkUu jktuhfrd ny bl i{k esa gS fd vc yksdlHkk rFkk fo/kku lHkkvksa ds Hkh 33 izfr”kr
LFkku fL=;ksa ds fy, lqjf{kr dj fn;s tk,¡A Hkkjr tSls cM+s yksdrU= esa iz/kkuea=h rFkk eq[;ea=h tSls inksa
ads fy, Hkh fL=;ksa dk fuokZpu gksxk mudh jktuSfrd psruk dks Li’V djrk gSaA
ifjokj vkSj fookg ds laca/k esa vkt Hkkjrh; ukjh dh izfLFkfr dgha vf/kd mPp gSaA lu~ 1929 ds ^^cky
fookg vijk/k vf/kfu;e** }kjk cky fookg dk vUr dj fn;k x;k gS] bl vf/kfu;e ds vuqlkj dksbZ Hkh ekrk
firk yM+dh dk fookg 15 o’kZ dh vk;q ls igys ugha dj ldrkA vc ^^ngst izfrca/k vf/kfu;e 1961** ds
}kjk ngst nsuk vijk/k ?kksf’kr dj fn;k x;k gS blh izdkj lu~ 1955 ds ^^fgUnw fookg rFkk fookg foPNsn
vf/kfu;e** vkSj lu~ 1954 ds fo”ks’k fookg vf/kfu;e us fL=;ksa dks /kkfeZd o vU; lHkh izdkj ds izfrca /kks ls
nwj fookg djus dh vk”kk ns nh gSA vc cgqiRuh fookg xSj dkuwuh gS] vUrtkZrh; fookg ekU; gS vkSj fL=;ksa
dks fookg foPNsn dk Hkh iwjk vf/kdkj gS] blh dkj.k fo/kok iqufoZokg Hkh vkt dkuwuh :i ls ekU; gSA bu
lHkh dkj.kks ls ifjokjksa ds vUrxZr Hkh fL=;ksa dh izfLFkfr dkQh lq/kjh gS] og vc ifr dh nklh ugha oju~
fe=] lkl&llqj dh lsfodk ugha oju~ lEekuh; o/kq gS] bl izdkj ;g Li’V gS fd fookg vkSj ifjokj ds {ks=
esa fL=;ksa dh izfLFkfr vis{kkr;k mPp gSA
orZeku le; esa izsl us dkQh mUufr dh gS] ftlds dkj.k dbZ izdkj ds izxfr”khy iqLrdksa] lekpkj i=ksa
vkfn dk vf[ky Hkkjrh; vk/kkj ij eqnz.k vkSj forj.k laHko gqvk gS] og forj.k ;krk;kr vkSj lapkj lk/kuksa
esa mUufr gksus ds dkj.k gh laHko gqvk gSaA blds vfrfjDr ;krk;kr vkSj lapkj ds mUur lk/kuksa us ns”k vkSj
nqfu;k dh fL=;ka dks ,d&nwljs ls ?kfu’B laca/k LFkkfir djus esa lgk;rk iznku dh gSA bl lcds }kjk
vFkkZr~ izsl] lgk;rk o lapkj ds lk/kuksa }kjk ukjh vkanksyu dks pykus] ukjh leL;k ds izfr LoLFk tuer
fuekZ.k djus] ukjh usrkvksa ds fopkj nwj&nwj rd QSykus esa lgk;rk feyh gSA ;g Hkkjrh; ukjh dh orZeku
mUur izfLFkfr dk ,d egRoiw.kZ dkjd gSA
orZeku Hkkjrh; lekt esa fL=;k¡ vius lkekftd vf/kdkjksa ds izfr dgha vf/kd tkx:d gks x;h gSaA
fL=;ksa us vusd efgyk laxBuksa ds }kjk mu dqizFkkvksa vkSj :f<;ksa dks pqukSrh nsuk vkjaHk dj fn;k gS] ftUgksus
muds thou dks Le`frdkyhu O;oLFkkvksa ls tdM+ j[kk FkkA vkt fL=;k¡ u rks insZ esa jguk ilan djrh gS
vkSj u gh ngst&izFkk dks /keZ dk vax ekuus ds fy, rS;kj gS] vusd tkx:d efgyk,¡ mu ifjokjksa esa fookg
djuk ilan ugha djrha ftlesa ngst dh ekax dh tkrh gSA fL=;ksa dh lkekftd tkx:drk ds QyLo:Ik gh
:f<+oknh /keZ rFkk O;FkZ ds deZdk.Mksa dk izHkko de gksrk tk jgk gS] Lo;a fL=;ksa ds chp Hkh mu fL=;ksa dks
vf/kd lEeku fn;k tkrk gS] tks izxfr”khy fopkjksa dh gksA vus d :f<+oknh O;fDr fL=;ksa dh c<+r h gqbZ
tkx:drk rFkk Lora=rk ls brus fpafrr gSa fd mUgsa blls ifjokj vkSj lekt VwV tkus dk [krjk fn[kk;h
nsus yxk gSA fL=;ksa dh fLFkfr esa gksus okys vf/kdka”k ifjorZu vkt Hkh Hkkjr ds uxjh; thou ls lacaf /kr gSaA
xzkeh.k leqnk; esa f”k{kk dh deh rFkk ijaijkxr thou ds dkj.k vf/kdka”k fL=;ksa dk thou vkt Hkh dqizF kkvksa
rFkk /kkfeZd va/kfo”oklksa ls izHkkfor gSA bruk vo”; gS fd xk¡oksa esa Hkh vc f”k{kk dh lqfo/kk,¡ c<+us rFkk
tkfr iapk;rksa dk izHkko de gks tkus ds dkj.k fL=;ksa ds fopkjksa esa ifjorZu gksuk vkjEHk gks x;k gSA
vkUnksyu dh Hkwfedk
vkt ukjh vkUnksyu viuh iw.kZ xfr esa gS] bl xfr dks oS”ohdj.k vkSj vk/kqfudhdj.k us vf/kd rhoz dj
fn;k gS] bl vkUnksyu ds dbZ uke gSa& efgykokn] ukjh eqfDr vkUnksyu vkSj nqfu;k ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa es a bls
dbZ vU; ukeksa ;k ukjksa }kjk tkuk tkrk gSA ogk¡ ds lekt foKkuksa esa viuh LFkkuh; leL;kvksa ds vUrxZr
ts.Mj leL;k dks egRo fn;k tkrk gSaA gekjs ;gk¡ Hkh ukjh vkUnksyu py jgk gS vkSj mls xfr nsus esa mPp
oxZ] e/;e oxZ vkSj “kgjksa dh i<+h fy[kh fL=;ksa dk ;ksxnku fo”ks’k gSA
Hkkjrh; vk/kqfud ukjh vkUnksyu dh if”pe ds ukjh vkUnksyu ls i`Fkd djds ugha ns[kk tk ldrk]
fons”kksa esa tks ukjh vkUnksyu py jgk gS] mlds ihNs dqN iq[rk dkj.k gSa] ogk¡ vk/kqfudrk] rkfdZdrk] iztkra=]
vkS|ksfxd] iw¡thokn vkSj mPp rduhdh vk x;s gSaA blds ifj.kkeLo:i fL=;ksa us vius vf/kdkjksa dh ek¡x
j[k nh gS] ogk¡ ,d cgqr cM+k ,sfrgkfld gknlk gqvkA ;wjksi esa lkearokn dh lekfIr ds ckn iw¡thokn vk;k
vkSj bl iw¡thokn us miHkksDrkokn dks c<+kok fn;kA blh le; ;wjksi esa ,d vkSj ?kVuk ?kVh] ogk¡ dSFkks fyd
/keZ detksj gks x;k vkSj mldk LFkku izksVsLVsUV /keZ us ys fy;kA dSFkksfyd /keZ lnSo ls fL=;ksa ds vkxs c<+us
dk fojks/kh FkkA bldk dguk Fkk fd fL=;k¡ cqjkbZ dh tM+ gSA vius Lo;a esa Hkz’V gSA izksLVs.V /keZ us fL=;ksa
dh ubZ ifjHkk’kk dh vc dkeokluk dh NwV gks x;h] bl /keZ us dgk fd ,d L=h dks izlUu jguk pkfg, vkSj
fo”ks’k djds vius ifr ds izf r izl Uurk dk utfj;k viukuk pkfg, vr% if”pe esa ukjhokn dk eryc
cnyrs gq, nqfu;k dks le>kuk FkkA vc fL=;k¡ iq#’kksa ds cjkcj vf/kdkj dh ek¡x djus yxhaA ekDlZokn us
efgyk vkanksyu dks ubZ fn”kk nhA mldh fopkj/kkjk esa efgykvksa dks nckuk] ,d izdkj ls “kks’k.k gS] ekDlZokn
“kks’k.k dk lnSo fojks/kh jgk gSA
lu~ 1960 ds n”kd esa ;wjksi esa Økafrdkjh ukjhokn dk tUe gqvk] ;g u;k ukjhokn dsoy dkuwuh lekurk
ugha pkgrk vkSj u ;g oxZ ds eqís dks mBkrk gSA bldk ;g dguk gS fd fL=;ksa dk neu tSfodh; vk/kkj
ij fd;k tkrk gSA fL=;ksa dh tuusafnz;k¡ iq#’kksa ls fHkUu gS vkSj ;gh mudh detksjh gSA blls os eqfDr pkgrh
gSaA muds Åij iztuu vkSj ekr`Ro dk cks> gksrk gS vkSj blh ds dkj.k vkneh mudk “kks’k.k djrk gSA vkt
tks ifjokj fu;kstu ds lk/ku miyC/k gS] blds }kjk vc bu ubZ fL=;ksa esa xHkZ/kkj.k djuk muds gkFk gh
ckr gks x;h gSA ;g Hkh ukjhokn dk ,d igyw gSA fons”kksa esa rks mŸkj vk/kqfudrk us ukjhokn dks ,d ubZ gok
nh gSA vc mŸkj vk/kqfudrkoknh fL=;k¡ vius vkidks gj rjg ls iq#’kksa ls eqfDr pkgrh gSA
Hkkjr esa vkt ge ukjh vkUnksyu ds {ks= esa dgk¡ [kM+s gSa] fiNys L=h vkUnksyu ds lanHkZ esa ;gh dgk tk
ldrk gS fd blus lkekftd fo/kku ds fy, ,d i`’BHkwfe rS;kj dh FkhA cky&fookg izfrcu/k ds fy, 1929
esa “kkjnk vf/kfu;e cukA eqfLye efgykvksa ds fy, fookg foPNsn dk izko/kku j[kk x;k vkSj blds ckn
1955 esa fgUnw fookg vf/kfu;e ikfjr gqvkA ysfdu ;g lc vf/kfu;e lkekU;r;k dsoy dkxth vf/kfu;e
fl) gq,A 1960 vkSj 70 ds n”kd esa gekjs ;gk¡ ukjh vkUnksyu us ,d u;k Lo:i xzg.k fd;kA dqN u;s esa
gekjs fy, vk;s buesa lgsyh] lghokj] ekuq’kh] L=h&”kfDr] ukjh lerk eap] foekspu] fpaxkjh] efgyk la?k’kZ
lfefr vkfn lfEefyr gSaA bu lekpkj i=ksa o fofHkUu eapksa dk usr`Ro dqN ,slh fL=;ksa ds gkFk esa gS] tks
tq>k: gSA bl vkUnksyu dk fojks/k fL=;ksa ij gksu okys vR;kpkj] cykRdkj] e|iku dj fL=;ksa ds lkFk
fiVkbZ] ngst] gR;k] ifjokj esa ekj&ihV] dkedkth efgykvksa dh leL;k,¡] os”;ko`fŸk] fuEu tkfr dh fL=;ksa
dk “kks’k.k rFkk LokLF; laca/kh leL;kvksa ls gSA
ljdkjh iz;kl
Hkkjr esa fL=;ksa dh fLFkfr dks lq/kkjus esa ljdkjh iz;klksa dk Hkh i;kZIr ;ksxnku jgk] ljdkjh nkok rks
;g gS fd Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dk fodkl dk;ZØe LorU=rk izkfIr ds le; ls ljdkj ds fodkl dh ;kstukvksa
dk dsUnz jgk gS rkfd efgykvksa dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuSfrd Lrj ij iq#’kksa ds leku Åij mBkdj
mUgsa jk’Vªh; fodkl dh eq[; /kkjk ls tksM+k tk,A
2 vDVwcj] 1993 ls efgyk le`f) ;kstuk xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa Mkd?kjksa ds ek/;e ls pyk;k tk jgk gSA vc
rd yxHkx 12 yk[k izkS<+ efgykvks o yM+fd;ksa dks f”k{kk vkSj O;lkf;d izf”k{k.k fn;k tk pqdk gSA jk’Vªh;
dks’k vkSj efgyk dks’k vkSj efgyk fodkl fuxe dh LFkkiuk Øe”k% 1992&93 o 1986&87 esa dh x;h bruk
gh ugha ,d jk’Vªh; efgyk vk;ksx dk xBu Jherh t;arh iVuk;d dh v/;{krk esa 31 tuojh] 1992 dks
fd;k x;k FkkA bldk mís”; efgykvksa dh lqj{kk o vf/kdkj ls oafpr j[ks tkus dh f”kdk;rksa dks lquuk vkSj
mu ij dk;Zokgh djuk gSA lp gh ljdkj us efgykvksa ds fgrksa dh j{kk ds fy, dqN fo”ks’k dkuwu cuk;s gS aA
buesa leku osru vf/kfu;e] lrh izFkk fuokj.k vf/kfu;e] QkStnkjh dkuwu o Hkkjrh; lk{; vf/kfu;e] izlwfr
ykHk vf/kfu;e] os”;ko‘fŸk ¼fuokj.k½ vf/kfu;e vkfn “kkfey gSaA
lanHkZ xzUFk
1- xqIrk] lqHkk’kpUnz] dk;Z”khy] efgyk,¡ ,oa Hkkjrh; lekt] izFke laLdj.k] 2004 vtqZu ifCyf”kax gkml] fnYyhA
2- “kekZ] izKk] efgyk fodkl vkSj l”kfDrdj.k] 2007] iksbUVj ifCy”kj] t;iqjA
3- flag ] e/kqfydk] efgykvksa dk vkfFkZd Lrj] lektdY;k.k 1997] ikiqyj izdk”ku] eqEcbZA
la?kh; ctV 2017&18 % efgyk vkfFkZd l’kfDrdj.k dk ,d iz;kl
eUtw yrk f}osnh *
vkt Hkkjr vkfFkZd lqn`< +hdj.k dh vksj etcwr h ls dne c<+krs gq, rhljh egk”kfDr cuus dh vksj
vxzlj gS ysfdu ;g iz;kl rc rd v/kwjsa jgsaxs tc rd ns”k dh vk/kh vkcknh ds vkfFkZd&f”k{kk o LokLFk
ds l”kfDrdj.k dh rjQ ls ge etcwrh ls vxzlj ugha gksaxsA
fiNys dbZ foÙkh; o’kksZ esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ns”k dh dsUnzzh; ;kstukvksa dk ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkkx jgk gS A
rnkuqlkj efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr esa lq/kkj Hkh gqvk gSA
foRr o’kZZ 2017&18 ds ctV esa Hkh efgykvksa ds fy;sa ldjkRed :i ls vkfFkZd o lekftd uhfr;ksa ds
etcwr fuekZ.k dk okrkoj.k rS;kj djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA eq[; fcUnq fuEuor gSa&
1- Lojkstxkj c<+kus gsrq iz/kkueU=h eqnzk ;kstuk&
ftldk izkjEHk vizSy 2015 esa gqvk Fkk dk ctV 2015&2016 ls nks xquk dj 2-44 yk[k djksM+ o’kZ
2017&18 gsrq dj fn;k gSA vHkh rd 70 izfr”kr ls vf/kd YkkHk bl ;kstuk dk efgykvksa dks feyk
gSA Li’V gS fd ctV c<+ksRrjh ls efgyk vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k esa lg;ksx feysxkA
2- dsUnz ljdkj }kjk vizSy 2016 esa LVaSM vkWQ bf.M;k ;kstuk dk izkjEHk fd;k x;kA bl ;kstuk ds
vUrxZr nfyrksa] tutkrh;ksa vkSj efgyk m|fe;ksa dks m|e LFkkfir djus o jkstxkj ltZd cuus
dk volj feyk gSA vHkh rd bl ;kstuk esa 16000 u;sa m|eh fØ;k dyki izkjEHk dj pqds gSA
3- o’kZ 2006 esa izkjEHk eujsxk dk;ZØe esa efgyk Jfed dk Lrj 56 izfr”kr o’kZ 2016 esa FkkA blh dks
ns[krs gq, xzkeh.k fu/kZu efgykvksa ds LokYkEcu gsrq foRro’kZ 2017&18 esa eujsxk ds ctV vkoaVu
esa 11 gtkj djksM+ :0 c<+ksRrjh djrss gq, bls 48 gtkj djksM+ :0 dj fn;k x;k gSA o’kZ 2016&17
esa eujsxk ctV 37 gtkj djksM+ :0 FkkA
4- ctV 2016&17 esa foRrea=h us csVh cpkvks&csVh i<+kvks ;kstuk gsrq 100 djksM+ :0 izko/kku fd;k
Fkk tks fd orZeku o’kZ 2017&18 ls c<+kdj 200 djksM+ :0 dj fn;k x;k gSA csVh cpkvksa& csVh
i<+kvksa ,d f}vk;keh ;kstuk gSA ftldk mn~ns”; fyaxkuqqikr esa lq/kkj djuk o csfV;ksa dks i<+kuk
gSA ckfydk f”k{kk gsrq jk’Vªh; ek/;fed f”k{kk vfHk;ku] fd”kksjoLFkk f”k{kk dk;ZØe] jk’Vªh; lkèku&lg&eSfjV
Nk=o`fRr ;kstuk, orZeku ljdkj }kjk lUpkfyr dh tk jgh gSA
* ,lksf l;V izksQs lj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] oh0,l0,l0Mh0 dkyst ] dkuiqj] m-izA
5- bfUnjk xkU/kh ekr`Ro lg;ksx ;kstuk dk ctV vkoaVu o’kZ 2017&18 gsrq 2700 djksM+ :0 fd;k
x;k gSA tks fd fiNys o’kZ 2016&17 esa 634 djksM+ ek= FkkA ;kuh fd ;kstuk ds vkoaVu esa 326
izfr”kr c<+ksRrjh dh x;hA ;g ,d ljkguh; dne gSA
6- efgyk cky fodkl eU=ky; ds ctV vkoaVu esa 20 izfr”kr dh c<+ksRrjh dh x;hA o’kZ 2017&18
dk ctV vkcaVu&22095 djksM+ fd;k x;k tcfd 2016&17 esa ;g&17640 djksM+ vkoafVr FkkA
7- Hkkjrh; efgykvksa ,oa cPpksa ds dqIkks’k.k ,d c<+h pqukSrh gSA blds fuokj.k gsrq foÙkh; o’kZ esa jk’Vªh;
iks’k.k fe”ku ds ctV esa 28 xquk c<+ksRrjh gq;h gSA o’kZ 2016&17 esa 19 djksM+ ls c<+kdj o’kZ 2017&18
esa 550 djksM dk vkoaVu fd;k x;kA
8- orZeku fofÙk; o’kZ esa xzkeLrj ij 14 yk[k ICDS vk¡xuokM+h dsUnzksa dks 500 djksM+ :0 ds vkoaVu
}kjk efgyk “kfDr dsUnz LFkkfir djus dh ?kks’k.kk dh x;h gSSA ;g xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds l”kfDrdj.k
gsrq dkS”ky fodkl&jkstxkj&lk{kjrk&LokLF; ,oa iks’kkgkj ds fy;s lgk;rk o lsok, iznku djsaxsA
9- laLFkkxr izlo dk c<+kok nsus gsrq 31 fnLkEcj 2016 dks ns”k ds iz/kkueU=h us ?kks’k.kk dh gS fd 6000
:0 lh/ks mu xHkZorh efgykvksa ds [kkrs esa tk;saxs ftudk izlo lLaFkkxr gksxk rFkk cPpsa dk iwjk
Vhdkdj.k gksxkA
10- efgykvksa ,oa cPpksa dh lqj{kk gsrq o’kZ 2016&17 esa fuHkZ;k QUM ds uke ls 3-4 djksM+ vkoafVr fd;s
x;s FksA ftls c<+kdj orZeku fofÙk; o’kZ 2017&18 esa 28-90 djksM+ dk vkoaVu fd;k x;kA
Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk fd;s x;s efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ctV izko/kkuksa dk mi;ksx le; lhek ds vUnj lEcfU/
kr foHkkxksa }kjk fd;k tkuk vko”;d gSA rHkh ge ns”k esa vk/kh vkcknh ds vkfFkZd l’kDrhdj.k esa lQy
gksaxsA
lUnHkZ
1- indiabudget.nic.in/ub2017-18
2- ctV nLrkost 2017&18
3- vkfFkZd leh{kk 2016&17
Hkkjr esa efgyk LokLF; % ,d fo’ys”k.k
ujs’kpUnz f=ikBh* ,oa xkSj o f=ikBh**
LokLF; dk mRikndrk ,oa vkfFkZd fodkl nj ls ldkjkRed lEcU/k gSA LokLF; tudY;k.k ,oa lkekftd
U;k; dk vk/kkjHkwr ?kVd LOkhdkj fd;k x;k gSA ;g u dsoy ekuo fodkl oju~ ekuo vfLro dk Hkh vko”;d
dkjd gSA fo”o LokLF; laxBu }kjk xfBr lef’V vFkZ”kkL= ,oa LokLF; vk;ksx ¼2001½ us dgk Fkk fd
LokLF; fodkl dk vfuok;Z dkjd ,oa iwoZ “krZ gSA fodkl dh dksbZ Hkh ;kstuk LokLF; lsokvksa dh i;kZIr ,oa
loZlqyHk lqfo/kkvkas ds fcuk lQy ugh gks ldrh gSA lH; lekt esa lkekU; tu ds fy, csgrj jgu&lgu
dh n”kk,¡ ,oa LokLF; lq fo/kkvksa dh loZl qyHkrk O;fDr dk ewy vf/kdkj gS vkSj ljdkj dk ewy drZ O;
LokLF; ds bl egRo dks n`f’V esa j[krs gq, ;g Hkh vfuok;Z gS fd LokLF; lqfo/kk;sa leLr ekuo tkfr dks
leku :i ls izkIr gksaA fdUrqq ;gk¡ ij ;g ,d nq[kn i{k mtkxj gksrk gS fd lEiw.kZ fo”o esa LokLF; lqfoèkk,¡
miyCèk gksus ,oa LokLF; n”kkvksa esa L=h iq:’k ds e/; Hkh’k.k vlekUkrk O;kIr gSA iwjs fo”o esa fo”ks ’kr% vYi
fodflr ns”kks esa fL=;ksa dh LokLF; lEcU/kh n”kk,¡ LokLF; ds lHkh ekudksa ,oa laadsrdks ij iq:’kksa ls ghu
n”kk esa gSA
izLrqr “kks/k fucU/k dk mn~ns”; ns”k esa efgykvksa dh LokLF; n”kkvksa dk fo”ys’k.k djuk] fofHkUu lad srdksa
ds vk/kkj ij LokLF; dk ew Y;kadu djuk] ljdkjh ;kstukvksa ij izdk”k Mkyuk] Hkkjr dh efgykvksa dh
LokLF; n”kkvksa dk vU; ns”kksa ls rqykukRed v/;;u djuk gSA bl fo”ys’k.k esa [kjkc LokLF; ds dkj.kksa ij
izdk”k Mkydj mlds lek/kku gsrq mi;qDRk j.kuhfr ij Hkh fopkj fd;k tk;sxkA
efgyk LokLF; dh orZeku fLFkfr
LokLF; ds lHkh ekudksa ij efgyk LokLF; dh n”kk fpUrktud ,oa n;uh; gSA bldk dsoy ,d viokn
dgk tk ldrk gS] og gS tSfod dkj.kksa ls fL=;ksa dh tUe ds le; izR;kf”kr vk;q iq:’kksa ls iwjs fo”o esa
vfèkd gSA n Xykscy tsaMj xSi fjiksVZ 2012 ¼fo”o vkfFkZd Qksje½ ds vuqlkj mPp vk; okys ns”kksa es efgykvksa
dh izR;kf”kr vk;q 82-0 gS tc fd iq:’kksa dh 75-8 o’kZA ogha fuEu vk; okys ns”kksa esa ;g Øe”k% 63-1 ,o
60-2 gSA Hkkjr esa 2009 ls 2013 ds e/; efgykvkas dh izR;kf”kr vk;q 69-3 vkSj iq:’kksa dh 65-8 FkhA
* ,lksfl,V izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] jkeeuxj iksLV xzstq ,V dkyst] jkeuxj] ckjkcadh ¼m0iz0½A
** tujy eSustj] vkfnR; fcMyk gsY Fk ds;j lfoZlst ¼usV izksokbMj½A
Hkkjr esa efgykvks dh orZeku LokLF; n’kkvksa dk fo’ys”k.k fuEukafdr ladsrdksa ds vk/kkj ij
izLrqr gS
tUenj ,oa e`R;qnj& Hkkjr esa ekr` e`R;q nj vHkh Hkh 167 gS tks 2001&2003 ds e/; 301 FkhA ckfydk
f”k”kq e`R;q nj 42 gS] cM+h la[;k esa fpfdRlk ds vHkko esa izLkodkyhu&e`R;q] cMs+ vuqikr esa dqiks’k.k xzLrrk
efgykvks dh [kjkc LokLF; fLFkfr dh lwpd gSA LokLF; ds vusd ladsrdksa ds vk/kkj ij efgyk LokLF; dh
n”kk dk mYys[k bl izdkj fd;k tk ldrk gS&
Hkkjr esa v”kksf?kr tUEk nj 2010 esa 22-1] 2011 esa 21-8] 2012 es 20-6 vkSj 2013 esa 21-4 ik;h x;hA
mRrj izns”k esa v”kksf/kr tUenj ¼C.B.R.½ xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa 26-4 rFkk “kgjh {ks=ksa esa 19-6 Fkh vkSj vkSSlru 230
FkhA v’kksf/kr e`R;qnj ¼C.B.R.½ m0iz0 esa efgykvksa dh 7-9 vkSj iq:’kksa dh 8-7 FkhA f”k”kq e`R;q nj mRrj izns”k
esa 2012&13 esa xzkeh.k {ks= esa ckfydk 73 vkSj ckyd 71 Fkh tcfd “kgjh {ks=ksa esa Øe”k% 52 vkSj 50 FkhA
lexz f”k”kq ¼ckfydk ½ e`R;q nj 69 Fkh tcfd ckydksa dh 67 FkhA rkfydk&1 esa ckyd ckfydk dh f”k”kq e`R ;q
nj n”kkZ;h x;h gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% fofHkUu jkT;ksa esa f’k’kq e`R;q nj

5 o"kZ ls de vk;q dh e`R;q nj
jkT; ckfydk ckyd Lexz ckfydk ckyd lexz
vklke 56 55 55-5 72 71 71
fcgkj 49 47 48-0 73 67 70
e/;izns'k 65 60 62-5 86 80 86
mM+hlk 59 53 56 78 73 75
jktLFkku 60 51 55 81 68 74
mRRkj izns' k 69 67 68-0 95 86 90
uksV% ,suqvy gsY Fk losZ cqysfVu 2012&13
rkfydk ls Li’V gS fd m0iz0 esa ckfydk f”k”kq e`R;q nj ns”k esa lOkkZf/kd gSA ;g lHkh jkT;ksa esa lokZf/kd
gksus ds lkFk gh jk’Vªh; vkSlr ls Hkh vf/kd gSA ;gk¡ ij ,d vk”kktud rF; ;g gS fd lexz iztUku nj
¼Vh0,Q0vkj0½ esa /khjs /khjs fxjkoV vk jgh gS tks 2013 esa ?kVdj 2-3 ij igqap x;hA ;g Hkh mYys[kuh; gS
fd xzkeh.k ,oa uxjh; lHkh {ks=ksa esa vf”kf{kr efgykvksa esa moZj nj ¼ TFR½ vis{kkd`r f”kf{kr efgykvksa ls
vfèkd gSA
dqiks’k.k&lEiw.kZ ns”k esa efgykvksa dh LokLF; lEcU/kh ghun”kk dk lwpd efgykvksa dk iks’k.k Lrj gSA
jk’Vªh; ifjokj LokLF; losZ{k.k &3 ls ;g Li’V gS fd Hkkjr esa 35-6 izfr”kr efgyk,¡ dqiks’k.k dh f’kdkj gS(
ftudk ckMhekl bUMsDl ¼ch0,e0vkbZ0½ U;wure okfNr vad 18-5 ls de gSA blds lkFk gh 55 izfr”kr
efgyk,¡ jDrkYirk dh f”kdkj gSa] tcfd iq:’k jDrkYirk 24 izfr”kr gSA jDrkYirk vkSj dqiks’k.k feydj
,d ,sls nq”pØ dh vksj vxzlj djrs gSa] tgk¡ mudh lUrfr ¼vxyh ih<+h½ Hkh detksj ,oa dqiksf’kr iSnk gks rh
gSA dqiksf’kr ckfydk,¡ cM+h gksdj dqiksf”kr efgyk curh gSa] tks dqiksf”kr lUrku mRiUu djrh gSA dqiks f”kr
efgykvksa ls izlo ds nkSjku e`R;q ds [krjs c<+ tkrs gS vkSj mRiUu gksus okyh lUrfr Hkh LoLFk ugha gksrhA
bls bl izdkj O;Dr fd;k tk ldrk gS&
dqiksf’kr ckfydk dqiksf’kr ekrk dqiksf’kr lUrfr
jksx xzLrrk& efgykvks dh LokLF; lEcU/kh ghu n”kk dk ldsrd jksxxzLrrk Hkh gSA iztUku izlo]
dqiks’k.k “kkjhfjd lapuk vkfn vusd dkj.kksa ls efgykvks esa jksxxzLrrk iq:’kksa ls yxHkx lHkh vk;q oxksZa esa
vf/kd gksrh gSA rkfydk&2 esa fofHkUu vk;q oxksZa esa jksx xzLrrk dk izfr”kr n”kkZ;k x;k gSA
rkfydk la[;k 2% fofHkUu vk;q oxksZa esa fyaxkuqlkj jksx xzLrrk

vk;q oxZ xzkeh.k uxjh;
iq:"k efgyk O;fDr iq:"k efgyk O;fDr
0&4 11-9 8-6 10-3 11-1 11-7 11-4
5&9 6-5 5 5-8 8-7 7-1 8-
10&14 4-3 4-7 4-5 5-7 5-3 5-6
15&29 3-5 5-7 4-6 3-8 5-9 4-8
30&44 6 9-4 7-7 7-1 12-6 9-8
45&59 10-9 16-3 13-5 17-3 23-9 20-6
60&69 24-7 27 25-9 33-1 37-9 35-5
70$ 32-7 28-6 30-6 37-6 37-1 37-3
lEiw.kZ 8 9-9 8-9 10-1 13-5 11-8
lzksr% us”kuy lSEiy losZ vkfQl] 71ok¡ nkSj] tuojh 2014 ls twu 2014
rkfydk ls Li’V gS fd 15&29] 30&44] 45&59] 60&69 vk;q oxZ esa xzkeh.k ,oa “kgjh nksuks {ks=ksa es
efgykvksa dh jksx xzLrrk iq:’kksa ls vf/kd gSA
efgykvksa dh ghu&n’kk dk dkj.k& mi;qZDr fooj.k ls Li’V gS fd efgykvksa dh LokLF; n”kk,¡ dh
rqyuk esa ghurj gSA Hkkjr vkSj ,sls gh vYifodflr ,oa fodkl”khy ns”kksa es a lkekftd lajpuk vkfFkZd
fLFkfr] lkaLd`frd i`‘BHkwfe vkSj ljdkjksa dh vi;kZIr ,oa vlQy uhfr;ksa ds dkj.k efgyk,¡ U;wurj LokLF;
ds fy, foo’k gSA fo”o LokLF; laxBu dh ,d fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj fL=;ksa dh [kjkc LokLF; n”kkvksa ds fy,
fuEEukafdr dkj.k mRrjnk;h gSa&
1- ifjokj] “kklu] iz”kklu ,oa vU; vfHkdj.kksa esa iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa efgykvksa dks de vf/kdkj ,oa
“kfDr;k¡ izkIr gksukA
2- efgykvksa dh “kkjhfjd lajpuk] izlo ,oa iztuu esa Hkwfedk] ftlds dkj.k jksxxzLrrk dh lEHkkouk,¡
c<+ tkrh gSA
3- f”k{kk] lEifRr ,oa vk; vtZ u voljksa esa efgykvks a dks iq:’kksa ls de volj ,oa vf/kdkj iz kIr
gks ukA
4- ekfgykvksa dks “kkjhfjd] ekufld] HkkoukRed ,oa ;kSu fgalk dk f”kdkj gksukA
fu/kZu rk ds dkj.k iks”k.k] f”k{kk] fpfdRlk vkfn esa yM+fd;ksa dks fiNM+uk iM+rk gSA blds vfrfjDr
vf”k{kk] de vk;q esa fookg ,oa izTkUku] U;wu lQkbZ Lrj] dqiks’k.k ,oa LokLF; rFkk fpfdRlk lqfo/kkvks a dh
vi;kZIr O;oLFkk Hkh mRrjnk;h dkjd gSA Hkkjr esa ifjokj fu;kstu ,oa tula[;k fu;a=.k ds mik; viukus
dh ftEesnkjh Hkh efgykvksa dh gS] 70 izfr”kr ekeyks esa iq:’k buls eqDr jgrs gSSaA
efgyk LokLF; esa lq/kkj dh j.kuhfr ,oa mik;
efgyk LokLF; lq/kkj ds fy, fpfdRlk lqfo/kkvksa esa o`f) ,oa mudh miyC/krk lqfuf”pr djuk vko”;d
gSA efgykvksa dks dsoy izlodkyhu fpfdRlh; lqfo/kk nsdj gh dkQh jkgr nh tk ldrh gSA laLFkkxr izlo
“kr izfr”kr lqfuf”pr dj izlodkyhu e`R;q dks de fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g tPpk vkSj cPpk nksuksa dk
thou lqjf{kr j[k ldrk gSA miYkC/k vkadM+ks a ls ;g iq’V gksrk gS fd laLFkkxr iz lo vFkkZr fpfdRlh;
lqfoèkkvksa ls izlo nj c<+us ij thfor cPpksa dh tUEk nj c<+ tkrh gSA
lkekU; f”k{kk vkSj LokLF; dk Hkh ?kfu’B lEcU/k gSA f”k{kk dk Lrj c<+us ds lkFk gh efgykvksa dh vusd
leL;kvksa dk lek/kku gks tkrk gSA vkadM+ks ls ;g Li’V gksrk gS fd iw.kZr% vf”kf{kr efgykvksa esa dq y moZjrk
nj ¼T.F.R.½ 3-1 Fkh tcfd izkFkfed f”k{kk izkIr efgykvksa esa 2-5 fefMy ikl efgykvksa esa 2-2] b.Vj mRrh.kZ
efgykvksa esa 1-6 vkSj Lukrd vkSj Åij dh f”k{kk izkIr efgykvksa esa 1-5 FkhA
fpfdRlky;ksa esa fo”ks’kr% efgyk fpfdRlky;ksa dh LFkkiuk esa o`f) fo”ks’kr% xzkeh.k ,oa lqnqj {ks=ks a esa ,slk
djuk vko”;d gSA fpfdRlky;ksa esa MkDVjksa] ulZ ,oa vU; lgk;d LVkQ dh fu;qfDr] mudh mifLFkfr vkSj
drZO;ijk;.krk Hkh lqfuf”pr dh tkuh pkfg,A
efgykvksa dh leL;kvksa ds lek/kku gsrq pyk;s tk jgs vusd dk;ZØe ;Fkk&jk’Vªh; LokLF; fe”ku] tuuh
dY;k.k ;kstuk] tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk] vk”kk cgqvksa dh fu;qfDr] LokLF; chek ;kstuk] xHkZorh efgykvksa ds
fy, iks’k.k ;kstuk Vhdkdj.k ,oa izf”k{k.k dk;ZØe vkfn dk izHkkoh ,oa lkFkZd fØ;kUo;u Hkh vko”;d gSA
laUnHkZ
1- ,sjks- ds- ¼1963½ ^^,Dlsl Vw gsY Fk ds;j ,.M cMZu vkW Q Vª hVesUV bu bf.M;k] ,u baVsª LVscy dEijhtu bUosfLVax bu
gsY Fk** jko] U;w nsygh] lst ifCyds”kUl
2- bdkW ukfed losZ] 2011&12] 2013&14] Hkkjr ljdkj
3- Hkkjr & 2015] Hkkjr ljdkj] izdk”ku foHkkx] ub fnYyhA
4. http//www.nhp.gov.in
5. www.kff.org>disparitiespolicy
6. http//phpartners.org>health-stats
7. sudha, women, riproductivehealthcare.in.up.
8. jacobsinstitute of women’s health, elsevies
9. WHO Maternal mortality in 2000, Estimatesdevelopedd by WHO, UNICEF and UNFPA
efgyk dkexkj ,oa lkekftd lqj{kk
lqjs’k dqekj feJ*
ns”k dh dqy vkcknh esa efgykvksa dk fgLlk 48 Qhlnh gS] ysfdu ns”k ds Jecy esa efgykvksa dk ;ksxnku
vkcknh ds eqdkcys cgqr de gSA o’kZ 2017 esa tkjh oYMZ cSad dh fjiksVZ ds eqrkfcd Hkkjr esa dsoy 27 Qhlnh
efgyk,a gh dkedkth gSaA Hkkjr dh 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vkadM+ksa ds eqrkfcd ns”k esa efgyk dkexkjksa dh
la[;k 14 djksM+ 98 yk[k gSA buesa 12 djksM+ 18 yk[k efgyk,a xzkeh.k bykdksa esa dke djrh gSa vkSj rdjhcu
2 djksM+ 80 yk[k efgyk,a “kgjh bykdksa esa dke djrh gSaA xkaoksa esa dke djus okyh 12 djksM+ 18 yk[k
efgykvksa esa ls 97-4 Qhlnh efgyk,as d`f’k {ks= ;kfu [ksrhckjh ls tqM+s dke djrh gSaA o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk
ds vkadM+ksa dks ekusa rks ns”k esa miyC/k dqy dkexkjksa esa efgykvksa dh fgLlsnkjh 25-51 Qhlnh gSA bu vkdM+ksa
esa o’kZ 2001 ds vkadM+ksa ds eqdkcys FkksM+h fxjkoV ntZ dh xbZA o’kZ 2001 esa ns”k esa efgyk dkexkjksa dh
fgLlsnkjh 26-63 Qhlnh gqvk djrh FkhA gkykafd 2011 ds vkadM+s 1991 ds eqdkcys FkksM+s csgrj t:j gS]
D;ksafd 1991 esa efgyk dkexkjksa dh fgLlsnkjh 22-27 Qhlnh FkhA
efgyk dkexkjksa ds bu vkadM+ksa ds ihNs dh cM+h otg dkedkt ds nkSjku lkekftd lqj{kk ds vHkko dks
ekuk tkrk gSA varjkZ’Vªh; Je laxBu ds ekudksa ds eqrkfcd lkekftd lqj{kk ds dbZ vge vk;ke gSa] tSls
fd LokLF;] chekjh] o`)koLFkk] csjkstxkjh] jkstxkj esa jgrs gq, dksbZ viaxrk] ifjokj ds fy, lgk;rk] izlo
vkSj ekr`Ro ls tqM+h lqfo/kk,saA gj ns”k vius fgrksa dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, dkexkjksa dh csgrjh ds fy, ,slh
lqfo/kk,sa mUgsa eqgS;k djkrk gSA Hkkjr us Hkh vius jk’Vªh; fgr esa efgyk dkexkjksa dh egRoiw.kZ Hkw fedk dks
ns[krs gq, muds fy, varjkZ’Vªh; ekud ij bl rjg dh dbZ ;kstuk,sa cukbZ gSaA
Hkkjr esa vlaxfBr {ks= esa dke djus okys etnwjksa ds fy, ,d dkuwu cuk;k x;k gSA vlaxfBr dkexkj
lkekftd lqj{kk vf/kfu;e 2008 ds rgr Hkkjr ljdkj dbZ rjg dh lkekftd lqj{kk lqfo/kkvksa ds fy,
;kstuk,as pykrh gSa %&
1- thou vkSj viaxrk ls lacaf/kr
2- LokLF; vkSj izlwfr lacaf/kr
3- o`)koLFkk lacaf/kr
4- blds vykok jkT; vkSj dsUnz ljdkj }kjk fu/kkZfjr fdlh Hkh vkSj ekeys ijA
,slh ;kstukvksa ds lkFk dkexkjksa dh lkekftd lqj{kk ds fy, dqN laoS/kkfud izko/kku Hkh fd;s x;s gSaA
buesa dqN flQZ efgykvksa dh lkekftd lqj{kk dks /;ku esa j[k dj pyk, tk jgs gSa] tcfd dqN iq#’k vkSj
* vFkZ”kkL= ,oa xzkeh.k fodkl foHkkx] MkW - jke euksg j yksfg;k vo/k fo”ofo|ky;] QStkckn] m-izA
efgykvksa nksuksa ds fy, cuk, x;s gSa] ysfdu efgykvksa dk bu ;kstukvksa vkSj izko/kkuksa esa [kkl [;ky j[kk
x;k gSA ,slk blfy, rkfd efgykvksa dks lkekftd lqj{kk dk vglkl gks vkSj muds lkFk efgyk gksus ds
dkj.k fdlh rjg dk dksbZ HksnHkko ugha gks vkSj mudh “kkjhfjd {kerkvksa dks /;ku esa j[kdj gh muls dke
djk;k tk ldsA lcls igys efgykvksa ij dsfUnzr ;kstukvksa vkSj laoS/kkfud izko/kkuksa ij ,d utj Mkyrs
gS aA
leku osru vf/kfu;e] 1974
gkykafd bl dkuwu dk mís”; dkexkj efgykvksa dks iq#’kksa ds lkFk da/ks ls da/kk feyk dj dke djus ds
fy, izksRlkfgr djus dk Fkk ysfdu varjkZ’Vªh; Je laxBu 2017 dh fjiksVZ ds eqrkfcd Hkkjr esa iq#’kksa dks
efgykvksa ds eqdkcys ,d gh dke djus ds fy, vkSlru 30 Qhlnh T;knk osru fn;k tkrk gSA de iSlk
ikus okyh efgykvksa esa ;g varj 60 Qhlnh rd gS tcfd T;knk osru dekus okyh efgykvksa esa ;g varj 15
Qhlnh rd gSA
dkj[kkuk vf/kfu;e] 1948
oSls rks ;g dkuwu QSDVªh esa dke djus okys gj deZpkjh ds fy, cuk;k x;k gS& ysfdu blesa fo”ks’k rkSj
ij efgykvksa ds i{k esa Hkh dbZ izko/kku fd;s x;s gSa] ftlls ogka dke djus okyh efgykvksa dks ,d lqj f{kr
ifjos”k fey ik,A
• QSDVªh dkuwu dh /kkjk 22¼2½ ds rgr efgyk dkexkjksa dks fdlh Hkh pyrh gqbZ e”khu dh lQkbZ ds
dke esa ugha yxk;k tk ldrkA
• bl dkuwu dh /kkjk 27 ds rgr fdlh Hkh efgyk dkexkj dks dikl fey esa dkWVu izsflax ds dke
esa ugha yxk;k tk ldrkA ;s nksuksa gh fu;e efgykvksa dh LokLF; laca/kh lqfo/kkvksa dks ns[krs gq,
cuk, x;sA
jk”Vªh; LokLF; chek ;kstuk
o’kZ 2008 esa bldh “kq#vkr vlaxfBr {ks= esa dke djus vkSj xjhch js[kk ls uhps ds dkexkjksa ds fy, dh
x;h FkhA blds rgr fdlh Hkh ,slh chekjh esa] ftlesa bykt ds fy, ejht dk vLirky esa HkrhZ gksuk vfuok;Z
gksrk gS ¼vLirky vkSj chekjh nksuksa dh lwph ljdkj eqgS;k djkrh gS½] dsUnz vkSj jkT; ljdkj feydj 30 gtkj
#i;s dh okf’kZd lgk;rk jkf”k dkexkj ;k mlds ifjokj dks eqgS;k djkrh gSA
tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk
izlo ds nkSjku gksus okyh efgykvksa ds e` R;q nj dks de djus ds fy, dsUnz ljdkj us bl LokLF;
;kstuk dh “kq#vkr dh gSA bl ;kstuk ds ek/;e ls ljdkj dk y{; gS fd gj xHkZorh efgyk vLirky esa
gh vius cPps dks tUe ns] rkfd eka vkSj mldk cPpk nksuksa LoLFk jgsaA
izlwfr izlqfo/kk ¼la’kks/ku½ vf/kfu;e] 2017
blh o’kZ ,d vizSy ls ;g vf/kfu;e efgyk dkexkjksa ds fy, ykxw fd;k x;k gSA ;g dkuwu laxfBr
{ks= esa dke djus okyh efgykvksa ds fy, cuk;k x;k gSA blds fy, 1961 ds iqjkus dkuwu esa dbZ cM+s cnyko
fd;s x;s gSa ftuds ckn vc xHkZorh efgykvksa dks 12 g¶rksa dh txg 26 g¶rksa dk vodk”k feysxkA bl
vodk”k ds nkSjku mudks mudh iwjh ru[okg Hkh nh tk,xhA
dk;ZLFky ij ;kSu mRihM+u ds fo#) dkuwu] 2013
bl dkuwu ds rgr ,sls izko/kku fd;s x;s gSa ftlls fd dk;ZLFky ij dke djrs gq, efgyk] iq#’kksa ls
[kqn dks lqjf{kr eglwl djsA bl dkuwu ds rgr lHkh dk;ZLFkyksa ij ;kSu mRihM+u f”kdk;r lfefr dk xBu
vko”;d fd;k x;k gSA
iz/kkuea=h mTToyk ;kstuk
2016 esa dsUnz ljdkj }kjk bl ;kstuk dh “kq#vkr dh xbZA bl ;kstuk ds rgr xjhch js[kk ls uhps
jgus okys ifjokjksa dks eq¶r esa ,yihth dusD”ku dh lqfo/kk nh tk jgh gSA bl ;kstuk ds nks vge mís”;
gSaA igyk xjhc ifjokj dh efgyk dks LoPN bZ/ku eq¶r miyC/k djkuk ftlls fd mUgsa LokLF; lqj{kk dk
vglkl gks vkSj efgyk,sa [kqn dks l”kDr eglwl djsa tcfd nwljk mís”; ydM+h vkSj xkscj ds miyksa ds
tyus ls gksus okys ok;q iznw’k.k esa deh ykuk gSA
egkRek xka/kh jk”Vªh; jkstxkj xkjaVh ;kstuk
bl ;kstuk ds rgr ljdkj us xzkeh.k bykdksa esa ,d o’kZ esa 100 fnu rd iq#’k vkSj efgykvksa dks dke
dk volj iz nku djus dh igy dh Fkh ys fdu vka dM+s crkrs gSa fd tgka o’kZ 2004&05 esa 28-2 Qhlnh
efgyk,sa eujsxk ds rgr dke djrh Fkha oks vkadM+k 2011&12 esa ?kVdj 21-7 Qhlnh gh jg x;kA bl ;kstuk
ds tfj, ljdkj us csjkstxkjksa dks jkstxkj lqj{kk ds vius okys dks iwjk djus dh eqfge pykbZ FkhA
eqnzk ;kstuk
NksVs laxBu] O;olk;] LVkVZ&vi dks c<+kok nsus ds edln ls bl ;kstuk dh “kq#vkr dh xbZA vxj
efgyk,sa Hkh bl rjg ds fdlh O;olk; esa fgLlk ysuk pkgrh gSa ;k fQj vius O;olk; dks c<+kuk pkgrh gSa
rks ljdkj dh bl ;kstuk ds rgr yksu ds fy, vkosnu dj ldrh gSaA
jk”Vªh; lkekftd lgk;rk dk;ZØe
dsUnz ljdkj dk xzkeh.k fodkl ea=ky; ;g dk;ZØe pykrk gSA blds rgr jkT; ljdkjksa ls Hkh enn
yh tkrh gSA bl dk;ZØe ds vUrxZr ljdkj pkj vyx&vyx ;kstuk,sa pykrh gS] ftuesa ,d gS dkexkjksa
ds fy, us”kuy QSfeyh csfufQV Ldhe ;kuh jk’Vªh; ifjokj dY;k.k ;kstukA
bafnjk xka/kh jk”Vªh; o`)koLFkk isa’ku ;kstuk
;g ;kstuk jk’Vªh; lkekftd lgk;rk dk;ZØe ds fgLls ds rkSj ij gh “kq: dh xbZ FkhA blds fy,
ykHkkFkhZ ¼efgyk ;k iq#’k½ dh vk;q 65 o’kZ ;k mlls vf/kd gksuk vkSj vkfFkZd :i ls xjhch js[kk ds uhps
gksuk] nksuksa vfuok;Z gSA blds rgr ljdkj ykHkkFkhZ dks izfr ekg 300 #i;s dh vkfFkZd enn nsrh gSA ;kfu
dke dj ikus dh mez ugha jgus ij ljdkj dkexkj dh vkfFkZd enn nsrh gS rkfd oks viuk thou&;kiu
<ax ls dj ik,A
egkRek xka/kh cqudj chek ;kstuk
bl ;kstuk ds rgr dksbZ Hkh cqudj ¼iq#’k ;k efgyk½ tks LVsV gSaMywe MsoyiesaV dkjiksjs”ku ¼jkT;
gFkdj?kk fodkl fuxe½ ls ekU;rk izkIr gks] bl ;kstuk dk ykHk gkfly dj ldrk gSA blds rgr cqudj
dh vkdfLed e`R;q ;k chekjh dh otg ls gqbZ e`R;q ;k viaxrk ij ljdkj mls ,d fuf”pr jde eqgS;k
djkrh gSA
iz/kkuea=h vVy isa’ku ;kstuk
bl ;kstuk dh “kq#vkr dsUnz ljdkj }kjk o’kZ 2015 esa dh x;h gS( ;s ;kstuk iq#’k vkSj efgyk dkexkjksa
ds fy, miyC/k gSA blds rgr ljdkj dk y{; vlaxfBr {ks= esa dke djus okys 18 ls 40 o’kZ rd dh mez
ds dkexkjksa dks 60 o’kZ dh vk;q ds ckn isa”ku dh lqj{kk eqgS;k djkuh gSA
f’kYidkj foLr`r dY;k.k ;kstuk
bl ;kstuk ds rgr gLrf”kYi dk dke djus okys ,d o’kZ ls 80 o’kZ dh vk;q ds izR;sd iq#’k ;k efgyk
f”kYidkj dk LokLF; chek dk ykHk feysxk] pkgs oks xjhch js[kk ds uhps vkrs gksa ;k ughaA gLrf”kYi dkexkj
dks blds fy, 200 #i;s gj o’kZ tek djokus iM+rs gSa] ftlds ckn dkexkj ds ifjokj ds pkj lnL;ksa ¼dkexkj
dks tksM+dj½ dks LokLF; chek dk ykHk feyrk gSA bl ;kstuk esa ifjokj ds jftLVMZ lnL; dh e`R;q ij ,d
yk[k #i;s rd dh lgk;rk jkf”k dk izko/kku j[kk x;k gSA blds vykok nwljh chekfj;ksa ij ljdkj }kjk
p;fur vLirkyksa esa bykt djus ij ,d fuf”pr jkf”k rd dk bykt eq¶r djk;k tk ldrk gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% lkekftd lqj{kk ;kstukvksa esa ykHkkfFkZ;ksa dh la[;k *

lkekftd lqj{kk ;kstuk dk uke ykHkkFkhZ
bafnjk xka/kh jk’Vªh; o`)koLFkk isa”ku ;kstuk 20833673
jk’Vªh; lkekftd lgk;rk dk;ZØe ¼2014&15½ 175592
tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk ¼2013&14½ 10648487
jk’Vªh; LokLF; chek ;kstuk ¼2013&14½ 38515411
vke vkneh chek ;kstuk ¼2013&14½ 50307950
f”kYidkj foLr`r dY;k.k ;kstuk ¼2013&14½ 16089
*31 fnlacj 2014 rd] lzksr% Je ,oa jkstxkj ea=ky;] 10 vxLr 2015
gkykafd fdlh ;kstuk dk ykHk fdruh efgykvksa rd igqapk blls lacaf/kr dksbZ vyx vkadM+k ugha fn;k x;kA
buds vykok ljdkj us efgyk dkexkjksa dks csgrj izf”k{k.k vkSj jkstxkj ds volj miyC/k djkus ds
fy, vyx ls laLFkk Hkh cukbZ gSA mÙkj izns”k ds uks,Mk esa 1971 ls py jgh ;g laLFkk us”kuy oksds”kuy
Vªsfuax baLVhV~;wV QkWj oqeuA blesa nwljs “kgjksa ls vkdj izf”k{k.k izkIr djus okyh efgykvksa ds fy, jgus dh
Hkh lqfo/kk gSA ;gka QS”ku] f”k{kk] flykbZ] cqukbZ vkSj d<+kbZ lfgr dbZ rjg ds dkslZ pyk, tkrs gSaA blh rtZ
ij dbZ “kgjksa esa efgykvksa ds fy, 10 jhtuy baLVhV~;wV Hkh [kksys x, gSaA ljdkj us 8 u, baLVhV~;wV dh
Hkh eatwjh ns nh gSA fQygky 3-260 efgykvksa dks blds tfj;s izf”kf{kr fd;k tk jgk gSA
bruk gh ugha ljdkj vYila[;d efgykvksa ds fy, Hkh vyx ls ;kstuk,sa pyk jgh gS] rkfd oks Hkh ns”k ds
efgyk Jecy dk egRoiw.kZ fgLlk cu ldsA vYila[;d foHkkx Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk pykbZ yk jgh efgyk
le`f) ;kstuk ,slh gh ,d ;kstuk gSA bl ;kstuk ds rgr dbZ O;olk;ksa ds fy, vYila[;d efgykvksa dks
izf”k{k.k fn;k tkrk gSA ,slh gh ,d vkSj ;kstuk gS% lh[kks vkSj dekvksA dkS”ky fodkl ea=ky; }kjk pykbZ tk
jgh bu ;kstukvksa esa Øe”k% 30 vkSj 33 Qhlnh lhVsa vYila[;d leqnk; dh efgykvksa ds fy, vkjf{kr gSaA
,d ,slh O;oLFkk Hkh gS ftlesa efgyk,sa [kqn ds fy, [kqn ls lkekftd lqj{kk cukrh gSaA bUgsa efgyk Lo;a
lgk;rk lewg ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA ;s lewg }kjk lapkfyr gksrh gS] ftlesa vkfFkZd :i ls xjhc efgyk,s a
,d&nwljs ls tqM+rh gSa] mugsa izf”kf{kr Hkh djrh gSa vkSj fQj muds dke dk mfpr nke Hkh mUgsa fnykrh gSaA
Lo.kZt;arh xzke Lojkstxkj ;kstuk] ,sls gh lewgksa dks “kq: djus ds fy, ljdkj }kjk pykbZ tkrh gSA dqy
feyk dj ns[ksa rks dkexkj efgykvksa ds fy, ;kstukvksa] laoS/kkfud izko/kkuksa vkSj izf”k{k.k dh deh ugha gSA
t:jr gS rks bu ;kstukvksa] laoS/kkfud izko/kkuksa vkSj izf”k{k.k nsus okyh laLFkkvksa dks blds fy, izpkj&izlkj
djus dhA lkFk gh vyx ls vkadM+s j[kus dh fd gj ;kstuk ls efgykvksa dks fdruk ykHk igqapkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- fo”o cSad fjiksVZ 2017 ¼Hkkjr esa efgyk Jecy lgHkkfxrk½A
2- Hkkjr dh tux.kuk] 2011-
3- Je ,oa jkstxkj ea=ky; dh osclkbVA
4- uhrk ,u ¼2017½ % ,”;ksfjax tsaMj tfLVl bu yscj] ;kstuk] vizSy 2017-
{ks=h; xzkeh.k fodkl esa efgyk m|ferk % Cykd egsok ij ,d v/;;u
lquhy dqekj iky *
izLrkouk
mRrj izns”k ds bVkok tuin dk Cykd egsok Hkkjr dk igyk ,slk Cykd gS ftldk fodkl djus gsrq
1950 esa vxzeh fodkl ;kstuk cukbZ xbZ Fkh bl ;kstuk ds lQy lapkyu gsrq ;w-,l-,- ls enn iznku dh
xbZ FkhA Cykd egsok ,d ,slk xkWo gS ftlesa efgykvksa ,oa iq:’kksa us leku :i ls fodkl djus esa viuk
;ksxnku fn;k gSA Hkkjr esa Cykd egsok lcls cM+k Cykd gS bles 92 xzke iapk;rsa gSaA LorU=rk ls iwoZ ;g
xzke ,d fodflr xzke Fkk ftlesa fofHkUu izdkj ds dqVhj m|ksx LFkkfir Fks vkSj mudk lQy lapkyu gksrk
FkkA ns”k ds LorU= gksus ij /khjs&/khjs fodkl dk LRkj fxjrk pyk x;k gSA 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj
dqy tula[;k 5549 gS ftlesa iq:’kksa dh tula[;k 2573 ,oa efgykvks dh tula[;k 2324 gS xzke esa efgyk
xzke iz/kku gS ftlds dkj.k ls efgyk, dks jkstxkj lEcU/kh leL;k gksus ij os vius ljiap dks leL;k ls
voxr djk ldrh rFkk dqy d`f’k {ks=Qy 357-01 gsDVsvj gS ftlesa lHkh izdkj dh O;kikfjd o [kk|kUu dh
Qlysa vklkuh ls mxkbZ tk ldrh gSaA Cykd egsok esa lHkh tkfr oxZ ds yksx gSA ftues 1879 vuqlwfpr oxZ
ds gSA rFkk dqy ifjokj 923 gS vkSj ftuesa 350 ifjokj oh-ih-,y- dkMZ /kkjd gSA Cykd egsok esa efgykvks
dh f”k{kk ij fo”ks’k :i ls tksj fn;k x;k] {ks= esa efgykvks ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa o`f) jkT; ljdkj ,oa dsUnz
ljdkj us dbZ ;kstukvks dks ‘kq: fd;k x;k gS ftlls bl {ks= esa fuokl djus okyh tula[;k esa efgykvkas
dks iq:’kks ds cjkcj jkstxkj izkIr djus esa ljdkj us viuk lg;ksx iznku fd;k gS ysfdu ljdkj ds iz;klks
ds ckn Hkh {ks= dk fodkl iw.kZ :i ls ugh gks ldk gS rFkk jkstxkj ds Lrj esa yxkrkj deh vkrh tk jgh
gSA O;kikj ds fy, mfpr izcU/ku dh deh rFkk ljdkjh ;kstukvks dk Hkz’Vkpkj dh HksV p<+uk efgykvks dh
n”kk Hkh [kjkc gS jkstxkj ds fy, efgykvksa dks nwljs {ks=ksa esa tkdj jkstxkj izkIr djrh gSA
‘kks/k ifjdYiuk
1- xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa dks de jkstxkj izkIr gksukA
2- efgykvksa dks mudh ;ksX;rk ds vuqlkj jkstxkj u fey ikukA
3- iq:’kks vkSj efgykvks dks cjkcj dk volj u iznku gksukA
4- Qkbyksa esa ;kstukvksa dk tkx:drk vfHk;ku jgrk gS] okLrfodrk ls dkslksa nwjA
5- efgykvksa dks vius m|ksx LFkkfir djus esa dbZ izdkj dh leL;k,¡ vkrh gSa ftles foRrh; izcU/ku
izeq[k leL;k gSA
* vflLVsUV izksQs lj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ,y-vkj-ih-th- dkys t] bVkok] m-izA
mn~ns’; ,oa izfof/k

1- efgykvksa dh jkstxkj dh fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
2- efgykvksa dks Lojkstxkj LFkkfir djus esa vkus okyh leL;kvksa dks le>ukA
3- efgykvksa dh f”k{kk dh fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
‘kks/k fof/k
;g “kks/k i= losZ{k.k ij vk/kkfjr gS blesa bVkok tuin ds Cykd egsok dk v/;;u fd;k x;k gS bl
xkWo ls 10 efgykvksa dk p;u fd;k gS ftlesa efgykvks ds jkstxkj] f”k{kk vkfn ij lk{kkRdkj ds ek/;e ls
tkudkjh izkIr dh gS rFkk blesa ledks dk de ls de iz;ksx fd;k gSA
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa dks jkstxkj izkIr djus esa fuEufyf[kr leL;k, gSa
1- xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh dh leL;k %& xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa orZeku esa Hkh ,slh efgyk,¡ gSa ftUgsa muds
ijEijkxr dk;ksZa rd~ lhfer djds j[kk x;k gS tcfd {kerk iq:’kksa ls csgrj djus dh gS blds
lkFk gh muds vf/kdk”ka egRoiw.kZ dk;Z ekU;rkvksa ds vuqlkj efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd fØ;kdykiksa ij
orZeku esa Hkh vadq”k yxk;k x;k gSA efgykvks dk m|e mudh lkekftd o ikfjokfjd i`‘BHkwfe ds
rgr fu/kkZfjr fd;k tkrk gSA ?kj ds vUnj efgykvksa dk dk;Z fo”ks’k :i ls iq:’k o efgyk ds chp
Je foHkktu ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA Cykd egsok esa ik;yV odZ”kki orZeku esa dckMs+ esa rCnhy gks
x;k gS vkSj bl fLFkfr dks ns[kdj fodkl ds Lrj dk Ikrk pyrk gS fd xzk eh.k efgykvks dh
m|ferk fdl izdkj dh gksxh vkSj mudks vius vkidks LFkkfir djus dh pqukSrh Lohdkj djuh
iM+s xhA
2- xzkeh.k efgykvks esa m|e izcU/ku dh deh %& xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa fuokl djus efgyk m|fe;ksa dks
fdlh fo”ks’k izf”k{k.k dh O;oLFkk ugha gksrh gS ftlds dkj.k mudks viuk Lojkstxkj LFkkfir djus
esa cgqr dfBukbZ gksrh gSA ljdkj dks pkfg, fd m|ksx izcU/ku ds fy, xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa izf”k{k.k
dsUnz dh LFkkiuk djuh pkfg, ftlls bu xzkeh.k efgykvksa dks viuk Lo;a dk jkstxkj izkIr gks
ldsA m|e izcU/ku izkIr djus esa lcls cM+h leL;k /ku vHkko dh vkrh gS ftlds dkj.k efgykvks
dks vPNs m|e izcU/ku laLFkkvks ls izf”k{k.k ds fy, cafpr jguk iM+rk gS ;gh fLFkfr Cykd egsok
dh gSA bl Cykd esa m|e izf”k{k.k dh dksbZ O;oLFkk ugh gS vkSj dksbZ efgyk m|ksx LFkkfir djuk
pkgrh gS rks mldks fdlh vU; LRkj vU; “kgj esa tkdj izf”k{k.k izkIr djuk gksrk gSA
3- xzkeh.k efgykvksa esa mPpf’k{kk o vuqHko dh deh %& xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa fuokl djus okyh vfèkdk¡”ka
efgykvksa dh “kSf{kd ;ksX;rk de gksrh gS rFkk muds lkFk cpiu esa gh HksnHkko fd;k tkrk gS blesa
ckydksa dks vPNh f”k{kk iznku dh tkrh gS ijUrq ckfydkvksa dks vPNh f”k{k.k laLFkkvks esa nkf[kyk
ugha fnyk;k tkrk gSA Cykd egsok esa rhu baVj dkyst] nks izkFkfed o mPp izkFkfed Ldwy egsok
xzke esa fLFkr gSaA bl izdkj dh fLFkfr gksus ds ckn Hkh f”k{kk ds Lrj esa ;g {ks= fiNM+rk tk jgk
gS vkSj ftlds dkj.k cPpks dks jkstxkj ugh izkIr gks jgk gS vkSj efgyk o iq:’k yksx egkuxjksa dh
vksj iyk;u djus dks etcwj gks jgs gSaA
4- xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vPNs fdLe ds cLrq cktkjksa dk u gksuk %& efgyk m|fe;ksa }kjk mRikfnr
eky dks cspus dh lcls cM+h leL;k vkrh gS fd og viuk eky fdl txg ij csps ftlls mldks
vPNk ykHk izkIr gks lds vkSj viuk O;olk; dks c<+k lds ftlls fd mlesa dk;Z djus okyh efgykvksa
dh Hkh vk; esa o`f) gks lds ftlds dkj.k muds thou Lrj esa o`f) gks lds vkSj jk’Vªh; vk; esa
o`f) esa viuk lg;ksx iznku dj ldsA Cykd egsok esa lM+dks dh gkyr csgn [kjkc gS] cjlkr esa
bu lM+dksa ij iSny pyuk dfBu gksr k gS ftlds dkj.k m|eh dk viuk leku cspus ds fy,
cktkj igWqp ikuk cgqr dfBu gks tkrk gSA
5- xzkeh.k efgyk m|ferk fodkl lEcU/kh ck/kk,¡ %& efgyk m|ferk fodkl esa lkekftd lkaLd`fr]
?kVdksa tSls ikfjokfjd i`‘BHkwfe lkekftd ewY;kas] oa”k ijEijk,¡] /keZ] fopkj] i}fr;ksa vkfn dk egRoiw.kZ
LFkku gSA fparu “kSyh rFkk vkdk{kkvksa dks fo”ks’k ls izHkkfor djrh gS mudk ;g izf”k{k.k muds
ifjokj] Ldwy o lekt esa fujarj pyrk jgrk gSA ;g lekftd izf”k{k.k xzkeh.k efgyk m|ferk ds
fy, ugha ds cjkcj gSA ifj.kkeLo:i dqN xzkeh.k efgyk,¡ vioknksa dks NksM+dj lekt esa lkekU;rk
thou;kiu ds fy, ;k vius ifjokj dks pykus ds fy, gh dk;Zjr gSA
xzkeh.k efgyk m|ferk esa fuEufyf[kr dfe;kW ikbZ tkrh gS %&
1- xzkeh.k efgykvksa esa lekftd lqn`<+rk dk vHkkoA
2- xzkeh.k efgyk m|fevksa esa vlQyrk dk Hk; ¼lglheuks o`fRr dk vHkko½A
3- xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh nks’kiw.kZ f”k{kk iz.kkyh ¼xSj ijEijkxr {ks=ks esa lhfer izf”k{k.k½
4- xzkeh.k efgyk m|ferk esa usr`Ro {kerk dk vHkko ns[kus dks feyrk gSA
5- xzkeh.k efgykvksa esa m|ferk ds fy, tksf[ke mBkus dh {kerk dk vHkkoA
xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh ds fodkl gsrq lq>ko ,oa lek/kku
1- Hkkjrh; xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh efgyk,¡ izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k :i ls Hkkjrh; xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk dks etcwr
cukus esa vius vf/kdkjksa dks izkIr djus dh bPNk “kkfDr dks fodflr djsa rFkk blds fy, iz;Ru”khy
Hkh jgsA
2- Hkkjrh; xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vf/kdk”k m|ferk efgyk,¡ vizf”kf{kr gSa] vr% fofHkUu izdkj ds izf”k{k.k
dk;ZØeksa dks xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa le;≤ ij lapkfyr fd;k tkuk pkfg, rkfd vdq”ky efgyk,¡
n{krk izkIr dj lds rFkk vius m|ksx&/kU/kksa dks iw.kZ dq”kyrk ds lkFk lapkfyr dj ldsA
3- xzkeh.k efgyk m|fe;ksa ds fy, cSdksa }kjk vklku “krksZ ij i;kZIr ek=k esa mnkjrkiwoZd _.k iznku
fd;s tkus pkfg, rkfd vf/kdkf/kd xzkeh.k efgyk,¡ viuk futh m|ksx&/kU/kksa dks LFkkfir dj ldsaA
4- xzkeh.k efgyk m|ferk NksVs Lrj ls dk;Z izkjEHk djsA
5- xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh O;olk; “kq: djus ls igys lEofU/kr mRikn dh ekdsZfVax djuh pkfg,A
6- izFke pkj o’kksZ rd vius vkidks lQy m|eh u le>asA
7- xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh Ø; vkSj udn [kqn lEHkkys rFkk vius mRiknu ds ckjs esa xEHkhjrk ls lkspuk
pkfg,A
8- xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh vuq”kkflr jgs ,oa O;kolkf;d n`f’Vdks.k j[ksA
xzkeh.k efgykvksa }kjk LFkkfir fd;s tk ldus okys m|ksxks esa %& gLrf”kYi] gFkdj?kk] vpkj&eqjCck
ydM+h ds f[kykSus] vk;qosZfnd nok,¡] nkysa] elkys] cslu] tSe] tsyh] isBk] dS.Mh] fljdk] vxjcRrh] ltkoV dk
lkeku] d`f’k vk/kkfjr m|ksxksa ls Hkh xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh dks blls ykHk izkIr gksrk gS] tSls & eqxhZ ikyu] HksM+
cdjh ikyu] nq/kk: i”kq ikyu] Qyksa] m|ku] vkS’k/kh; ,oa lqaxf/kr ikS/kksa dh [ksrh] eNyh ikyu] cVsj ikyu]
lwrh oL= fuekZ.k vkfn cgqr de iwWth esa xzkeh.k efgyk m|eh viuk m|ksx LFkkfir dj ldrh gSaA
fu”d”kZ
fodkl [k.M egsok bVkok ls 21 fdyksehVj nwjh ij fLFkr gS] bl fodkl [k.M esa “kks/kkFkhZ us ik;k fd
orZeku esa Hkh ,slh efgyk m|eh gS fd ftudks vxj foRrh; lgk;rk iznku dh nh tk, rks os viuk Lo;a dk
m|ksx LFkkfir dj ldrh gSaA xzk eh.k efgyk m|fe;ksa dk ;ksxnku c<rs jgus dh iwj h lEHkkouk Hkkjrh;
vFkZO;oLFkk esa fo|eku gS ftlls ,d ,slh rLohj lkeus vkus yxh gSa ftlesa xzkeh.k efgyk m|fe;ks dh
la[;k esa rsth ls o`f) gks jgh gSA Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk es xzkeh.k efgykvks dh fgLlsnkjh c<+us ls ns” k dh
vkfFkZd izxfr dk pØ rsth ls ?kweus yxk gS ftlds dkj.k xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd n”kk esa lq/kkj gks
jgk gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- izf r;ks fxrk niZ. k&2016A
2- xz keh.k vFkZ ”kkL=A
3- nSfud tkxj.k] lekpkj i=] dkuiqj izdk”ku&2015A
4- xz keh.k lektA
5- ts-lh- vxzoky] Hkkjr esa ukjh f”k{kk & izHkkr vxzoky ¼tuojh&2009½A
6- lkf[;dh; if=dk&mRrj izns ”kA
7- ;w-ih-;w-bZ-,- bdksuksf ed tujy] oksY ;we&2014A
Hkkjr esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k % ,d fo’ys”k.k
fu’kk ik.Ms;*
fo”o esa fdlh Hkh ns”k vkSj lekt dh fLFkfr dk vkdyu ogka dh fL=;ksa dh fLFkfr ls fd;k tk ldrk
gSA ;fn fdlh ns”k dh efgyk,¡ lqlaLd`r gSa] lH; gSa vkSj thou ds fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa izxfr”khy gSa rks ;g
tkuus dh vko”;drk ugha gS fd ml ns”k esa fodkl dk Lrj D;k gS\ efgykvksa dks fodkl dh ewy/kkjk esa
lfEefyr djds] mUgsa lkekftd] vkfFkZd] “kS{kf.kd] iz”kklfud ,oa jktuhfrd n`f’V ls l”kDr cukus dh ekax
dbZ n”kdksa ls fujarj gks jgh gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ,d oSf”od fo’k; gS tks fd lkekftd U;k;] lekurk
,oa lesfdr lkekftd fodkl ds n”kZu ij vk/kkfjr gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls vfHkizk; efgykvksa dks lkekftd]
vkfFkZd] “kSf{kd ,oa jktuhfrd Lrj ij vkRefuHkZj dj l”kDr djus gSa l”kfDrdj.k ls vk”k; dsoy “kfDr
dk vf/kxzg.k ugha gS oju~ ;g ,d ,slh izfØ;k gS ftlds ek/;e ls efgykvksa esa bruh tkx:drk mRiUu dh
tk lds fd os LokoyEch cudj lkekftd] vkfFkZd lalk/kuksa ij fu;a=.k izkIr dj ldsaA
tgk¡ rd Hkkjr esa fL=;ksa dks fLFkfr dk iz”u gS] Hkkjr esa gj ;qx ,oa dky esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr ,oa n”kk
ifjofrZr gksrh jghA oSfnd lkfgR; ds v/;;u ls Kku gksrk gS fd ukjh dks lekt vkSj ifjokj esa egRoiw.kZ
LFkku izkIr FkkA fL=;ksa esa cky&fookg] inkZ&izFkk ugha FkhA fL=;k¡ u dsoy f”k{kk dh n`f’V ls oju~ dyk dkS”ky
,oa ;q)&fo|k dh n`f’V ls Hkh iq:’kksa ds led{k DkhA ukjh iq:’k esa fo”ks’k Hksn ugha FkkA nksuksa lkekftd fLFkfr
leku :i ls egRoiw.kZ FkhA fookg dk mn~ns”; flQZ dke&okluk dh iwfrZ ugha] mlls Hkh Åij iRuh ds lkFk
feydj x`gLFk /keZ dk ikyu] /kekZuq’Bku] ;K lEiknu o Js’B larku dh izkfIr FkkA vFkoZosn esa dgk x;k gS]
**uoo/kw rw ftl ?kj esa tk jgh gS] ogk¡ dh rw lkekKh gSA rsjs llqj] lkl] nsoj o vU; rq>s lkezkKh le>rs gq,
rsjs “kklu esa vkufUnr gSA** _Xosn dh jpuk esa ;ksxnku djus okyh chl fonqf’k;k¡ Fkh ftuesa& jkse’kk] vikyk]
fo”ookjk] yksikeqnzk vkfn izfl) FkhA v”oes| ;K ,oa jktlw; ;”k esa efgZ’kh dh mifLFkfr vR;ar vko”;d FkhA
mlds fcuk ;K fof/kor~ lEiUu ugha gks ldrs FksA ;tqosZn ds vuqlkj ukjh dks miu;u laLdkj dk vf/kdkj
izkIr FkkA osndkyhu lekt fir`lÙkkRed gksus ls mlesa iq= dks iq=h ls ojh;rk nh xbZ gS rFkk iq=&dkeuk dk
o.kZu ;=&r= feyrk gSA ijLrq iq= dkeuk j[kus ij Hkh iq=h dk frjLdkj ugha Fkk] cky fookg dk izpyu ugha
Fkk ,oa vkthou dqaokjh jgus dh bPNk ij iq=h dks firk ds lEifÙk esa mÙkjkf/kdkj fn;k x;k FkkA fookfgr fL=;k¡
vius *L=h /ku* dks bPNkuqlkj [kpZ dj ldrh FkhA
Hkkjr esa Lora=rk ls iwoZ vaxzsth “kklu dky esa Hkh fL=;k¡ lkekftd] ikfjokfjd] vkfFkZd ,oa jktuhfrd
fu;ksZX;rkvksa ls xzLr FkhA vf”k{kk] cky fookg] inkZ&izFkk] iq:’kksa ij fuHkZjrk] fo/kok&fookg fu’ks /k bR;kfn
vusd dkj.k ukjh dh ghu n”kk ds fy, mRrjnk;h FksA Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh n”kk dks lq/kkjus ,oa efgyk
* vfLlVs UV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] vHk; egkfo|ky; rjuk] okjk.klhA

l”kfDrdj.k dh “kq:vkr 19oha “krkCnh ds lekt lq/kkj vkUnksyu ds lkFk ekuh tk ldrh gS] ftlds vxznwr
jktk jkeeksgu jk; Fks muds iz;klksa ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh 1829 esa *lrh izFkk* ds fo:) dkuwu ikfjr gqvkA
rRi”pkr~ bZ”ojpUnz fo|klkxj ds iz;klksa ls tqykbZ 1856 esa **fgUnw fo/kok iqufoZokg** dks dkuwuh vuq efr
izkIr gqbZA ifj.kkeLo:i izFke fo/kok fookg dkfyUnh nsoh dk iafMr jkepUnz fo|kjru ls gqvkA 1872 esa
ds”kopUnz lsu ds iz;ruksa ls usfVo esfjt ,DV ikl gqvk ftlesa cgqfookg dks n.Muh; vijk/k ekuk x;k vkS j
cky fookg fu’ks/k Bgjk;k x;k rFkk vUrtkZ rh; fookg dks ekU;rk nh x;hA Lokeh n;kuUn ljLorh ,oa
Lokeh foosdkuUn bR;kfn vusd lekt lq/kkjdksa us Hkh ukjh dh v/khu fLFkfr esa lq/kkj rFkk ukjh vf/kdkjksa ds
fØ;kUo;u ,oa izkfIr gsrq mYys[kuh; iz;kl fd,A 1875 rd dydÙkk] enzkl ,oa eqEcbZ fo”ofo|ky;ksa esa
yM+fd;ksa ds izos”k dh vuqefr ugha FkhA iafMrk jkekckbZ }kjk gaVj deh”ku ds lEeq[k L=h f”k{kk dh eka x j[kh
x;hA bUgha iz;klksa ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh dknfEcuh clq dks izFke efgyk Lukrd gksus dk xkSjo izkIr gqvkA
1888 esa vkuUnh ckbZ iz Fke efgyk Fkh tks fo|k vtZ u ds fy, fons”k x;hA Lo.kZd qekjh us izF ke efgyk
lEiknd ds :i esa **Hkkjrh if=dk** dk lEiknu fd;k o efgykvksa ds fy, *l[kh lfefr* dh LFkkiuk
dhA bUgh lc iz;klksa esa efgykvksa esa ?kjsyw nk;jksa ls ckgj vius vf/kdkjksa ds izfr ,d lfØ; tkx`fr dks
tUe fn;kA ftl dkj.k bl le; dks **efgyk ;qx** dgk x;k D;ksafd u dsoy Hkkjr oju~ lEiw.kZ fo”o esa
ukjh&vf/kdkjksa ds izfr ,d uohu psruk o tkx`fr mRiUu gks jgh FkhA vUrjkZ’Vªh; Lrj ij efgyk l”kfDrj.k
ds fy, fd, x, dqN iz;klksa dk ftØ ;gk¡ ij fd;k tkuk vko”;d gS& 1840 esa la;qDr jkT; vesfjdk esa
yqØhf”k;k us leku vf/kdkj laxBu dh LFkkiuk djds uhxzks efgykvksa ds leku vf/kdkjksa dh ekax dhA
vesfjdk esa gh 8 ekpZ 1857 dks U;w;kdZ ds flykbZ vkSj oL= m|ksx esa dk;Zjr efgykvksa us iq:’kksa ds leku
osru ,oa 10 ?kaVs ds dk;Z fnol ds fu/kkZj.k gsrq gM+rky dh Fkh ftl dkj.k bl fnol dks fo”o Hkj esa
**vUrjkZ’Vªh; efgyk fnol** ds :i esa euk;k tkrk gSA 1859 eas lasV ihVlZoxZ ¼lksfo;r la?k½ esa efgyk eqfDr
vkanksyu dk lw=ikr gqvk FkkA 1859 esa vesfjdk esa jk’Vªh; efgyk erkf/kdkj laxBu rFkk 1882 esa Ýkal esa
efgyk vfèkdkj laxBu dh LFkkiuk dh xbZA efgykvksa dks igyh ckj er nsus dk vf/kdkj U;wthySaM esa 1893]
ukoZs esa 1913] Ýkal esa 1936] bVyh esa 1945 dks izkIr gqvkA blds vfrfjDr 1951 esa **vUrjkZ’Vªh; Je laxBu**
us efgykvksa dks iq:’kksa ds leku osru fnykus gsrq leku Je ds fy, leku osru lEcU/kh izLrko rFkk 1952
esa la;qD r jk’Vª la?k dh egklHkk us efgykvksa ds jktuhfrd vf/kdkjksa dk iz Lrko ikfjr fd;kA 1975 esa
dksisugsxu esa efgyk] 1985 esa uSjksch esa nwljk rFkk 1995 esa ‘ka?kkbZ esa rhljk vUrjkZ’Vªh; efgyk lEesyu
vk;ksftr fd;k x;kA bu lcls fo”o Lrj ij efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dks cy feykA
Hkkjr esa jk’Vªh; dkaxzsl ds laLFkkid ,- vks- º;we us dkaxzsl dh LFkkiuk ds nkSjku dgk Fkk] **fL=;ks a ds
fy, fcuk laxBu dh xfrfof/k;ksa dh lQyrk lafnX/k gksxh rFkk iz;Ru fu’Qy jgsaxsA** 1887 esa dkaxzsl ds
vUrxZr **us”kuy lks”ky dkWUÝsal** dh LFkkiuk dh x;h] ftlesa efgyk leL;kvksa dh LFkkiuk dh x;h] ftles a
efgyk leL;kvksa dks izeq[krk nh x;hA 1890 esa iafMrk jekckbZ ,oa Lo.kZ dqekjh nsoh ds iz;Rukas ls yxHkx
100 efgykvksa us dydÙkk vf/kos”ku esa Hkkx fy;kA
Hkkjr esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, jk’Vªh; ,oa lefUor iz;kl Lora=rk ds mijkar gh fd, x,A Hkkjr
ds izFke iz/kkuea=h iafMr tokgj yky usg: dk dguk Fkk **ysafxd vlekurk pkgs og vkfFkZd] lkekftd]
jktuhfrd vFkok vU; fdlh Hkh {ks= esa gks] ekuoh; xfjek dh LFkkiuk ds fy, mls nwj djuk vko”;d gSA**
fo”o eas 1990 ls 200 dk n”kd **efgyk n”kd** ds :i esa euk;k x;kA izfro’kZ 8 ekpZ efgyk fnol ds
:i esa euk;k tkrk gS rFkk Hkkjr esa 2001 dk o’kZ **efgyk l”kfDrdj.k o’kZ** ?kksf’kr fd;k x;kA Hkkjr esa
jk’Vªh; efgyk vk;ksx dh LFkkiuk 1990 ds n”kd dh ,d egRoiw.kZ miyfC/k gSA rRi”pkr~ 1996 esa **jk’Vªh;
efgyk uhfr** dh ?kks’k.kk dh x;h 1997 esa lsDlqvy gjslesaV** dh jksdFkke ds fy, lqizhe dksVZ }kjk funsZ”k
tkjh fd, x,A blh n”kd esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh fn”kk esa dqN vkSj ;kstuk,¡ ykxw dh x;hA ekr` ,oa
f”k”kq LokLF; dk;ZØe ¼1992½] fd”kksjh ckfydk ;kstuk ¼1992½] efgyk le`f) ;kstuk ¼1993½] jk’Vªh; efgyk
dks’k ;kstuk ¼1993½] jk’Vªh; ekr`Ro ykHk ;kstuk ¼1994½] xzkeh.k ,oa “kgjh efgykvksa dks vkfFkZd] lkekftd
fodkl ds volj iznku djus ds fy, Mckdqvk ;kstuk ¼1997½ efgykvksa dks Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa ds ek/;e
ls vkfFkZd o lkekftd :i ls l”kDr cukus ds fy, **efgyk Lo”kfDr ;kstuk** ¼1998½ ,oa efgykvksa ds
vfèkdkjksa ds fy, la?k’kZ djus okyh efgykvksa dks jk’Vªh; iqjLdkjksa ls lEekfur dj izksRlkgu nsus gs rq L=h
“kfDr iqjLdkj ;kstuk ¼2000½ bR;kfn mYys[kuh; ;kstuk,¡ gSaA
vkt 21oha lnh esa Hkh efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dqN cgqr vPNh ugha gSA fo”o ds vusd Hkkxksa esa vkt Hkh
lekurk] “kks’k.k] mRihM+u cM+s iSekus ij gks jgs gSaA gekjs iM+kslh ns”k esa rks fL=;ksa ij vusd izf rcU/k gSa]
vQxkfuLrku esa fL=;ksa dh n”kk n;uh; gSA ikfdLrku dh ljdkj gh ekuokf/kdkjksa dk guu dj jgh gSA
lR; rks ;g gS fd fo”o dk dksbZ Hkh ns”k ;k ekuo lekt vHkh rd ekuokf/kdkjksa ds iw.kZ:i ls fØ;kUo;u
o miHkksx dk vkn”kZ izLrqr ugha dj ldrk gSA fofHkUu lkekftd o jktuhfrd i)fr;ksa esa fofHkUu O;fDr;ks a
dks vusd dkj.kksa ls ekuokf/kdkjksa ls oafpr j[kk x;k gSA
blfy, lEiw.kZ fo”o esa ,slh lkekftd] vkfFkZd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k djus dh vko”;drk
gS ftuesa ekuof/kdkjksa ds miHkksx vkSj mudh oS/kkfud ekU;rk Lohd`r gks vkSj mudh lqj{kk gksA buds fcuk
ekuokf/kdkjksa dh lHkh ?kks’k.kk,¡ dsoy dkxth ?kks’k.kk,¡ gksdj jg tk;saxhA os dHkh Hkh lkdkj :i /kkj.k ugha
dj ik,xhA vr% bl fn”kk esa vf/kd dkjxj vkSj O;kogkfjd j.kuhfr rS;kj djus vkSj mls izHkkoh rjhds ls
vey esa ykus ds fy;s dqN vfrfjDr iz;kl djus dh vko”;drk eglwl dh tk jgh gSA bl fn”kk esa fuEukafdr
lq>ko fo”ks’k :i ls mi;ksxh gks ldrs gSa&
1- ns”k ds ukxfjdksa dks ekuokf/kdkjksa ds lEcU/k esa tkudkjh nsus] muesa tkx:drk mRiUu djus] mUgsa
izkIr djus ds fy, ljdkj ij ncko cukus] buds mYya?kudÙkkZvksa dks leqfpr n.M fnykus vkSj
mYya?kudÙkkZvksa ds izfr naMkRed dk;Zokgh ds fy;s iz;Ru djus vkfn ds fy, fo”ks’k :i ls ehfM;k]
Lo;alsoh laxBuksa o efgyk laxBuksa dks egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk dk fuoZgu djuk gksxkA vr% vkt bUgsa
izksRlkfgr djus dh vko”;drk gSA
2- vkt fdlh Hkh ,d ekeys esa ,d vfHk;qDr dh fu:f)] yEch vof/k okys U;kf;d ijh{k.k] iqfyl
}kjk dh tk jgh eqBHksM+ksa] iqfyl Fkkuksa esa efgykvksa ds lkFk cykRdkj] iqfyl vfHkj{kk esa yksxksa dh
ekSrsa rFkk iqfyl mRihM+u vkfn dks rks ekuokf/kdkj dh fo’k;oLrq esa fy;k tk jgk gS rFkk muds
lEcU/k esa ljdkj dh f<+ykbZ vkfn dks rks cgqr c<+k&p<+k dj turk ds lkeus izLrqr fd;k tk jgk
gSA ysfdu ,sls vfHk;qDrksa dk tks guu gks jgk gS] muds izfr ge cgqr vf/kd xaHkhj fn[kk;h ugha
iM+rsA pwafd nksuksa gh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa ekuokf/kdkjksa dk guu gksrk gS] vr% dsoy ,d fLFkfr dks
mtkxj djuk vFkok mldks c<+k&p<+k dj izLrqr djuk fdlh Hkh fLFkfr esa mfpr ugha dgk tk
ldrkA vr% orZeku le; dh vko”;drk gS fd izR;sd O;fDr pkgs og izrkfM+r gks vFkok vfHk;qDr
nksuksa ds ekuokf/kdkjksa dh lqj{kk dh vksj cjkcj /;ku fn;s tkus gsrq vko”;d O;oLFkk lqfuf”pr dh
tkuh pkfg,A fo”ks’kKksa ds lkFk ekuokf/kdkj ls tqM+s laxBuksa] efgyk laxBuksa vkfn ds izfrfuf/k;ksa
dks Hkh lfEefyr djrs gq, muds lq>ko izkIr fd;s tk;saA
lekt uSlfxZd :i ls iq:’k ,oa fL=;ksa dh Hkkxhnkjh ls gh fufeZr gksrk gSA vr% mu dkjdksa dh igpku
vR;ko”;d gS ftuls efgykvksa dh fLFkfr vis{kkd`r fucZy gks x;h gSA ;fn dkj.k fpfUgr dj fy;s tk;sa rc
funku vklku gksxkA ;s dkj.k eq[; :i ls lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd gSaA L=h&f”k{kk] LokLF;] vkfFkZd Hk;eqDr
,oa vkfFkZd :i ls l{ke gks ldrh gSA 20oha “krkCnh eas efgykvksa ds ekuokf/kdkjksa ds izfr tkx:drk mRiUu
gqbZ gSA vc efgyk,a ifjokjksa esa viuh ckr dgus yxh gSaA ladksp dk ifjR;kx dj jgh gSa ,oa laxfBr Hkh gks
jgh gSaA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk okLrfod vFkZ fdlh ckg~; rkdr ls mUgsa l”kDr djuk ugha gS] cfYd izd`fr
us tks LokHkkfod {kerk efgykvksa dks iznku dh gS mls gh vfHkO;Dr o mi;ksx ds volj lqyHk djkus dh
vko”;drk gSA efgyk “kks’k.k o mRihM+u ,d fod`fr gS] lkekftd O;kf/k gSA lkekftd O;kf/k;ksa ds fy,
lkekftd mipkj gh vf/kd dkjxj gksrs gSa] dkuwuksa dk tatky ughaA vr% vusd kusd dkuwuksa ds }kjk gh
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k laHko ugha gksxkA lkekftd] lkaLd`frd] yksdkpkj esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dks okLrfod
cukuk gksxkA
iq:’k oxZ dks bl Hkze ls eqDr gksuk gh iM+sxk fd os gh lekt vkSj jk’Vª ds d.kZ/kkj gSaA dksbZ Hkh lekt
ek= iq:’kksa ls gh fufezr ugha gks ldrk gSA fuekZ.k esa Hkkxhnkj nksuksa i{kksa dh lEekutud lgHkkfxrk ls gh
ifjokj] lekt o jk’Vª dh lQyrk laHko gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- feJ] vfgY;k ¼2013½] L=h&la?k’kZ] xhrk izdk”ku] gSnjkckn] i`- 95
2- “kekZ] th0,y0 ¼2015½] lkekftd eqn~ns] jkor ifCyds”kUl] t;iqj] i`- 420&421
3- foIyo ¼2013½] efgyk l”kfDrdj.k% fofo/k vk;ke] jkgqy ifCyf”kax gkÅl] esjB] i`- 107] 111
4. https//www.ortofliving.org.project
5. https//www.actionidindia.org.project
Hkkjr esa efgyk fodkl vkSj iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk
vkj.ds. ekS;kZ *
izR;sd lekt esa iq#’k vkSj efgyk,¡ nksuksa gksrs gSa] fdUrq lnSo ckr ds oy efgyk fodkl ;k efgyk
dY;k.k dh gksrh gS rFkk dksbZ Hkh ,slk lekt ugha gS tgk¡ iq#’k dY;k.k dh ckr dh tkrh gksA ,slk D;ks\
;g ,d fpUru dk fo’k; gS] ijUrq ;g nq[k gh ugha cfYd yTTkk dh ckr gS fd leLr fpUru] eUFku ,oa
iz;klksa ds ckotwn Hkh u rks efgykvksa dh fLFkfr esa dksbZ vkewy&pwy ifjorZu gh vk jgk gS u gh efgykvksa
ds izfr gksus okys vR;kpkjksa esa dksbZ deh gks jgh gSA
orZeku fo”o dk dksbZ Hkh fgLlk ;k lekt ,slk ugha gS tgk¡ efgykvksa esa iq#’kks ds leku volj izkIr gksrs
gSa vkSj Hkkjr dh Hkh fLFkfr blls cgqr fHkUu ugha gSA Hkkjr dh Lok/khurk ds 70 o’kZ iwjs gks pqds gSaA vkèkh ls Hkh
vf/kd “krkCnh dh bl vof/k esa lkekftd] jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd ifjn`”; esa dkQh ifjorZu gq, gSA bl
ifjorZu dk deksos”k vlj Hkkjrh; ukjh ij Hkh gqvk gSA uxjksa vkSj dLcksa ds thou ij vxj ubZ rduhd ,oa
ubZ i)fr;ksa us vlj Mkyk gS rks f”k{kk ds cy ij Hkkjrh; ukjh us Hkh iq#’kksa ds {ks=ksa esa izos”k dj viuh èkkd
tekbZ gSA jktuhfr] foKku] fpfdRlk] m|ksx] lSU; {ks= vkfn esa ukjh us inkiZi.k gh ugha fd;k cfYd viuh
;ksX;rk ,oa dq”kyrk ds cy ij u, dhfrZeku LFkkfir fd, gSaA bl izdkj ;fn vkt dh ukjh ij n`f’Vikr djsa
rks dksbZ Hkh {ks= ,slk ugha gS tgk¡ ukjh dh igq¡p rks jktusrk ds :i esa ns”k] izkUr dh “kkfldk cu dj viuh
Js’Brk Hkh iznf”kZr dhA ;fn f”k{kk esa O;kIr cqjkb;ksa ds fuokj.k dk iz;Ru fd;k rks vkfFkZd txr esa eqnzk LQhfr
dks fu;af=r djus ds dbZ mik; Hkh lq>k,A vkt dksbZ Hkh {ks= ,slk ugha cpk gS tgk¡ efgykvksa us viuh lQyrk
ds >.Ms ugha xkM+s gSa] fQj Hkh ,d vke Hkkjrh; ukjh dh fLFkfr vHkh Hkh lkspuh; gSA
02 vDVwcj] 1959 dks ukXkkSj esa iapk;rh jkt dh “kq:vkr djrs gq, ia0 tokgjyky usg: us dgk Fkk]
ns”k dh lPph izxfr rHkh gksxh tc xkao es jgus okys yksxksa esa jktuSfrd psruk tkx`r gksxhA ns”k dh izxfr
dk lh/kk lEcU/k xkao dh izxfr ls gSA ;fn xkao mUufr djsaxs rks Hkkjr ,d lcy jk’Vª cu ldsxk vkSj gekjh
izxfr dks dksbZ jksd ugha ldsxkA ;fn vki vius fu”p; ls fMx tk;saxs rFkk >xM+ksa vkSj nycanh esa iM+
tk;saxs rks vius mís”; esa dHkh lQy ugha gksaxsA
lafo/kku ds 73osa la”kks/ku ds rgr ls iapk;rksa dks vf/kd Lora= vkSj izHkko”kkyh cuk;k x;k gS rFkk
efgykvks dks ,d frgkbZ in nsdj mUgsa lekurk nsus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA D;k iapk;rksa es pqudj vkus
ds ckn jktuhfr izfØ;k esa mudh lgHkkfxrk c<+h gS\ D;k og iapk;rh jkt dh iz”kklfud izfØ;kvksa ,oa
73osa lafo/kku la”kks/ku esa le> jgh gS\ D;k iapk;rh jkt vf/kfu;e 1994 ds dkuwuh izko/kkuksa dh tkudkjh
mUgsa gS vkSj D;ks os mlesa :fp ys jgh gS\ bu lHkh iz”uksa dk gy gesa vo”; <w<+uk gksxkA
* vflLVsaV izksQslj] lekt”kkL=] jktdh; efgyk LukrdksŸ kj egkfo|ky;, vnygkV] fetkZiq j] m-izA
fiNys 15&16 o’kksZa ls Hkkjr esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk u;k nkSj “kq: gqvk gSA ,d rjQ tgk¡ yksdlHkk
vkSj fo/kku lHkkvksa ds fy, 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.k dk elyk ckjg&rsjg o’kksZ ls yfEcr iM+k gS] ogh nwljh rjQ
iapk;rksa esa efgykvksa ds ubZ jktuhfrd laLd`fr Hkh fodflr gqbZ gSA vkt Hkkjr esa 12 yk[k ls vf/kd efgyk
fuokZfpr izfrfuf/k gSa tks nqfu;k ds fdlh Hkh ns”k esa ugha gSA ;fn iwjh nqfu;k ds fuokZfpr efgyk iz frfuf/k;ksa
dh la[;k tksM+ nh tk; rks og la[;k bu fuokZfpr efgyk izfrfuf/k ls de gSA Hkkjr ljdkj ds iapk;rhjkt
ea=h ;g dgrs gSa fd Hkkjr esa ,d ekSu yksdrkfU=d ØkfUr gks jgh gSaA tks vHkh jk’Vªh; Lrj ij lkoZtfud
:i ls Hkys gh fn[kk;h ugha ns jgh gSa ij mldh /kheh vkap Hkkjrh; yksdra= dks etcwr cuk jgh gSA bruk
gh ugha ;g ØkfUr ns”k esa lŸkk foe”kZ ds <k¡ps es Hkh cnyko jgh gSaA iapk;r Lrj ij bruh cM+h la[;k esa
efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh us LFkkuh; Lrj ij lkeqnkf;d thou vkSj mldh psruk rFkk laLd`fr esa Hkh ifjorZu
yk;k gSA
bu fuokZfpr efgyk izfrfuf/k;ks a esa nfyr] vkfnoklh] fiNM+h tkfr rFkk eqfLye efgyk,¡ Hkh gS aA bu
efgykvksa us lŸkk ds tkrh; lehdj.k dks gh ugha] cfYd lkekftd vkSj vkfFkZd lehdj.k dks Hkh cny fn;k
gSA iapk;rh jkt laLFkkvksa esa efgyk izfrfuf/k;ksa ds ckjs esa Hkh ,0lh0 uhylu vksj0vkj0th0 ds v/;;u ls
Kkr gksrk gS fd iapk;rh jkt laLFkkvksa esa cM+h la[;k esa ch0ih0 ,y0 vkSj fuj{kj mEehnokj Hkh gSaA blls
;g Hkze fuewZy gksrk gS fd pqukoh jktuhfr esa /ku cy gh dke djrk gSaA jk’Vªh; jktuhfr esa Hkys gh ;g vf/
kd utj vkrk gS ysfdu tehuh Lrj ij jktuhfr esa vHkh ;g mruk egRoiw.kZ dkjd ugha cuk gSA ch0ih0,y0
thou ds yksxksa dk iapk;rhjkt laLFkkvksa esa vkuk vkSj fo”ks’kdj efgyk ch0ih0,y0 mEehnokjksa dh Hkkxhnkjh
bl ckr dh lwpd gS fd LFkkuh; Lrj ij ljdkjh dk;ZØeksa vkSj ;kstukvksa ds fØ;kUo;u esa lkeUrh vkSj
lo.kZoknh iwokZxzg rFkk euekuhiu de gks ldsaxsA ;g Hkkjrh; lekt vkSj jktuhfr ds fy, “kqHk y{k.k gSA
iapk;rhjkt laLFkkvksa esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls u dsoy nksigj dk Hkkstu dk;ZØe] loZf”k{kk vfHk;ku]
xzkeh.k LokLF; fe”ku] jkstxkj xkj.Vh ;kstuk vkfn ds fØ;kUo;u esa QdZ iM+k gS cfYd xzkeh.k efgyk,¡
vius vf/kdkjksa ds izfr lpsr gqbZ gSaA muesa vU;k;] neu vkSj “kks’k.k ds fo:) vkokt mBkus dh fgEer c<+h
gSA bl rjg xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds O;fDrRo esa Hkh ifjorZu vk;k gSA muds vkRefo”okl vkSj tks”k Hkh vk;k
gSA os vkl&ikl dh ?kVukvksa ds izfr ltx gqbZ gSA xzkeh.k bykdksa esa gksus okys jpukRed dk;ZØeksa es a mudh
Hkkxhnkjh c<+h gSA muesa jk’Vª vkSj lekt ds izfr viuh ftEesnkjh dk Hkko Hkh fodflr gqvk gSA dbZ ekeyksa
esa ;g lgh gS fd efgyk iapk;rh dh deku ds ifr ds gkFk esa gh vkSj os viuh ifRu;ksa dks vius fjeksV
dUVªksy ls lapkfyr djrs gSa rFkk mudk vius Qk;ns ds fy, bLrseky Hkh djrs gSa] ysfdu ;g ysfdu ;g
iw.kZ:is.k lR; ugha gSA losZ{k.kksa ls ;g ckr Hkh lkeus vkbZ gS fd efgyk iapk;rksa esa lk{kj efgykvksa dh Hkh
vPNh&[kklh la[;k gS vkSj fuj{kj efgyk,¡ Hkh viuk dk;Z vPNh rjg djrh gS] mudk izn”kZu iq#’k izfrfufèk;ksa
ls fdlh ekeys esa de ugha gSA
iq#’koknh ekufldrk ds f”kdkj yksx vDlj ;g rdZ nsrs gSa fd fuj{kj efgyk,¡ iapk;rksa dk dkedkt
Bhd <ax ls ugha le> ldrh gSa vkSj os vius ifr;ksa }kjk lapkfyr ekse dh xqfM+;k lkfcr gksaxh] fdUrq
losZ{k.k ds fu’d’kZ blds foijhr gSaA ns”k esa lk{kjrk c<+us rFkk xzkeh.k LokLF; dks lq/kjus ls efgyk iapk;r
izfrfuf/k;ksa dh Hkwfedk Hkh igys ls csgrj gksxhA ns”k esa ftl rjg bZ&xousZl “kq: gks jgk gS mldk iz Hkko
iapk;rksa ij Hkh iM+sxkA ns”k esa vHkh yk[kksa iapk;r ?kj cuus gSa vkSj izR;sd iapk;r ?kj esa dEI;wV j yxkus dh
;kstuk gSA blds fy, efgyk iapk;r izfrfuf/k;ksa dks Hkh izf”kf{kr fd;k tkuk gSa dbZ Lo;alsoh laxBuksa dh
enn ls ljdkj efgyk iapk;r izfrfuf/k;ksa dks izf”kf{kr djus dk dke Hkh dj jgh gSA pw¡fd vHkh ns”k esa
ukSdj”kkgh mruh pqLr ugha gS] LFkkuh; iz”kklu <hyk gS vkSj dbZ jkT;ksa dh foŸkh; fLFkfr Bhd ugha gS ,oa
iapk;rksa dks vHkh foŸkh; vf/kdkj ugha feys gSa] blfy, iapk;rksa ds tfj, gksrh ekSu ØkfUr dk ifj.kfr mruh
vkd’kZd utj ugha vk jgh gSA ysfdu tc laln vkSj fo/kku lHkkvksa esa 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.k ykxw gksxk rks
efgyk iapk;r izfrfuf/k;ksa ds fy, ,d u;k jktuhfrd jkLrk [kqysxk vkSj os ml ij vkxs c<+rs gq, laln
rd igq¡psaxhA muds ikl ,d u;k vuqHko gksxk ftldk ykHk uhfr;ksa ds fu/kkZj.k esa feysxkA
;g lgh gS fd dsoy jktuhfrd l”kfDrdj.k ls gh efgykvksa dk lEiw.kZ l”kfDrdj.k ugha gksxkA jktuhfrd
l”kfDrdj.k dh n`f’V l Hkkjr dh efgykvksa dk LFkku 178 ns”kksa esa 21osa LFkku ij gS] ysfdu vkfFkZd Hkkxhnkjh]
“kS{kf.kd ekeys ,oa LokLF; dh n`f’V ls Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dh iwjs fo”o esa jSfdax Øe”k% 122] 116 rFkk 126
gSA bl rjg efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk y{; izkIr djusa ds fy, mRiknu vkSj vk; vtZu ds {ks= esa efgykvksa
dks vkxs vkuk gS] Ldwyksa] dkWystksa esa muds nkf[kys dk izfr”kr c<+kuk gS rks LokLF; lqfo/kk,¡ ,oa ikSf’Vd
vkgkj dh ek=k c<+kuh gksxh] rHkh ,d L=h lgh vFkksZ esa l”kDr gks ik;sxhA
lanHkZ xzUFk
1- vxzoky] mes”k pUnz] efgyk vf/kdkjksa ds laj{k.k dh ubZ fn”kk] izfr;ksfxrk niZ.k] vkxjk] vxLr 2015A
2- yokfu;k] ,e0,u0] Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dk lekt”kkL=] fjlpZ&ifCyds”ku] ubZ fnYyh 2007A
3- jk;tknk] vthr] efgyk mRihM+u leL;k o lek/kku] e0iz0 fgUnh xzUFk] vdkneh] 2000A
4- vxzoky “k’kh jkuh] L=h% orZeku lUnHkZ esa] fot; izdk”ku efUnj] okjk.klh 2008A
5- js.kq] efgyk l”kfDrdj.k] jksfgr ifCyf”kax gkml] fnYyh 2008A
6- xkSjkgk] ,u0ds0] ^îapk;rh jkt rFkk lŸkk o “kfDr fodsUnzdj.k ¼v/;{kh; mn~cks/ku½] jk’Vª h; laxks’Bh “kkldh; egkfo|ky;]
lSyuk] e0iz0] 2009A
vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr % ,d v/;;u
yfyr dqekj *
izLrkouk
gekjs ns”k dh yxHkx vk/kh vkcknh efgykvksa dh gS ftlds fodkl ds fcuk ns”k dk fodkl lEHko ugha
gSA bu efgykvksa ds fodkl gsrq ljdkj lrr~ iz;Ru”khy jgh gSA efgykvksa ij c<+rs vijk/kksa ds izfr ljdkj
}kjk dM+s dkuwu cuk;s x;s gSa rkfd efgykvksa ds fodkl ds lkFk&lkFk mudks lqj{kk iznku dh tk ldsA
ljdkj ds blh iz;kl ls ns”k dh efgykvksa esa lk{kjrk dk izfr”kr c<+k gSA jktuhfr ds {ks= esa Hkh efgykvksa
us egRoiw.kZ miyfC/k gkfly dh gSA blds vykok ns”k ds fofHkUu {ks= esa viuh lsok,a eqgS;k djk jgh gSA
efgyk,a tkx:d gksdj vkRefuHkZj gksus ds fy, lrr~ iz;Ru”khy gSA vktknh ds ckn efgykvksa us pkSdk&crZu
ls fudydj ckgjh nqfu;k esa dne j[kk gSA ysfdu fQj Hkh vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa efgyk,a vius vkidks iwjh rjg
lqjf{kr ugha le> jgh gSA muds lkFk gksus okyh ?kVuk,a muds fodkl esa ck/kd gSA
v/;;u dk mn~ns’;
1- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh “kS{kf.kd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
2- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd vkfFkZd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djukA
3- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa ds fodkl gsrq fd;s x;s iz;klksa dk v/;;u djukA
v/;;u i)fr
izLrqr v/;;u gsrq f}rh; vkadM+ksa dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gSA ftlesa fofHkuu i=&if=dk,a vkfn lfEefyr
gSaA blds vykok ljdkjh izdk”ku okf”kZd izfrosnu rFkk ,u-,l-,l-vks- }kjk izdkf”kr fofHkUu fjiksVZ dk
iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh ‘kS{kf.kd fLFkfr
f”k{kk dk euq’; ds lok±xh.k fodkl esa egRoiw.kZ LFkku jgk gS vkSj ;g lR;rk gS fd tks lekt f”kf{kr
jgk gSA og rjDdh ds ekeys esa vkxs jgk gSA blesa pkgs efgyk,a gks ;k iq:’k nksuksa ds fodkl ds fy, f”k{kk
t:jh gSA vktknh ls iwoZ ns”k esa f”k{kk lekt ds dqN oxksZa rd lhfer jgh gS] ysfdu ns”k ds gj ukxfjd
*
vflLVsaV izk sQslj] vFkZ“kkL= foHkkx] jktdh; jtk ihth dkyst] jkeiqjA
dks f”k{kk izkIr gks blds fy, vktknh ls iwoZ iz;kl gksrs jgs gSaA blesa ns”k dh efgykvksa dh n;uh; fLFkfr
dks ns[krs gq, mudks lk{kj djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA ftlls muds fodkl dk ekxZ iz”kLr gks ldsA
rkfydk3 la[;k 1% L=h iq:”k lk{kjrk nj dk vUrj

o”kZ dqy lk{kjrk nj iq:’k lk{kjrk nj efgyk lk{kjrk nj vUrj
1981 43-57 56-36 29-76 26-62
1991 52-21 64-13 39-29 24-84
2001 68-38 75-85 54-16 21-70
2011 74-04 82-14 65-46 16-68
mijksDr lkj.kh ls Li’V gS fd ns”k dh vktknh ds ckn efgyk lk{kjrk nj esa o`f) gqbZ gSA o’kZ 1981 esa
efgyk lk{kjrk nj 29-76 izfr”kr Fkh ogha o’kZ 2011 esa ;g c<+dj 65-46 izfr”kr gks x;hA tcfd bldh
rqyuk esa bl vof/k esa iq:’kksa dh lk{kjrk nj vf/kd jgh gSA lkFk gh ns”k dh vkSlr lk{kjrk nj Hkh efgyk
lk{kjrk nj ls vf/kd gSA blfy, L=h&iq:’k lk{kjrk nj dk vUrj efgykvksa ds “kSf{kd fodkl ds lkFk&lkFk
?kVk gSA ;g vUrj o’kZ 1981 esa 26-62 izfr”kr Fkk tks ?kVdj o’kZ 2011 esa 16-68 izfr”kr gks x;kA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd&vkfFkZd fLFkfr
;|fi mijksDr ds lEcU/k esa ;fn ge vkadM+ksa dk v/;;u djrs gSa rks ns”k esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr fuEuor gSA6
iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk esa Hkkxhnkjh & 33 izfr”kr
laln ds nksuksa lnuksa esa Hkkxhnkjh & 10 izfr”kr
jkT; dh fo/kku lHkkvksa esa Hkkxhnkjh & 6 izfr”kr
vkbZ-,-,l- laoxZ esa Hkkxhnkjh & 12 izfr”kr
vkbZ-ih-,l- laoxZ esa Hkkxhnkjh & 5 izfr”kr
lkoZtfud {ks= esa dke djus okyh & 17 izfr”kr
laxfBr {ks= esa dke djus okyh & 19 izfr”kr
mijksDr vkadM+ksa ds v/;;u ls Li’V gS fd orZeku esa efgyk,a vkRefuHkZj o LokoyEch gqbZ gSa tcfd
vktknh ds le; bu {ks=ksa esa budh Hkkxhnkjh de jgh gSA blfy, vktknh ds ckn ns”k dh efgyk,a lkekftd
o vkfFkZd n`f’V ls etcwr gqbZ gS vkSj vc os tkx:d gks jgha gS vkSj vius vf/kdkjksa ds izfr la?k’kZ dj jgh
gSA ysfdu blls Hkh budkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk gS fd os dgha u dgh vkt Hkh fodflr ns”kksa dh efgykvksa
dh rqyuk esa fiNM+h gqbZ gSA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa ds fodkl gsrq fd;s x;s iz;kl
vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh n;uh; fLFkfr lq/kkjus ds fy, ljdkj }kjk le;≤ ij iz;kl fd;s
tkrs jgs gSa rkfd os vkRefuHkZj] l”kDr vkSj LokoyEch cu ldsA blds fy, fofHkUu ;kstukvksa] uhfr;ksa o
dk;ZØeksa dk lapkyu gksrk jgk gSA ftudk {ks=okj fooj.k fuEuor jgk gSA
1- efgykvksa ds “kS{kf.kd fodkl gsrq ljdkjh iz;kl& vktknh ls iwoZ efgyk,a f”k{kk ls oafpr jgh gSA
ysfdu vktknh ds ckn efgyk f”k{kk ij fo”ks’k /;ku fn;k x;k gS ftlds fy, ljdkj us ns”k esa
iz kFkfed ls mPp f”k{kk xz g.k djus gsrq fofHkUu ckfydk fo|ky;] ckfydk ba Vj dkyst] efgyk
egkfo|ky; dh LFkkiuk dh gSA blds vykok lg&f”k{kk gsrq vusd f”k{k.k laLFkku [kksys x;s gSaA
ns”k ds xjhc ckfydkvksa ds fy, efgyk Nk=kokl dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;kA loZ f”k{kk vfHk;ku rFkk
*csVh cpkvksa csVh i<+kvks* dk;ZØe ds rgr efgykvksa dks f”kf{kr djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA
2- efgykvksa dks jkstxkj o Lojkstxkj miyC/k djkus gsrq iz;kl& vk/kqfud Hkkjr esa efgyk,a jkstxkj
o Lojkstxkj ds {ks= esa vkxs c<+h gSaA D;ksafd ns”k esa efgyk,a jkstxkj ls oafpr jgh gS ftlls os
lkekftd o vkfFkZd n`f’V ls detksj gksrh x;hA vktknh ds ckn ljdkj dk /;ku efgykvksa dks
jkstxkj o Lojkstxkj miyC/k djkus ij fn;k gS rkfd os vkRefuHkZj gksdj Lokoyach cu ldsA bl
gsrq ljdkj us fofHkUu ;kstuk,a o dk;ZØe lapkfyr fd;s gSa ftlesa eujsxk] Lo.kZ t;Urh xzke Lojkstxkj
;kstuk] jk’Vªh; xzkeh.k jkstxkj fe”ku] Lo.kZt;Urh “kgjh jkstxkj ;kstuk vkfn izeq[k gSaA 8
fu”d”kZ ,oa lq>ko
mijksDr v/;;u ls ;g Li’V gksrk gS fd orZeku esa Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr lq/kkj gqvk gSA D;ksaf d
ftu ewyHkwr lqfo/kkvksa ls ;s oafpr jgh os Hkkjr ds laoS/kkfud O;oLFkk vuqlkj eqgS;k djk;h x;h gSA vktknh
ds ckn ljdkj us ns”k dh efgykvksa dks tkx:d djus] mudks vkRefuHkZj cukus gsrq Hkjld iz;kl fd;k gSA
vc fdlh Hkh {ks= esa efgyk,a ihNs ugha gSA os tkx:d gksdj vius vf/kdkjksa ds izfr la?k’kZjr gSA ifj.kke
;g gS fd ns”k dh efgykvksa us iapk;r ls ysdj laln o jk’Vªifr rd dk lQj iwjk fd;k gS] ysfdu ljdkj
ds brus iz;kl ds ckotwn vkt Hkh gekjs ns”k esa efgyk,a iq:’kksa o fodflr ns”kksa dh efgykvksa dh rqy uk esa
fiNM+h gqbZ gSA vf/kdka”k efgyk,a vkt Hkh f”k{kk ls oafpr gSa vkSj tkx:drk esa ihNs gSaA muds lkFk gksus
okyh fgald ?kVuk,a tSls ?kjsyw fgalk] NsM+NkM+] cykRdkj vkfn cnLrwj tkjh gSA vr% mUgsa vkSj vf/kd fodflr]
lqjf{kr o tkx:d cukus dh vko”;drk gS blfy, ljdkj dks ,slh uhfr cukus dh vko”;drk gS tks ns”k
dh xjhc ls xjhc efgyk dks Åij mBkus esa ennxkj lkfcr gks ldsA
lanHkZ lwph
1- MkW Œ dqlqe es?koky] Hkkjrh; ukjh ds m)kjd Mk- ch-vkj- vEcsMdj] lE;d izdk”ku] ubZ fnYyh] laLdj.k ¼2005½ ist
70&80 dk voyksduA
2- dq:{ks=] flrEcj] 2011 ist 14
3- tux.kuk fjiksVZ 1981 ls 2011 rd
4- tkxj.k okf’kZdh 2013] ist 296
5- nSfud tkxj.k] cjsyh] laLdj.k 8 ekpZ 2016 ist 8
6- vej mtkyk] 8 ekpZ 2013
7- bafM;k Vh-oh- U;wt pSuy fnukad 06-12-2013] le; lk;a 6 cts ds ckn dk izlkj.kA
8- dq:{ks=] flrEcj 2011 ist 16&19
vkfFkZd txr ds fodkl esa efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk
o”kkZ jkgqy*
Hkkjr dk lafo/kku iq:’kksa vkSj efgykvksa] nksukas dks leku :i ls vf/kdkj ,oa Lrj iznku djrk gSa blds
i”pkr~ Hkh bl rF; dks udkjk ugha tk ldrk fd fodkl ,oa lkekftd n`f’V;ksa ls efgyk,a vHkh Hkh iq:’kksa ls
dkQh ihNs gSaA efgykvksa ds l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, ljdkjh iz;klksa ds varxZr ljdkj us o’kZ 2001 dks efgyk
l”kfDrdj.k o’kZ ds :i esa eukus dh ?kks’k.kk dh FkhA bl lanHkZ esa ,d fopkj.kh; rF; ;g gS fd D;k bl izdkj
ds iz;klksa ls efgyk,a ml LFkku rd] mu vkn”kksZa rd igqap ldrh gSa] ftUgsa ljdkj }kjk ?kksf’kr fd;k x;k gS
vFkok tks visf{kr gS \ oLrqr% ;g dk;Z Lo;a efgykvksa ,oa tu&lk/kkj.k ds visf{kr lg;ksx ds vHkko esa iw.kZ
gks ikuk vlEHko gSA blds fy, iw.kZ euks;ksx ls bl fn”kk esa vko”;d dne mBk, tkus vko”;d gSaA
;qx dh dk;k iyV jgh] rsjh D;k igpku\ rw vius dks igpku - - - A LorU=rk lsukuh ljyk “kekZ dh
;s ifDr;k¡ tSls fL=;ksa dks viuh vfLerk igpkuus ds fy;s dqjsnrh gSaA vkt dh L=h cnyrs le; ds lkFk
viuh ubZ igpku cukus dh dksf”k”k dj jgh gSA mldh bl igpku ds lkFk tqM+h gS mldh vkfFkZd Lora=rkA
fo”o ds yxHkx lHkh lektksa esa efgykvksa dk Lrj iq:’kksa ds leku ugha gSA iq:’k ;k efgyk thou ds gj {ks=
esa og fdlh ij vkfJr u jgdj ,d vkRefuHkZj rFkk Lora= thou thuk pkgrk gSA ijUrq ,slk izrhr gksrk
gS tSls efgykvksa ls mlds vkfFkZd :i ls vkRe fuHkZj gksus dk vf/kdkj Nhu fy;k x;k gks vkSj lnSo gh og
nwljksa ij fuHkZj jgh gSA “kk;n blh fuHkZjrk us mls thou ds gj {ks= esa nwljs ntsZ ij ykdj [kM+k dj fn;k
gSA ysfdu vkt ifjfLFkfr;k¡ cnyh gSaA f”k{kk ds izlkj us efgykvksa dks tkx:d cuk fn;k gS vkSj mudh
c<+rh gq;h egRokdka{kk us mUgsa vkfFkZd :i ls lqn`<+ cuus dks izsfjr fd;k gSA
vkt lalkj Hkj dh vkSjrsa ?kj vkSj ckgj dh nqfu;k esa larqyu cukrs gq;s vius vkidks lkfcr dj jgh
gSaA bldk lcls cM+k dkj.k gS] muesa mUufr ds jkLrk ij vkxs c<+us dh xgjh yydA efgykvksa dks u dsoy
vkfFkZd fodkl esa leku Hkkxhnkj cukus ij cy fn;k tk jgk gS] cfYd mUgsa izR;sd ekspsZ ij leku le>us
dh vko”;drk eglwl dh tk jgh gSA fo”ks’k tksj bl ckr ij fn;k tk jgk gS fd efgykvksa dks vyx
igpku okyk euq’; le>k tk;sA bl oxZ ds Åij o’kksZa ls lkekftd] vkfFkZd o jktuSfrd fu;ksZX;rk,a Fkksih
xbZ Fkh] tks izkd`frd u gksdj izkphu Hkkjrh; O;oLFkk dh nsu FkhA bUgsa ijEijkxr fu;ksZX;rkvksa dks nwj djds
“kks’k.k] HksnHkko rFkk mRihM+u ds ca/ku ls eqDr djkdj vU; yksxksa ds led{k ykuk rFkk mUgsa lkekftd]
vkfFkZd vkSj jktuSfrd U;k; iznku djuk] bl dky dk fpUruh; fcUnq cu x;k gSA vkfFkZd vkRefuHkZjrk
efgykvksa ds fy;s u;s vk;ke [kksyus dk dke djrh gSA Lo;a dekus okyh efgyk thou esa vius fu.kZ; ysus
ds fy;s Lora= gksrh gSA
* lgk0 izk/;kid] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] Mh0oh0 dkW yst] mjbZA

orZeku ukjh eqfDr dk bfrgkl gh muds vkfFkZd vkUnksyu ls “kq: gksrk gSA ;g lQj “kq: gqvk 8 ekpZ]
1857 lssA ml fnu U;w;kdZ dh lM+dksa ij igyh ckj gtkjksa dkedkth efgyk;sa ,d= gqbZa] ;s efgyk;sa Fkh U;w;kdZ
“kgj dh xkjesaV rFkk VsDlVkby dkj[kkus dh dkexkjA cgqr de osru feyuk] dke ds ?kaVs cgqr vf/kd gksuk
vkSj ofdZax daMh”ku csgn vekuoh; gksuk ,sls dkj.k Fks] tks muds fy;s vlguh; gks pqds FksA vkf[kjdkj mUgksus
gM+rky dj nhA ;g fnu ¼8 ekpZ½ fo”o Hkj dh ukfj;ksa ds fy;s izsj.kklzksr cu x;kA 8 ekpZ 1977 esa la;qDr jk’Vª
egklHkk esa ;g fnu jk’Vªh; efgyk vf/kdkj ds :i esa euk;s tkus dk ,d izLrko ikl gqvkA
vkt efgyk;sa flQZ MkDVj] bathfu;j] Vhpj vkSj odhy dh Hkwfedk esa gh ugha cfYd dkjksckj dh le>
j[kus ,oa ftEesnkjh lEgkyus okyh l”kDr O;olk;h ds :i esa mHkj jgh gSaA efgyk,a ml gj ,d {ks= esa
dq”kyrkiwoZd dke dj jgh gSa ftUgsa vc rd iq:’kksa dk dke ekuk tkrk FkkA igys efgykvksa ds fy;s f”kf{kdk
dk dke mfpr ekuk tkrk Fkk] ;k rks MkDVj cu ldrh Fkh] ysfdu vkt dksbZ ,slk {ks= ugha gS] tgka mlus
viuk opZLo dk;e u fd;k gksA Hkys gh vHkh mudh la[;k de gks ysfdu “kq:vkr rks gks gh x;h gSA ikrky
dh xgjkbZ;ksa ls ysdj vkdk”k dh ÅapkbZ;ksa dks ukius esa L=h us egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ gSA
xzkeh.k ,oa fiNM+s gq, bykdksa esa vf/kdka”k efgyk;sa ?kj ds vU; lnL;ksa ds lkFk dke ij tkrh gSa rFkk
mudk lg;ksx djrh gSa ysfdu mUgsa dksbZ vkfFkZd Lora=rk izkIr ugha gSA os viuh bPNk ,oa vko”;drkuqlkj
vk; dk dksbZ Hkh Hkkx iz;ksx ugha dj ldrhA xkaoksa dh efgyk;sa [ksrh dk vf/kdka”k dk;Z& cht NhaVuk]
ikSèkkjksi.k] [kkn&ikuh Qly dh dVkbZ ,oa ?kj ykus rd lHkh dk;Z djrh gSA blds ckotwn efgykvksa dks
d`’kd dh Js.kh esa ugha j[kk x;kA ^^vkfFkZd mUufr ds :i esa ek= iq:’k dh lg;ksxh dh Hkwfedk vnk djrh
gSA efgykvksa dh vk; dks izR;{k :i ls iznf”kZr ugha fd;k tkrk D;ksafd mls flQZ larku mi&mRiknd ekuk
tkrk gS u fd mRikndA**1
lalkj ds pqus gq;s ns”kksa esa ljdkjh {ks= esa efgykvksa dk izfr”kr
Ø-a la - ns 'k lHkh Lrjks a ij fyfidh; fyfidh; inks a ls
efgykvks a dk inks a ij fuEu Lrjks a ij
izfr'kr izfr'kr izfr'kr
1- la; qDr jkT; vesfjdk 33-1 14-3 34-5

2- vkLVªsfy;k 22-6 14-7 25-9
3- Jhyadk 10-2 13-2 9-6
4- baX yS.M 6-9 8-3 6-6
5- Hkkjr 5-8 3-2 6-2
6- ikfdLrku 2-6 2-4 2-6
7- usiky 0-0 0-0 0-0
8- lÅnh vjc 0-0 0-0 0-0
Hkkjr esa Hkkjrh; fL=;ksa dh izxfr

fodkl ds izfreku fL=;k¡ ¼djks M+ ks a es a ½
dk;Z vkSj jks txkj
dk;Z lgHkkfxrk nj ¼1991½ 22-3
laxfBr {ks= essa ¼yk[k esa½ ¼1997½ 43-9% ¼15-9%½
ljdkjh {ks= esa ¼yk[k esa½ ¼1997½ 26-1¼13-8%½
Hkkjrh; iz'kklfud lsok ¼2000½ 53-5 ¼10-4%½
Hkkjrh; iqf yl lsok 110 ¼3-3%½
Jktuhfrd
iapk;rh jkt laLFkk,a ¼2013½ 11-14 ¼31-3%½
fo/kkulHkk esa ¼2014½ 229 ¼5-6½
dsUnzh ; lfefr dh ea=h ¼2014½ 12-05 ¼15-9%½
Hkkjr esa c<+r h vkS|ks fxd ØkfUr us dsoy mRiknu c<+ kus ij /;ku fn;kA ekuoh; n”kkvks a ij ughaA
vfèkdka”k Jfed efgykvksa ls lHkh m|ksxksa esa lcls fuEu Js.kh ds [krjukd vkSj esgur okys dke djok;s
tkrs gSaA ftl dkj.k og Vh0oh0] gQuh] lkal dh rdyhQsa] gkFk iSjksa esa lwtu] ekalisf”k;ksa dh f”kfFkyrk]
;d`r vkSj xq nsZ dh fuf’Ø;rk ls ysdj izl o ds nkSjku cPpks a dh vdky e`R ;q vkSj dS alj tSl h tkuys ok
chekfj;ksa dk f”kdkj gks tkrh gSaA pk; vkSj dkQh m|ksx esa vf/kdrj vkSjrsa gh dke djrh gSaA pk; ds ckxksa
esa dhVuk”kd vkSj moZjd t:jr ls T;knk bLrseky fd;k tkrk gS ftlls vkSjrksa esa reke Ropk lEcU/kh
jksx] tksM+ksa esa nnZ] vFkZjkbfVl] ekalisf”k;ksa esa f”kfFkyrk ls ysdj vusd izdkj dh chekfj;ka ?ksj ysrh gSaA exj
gkyr vkSj etcwjh ds ckn Hkh bu dkeksa dks djus ds fy;s os etcwj gSaA buds ekfyd budks dke djrs oDr
ukd vkSj eqag dks <+kdus ds fy;s ekLd rd ugha nsrs tcfd budh dher Hkh T;knk ugha gksrh vkSj tku ls
T;knk rks fcYdqy ughaA fuekZ.k m|ksx esa 6-5 yk[k yksx dk;Z djrs gSaA buesa ls 15 izfr”kr vkSjrsa gS a] tks
etnwj ds :i esa bZaV xkjk vkfn <+ksus dk dke djrh gSA ;gka uotkr f”k”kqvksa dh e`R;q nj o xHkZikr dh nj
cgqr vf/kd gksrh gSA
dSlh fcMEcuk gS fd lHkh {ks=ksa esa iq:’kksa ds leku dk;Z djus ds ckn Hkh mis{kk dh f”kdkj gSa muds dk;Z
ds ?kaVs vf/kd gS] osru Hkh iq:’kksa ls de izkIr gksrk gS rFkk dk;Z dh n”kk;s a rks csgn vekuoh; gSa A bu
efgykvksa dh vkokt lquus okyk “kk;n dksbZ ughaA l”kfDrdj.k dh ckr dus okyh vkSj efgykvksa ds vfèkdkjksa
dk ijpe mBkus okyh lHkh ljdkjh] xSj ljdkjh ,oa jktuhfrd ny budh rjQ ls vka[ks ewans jgrs gSaA ;g
xSj i<+h fy[kh] gkykr ls tw>rh esgurdk”k vkSjrsa efgyk vf/kdkjksa dh ifjf/k esa ugha vk ikrhA os lHkh
orZuk;sa VwVsxh flQZ ,d ckj bu efgykvksa ds laxfBr gksus vkSj lkgl djus dh vko”;drk gSA bldk ,d
cgqr gh vPNk mnkgj.k&”kksykiqj dh efgyk chM+h Jfed dk gSA ,d efgyk chM+h etnwj fnu esa yxHkx
1200 chM+h cukrh gS vkSj mls yxHkx 1500 :i;s efgus dh vkenuh gks tkrh gSA nl lkyksa ls vius ifjokjks a
dk isV ikyus okys bu O;Lr efgyk etnwjksa ds fy;s cM+s QØ dh ckr gS fd mUgksus jgu&lgu dh fLFkfr;ksa
dks csgrj cukus ds fy;s la?k’kZ NsM+us dk le; fudkykA bldk Js; fo/kk;d ujlS;k vkne dks tkrk gSA
ftUgksus bu etnwjksa dks xksirkjZ i:ysdj efgyk chM+h dkexkj lgdkjh x`g fuekZ.k laLFkk e;kZfnr esa ,d
tqV fd;kA bl lgdkjh vkokl lfefr dh flQkfj”k jax ykbZ vkSj 1988 esa nl gtkj lLrs edkuksa ds
fuekZ.k dk flyflyk “kq: gqvkA “kh?kz gh dsUnz vkSj jkT; ljdkjksa us tehu vkSj lfClMh dk cUnkscLr fd;kA
“kksykiqj dh de ykxr okyh vkokl ifj;kstuk dks ,f”k;k esa vius fdLe dh lcls cM+h ;kstuk cuk;k tk
jgk gSA fcYdqy xjhc vkSjrksa ds lkewfgd iz;kl ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh ;g ;kstuk lkdkj :i ys ldh gSA bl
vkUnksyu ds izsjd ujlS;k vkne cM+s xoZ ds lkFk dgrs gSa ^^;g mudk rktegy gSA** 5
Jfed efgykvksa vkSj ikjLifjd {ks= esa dke djus okyh efgykvksa ds vfrfjDr efgykvksa dk ,d nwljk
igyw Hkh gS tks vkdk”k dh Å¡pkbZ;ksa dks Nwus dh dksf”k”k dj jgh gSA vcyk dh otZukvksa dks /oLr djrh gqbZ
;s efgyk;sa foRr vkSj cSfdax ls ysdj VªSDVj fuekZ.k vkSj gksVy] vLirky pykus dk ftEek laHkkykA izfr’Bkuksa
dh deku laHkkyus ds lkFk ;s efgyk;sa vfHkuo iz;ksx ls viuh izfrHkk ds >aMs Hkh xkM+ jgh gSA Hkkjrh; ukjh
ds cnyrs gq, :i dh lkdkj izfrek fdju etwenkj&bUgksus Hkkjr dh lcls vehj efgyk dk xkSjo izkIr
fd;k gSA fdju etwenkj us 1978 esa ck;ksdkWu fyfeVsM dh LFkkiuk dh ftldh dher vkt 5000 djksM+
:i;s ls Hkh T;knk gSA6
,u,lchlh dh fMIVh lhbZvks uk;uk yky fdnobZ dk ekuuk gS fd ^^lRrk L=h&iq:’k esa Hksn ugha djrh]
og rks vlj] fu;a=.k vkSj gSfl;r j[kus okyh dh gksrh gSA** 8 ;s lHkh os efgyk;sa gSa tks O;olk; ds lkFk&lkFk
yksxksa dk thou Lrj lq/kkjus dk Hkh iz;kl dj jgh gSaA tSls FkesZDl dEiuh dh v/;{kk vukZokt vuq vkxk
tks ÅtkZ vkSj i;kZoj.k bathfu;fjax dh 830 djksM+ :i;s dh dEiuh ds equkQs dk ,d izfr”kr lkekftd
dk;ksZa vkSj iq.ks “kgj ds lkSUn;hZdj.k ds fy;s vyx fudky nsrh gSA jk’Vªh; Ms;jh fodkl cksMZ dh v/;{k
ve`rk iVsy us dsjy esa xk;ksa dks [krjukd chekjh ls cpkus dk vfHk;ku “kq: fd;kA dkjksckj ,oa vFkZO;oLFkk
dh le> j[kus okyh ;s efgyk;sa vkt “kfDr dk izrhd cu x;h gSaA muds QSlys vDlj lHkh i{kksa ds fy;s
fpUrk ls izsfjr ik;s x;s gSaA pkgs os dEiuh ds deZpkjh gksa ;k miHkksDrk ;k i;kZoj.kA ;s lHkh efgyk;sa vius
vfHkuo iz;ksx ,oa dkS”ky ls izfrHkk ds >aMs Qgjk jgh gSA dbZ vkSj otZuk;sa VwVsxhA efgyk;sa ekuus yxh gSa
fd ^^vkfFkZd vkRefuHkZjrk dk lh/kk lEcU/k vkRe lEeku ls gS** ukjh l”kDr gksdj cnyko dh vksj gSA
bl rjg L=h dh izxfr dk lewpk ifjn`”; vktknh ds igys dh fL=;ksa ds ifjn`”; ls furkar fHkUu gSA
vusd la?k’kksZa ls tw>rs gq;s mlus viuh “kfDr] lkgl vkSj fo”okl ls izxfr ds ekxZ dks iz”kLr fd;k gS]
thou dh gj pqukSrh dk lkeuk fd;k gSA tkx:d vkSj lkeF;Z iw.kZ ukjh dk fojks/k vc mruk vklku ugha
gS ftruk vktknh ls igys FkkA vkt lekt esa mldh lfØ; Hkwfedk gSA viuh vusd Hkwfedkvksa ds chp
lkeatL; fcBkuh dh dksf”k”k esa og dbZ ckj rukoxzLr gksrh gS] exj viuh vkLFkk dh ykS dks /khek ugha
iM+us ns jgh gSA og fLFkfr;ksa ls tw>rs gq;s vkxs c<+ jgh gSA izxfr dh ped fy;s mldh jpukRed “kfDr
vius fy;s lgh <k¡pk ryk”k jgh gSA fuf”pr gh vkus okys le; esa mldk izxfr iFk iz”kLr gksxkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- efgykvksa dh fLFkfr] Økfudy] i`- la0& 399
2- Økfudy 2005] Hkkjr dh lkekftd leL;k;sa] i`- la0&366
3- L=h ?kks’k] dqeqn “kekZ] i`0la0&154
ySafxd vlekurk ds i;kZoj.kh; izHkko
fo”.kq dqekj ‘kqDy *
efgykvksa dk i;kZoj.k ls lalk/ku fonksgu ,oa lkFk gh i;kZoj.k ds laj{k.k ls izR;{k lEcU/k gSA Hkkjr
tSls fodkl”khy ns”kksa esa vHkh Hkh vf/kla[; tula[;k viuh vkthfodk gsrq izkFkfed dk;ksZa ij fuHkZj gSA
ftlesa efgykvksa dh mRiknu esa fof”k’V Hkwfedk jgrh gSA vf/kdrj d`f’k dk esgurd”k dk;Z efgykvksa }kjk
gh laikfnr fd;k tkrk gSA i’kqvksa dk pkjk&ikuh dk izcU/k] mudk j[kj[kko] nw/k fudkyuk] ?kj esa Hkkst u
idkus ds fy, tykus dh ydM+h dk izcU/k ;k miys tqVkuk] blds vfrfjDr vukt dks lkQ djus o HkaMkj.k
djus esa Hkh efgykvksa dh izeq[k Hkwfedk jgrh gSA ?kjksa ls fudyus okys dwM+s] tSfod ;k Bksl vif”k’V ds
fuLrkj.k dh O;oLFkk Hkh efgykvksa dks gh djuh gksrh gSA blh izdkj vf/kdrj QqVdj O;kikj esa efgyk,a
layXu jgrh gSa rFkkfi fu.kZ; ysus esa efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk yxHkx ux.k; jgrh gSA
lkekftd vlekurk ,oa HksnHkko dk iz[kj Lo:i izk;% izR;sd ns”k o lekt esa ySafxd vlekurk ds :i
esa ifjyf{kr gksrk gSA Hkkjr esa Lora=rk ds 70 o’kksZa ds i’pkr~ vkt Hkh gekjs lekt esa csVs ds tUe ij [kq”kh
euk;h tkrh gS vkSj ;fn ,d csVh dk tUe gksrk gS rks ge “kkUr gks tkrs gSaA blds vfrfjDr efgykvksa dk
lekt esa fupyk Lrj gksus ds dkj.kksa esa ls vR;f/kd xjhch vkSj f”k{kk dh deh Hkh gSA xjhch vkSj f”k{kk dh
deh ds dkj.k gh efgyk,a de osru ij ?kjsyw dk;Z djus ;k izoklh etnwjksa ds :i esa dk;Z djus ds fy,
etcwj gksrh gSaA efgykvksa dks u dsoy vleku osru ;k vf/kd dk;Z djk;k tkrk gS cfYd muds fy, de
dkS”ky dh ukSdfj;ka gh miyC/k gksrh gSa] ftudk osru cgqr de gksrk gSA ;g fyax ds vk/kkj ij vlekurk
dk ,d izeq[k :i cu x;k gSA
Hkkjr lfgr mu lHkh ns”kksa esa tgka lHkh ukxfjd lk{kj ugha gSa] blesa efgyk fuj{kjksa dh izeq[krk jgrh
gSA QyLo:i i;kZoj.k voØe.k ds lzksr] izfØ;k] izfrQy vkfn ds izfr efgykvksa esa psruk ;k ;ksxnku Hkh
fuEuLrjh; gksrh gSA vf/kdrj efgyk,a vius dk;ksZa dks ijEijkxr ;k :f<+oknh <ax ls gh lEikfnr djrh
jgrh gSaA
efgykvksa ij ,d vUrjkZ’Vªh; v/;;u ds vuqlkj jk’Vªksa ,oa leqnk;ksa ds vUrxZr efgyk,a izk;% vusd
izdkj dh vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd vlekurk ls xzLr jgrh gSA efgyk,a gh lekt rFkk ifjokj esa fgalk rFkk
jk’Vªksa ds e/; la?k’kZ dh fLFkfr esa funksZ’k ijUrq izFke f”kdkj curh gSaA
* ,fl+- izks-] lh0th0,u0 ¼ih0th0½ dkW yst] xksyk xksd .kZukFk&[khjhA

Hkkjr esa ySafxd vlekurk ds dkj.k rFkk izdkj

fyax vlekurk dks lkekU; “kCnksa esa bl izdkj Li’V fd;k tk ldrk gS fd ySafxd vk/kkj ij efgykvksa
ds lkFk HksnHkkoA lekt esa ijEijkxr :i ls efgykvksa dks detksj tkfr oxZ ds :i esa ekuk tkrk gSA og
iq:’kksa dh v/khuLFk fLFkfr esa gksrh gSA og ?kj o lekt nksuksa esa “kksf’kr] viekfur] vØfer vkSj HksnHkko ls
ihfM+r gksrh gSA efgykvksa ds fo:) HksnHkko dk ;g vn~Hkqr izdkj fo”o ds lHkh ns”kksa esa izpfyr gSA tcfd
Hkkjr esa bl HksnHkko dk Lrj vR;f/kd Å¡pk gSA
Hkkjrh; lekt esa fyax vlekurk dk ewy dkj.k bldh fir`lRrkRed O;oLFkk esa fufgr gSA lekt”kkL=h
izks0 flfYo;k okYos ds vuqlkj & ^^fir`lRrkRedrk lkekftd lajpuk dh ,d ,slh izfØ;k vkSj O;oLFkk gS]
ftlesa iq:’k L=h ij viuk izHkqRo tekrk gSA mldk neu djrk gS vkSj mldk “kks’k.k djrk gSA
fir`lRrkRed O;oLFkk us viuh oS/krk vkSj Lohd`fr gekjs /kkfeZd fo”oklksa] pkgs og fgUnw] eqfLye ;k
fdlh /keZ ls gh D;ksa u gks ls izkIr dh gSA yM+dh dks cpiu ls f”kf{kr djuk vkt Hkh ,d cqjk fuos”k ekuk
tkrk gS blfy, vPNh f”k{kk ds vHkko esa orZeku esa ukSdfj;ksa dkS”ky ekax dh “krksZa dks iwjk djus ls vl{ke
gks tkrh gSa ;|fi 10oha o 12oha d{kkvksa esa yM+fd;ksa dk ijh{kk ifj.kke yM+dksa ls csgrj gksrk gSA ysfdu
mlds ckn ekrk&firk yM+fd;ksa dh f”k{kk ij vf/kd O;; ugha djrs] ftlls os ukSdjh o jkstxkj izkIr djus
esa fiNM+ tkrh gSaA blds vfrfjDr iks’k.k esa Hkh yM+fd;ksa ds lkFk HksnHkko fd;k tkrk gSA [kkuk cukus dh
lEiw.kZ ftEesnkjh Hkys gh efgykvksa dh gks ysfdu mUgsa [kkus dks dsoy ogh lkeku feyrk gS tks iq:’kks a ds
[kkus ds ckn cp tkrk gSA tks nksuksa :iksa xq.koRrk o ikSf’Vdrk esa fuEuLrjh; gksrk gS] ftlesa muds [kjkc
LokLF; dk izeq[k dkj.k gSA efgykvksa esa jDr dh deh ds dkj.k gksus okyh chekjh ,uhfe;k vR;f/kd gksrh
gSA blh izdkj cPpksa dks tUe nsrs le; dqiks’k.k ds dkj.k ek¡ o cPps ij dqiks’k.k dk izHkko Li’V :i ls
n`f’Vxkspj gksrk gS] ftldk izHkko vU; tukfdadh; ?kVdksa ekr`Ro e`R;qnj] f”k”kq e`R;qnj vkfn ij Hkh iM+rk
gS A
ySafxd vlekurk Hkkjr dh fofHkUu oSf”od fyax lwpdkadksa esa [kjkc jSafdax dks iznf”kZr djrh gS&
1- ;w0,u0Mh0ih0 ds fyax vlekurk lwpdkad&2014 ds 152 ns”kksa dh lwph esa Hkkjr dh fLFkfr 127osa
LFkku ij gSA ;g lwpdkad pkj izeq[k {ks=ksa esa ySafxd varj dh tkap djrk gS] ftlesa Hkkjr dh fLFkfr bl
izdkj gS&
1- vkfFkZd Hkkxhnkjh vkSj volj & 1341
2- “kSf{kd miyfC/k;k¡ & 1261
3- LokLF; vkSj thou izR;k”kk & 1411
4- jktuhfrd l”kfDrdj.k & 151A
bl izdkj oSf”od lwpdkad fyax lekurk esa Hkkjr dh fLFkfr vR;Ur fujk”kktud gS dsoy jktuhfrd l”kfDrdj.k
esa Hkkjr dk dk;Z larks’ktud gSA “ks’k lwpdkadksa esa lq/kkj ds fy, vf/kd iz;kl dh vko”;drk gSA
2- ySafxad vlekurk ds lkf[dh; ?kVdksa esa Hkh Hkkjr dh fLFkfr fpUrktud gS ftuesa&
1- dU;k Hkwz.k gR;k vkSj cky dU;k gR;k lcls vekuoh; o “keZukd gSA izlo iwoZ funku dh rduhd
¼fofu;eu vkSj nq:i;ksx fuokj.k½ vf/kfu;e&1994 ds ckotwn vkt fyax ijh{k.k o xHkZikr vius
mPp Lrj ij gSA eSdqQlZu ds ,d “kks/k v/;;u ls ;g Li’V gksrk gS fd Hkkjr esa yxHkx izfro’kZ
1]00]000 voS/k xHkZikr dU;k Hkzw.k ds djk;s tkrs gSaA
2- o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk ds nkSjku ,d [krjukd izo`fRr ;g vk;h fd fyax vuqikr ¼0 & 6½ vk;q oxZ
919 gS tks o’kZ 2001 ls 8 vad de Fkk ftlls Li’V gksrk gS fd fyax ijh{k.k ds mijkUr xHkZikrksa
dh la[;k esa o`f) gqbZ gSA
3- L=h&iq:’k vuqikr ds lEcU/k esa vPNk ladsr gS fd 2001 esa 933 ds rqyuk esa 2011 esa 943 gks x;k
ysfdu ;g vHkh Hkh efgykvksa ds i{k esa ugh gSA
i;kZoj.kh; izHkko
efgykvksa dks ftudh laosnu”khyrk o ns[kjs[k dh {kerk fu%laf nX/k gS] pkgsa og cPpksa ds iks’ k.k dk
nkf;Ro gks ;k i;kZoj.k lgstus dk] f”k{kk] lgHkkfxrk] vf/kdkj ls izoafpr djds oguh; fodkl dh dYiuk
djuk csekuh gS ge fuEu fcanqvksa }kjk efgykvksa ij i;kZoj.kh; izHkko dks js[kkafdr dj ldsaxs&
1- efgyk,a cpiu ls gh x`g dk;Z tSls [kkuk cukus ds fy, ydM+h dk iz;ksx djrh jgh gSa ftlls mUgsa
NksVh mez ls gh ân; jksx dh chekjh dh laHkkouk vf/kd jgrh gS pwafd mlh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa cPpksa
dh ijofj”k Hkh djuh gksrh gS ftlls muds nek] dSalj vkfn chekfj;ksa ds dkj.k mudh vle; e`R;q
Hkh gks tkrh gSA blds fy, gesa [kkuk cukus ds fy, oSdfYid ÅtkZ ij /;ku nsuk gksxk ;g lq[kn
gS fd Hkkjr ljdkj us bl lEcU/k esa ^mTtoyk ;kstuk* izkjEHk dh gS ftldk ykHk efgykvksa dks
feysxkA lkFk gh gekjk i;kZoj.k Hkh larqfyr jgsxkA
2- Lora= Hkkjr esa izFke ou uhfr 1952] ou laj{k.k vf/kfu;e&1980 esa efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk dk dksbZ
mYys[k ugha fd;k x;k gSA 1988 dh jk’Vªh; ou uhfr esa efgykvksa ds egRo dks Lohdkjk x;k vkSj
mudh ouksa ij fuHkZjrk] ouksa dks ysdj Kku] ou izcU/ku esa mudh lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh dks le>k x;k
vkSj ;g lks p cuh fd efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh ls gh ge y{; dks izkIr dj ldrs gS aA 1995 esa
jk’Vªh; ou uhfr dk;ZØe esa ou lfefr;ksa esa efgykvksa dks 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.k dh O;oLFkk dh x;h
fdUrq ;g ns[kk x;k fd la;qDr ou izcU/ku dk;ZØe vkSj ou lfefr esa efgyk,a dsoy uke ds fy,
gSa mUgsa budh tkudkjh ugha gSA iq:’kksa ds opZLo okys lekt esa efgyk dk izfrfuf/kRo mldk ifr
djrk gSA
orZeku le; esa i;kZoj.k dk i;kZ; efgyk gh gSA ?kj ds dk;ksZa ls ysdj tkuojksa dh ns[kHkky] pwYgs dh
ydM+h vkfn lHkh dh O;oLFkk dh fpUrk efgyk gh djrh gSA ;s os cM+h vko”;drk,a gSa tks ikfjfLFkfrdh ds
mRikn gSaA budh lqj{kk dh fpUrk ges”kk efgykvksa dks gh jgrh gSA ;s dHkh iq:’kksa ds fo’k; ugha cu ik;sA
ns”k dk i;kZoj.k xkao esa iyrk gS vkSj bldh lcls cM+h dM+h efgyk gh gSA bl le; iwjs ns”k esa nks cM+ h
leL;k,a gSa] izFke ikuh rFkk f}rh; tykus dh ydM+hA vkSj ;s nksuksa gh i;kZoj.k vkSj ouksa ds igys mRikn
gSaA ns”k dk dksbZ ,slk Hkkx ugha gS tgka ;s lc efgykvksa ds nkf;Roksa ls lh/ks u tqM+k gksA blfy, budh
[kjkc fLFkfr budh lcls cM+h fpark jgrh gSA blfy, iq:’k iz/kku lekt esa fcxM+rs i;kZoj.k dk gy cM+k
eqn~nk ugha cu ik;k D;ksaf d mudk :>ku xkao ls ckgj ds /ka/kksa esa jgrk gSA efgykvksa dk lh/kk nkf;Ro
?kj&xkao gSA blfy, mudk d’V Hkh gok] ikuh] ouksa ls lh/kk tqM+k gksrk gSA
bfrgkl bl ckr dk lk{kh gS fd taxy cpkus ds fy, cM+k vkUnksyu fpidks efgykvksa dh nsu Fkk]
ftlesa mUgksaus viuh ?kkl&ydM+h dh yM+kbZ rks yM+h gh lkFk gh vius cy vf/kdkj o ouksa ds ;ksxnkuksa ds
izfr Hkh mruh gh lathnxh fn[kkbZ FkhA bl vkUnksyu esa i;kZoj.k vkSj ikfjfLFkfrdh larqyu esa efgykvks a us
tksjnkj mifLFkfr ntZ dh vkSj ns”k ds dkuwuksa dks u;h fn”kk nhA blh izdkj ueZnk cka/k ds fojks/k esa es?kk
ikVsdj dh eqfge ls gesa i;kZoj.k ds izfr efgykvksa dh tkx:drk dk irk pyrk gSA
lp rks ;g gS fd ;fn i;kZoj.k dks lqjf{kr j[kuk gS rks blesa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh ij u;s fljs ls
lkspuk gksxk D;ksafd unh] taxy] feV~Vh ns”k esa gh iyrs&c<+rs gSa oSls Hkh dqN ou vkSj ufn;ksa dk vfLrRo
gh efgykvksa ds izrki ls gSA iq:’k dh izo`fRr lk/kuksa ds mi;ksx dh gksrh gS tcfd efgykvksa dh izo`f Rr buds
laj{k.k dh gksrh gSA efgyk ds fgr i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ;kstuk dks egRp nsdj o LFkkuh; vko”;drkvksa dks
è;ku esa j[kdj gh ge ikfjfLFkfrdh laj{k.k dj ik;saxsA fcxM+rs i;kZoj.k dk nks’k iq:’k iz/kku lekt dh
yksyqi vkSj foyklh izo`fRr dk gSA nwljh vksj efgyk,a izd`fr dks le>us dh vf/kd {kerk j[krh gSaA D;ks afd
i`Foh izd`fr vkSj efgyk ,d gh fyax dk cks/k djkrh gSA vkSj ,d gh rjg dk nkf;Ro Hkh rhuksa fuHkkrh gS aA
;g nkf;Ro gS nwljksa ds nq[kksa ds fy, vius vki dks lefiZr djus dkA blfy, gesa efgyk dsfUnzr i;kZoj.k
laj{k.k ij fparu djuk pkfg, rkfd fodjky gksrh bl leL;k dk lek/kku gks ldsA
ukscsy iqjLdkj fotsrk izks0 veR;Z lsu ,oa tkslsQ LVhXyht Øe”k% efgykvksa dks ek= f”k{kk] LokLF; ,oa
l”kfDrdj.k ds ykHkkFkhZ ugha oju vfHkdrkZ dh Hkwfedk iznku djus rFkk lekt ds izR;korZu dh odkyr
djrs gSaA tc rd i;kZoj.k vkUnksyuksa esa efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk ,oa tkx:drk ugha gksxh rc rd lekt
dks bldk leqfpr ykHk ugha fey ik;sxkA D;ksafd efgyk,a u dsoy vk/kh vkcknh dk Hkkx gSa vfirq mRiknu
lalk/kuksa esa mudh egrh Hkwfedk gSA
fu’d’kZ ds :i esa ge dg ldrs gSa fd ;fn ySafxd vlekurk dks de ugha fd;k x;k rks gesa i;kZoj.k
fouk”k ds xEHkhj ifj.kke Hkqxrus iM+saxsA pwafd bl lEcU/k esa ljdkj dh Hkwfedk ls vf/kd tulgHkkfxrk dh
Hkw fedk gSA blfy, tc rd iq:’kksa ,oa efgykvksa ds lkewfgd iz ;klks a ls fyax vlekurk dh leL;k dk
lekèkku ugha fd;k tk;sxk] vkSj ge lHkh viuh lksp o dk;ksZa dh okLrfodrk ds lkFk ifjorZu ugha djsaxs
rc rd ge vk/kqfud lekt dh vksj vxzlj ugha gks ldsaxsA
lrr~ fodkl dk mn~ns”; Hkh ySafxd vlekurk dks nwj djuk gSA blesa ;g ekuk x;k gS fd efgyk,a
i;kZoj.k ds lcls utnhd gS a rFkk i;kZoj.k laj{k.k esa vge Hkwfedk fuHkkrh gS a ijUrq orZae ku esa fodkl
uhfr;ksa esa mudks dksbZ LFkku ugha fn;k x;k ftldk lh/kk izHkko i;kZoj.k fouk”k jgk gSA lrr”khyrk dh
ekax i;kZoj.k ukjhoknh vkUnksyuksa ds dsUnz esa gSA Hkkjr esa fpidks vkUnksyu] if”peh /kkV ds ,fidks vkUnksyu
rFkk ueZnk cpkvks vkUnksyuksa us ;g iznf”kZr fd;k gS fd fodkl uhfr;ksa esa ukfj;ksa dh vko”;drkvksa ij
è;ku ugha fn;k x;k gSA taxy ds Bsdsnkj rVh; {ks=ksa esa eNyh idM+us dh vk/kqfud e”khusa] vk/kqfud ou
izcU/k] O;kikfjd Qlysa] yqIr gksrs izkd`frd lalk/ku efgykvksa ds vk/kkjHkwr ijEijkxr vf/kdkjksa dks Nhurs
tk jgs gSaA ;g fodkl izfØ;k vUrr% i;kZoj.k fouk”k dks izksRlkgu ns jgk gSA
lanHkZ lwph
1- www.censusindia.gov.in
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k % lekt vkSj vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr;ksa dk

v/;;u
fLerk *
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k cgqvk;keh vkSj cgqeq[kh gksrk gSA ;g iq#’k fujis{k ugha cfYd lkis{k foe”kZ gksrk gS vkSj
blds fy, efgykvksa dks iq#’kksa ls Hkh vkxs fudyuk gksxkA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls vfHkizk; ,slh “kfDr ls gS tks
efgykvksa dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd] jktuSfrd vkSj dkuwuh #i ls lkspus] le>kus vkSj thus dh Lora=rk nsrh gSA
l”kfDrdj.k dk lEcU/k efgykvksa ds thou ds vkRe&fu.kZ; ls gSA l”kfDrdj.k dh izfØ;k lekt dks ikjEifjd
fir`lÙkkRed n`f’Vdks.k ds izfr tkx#d cukrh gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k HkkSfrd ;k vkè;kfRed] “kkjhfjd ;k
ekufld] vkarfjd ;k ckgjh lHkh Lrjksa ij efgykvksa esa vkRefo”okl tkx`r djrk gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k esa
efgyk dh vkRe vfHkO;fDr vkSj muds O;fDrRo dh vkRek lfEefyr gSA fdlh Hkh ns”k dh vkfFkZd xfrfof/k esa
efgykvksa dh mfpr Hkkxhnkjh ds fcuk lkekftd izxfr dh vk”kk j[kuk xyr gSA
oSfyuh FkwjkbZ ds vuqlkj] ^êfgyk l”kfDrdj.k og izfØ;k gS] ftlds }kjk lekt ds fodkl dh izfØ;k
esa jktuhfrd laLFkkvksa ds }kjk efgykvksa dks iq#’kksa ds cjkcj ekU;rk nh tkrh gSA**
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k fuMjrk] lEeku vkSj tkx#drk&rhuks a “kCn efgyk l”kfDrdj.k esa lgk;d gSaA
;fn Mj ls vktknh] efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk igyk dne gS rks rsth ls U;k; ls mudh vko”;drk iwjh gks
ldsxhA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk mís”; efgykvksa dh izxfr vkSj muesa vkRefo”okl dk lapkj djuk gSA D;k
okLro esa efgyk,a v”kDr gSa\ ftl ns”k esa L=h Lo;a gh “kfDr Lo#i gksaA D;k mls “kfDr dh vko”;drk gS\
vkSj dkSu bruk “kfDr”kkyh gS tks mls “kfDr iznku dj ldsA
orZeku le; esa efgyk,a ifjokj vkSj lekt dh ftEesnkfj;ksa dks c[kwch fuHkkrs gq, mUgksaus vius vU;
y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dh gSA gj {ks= esa vius izksQs”kufyTe dks cuk;s j[kk gSA pkgs f”k{kk dk gks ;k ufl±x dk {ks=]
pkgs pkan ij tkus dh ckr gks ;k leqæ ds bafXy”k pSuy dks ikj djus dh] dEI;wVj esa egkjr gkfly djuh
gks ;k U;k;ky; dh loksZPp vf/kdkjh cuus dh] dfork dk ftØ gks ;k QS”ku fMtkbZfuax dk efgyk,a vkt
gj {ks= esa lQy gSaA tgk¡ oS”ohdj.k ls Hkkjr dh laLd`fr esa cgqr vf/kd cnyko vk;k gSA ogha efgykvksa dh
Lora=rk] vfLrRo vkSj jkstxkj esa cM+s iSekus ij foLrkj c<+h gSA vius Lrj ij vkt gj efgyk vius thou
dh ubZ ls ubZ pqukSfr;ksa dks Lohdkj dj vkxs c<+ jgh gSA
* *
vflLVsaV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] jktdh; efgyk egkfo|ky;] egkRek xka/kh dk”kh fo|kihB] Mh-,y-MCY;w-]okjk.klhA
‘kks/k dk mís’; vkSj ‘kks/k fof/k

izLrqr “kks/k i= esa f}rh;d vkadM+ksa dks fy;k x;k gS vkSj “kks/k dk mís”; gS fd orZeku le; esa efgyk
l”kfDrdj.k ls efgykvksa dh izxfr vkSj muesa vkRefo”okl ds lkFk&lkFk lekt vkSj vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa
dh fLFkfr fdruh lqn`<+ gqbZ gSA bl izdkj ls fyax lekurk ds c<+us ls dkSu&dkSu lh vlekurk,a ;k n”kk,a
mRiUu gqbZ gSA bu lHkh fcUnqvksa ij izdk”k Mkyuk gSA
efgyk,a vkSj dk;Z
efgyk,a iq#’kksa ls vis{kkd`r T;knk ?kaVs dk;Z djrh gSaA fQj Hkh vFkZO;oLFkk esa mudh Hkkxhnkjh vkSj
fLFkfr dks de vkadk tkrk gSA efgyk,a fo”ks’k #i ls vlaxfBr {ks= tSls d`f’k] chM+h QSDVªh] pwM+h QSDVªh]
d<+kbZ] cqukbZ] i”kqikyu] pk; cxku] ekyk cukuk tSls {ks=ksa esa tqM+h gqbZ gSaA tgk¡ muds Je dk iq#’kksa dh
rqyuk esa vk/kk osru fn;k tkrk gSA nwljh vksj efgyk,a lkekftd dk;Z tks ifjokj esa djrh gSa os voSrfud
dk;ksZ dh Js.kh esa vkrs gS aA tSl s&[kkuk cukuk] lQkbZ] iz tuu] ns[kHkky] ?kjsyw dke] chekj ;k cqtqxZ dh
ns[kHkky bR;kfnA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa ds n`’; dk;Z
1- n`“; ;k oSrfud dk;Z vkSj “kgjh efgyk,a
2- n`“; ;k oSrfud dk;Z vkSj xzkeh.k efgyk,a
3- n`“; ;k oSrfud v)Z dq”ky efgyk,aA
egkuxjksa ,oa uxjksa esa jgus okyh efgyk,a fofHkUu izdkj ds dk;Z djrh gSa tSls&f”kf{kdk] MkDVj ,oa
ulZ] DydZ] dEI;wVj VkbfiLV] ,;j gksLVsl] U;wt fjiksVZj] U;wt jhMj] ,DVlZ] vkaxuckM+h ,oa Iys Ldwy es a
cPpksa dh ns[kHkky] QS”ku dh nqfu;k esa efgykvksa dk ,d vyx vfLrRo gSA blds vykok dkiksZjsV nqfu;k
vkSj cgqjk’Vªh; dEifu;ksa esa Hkh efgykvksa dh la[;k esa c<+ksÙkjh gqbZ gSA
xkao esa jgdj efgyk,a d`f’k&O;oLFkk] i”kqikyu m|ksx] nw/k vkSj eqxhZikyu m|ksx] blds vykok NksVs&eks Vs
m|ksx tSls&diM+ksa dh jaxkbZ] diM+k cukuk] vpkj m|ksx] ikiM+ m|ksx] fepZ elkys] flykbZ&d<+kbZ] cqukbZ]
ltkoV dh phtsa cukuk] feV~Vh ds crZu cukuk] gLrf”kYi m|ksx ls tqM+h oLrq,a cukuk bR;kfnA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa ds vn`’; dk;Z
tgk¡ ,d vksj efgyk,a ubZ miyfC/k;ksa dks izkIr dj jgh gSa] ogha nwljh vksj efgyk,a vn`“; dk;ksZ dks iwjh
fu’Bk vkSj viusiu ls iwjk djrh gSaA fnu esa nks ;k rhu ckj Hkkstu idkuk] lfCt;ksa] nkyksa] pkoy] vkVk]
phuhs] elkyksa bR;kfn dk izcU/k djuk] ?kj esa lkQ&lQkbZ dk /;ku j[kuk] cw<+ksa vkSj cPpksa ds LokLF; dk
fo”ks’k /;ku j[kuk iztuu ls tqM+s dk;Z efgykvksa ds thou esa lcls egRoiw.kZ dk;ksZa esa ls ,d gS] ftlesa
efgyk cPps dks tUe nsrh gS vkSj thou Hkj ikyrh&ikslrh gSA Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dk lcls T;knk ;ksxnku
d`f’k O;oLFkk esa gSA jksikbZ] xqM+kbZ] fujkbZ esa efgykvksa ds dke djus dk izfr”kr T;knk gSA ysfdu blls
lEcfU/kr vkadM+s miyC/k u gksus ds dkj.k efgyk,a jkstxkj ds fyf[kr vkadM+ksa dh lwph ls ckgj gSaA efgykvksa
dh “kkjhfjd {kerk Hkh iq#’kksa dh rqyuk esa de gksus ds dkj.k mUgsa etnwjh Hkh de feyrh gSA
oSf”od :i ls 15 o’kZ ls vf/kd vk;q dh nks esa ls ,d efgyk osru ;k ykHk ds fy, jkstxkjxr~ gS]
tcfd blh vk;q oxZ ds pkj iq#’kksa esa ls rhu iq#’k jkstxkjxr gSA 2016 esa lEiw.kZ fo”o esa 200 djksM + iq#’k
dkexkjksa dh rqyuk esa 127 djksM+ efgyk,a Hkqxrku okys jkstxkj esa yxh gqbZ gSaA nwljh vkSj iq#’kksa dh rqyuk
esa muesa rhu xquk vf/kd efgyk,a Hkqxrku u ikus okyksa ds #i esa dke djrh gSA
lkjs fo”o esa efgyk Je cy ¼jkstxkj xr ,oa csjkstxkj½ fyaxewyd HksnHkko vkSj iwokZxzgksa dk f”kdkj gS a&
• 1990&2015 ds chp f”k{kk vkSj LokLF; esa fyaxewyd vUrjkyksa esa deh vkus ds ckotwn efgyk Je
cy lgHkkfxrk nj esa fxjkoV vkSj blesa fyaxewyd vUrjky ;Fkkor~ cuk jguk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k
dh ,d cM+h ck/kk gSA
• 15 o’kZ ls vf/kd vk;q dh efgyk Je lgHkkfxrk nj 1990 esa 53 izfr”kr ls fxjdj 2015 esa 50
izfr”kr jg xbZ gSA
• dqN ;qofr;k¡ vHkh Hkh fo|ky;ksa esa f”k{kkjr gS] ysfdu vf/kdka”k ns”kksa esa ;qokvksa dh rqyuk esa ;qofr;ksa
dk ,d cM+k fgLlk û rks jkstxkj esa vkSj u f”k{kk ;k izf”k{k.k esaA*
leL;k dh t+M+ dgk¡ gS\
efgykvksa dh lkekftd izfLFkfr muds izfr iwokZxzg ls xzflr gksuk rFkk HksnHkkoiw.kZ O;ogkj djuk] muds
detksj vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k dk |ksrd gS] blds fy, fuEufyf[kr dkj.k ekSfyd #i ls mÙkjnk;h gS %&
1- izfrdwy lkekftd ekud] jhfr&fjokt] #f<+;k¡ ,oaa otZuk,aA
2- izfrcU/kkRed ,oa HksnHkkoijd dkuwu ,oa fof/kd laj{k.k esa vUrjkyA
3- fcuk Hkqxrku okys dk;ksZa ,oa ns[kHkky okys dk;ksZa dks fpfUgr djus] deh ykus rFkk mudk iqufoZrj.k
djus esa vlQyrkA
4- foÙkh;] fMftVy ,oa lEifÙk vfLr;ksa rd igq¡p esa fyaxewyd vUrjkyA
efgykvksa ds mRFkku ds fy, fd;s x;s laoS/kkfud izko/kku
Lora=rk ds i”pkr~ efgyk mUeq[k okrkoj.k ds fuekZ.k ij cy nsrs gq,] efgykvksa ds izfr lksp esa cnyko
ykus ds fy, vf/kfu;eksa dk fuekZ .k ,oa fØ;kUo;u fd;k x;k ftles a U;w ure etnwjh vf/kfu;e ¼1948½]
fo”ks’k fookg vf/kfu;e ¼1954½] fgUnw fookg vf/kfu;e ¼1955½] os”;ko`fÙk fuokj.k vf/kfu;e ¼1956½] fgUnw
mÙkjkf/kdkjh vf/kfu;e ¼1995½] lu~ ¼2005½ esa la”kksf/kr dkj[kkuk vf/kfu;e ¼1958½] 1986 esa la”kksf/kr] ngst
fu’ks/k vf/kfu;e ¼1961½] lu~ 2012 esa la”kksf/kr izlwfr&izlqfo/kkvksa vf/kfu;e ¼1961½] Hkkjrh; fookg foPNsn
vf/kfu;e ¼1969½] Hkkjrh; rykd la”kks/ku vf/kfu;e ¼2001½] ?kjsyw fgalk efgykvksa dk laj{k.k vf/kfu;e
¼2005½] efgykvksa dk ;kSu mRihM+u ¼jksdFkke] izfr’ks/k vkSj fuokj.k fo/ks;d ¼2012½ vkSj efgykvksa ds f[kykQ
t?kU; ;kSu vijk/k fo/ks;d ¼2013½ eq[; gSaA bu laoS/kkfud izko/kkuksa ds }kjk efgykvksa ds lkekftd] vkfFkZd]
jktuSf rd vkSj lkaL d`frd fodkl dh vk/kkjf”kyk j[kh x;h FkhA ftls vkxkeh ;ks tukvksa dk;Z Øeks a vkSj
vfHk;kuksa ds }kjk vkSj Hkh cy iznku djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gSA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds fy, fo’ks”k dk;ZØe

1- 1982&83 ls LokoyEcu dk;ZØe dh “kq#vkr dh x;h ftlesa xjhc vkSj t#jreaan efgykvksa vkSj
lekt ds detksj oxksZa dh efgykvksa dks “kkfey djuk gSA
2- Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk 2002 esa Lof.kZe ;kstuk dh “kq#vkr dh x;h] ftlds vUrxZr 50 gtkj #i;s
rd _.k miyC/k djk;k tkrk gSA bl _.k ij mUgsa C;kt dh nj ek= 4 izfr”kr fu/kkZfjr dh xbZ
gS A
3- 11 Qjojh 2005 dks vk’kk ;kstuk dh “kq#vkr dh x;hA ;kstuk ds vUrxZr xzkeh.k efgykvksa dks
LokLF; dh ns[kHkky djus ds fy, izR;sd xkao esa LFkkuh; Lrj ij ,d vk”kk dk;ZdrkZ dh rSukrh
dk izko/kku gSA
lq>ko ,oa fu”d”kZ
lekt esa efgykvksa dk leqnk; vius fgrksa dh j{kk tkx#d gksdj dj ldrh gSa vko”;drk gS lekt
dh ekufldrk fo”ks’kr% Lo;a efgykvks a dh ekufldrk esa ifjorZ u ykuk pkfg,A efgyk,a Lo;a dks lcyk
le>asA ljdkj }kjk vusdksa ;kstukvksa dk fØ;kUo;u fd;k x;k gS tks efgykvksa dks lcyrk iznku djus esa
lgk;d gS] ij blds fy, gesa tkx#d vkSj f”kf{kr gksuk iM+sxk rkfd ge mu ;kstukvksa dk lgh rjhds ls
mi;ksx dj ldsA xzkeh.k vkSj csjkstxkj efgykvksa dks ^fLdy csl izf”k{k.k] dEI;wVj rduhd f”k{kk] jkstxkj
dh ubZ rduhdsa vkfn f”k{kk nh tkuh pkfg,A efgyk,a fo”ks’kK vxj viuk FkksM+k lk Hkh le; fdlh Hkh #i
esa efgyk izf”k{k.k esa nsaxh rks ns”k ds rjDdh dh jkg vklku gks tk;sxh vkSj iq#’kksa ij fuHkZjrk es a deh
vk;sxhA*
lEiw.kZ “kks/ k i= esa lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd #i esa efgykvksa ds l”kfDrdj.k dk v/;;u fd;k x;kA
ftlesa Hkys gh ik;k x;k fd dgh u dgha ySafxad vlekurk ;k folaxfr;k¡ gSa ysfdu vkt ds le; esa ukjh
us iq#’kksa dks lHkh {ks=ksa esa ek= nh gSA orZeku lekt dh vko”;drk gS fd dsoy Hkk’k.kksa vkSj okn&fooknksa
ls efgykvksa dk mRFkku lEHko ugha gSA blds fy, lekt dks efgyk l”kfDrdj.k #ih ikS/kksa dks iz;klksa #ih
ty ls lhapuk gksxkA vc f”kf{kr] izfrf’Br] gqujean efgykvksa dh ;g ftEesnkjh gS fd v”kDr vkSj cslgkjk
efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy, ubZ ;kstuk,a] laxBu la?kksa vkSj uhfr;ksa dk fØ;kUo;u djsaA efgykvksa ds vUnj
^Lo* Hkkouk ls voxr djk;s rHkh efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk y{; izkIr gksxkAa
lanHkZ lwph
1- India 2011 : A Reference Mannual by Research Refrence and training Diviasion Publication Division, Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
2- xksi] tks”kh] Hkkjr esa L=h vlekurk] fgUnh ek/;e dk;kZUo;u funs”kky;] fnYyh fo”ofo|ky;] fnYyh
fnlEcj] 2011-
3- oSfyuh FkwjkbZ] th] bf.M;u tujy vkWQ ifCyd ,MfefuLVsª”ku] oksXlVi ua-] 1 tuojh&ekpZ 2001]
i`- 39-
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k % ,d voyksdu
iqUt Hkk”dj *
efgykvksa ds lUnHkZ esa çfl) ysf[kdk rlyhek uljhu us ,d txg fy;k gS fd **okLro esa fL=;k¡ tUe
ls *vcyk* ugha gksrh] mUgsa vCkyk cuk;k tkrk gS** is’ks ls MkWDVj rlyhek uljhu us mnkgj.k ds lkFk bl
rF; dh O;k[;k dh gS fd tUe ds le; ,d *L=h&f”k”kq* dh thouh&”kfDr ,d *iq:’k&f”k”kq* dh vis{kk
vfèkd çoy gksrh gS] ysfdu lekt viuh laLd`fr ¼jhfr&fjoktksa] çfrekuksa] ewY;ksa vkfn½ ,oa thou “kSyh ds
}kjk mls lcyk ls vcyk cukrk gSA
ljdkj efgyk mRFkku ds fy, ubZ ubZ ;kstuk,¡ cuk jgha gSa A dbZ ,u-th-vksa Hkh efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa
ds fy, viuh vkokt oqyUn djus yxs gSaA ftlls efgyk,a fcuk fdlh lgkjs ds gj pqukSrh dk lkeuk dj
ldus ds fy, rS;kj gks ldrh gSaA iafMr Tkokgj yky usg: }kjk dgk x;k e”kgqj okD; **yksxksa dks txkus
ds fy,** efgykvksa dk tkx`r gksuk t:jh gSaA ,d ckj tc oks viuk dne mBk ysrh gS] ifjokj vkxs c<+rk
gS] xk¡o vkxs c<+rk gS vkSj jk’Vª fodkl dh vksj méeq[k gksrk gSaA Hkkjr esas] efgykvksa dks l”kDr cukus ds
fy, lcls igys lekt esa muds vf/kdkjksa vkSj ewY;ksa dks ekjus okys mu lHkh jk{klh lksp dks ekjuk t:jh
gS tSls & ngst çFkk] vf”k{kk] ;kS u fgalk] vlekurk] Hkw .k gR;k] efgykvksa ds çfr ?kjsyw fgal k] cykRdkj]
oS”;ko`fÙk] ekuo rLdjh vkSj ,sls gh nwljs fo’k;A ySafxd HksnHkko jk’Vª esa lkaLd`frd] lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj
“kSf{kd vUrj ys vkrk gS tks ns”k dks ihNs dh vksj <+dsyrk gSaA
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh fn”kk esa ,d vU; ç;kl *efgyk fnol* ds vk;kstu dks ekuk tkrk gS] ftldh
“kq:vkr vesfjdk esa lks”kfyLV ikVhZ ds vkàku ij igyh ckj 28 Qjojh] 1909 esa dh xbZ] ftls ckn esa
Qjojh eghus ds vfUre jfookj dks vk;ksftr fd;k tkus yxkA vkxs pydj] lu~ 1917 esa :l dh efgykvksa
us *efgyk fnol* ij jksVh ,oa dIkM+s ds fy, gM+rky dhA
Hkkjrh; lekt esa Hkh] vU; çxfr”khy lektksa dh rjg] efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dks Å¡Ppk mBkus ds fy,
dbZ çHkkodkjh dne mBk, x,A lafo/kku ds vuqPNsn 15¼1½ ds vUrZxr geus fyax ds vk/kkj ij HksnHkko dks
çfrcfU/kr djus ds lkFk&lkFk vuqPNsn 15¼2½ ds vUrxZr efgykvksa ,oa cPpksa ds fy, vyx fu;e cukus dh
Hkh vuqefr çnku dh vkSj 73osa lafo/kku la”kks/ku }kjk lafo/kku ds vuqPNsn 243¼Mh½ ,oa 243¼Vh½ ds vUrxZr
LFkkuh; fudk;ksa ds lnL;ksa ,oa muds çeq[kksa dh ,d frgkbZ lhVsa efgykvksa ds fy, vkjf{kr dhaA bls 110osa
lafo/kku la”kks/ku fo/ks;d ¼2009½ }kjk ,d frgkbZ vFkkZr 33 çfr”kr ls c<+kdj vk/kk vFkkZr 50 çfr”kr rd
dj fn;k x;k gS] gkyk¡fd ;g fo/ks;d vHkh rd yfEcr gS vkSj vf/kfu;e ugha cuk gSA o’kZ 2010 esa ns”k dh
* vflLVsaV çksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] Mhå ,-ohå dkW yst] dkuiqj] m-izA
laln vkSj jkT; fo/kku lHkkvksa esa ,d frgkbZ efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh lqfuf”pr djus lEcU/kh fo/ks;d jkT;lHkk
us ikfjr dj fn;k] gkyk¡fd yksdlHkk us vHkh bls ikfjr ugha fd;k gSA efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dks Å¡pk mBkus
ds fy, fd, x, vusd çko/kkuksa ds vUrxZr ,d egkÙoiw.kZ vf/kfu;e ?kjsyw fgalk lqj{kk vf/kfu;e] 2005 gS ]
ftlesa lHkh çdkj dh fgalk&”kkjhfjd] ekufld] ngst lEcU/kh çrkM+uk] dkeqdrk lEcU/kh vkjksi vkfn ls
efgykvksa ds cpko ds mik; fd, x, gSaA ysfdu fyax ds vk/kkj ij lcls vf/kd ;ksxnku *ilZuy ykW* esa
fo|eku gSa] blfy, leku flfoy lafgrk ¼ Uniform Civil Code½ viukus dh vko”;drk gSaA
efgykvksa ls tqM+s dqN çeq[k vUkqPNsn bl çdkj gS %&
vuqPNsn 15 ¼1½ %& jkT; fdlh ukxfjd ds fo:) fyax ds vk/kkj ij foHksn ugha djsxkA
vuqPNsn 15 ¼3½ %& jkT; dks efgykvksa vkSj cPpksa ds fy, fo”ks’k mica/k djus dk vf/kdkj gSA
vuqPNsn 16 ¼2½ %& jkT; ds v/khu fdlh fu;kstu ;k in ds lEcU/k esa dksbZ Hkh ukxfjd fyax
ds vk/kkj ij u rks vik= gksxk u gh mlls fOkHksn gksxkA
vuqPNsn 39 ¼d½ %& efgyk o iq:’k dk leku :i ls thfodk ds i;kZIr lk/ku feysA
vuqPNsn 39 ¼?k½ %& iq:’k o L=h nksuksa dks leku dk;Z ds fy, leku osru gksA
vuqPNsn 39 ¼M-½ %& iq:’k o L=h deZdkjksa ds LokLF; o ”kfDr dk nq:i;ksx u gks rFkk vkfFkZd
vko”;drk ls foo”k gksdj mUgsa ,sls jkstxkj esa u tkuk iM+s tks mudh
vk;q o ”kfDr ds çfrdwy gksA
vuqPNsn 42 %& jkT; dke dh U;k;laxr o ekuoksfpr n”kkvksa dk RkFkk çlwfr lgk;rk ds
fy, mica/k djsxkA
vuqPNsn 51 ¼d½¼M-½ %& ¼ewy drZO;½ ,slh çFkk dk R;kx tks fL=;ksa ds lEeku ds fo:) gksA
vuqPNsn 243 ¼?k½ ¼3½ %& çR;sd iapk;r esa ,d frgkbZ lhV fL=;ksa ds fy, vkjf{krA
vuqPNsn 243 ¼?k½ ¼4½ %& iapk;rksa esa v/;{k in ds fy, Hkh ,d frgkbZ lhV fL=;ksa fy, vkjf{krA
vuqPNsn 243 ¼u½ ¼3½ %& uxj ifydk esa ,d frgkbZ lhV efgykvksa ds fy, vkjf{krA
vuqPNsn 243 ¼u½ ¼4½ %& uxj ikfydk esa v/;{k in ds fy, ,d frgkbZ vkj{k.k efgykvksa ds fy,A
bu laoS/kkfud çko/kkuksa ds }kjk efgykvksa ds lkekftd] vfFkZd] jktuhfrd vkSj lkaLd`frd fodkl dh
vk/kkjf”kyk j[kh xbZ Fkh ftls vkxkeh ;kstukvksa] dk;ZØeksa vksj vfHk;kuksa ds }kjk vkSj Hkh cy çnku djus
dk ç;Ru fd;k x;kA bu laoS/kkfud çko/kkuksa dk gh ;g ifj.kke jgk fd vkt efgyk l”kähdj.k dh fn”kk
esa gekjh vkokt dks egRo feyrk gS vkSj dksbZ Hkh lekt efgykvksa ds çfr lEekutud O;ogkj djrk gSaA
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, fo”ks’k dk;ZØe dsUnz ljdkj }kjk efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa vkSj muds lexz
fodkl ds fy, le;≤ ij fuEu ;kstukvksa dks fØ;kfUor djrh jgh gS&
1- dkedkth efgykvksa ds fy, gksLVy o’kZ 1972&73 ls py jgh gSA
2- jkstxkj vkSj çf”k{k.k ds fy, lgk;rk nsus dk dk;ZØe ¼LVsi½ o’kZ 1986&87 ls pykbZ tk jgh gSA
3- Lokoyacu dk;ZØe ;g igys ukSjkM@efgyk vfFkZd dk;ZØe ds uke ls 1982&83 iwjs ns”k esa “k:
fd;k x;kA
4- Lo;afl)k ;kstuk Lo;algk;rk lewg ij vk/kkfjr ;g 12 tqykbZ 2001 dsUnz ljdkj }kjk “kq: dh
x;h bl ;kstuk dk mís”; efgykvksa dk lkekftd&vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k djuk gSA
5- jk’Vªh; efgyk l”kfDrdj.k uhfr 2001 cukbZ xbZ ftlesa efgykvksa dh t:jrksa dk lekNku fd;k
tk ldsA
6- Lo/kkjk ;kstuk o’kZ 2001&02 dsUnz ljdkj }kjk cukbZ xbZ gSA
7- Lof.kZe ;kstuk o’kZ 2002 esa lapkfyr dh xbZ blesa xjhch js[kk ls uhps ifjokjksa ds fy, pykbZ
xbZ FkhA
8- efgyk lek[;k ;kstuk o’kZ 1989 esa dh xbZ blesa ;kstuk esa muds vf/kdkjksa vkSj dÙkZO;ksa ds çfr
tkx:d fd;k tk ldsaA
9- vk”kk ;kstuk o’kZ 11 Qjojh] 2005 dks izkjEHk dh xbZA bl ;kstuk esa efgyk LokLF; dh ns[kHkky
fd;k tk ldsA
10- cfydk le`f) ;kstuk 2 vDVwcj] 1997 ls vkjEHk bl ;kstuk esa 15 vxLr] 1997 ds ckn tUeh
ckfydk ds ifjokj dks 500 :i;s nsus dk çko/kku gSaA
11- Lo”kfDr ;kstuk o’kZ 1998 esa “kq: dh x;h FkhA bldk mís”; thou Lrj esa lq/kkj fd;k tk,A
12- vYikof/k çokl x`g ;kstuk o’kZ 1969 esa dh xbZ FkhA vc bls vçSy 1999 esa dsUnzh; lekt dY;k.k
cksMZ dks lkSi fn;k x;k gS bldk mís”; ikfjokfjd fooknksa lkekftd] uSfrd] vkfFkZd :i ls laj{k.k
nsuk gSA
13- ifjokj ijke”kZ dsUnz o’kZ 1984 esa “kq: dh xbZ blesa efgykvksa dks iquokZl lEcU/kh lgk;rk miyCn
djk;h tk ldsA
14- fu%”kqYd ckfydk f”k{kk 22 flrEcj 2005 dks cukbZ x;h blesa fu;ekuqlkj ckfydkvksa esa f”k{kk dks
c<+kok nsukA
ukjhRo dh vko”;drk vf/kd efgyk usr`Ro ds :i esa gh ugha gS cfYd ;g Hkh vko”;d gS fd iq:’k
vius lkFk dh efgykvksa dk lEeku djsaA /kkfeZd dkuwu vkSj i)fr;k¡ tks gekjs lafo/kku ds fo:) gks] tks
efgykvksa ds ekuokf/kdkjksa dk mYya?ku djrs gksa] mUgsa pqukSrh nh tkuh pkfg,A ge bl laosnu”khy fo’k; ij
D;k vkSj dSls djsaxs] ppkZ dh tkuh pkfg, vkSj lko/kkuh iwoZd ;kstuk cuk;h tkuh pkfg, rkfd bl ckjs es a
Hkkouk,a vkgr djus vkSj çfrfØ;k dks Vkyk tk ldsA
fu’d’kZ Lo:i dgk tk, rks lekt esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj yk, tkus ds fy, vHkh Hkh vusd
ç;kl djus dh vko”;drk gSA f”k{kk vkSj LokLF; ds ekeys esa dsjy tSls dqN jkT;ksa vkSj vioknksa dks NksM+
fn;k tk, rks efgykvksa dh fLFkfr fujk”kktud gh cuh gqbZ gSaA vkfFkZd {ks= esa efgyk,a vHkh Hkh vkRefuHkZj
ugha gks ldh gSaA bl RkF; ls badkj ugha fd;k tk ldrk fd ljdkj ds reke ç;klks a us efgykvks a dh
lkekftd o vkfFkZd fLFkfr dks igys ls cgqr csgrj fLFkfr esa igqapk;k gS ysfdu vc u,&u, dkuwu cukus
ls vf/kd ;g lqfuf”pr djus dh vko”;drk gSa fd dSls miyC/k dkuwuksa dk lgh fØ;kUo;u fd;k tk,
rkfd vius laoS/kkfud vf/kdkjksa dk YkkHk “kgjksa esa jg jgh mPp f”k{kk çkIr efgykvksa ds lkFk gh xzk eh.k {ks=ksa
dh og efgyk,a Hkh mBk ldsa tks lafo/kku }kjk çnku fd, x, ekSfyd vf/kdkjksa ls Hkh oafpr gSaA efgyk
vfèkdkj vkSj l”kfDrdj.k Hkkjrh; lekt dh vko”;drk gSA fdlh ,d oxZ dks nckdj fodkl dks çkIr
ugha fd;k tk ldrkA efgyk, gekjs lekt dk fgLlk gSa] mudh rjDdh dks fdlh Hk; ;k “kadk ds :i esa
ugh ns[kk tkuk pkfg,A nksuksa oxksZa dk nkf;Ro ,d&nwljs ds çfr lEeku vkSj fo”okl dks c<+kok nsuk pkfg,A
tgka iq:’k ekufldrk esa cnyko dh vko”;drk gSa] ogh efgykvksa dks Hkh cnyrs ifjos”k esa mu nkf;Roksa dk
fuoZgu djuk gksxk tks vHkh rd iq:’kksa ds fy, fu/kkZfjr FksA efgykvksa ds fy, ;g jkg eqf”dy vo”; gS
fdUrq ukeqefdu ughaA
lanHkZ
1- ;kstuk] vçSy] 2011
2- ;kstuk] fnlEcj] 2013
3- dq:{ks=] ebZ] 2014
4- dq:{ks=] ekpZ] 2015
5- dq:{ks=] tw ykbZ] 2015
6- dq:{ks=] tuojh] 2016
7- ;kstuk] tuojh] 2016
8- ;kstuk] ekpZ] 2016
9- dq:{ks=] vçSy] 2016
10- ;kstuk] flrEcj] 2016
11- dq:{ks=] ebZ] 2017
12- nSf ud tkxj.k] fgUnqL rku
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh ‘kSf{kd] lkekftd o vkfFkZd fLFkfr % ,d v/;;u
egsUnz iky flag ;kno *
Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dh fLFkfr la?k’kZ”khy gksus ds dkj.k budh lkekftd] “kSf{kd] vkfFkZd fLFkfr dk eqík
ges”kk gh eq[;/kkjk dh ppkZ dk fgLlk jgk gSA Hkkjrh; laLÑfr ,oa ijEijk esa ukjh ukjk;.kh dh ckr djus
okys Hkkjr ns”k esa 1961 ls ysdj vc rd cky fyax vuqikr tks 0 ls 6 o’kZ dh mez rd ds izfr ,d gtkj
ckydksa dh rqyuk esa ckfydkvksa dh la[;k n”kkZrk gSA o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj ;g vkadM+k 919%1000
jgk gS tks fd 81 vadksa dh deh dk lwpd gSA o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj efgyk&iq:’k dk vuqikr
943%1000 jgk gSA Hkkjr ds dbZ jkT;ksa esa efgyk vuqikr 900 ls Hkh de jgk gSA ySafxd vlekurk dh n`f’V
ls ljdkj dks vHkh vkSj Hkh iz;kl djus gSaA f”k{kk ds {ks= esa 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj lk{kjrk nj
iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa 16 izfr”kr de gSA iq:’kksa dh lk{kjrk 80-90 izfr”kr] efgyk lk{kjrk nj 64-6 izf r”kr
jgh gSA o’kZ 1901 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj efgyk lk{kjrk nj dsoy 0-6 izfr”kr jgh FkhA izLrqr “kks/k i=
dk izeq[k mís”; Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh “kSf{kd] lkekftd&vkfFkZd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djuk gSA
‘kks/k&i= dk mís’;
1- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd fLFkfr dk v/;;uA
2- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh “kSf{kd fLFkfr dk v/;;uA
3- ljdkj }kjk mBk;s x, dneksa dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
v/;;u fof/k
izLrqr “kks/k i= esa efgykvksa dh “kSf{kd] lkekftd] vkfFkZd fLFkfr dk v/;;u fd;k x;k gSA v/;;u
gsrq miyC/k f}rh;d vkadM+ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA f}rh;d vkadM+ks ds laxzg.k gsrq Hkkjr ljdkj ds
dsUnz h; lkaf[;dh laxBu ls rFkk ,u0,l0,l0vks 0 ds losZ rFkk tux.kuk] vkfFkZdh ls lEcU/kh izd kf”kr
vkadM+s o lwpuk;sa] vkfFkZd losZ{k.k] i=&if=dkvksa rFkk vU; lEcfU/kr lkfgR; dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd fLFkfr dk v/;;u
Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dh jktuSfrd fLFkfr Hkh Hkkjrh; lekt esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrh gSA Hkkjr iztkrkaf=d
jk’Vª gSA fL=;ksa dks Hkh leku vf/kdkj fn;k x;k gSA budh jktuSfrd fLFkfr dk fo”ys’k.k bl izdkj gS %&
* vflLVSaV izksQslj] okf.kT;] jkTkdh; jt+k LukrdksÙkj egkfo|ky;] jkeiqj] m-izA

o"kZ efgyk lhV yksd lHkk esa efgyk izfr'kr

1951 22 4-5
1977 19 3-51
1984 43 7-95
1999 49 9-02
2014 66 12-15
mijksä lkj.kh ls Li’V gS fd Hkkjrh; laLkn esa yksdlHkk pquko esa 1951 ls efgyk dh lhV la0 22 ls
2014 ds yksdlHkk pquko esa 66 gks xbZ gSA budk orZeku izfr”kr yksdlHkk esa 12-15 izfr”kr gks x;k gS tks
1951 ds yksdlHkk pquko esa ek= 4-5 izfr”kr jgk FkkA blls Li’V gksrk gS fd Hkkjrh; lekt esa efgyk;sa tu
izfrfuf/k ds :i esa fu.kkZ;d Hkwfedk fuHkk jgh gSaA
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh ‘kSf{kd fLFkfr dk v/;;u
fdlh Hkh ns”k dk fodkl ogka ds ukxfjdksa ds fodkl ls lEcfU/kr gksrk gSA f”k{kk gh ,d ,slk {ks= gS
ftlls fdlh Hkh lekt o O;fä dk lok±xh.k fodkl gksrk gSA Hkkjrh; fL=;ksa dh Hkh “kSf{kd fLFkfr o’kZ 1901
esa ek= 0-6 izfr”kr jghA o’kZ 1951 esa Lora=rk i”pkr budh fLFkfr 8-86 izfr”kr jghA orZeku tux.kuk
2011 ds vk/kkj ij budh lk{kjrk fLFkfr 64-6 izfr”kr jgh gSA Lora=rk iwoZ o i”pkr~ lk{kjrk lkj.kh }kjk
iq:’k o L=h dh lk{kjrk dk fo”ys’k.k bl izdkj gS %&
Lora=rk iwoZ lk{kjrk izfr'kr Lora=rk i'pkr~ lk{kjrk izfr'kr
o"kZ O;fä iq:"k L=h o"kZ O;fä iq:"k L=h
1901 5-4 9-8 0-6 1951 18-33 27-16 8-86
1911 5-9 10-6 1-0 1961 28-30 40-40 15-35
1921 7-2 12-2 1-8 1971 34-45 45-96 21-97
1931 9-5 15-6 2-9 1981 43-57 56-38 29-76
1941 16-1 24-9 7-3 1991 52-21 64-13 39-29
2001 64-84 75-26 53-67
2011 73-00 80-90 64-60
uksV % 1951] 1961] 1971 dh lk{kjrk nj 5 o’kZ ;k mlls vf/kd vk;q ds yksxksa dh tula[;k gSA 1981] 1991] 2001] 2011
dh lk{kjrk nj 7 o’kZ ;k mlls vf/kd vk;q ds yksxksa dh tula[;k gSA
mijksDr lkj.kh ls efgyk lk{kjrk o iq:’k lk{kjrk dk fo”ys’k.k fd;k x;k gSA efgyk lk{kjrk 1901
esa 0-6 izfr”kr jgh ogha o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk vuqlkj 64-6 izfr”kr gks xbZA lekurk dh n`f’V ls 2011 dh
tux.kuk esa efgyk lk{kjrk orZeku esa iq:’kksa dh lk{kjrk ls 16 izfr”kr de gSA Hkkjr ds lafo/kku fuekZrkvksa
o uhfr fo”ks’kKksa us efgykvksa ds fiNM+siu ds eeZ dks le>k vkSj muds ;ksxnku dks egRo nsrs gq, lafo/kku
esa mica/k o izko/kku fd;kA ftlls lekt esa O;kIr ySfxad vlekurk] “kSf{kd fiNM+kiu o lkekftd] vkfFkZd
fLFkfr dks lqn`<+ fd;k tk ldsA
lafo/kku esa efgykvksa ds fy, izko/kku

vuqPNsn &15 % /keZ] tkfr] tUe LFkku vFkok fyax ds vk/kkj ij HksnHkko u fd;k tkukA
vuqPNsn&15¼3½ % efgykvksa ds fgr esa fo”ks’k mica/kksa dk fu.kZ; fd;k tkukA
vuq PNsn &16 % yksd lsok esa leku :i ls volj fn;k tkukA
vuq PNsn &19 % leku :i ls vkthfodk ds lk/ku miyC/k djkukA
vuq PNsn &21 % izk.k ,oa “kSf{kd Lok/khurk ls oafpr u fd;k tkukA
vuq PNsn &23 % Ø;&foØ; ,oa cykr~Je ls laj{k.kA
vuq PNsN &39 % leku :i ls vkthfodk ds lk/ku miyC/k djkukA
vuq PNsn &40 % iapk;rh jkt laLFkkvksa esa 73osa ,oa 74osa la”kks/ku }kjk 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.kA
vuq PNsn &42 % dke dh U;k;laxr vkSj ekuoksfpr n”kkvksa dk rFkk izlwfr lgk;rk dk mica/kA
vuq PNsn &47 % efgykvksa gsrq iks’kkgkj] thou Lrj rFkk yksd LokLF; esa lq/kkj gsrq mica/k djukA
vuq PNsn &51 % fL=;ksa ds lEeku ds fo:) izFkkvksa dk R;kxA
ljdkj }kjk mBk;s x, dne
efgykvksa dh lkekftd] “kSf{kd o vkfFkZd fLFkfr lq/kkjus ds fy, ljdkj }kjk le;≤ ij ;kstukvksa
dks “kq: fd;k x;k ftlls lekt esa ySfxad vlekurk] lk{kjrk nj esa o`f) djuk rFkk vkfFkZd :i ls lqn`<+
fd;k tk ldsA dqN egRoiw.kZ ;kstukvksa dk lkj.kh esa fo”ys’k.k fd;k tk jgk gS %&
Ø0la0 ;kstuk dk uke vkjaHk o’kZ
1- dLrwjck xka/kh vkoklh; ckfydk fo|ky; 2004
2- lcyk ;kstuk 2011
3- mTToyk 2007
4- ou LVki lsaVj ;kstuk
5- Lok/kkj x`g
6- bfUnjk xka/kh ekr`Ro lg;ksx ;kstuk 2010
7- jk’Vªh; efgyk dks’k
8- csVh cpkvks csVh i<+kvks ;kstuk tuojh 2015
9- tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk 2005
10- lqdU;k le`f) ;kstuk tuojh 2015
ljdkj }kjk turk ds LokLF; ds fy, jk’Vªh; LokLF; fe”ku dh “kq:vkr dh xbZA o’kZ 2005 esa izkjEHk
jk’Vªh; xzkeh.k LokLF; fe”ku ftls jk’Vªh; LokLF; fe”ku ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA ljdkj dk LokLF;
ctV fodflr ns”kksa dh rqyuk esa cgqr de gS tks yxHkx th0Mh0ih0 dk 2 izfr”kr gSA Hkkjr dh efgykvksa
dh lcls cM+h leL;k gS mudks mfpr iks’k.k u fey ikukA gekjs ns”k dh 1@3 efgyk;sa ¼35-6 izfr”kr½ dk
ckMh ekl baMsDl cgqr de gSA efgykvksa ij dqiks’k.k dk cqjk vlj gksrk gSA blds fy, ljdkj us vkaxuckM+ h
dsU nzksa ls xHkZorh efgykvksa ds fy, iks’ k.k dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk “kq: dh xbZA csVh
cpkvks csVh i<+kvks ;kstuk “kq: dh xbZA
fu”d”kZ
Hkkjrh; lekt esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd] vkfFkZd o “kSf{kd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djus ds i”pkr vHkh Hkh
buds fy, lekt o ns”k dh eq[;/kkjk ls tksM+us ds fy, ljdkj dks y{; fu/kkZfjr ;kstuk;sa cukdj mudk
jk’Vª ds fuekZ.k esa ;ksxnku lqfuf”pr djuk gSA bu ;kstukvksa ds lQy fØ;kUo;u ds fy, ,d fuxjkuh ra=
rFkk le;≤ ij lfefr cukdj mudk fujh{k.k lqfuf”pr fd;k tk,A orZeku esa efgyk % iq:’k fyaxkuqikr
esa ljdkj us vuqikr dks larqfyr djus ds fy, csVh cpkvks vkSj csVh i<+kvks ;kstuk dks izkjEHk fd;k vkSj
vkfFkZd enn ds fy, jk’Vªh; efgyk dks’k dk izkjEHk fd;kA ljdkj dks efgyk lk{kjrk izfr”kr 64-6 izfr”kr
dks iq:’kksa ds vuqikr esa djus ds fy, y{; cukdj mudk izfr”kr orZeku iq:’k 80-09 izfr”kr ds cjkcj
djkuk gSA blds fy, ljdkj dks f”k{kk ds fy, ;kstuk;sa cukdj mudks f”kf{kr@lk{kj cukuk gSA
lanHkZ lwph
1- bafM;k b;j cqd 2013] izdk”ku foHkkx] lwpuk vkSj izlkj.k ea=ky;A
2- tux.kuk 2011 dk voyksduA
3- Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd & vkfFkZd fLFkfr] ys[kd i’;arh ‘kqDyk& dq:{ks= ] tuojh 2016] ist 41&44 dk
voyksd uA
4- ukjh l”kfDrdj.k & vad] ;kstuk if=dk dk voyksduA
5- nSfud lekpkj i=ksa dk voyksduA
6- iz fr;ksfxrk niZ.k if=dkA
7- ?kVukpØ if=dkA
Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgyk Je dk fo’ys”k.k
eatw voLFkh * ,oa vpZuk ‘kqDyk **
fdlh Hkh jk’Vª ds fuekZ.k esa efgykvksa dh egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gksrh gS vkSj ;g Hkwfedk og izHkkoh <ax ls
rHkh fuHkk ldrh gS tc os l”kDr gksxhA orZeku le; esa fo”o ds izR;sd mUufr ,oa izxfr”khy jk’Vª ds
fuekZ.k ds fy, efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh vko”;drk eglwl dh x;h gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls vk”k; efgyk
dks “kfDr”kkyh o lkeF;Zokn cukus ls gSA ¼ns ”k ds vkfFkZ d] lkekftd] jktuhfrd ,oa lkaLd`frd {ks= esa
izR;sd Lrj ij fu.kZ;u dh izfØ;k esa efgykvksa dks lfEefyr djuk gS½A efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh fn”kk esa
dksbZ igy ml le; rd lQy ugha gks ldrh tc rd fd efgyk ¼iq:’kksa ds cjkcj½ f”kf{kr] izf”kf{kr]
dkS”ky ;qDr] dkexkj rFkk jkstxkjjr u gksA
fodkl”khy jk’Vªksa dh vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh cgqr vge j[krh gSA vUrjk’Vªh; Je laxBu
dh rktk fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj ,f”k;kbZ ns”kksa dh n`f’V ls Hkkjr vkSj ikfdLrku esa lcls de efgyk Jfed gS A
usiky] fo;ruke] dEcksfM;k tSls ns”kksa esa budh la[;k cgqr vf/kd gSA us”kuy lSEiy losZ dh fjiksVZ ds
vuqlkj ns”k esa o’kZ 1993&94 dh rqyuk esa o’kZ 2011&12 esa efgyk Jfedksa dk izfr”kr vkSj Hkh de gks x;k
gSA o’kZ 1993 esas tgk¡ efgyk Jfedksa dh Hkkxhnkjh 28-3 izfr”kr Fkh og o’kZ 2011&12 esa ?kVdj 21-7 izfr”kr
jg x;h gSA ;gh fLFkfr fo”o Lrj ij Hkh Li’V gq;h gSA o’kZ 2012 esa 87 ns”kksa ds chp Hkkjr 84os LFkku ij
Fkk tcfd o’kZ 2010 esa ;g 83 ns”kksa ds chp 68osa LFkku ij FkkA
Je esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh esa deh dk ,d izeq[k dkj.k iq:’kksa dh vk; esa o`f) Hkh ekuk tk ldrk
gSA tc iq:’kksa dh vk; esa i;kZIr o`f) gksus yxrh gS rks efgykvksa dks [ksrksa vkSj fuekZ.k dsUnzksa ij dBksj Je
esa layXu gksus dh vko”;drk ugha jgrhA vkSj og ifjokj ds j[kj[kko ij /;ku nsus yxrh gSA blds vykok
Hkh efgyk Jfedksa esa fxjkoV dk ,d dkj.k lkeus vk;k gS] tks ;|fi fujk”kkoknh gS] fdUrq okLrfod ds
vfèkd utnhd yxrk gS] ,slk ekuk tk jgk gS fd [ksrksa dk NksVk gksuk] c<+rs e”khuhdj.k ds dkj.k d`f’k esa
etnwjksa dh ekax ?kVus ls efgykvksa dks dke ugha feyrk gSA vxj ;g lR; gS rks Hkfo’; esa fLFkfr vkSj Hkh
cn~rj gksrh tk,xhA
Hkkjr esa efgyk Jfed {ks= dk <kapkxr igyw dqy feykdj dkQh vlqjf{kr vkSj fpUrktud gSA vkt
efgykvksa ds fy, jkstxkj pqukSrh cuh gq;h gS tks fuEu rkfydk ls Li’V gksrk gSA
* ,lks fl,V iz ksQslj] Mh-ch-,l- dkyst] dkuiqjA

** izoDrk] Mh-ch-,l- dkyst] dkuiqj] m-izA
xzkeh.k rFkk ‘kgjh {ks= esa efgyk rFkk iq:’k dk;Zoy ¼izfr’kr½
dqy xzkeh.k 'kgjh
o"kZ
iq :"k efgyk iq:"k efgyk iq:"k efgyk
1993-94 54.4 28.3 55.3 32.8 52.1 15.3
1999-2000 52.7 25.4 53.1 53.1 51.8 13.9
2004-05 54.7 28.2 54.6 54.6 54.9 16.6
2007-08 55.0 24.6 54.8 54.8 55.4 13.8
2009-10 54.6 22.5 54.7 54.7 54.3 13.8
2011-12 54.43 21.7 54.3 54.3 54.6 14.7
lzksr % jk’Vª h; iz fr”kr losZ{k.k ¼ NSSO½
vkS|ksfxd izHkkxksa esa efgyk Jfed

1999&2000 2004&05 2011&12
m|ks x
iq:"k efgyk iq:"k efgyk iq:"k efgyk
d`f"k 52.7 75.4 48.6 72.8 42.5 62.0
[kuu ,oa mR[kUu 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.3
mRiknu 11.5 9.5 12.4 11.3 12.6 13.4
fctyh xSl tyiwfrZ 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.1
fuekZ.k 5.8 1.6 7.6 1.8 12.4 6.0
lsok,a 28.8 13.2 30.2 13.7 31.5 18.3
dqy 100.0 100.0 100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0
lzk sr% jkstxkj ,oa csjkstxkjh fjiksVZ fofHkUu pj.k ¼,u,l,lvks NSSO½
mi;qZDr rkfydk ls Li’V gksrk gS fd o’kZ 2011&12 esa tgk¡ 62-3 izfr”kr efgyk d`f’k lEcU/kh jkstxkj
ls tqM+h Fkh ogh ek= 20 izfr”kr f}rh; {ks= esa fu;ksftr FkhA lsok {ks= esa 18 izfr”kr tqM+h FkhA f}rh; {ks=
esa le; ds lkFk efgykvksa ds vuqikr eas ¼fuekZ.k {ks=½ esa o`f) gqbZ gSA d`f’k {ks= esa csjkstxkjh ,d izkd`frd
leL;k gS ;g {ks= dbZ ladV ls xzflr gS ftlds dkj.k bl {ks= esa jkstxkj dh miyC/krk esa fujUrj fxjkoV
fn[krh gSA ftlls T;knkrj Jfed bl {ks= esa iyk;u Hkh dj jgs gSA og ;k rks fuekZ.k dk;Z dh rjQ :>ku
djrs gSA
lsok {ks= esa o`gr vkS|ksfxd izHkkxksa esa dkexkjksa dk fooj.k

1999&2000 2004&05 2011&12
m|ksx
iq:"k efgyk iq :"k efgyk iq:"k efgyk
O;kikj 40.8 27.8 41.3 24.4 39.7 22.7
(12.0) (11.2) (11.0)
gksVy ,oa jsLrjka 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.8 6.2 5.2
(17.7) (19.5) (15.4)
;krk;kr] Hk.Mkj.k ,oa lapkj 18.3 2.7 19.4 2.6 19.2 1.8
(2.9) (2.8) (2.0)
lkoZtfud iz' kklu ,oa j{kk 12.3 7.5 8.6 5.4 6.8 4.4
(11.0) (41.9) (12.2)
f'k{kk 6.8 21.1 7.2 24.3 7.6 27.0
(38.4) (22.3) (43.5)
vU; leqnk;] lkekftd ,oa futh 8.4 19.1 7.0 9.3 6.2 11.5
lsok,a (31.2) (22.3) (28.6)
futh O;fDr;ksa ds lkFk futh ifjokj 0.7 6.7 1.5 16.6 1.2 11.7
(6.4) (70.9) (67.2)
vU; lsok,a 8.00 10.1 29.9 11.5 13.0 15.7
(20.1) (19.9) (20.7)
dq y 100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
(16.7) (17.6) (17.8)
lzksr% NSSO ds fofo/k pj.kksa ds ;wfuV ysork vkadM+s
f}rh; vFkZO;oLFkk ftl xfr ls c<+ jgh gS] mlls ,slk yxrk gS fd 2050 rd vFkZO;oLFkk dh n`f’V ls
Hkkjr fo”o ds nwljs ik;nku ij igq¡ p tk;sxkA fdlh Hkh ns” k dh vFkZO;oLFkk ds mRFkku es a ml ns” k ds
izkd`frd lalk/kuksa dk cgqr egRo gksrk gSA ;gh og laink gS] tks jkstxkj c<+kus vkSj ns”k dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks
vkleku ij igq¡pk ldrh gSA izkd`frd lalk/kuksa ds ekeys esa gekjk ns”k ihNs ugha gSA ysfdu deh gS rks bl
lalk/kuksa ds bLrseky esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh dhA vc le; vk x;k gS] tc ge vkfFkZd txr esa efgykvksa
dh Hkkxhnkjh dks c<+kdj d`f’k i”kqikyu vkSj y?kq ,oa dqVhj O;olk;ksa ls mudh {kerk vkSj ;ksxnku dks ,d
igpku ns nsaA
orZeku esa ns”k dh vkfFkZd Hkkxhnkjh esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr vkSj mls lq/kkjs tkus ds fy, mBk, tkus
okys dneksa ij ,d utj Mkyrs gSA
• Xykscy bUVjizsU;ksjf”ki ,.M MsoyiesUV baLVhV~;wV us m|eh efgykvksa ds ekeys esa Hkkjr dks fo”o
ds ik¡p fupys ns”kksa esa j[kk gSA gekjs ;gk¡ yxHkx 73 % efgyk m|fe;ksa dks iwathifr;ksa ls vkfFkZd
lg;ksx ugha fey ikrk gS] cSad _.k dh Hkh ;gh fLFkfr gSA
• futh {ks= dks vkxs c<+kdj efgyk m|fe;ksa dks vkfFkZd lg;ksx nsuk pkfg,A
• vkfFkZd lgk;rk ds lkFk efgykvksa dks m|e “kq: djus vkSj mlds izcU/ku ls lacaf/kr izf”k{k.k dh
vko”;drk gksrh gSA bl {ks= esa *LVkVZ vi bafM;k* vkSj *LVS.M vi bf.M;k* dh ljdkjh osolkbV
cgqr ennxkj gSA ljdkjh enn ds vykok vxj futh {ks= Hkh ,d dne vkxs c<+k, rks izxfr tYnh
gks ldsxh fdLls Xykscy baLVhV~;wV ds v/;;u ds vuqlkj Hkkjr efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd Hkkxhnkjh ls
2050 rd vius ldy ?kjsyw mRikn esa 60% c<+ksRrjh dj ldrk gSA
• Hkkjrh; xzkeh.k efgykvksa esa dke djus dh vn~Hkqr “kfDr gSA mUgsa eq[;/kkjk ls tksM+dj vius lkeF;Z
esa dbZ xquk o`f) dh tk ldrh gSA ns”k esa vkaxuckM+h dh “kq:vkr blh lksp ds lkFk dh x;h Fkh
tc xzkeh.k efgyk,a dke djrh gks rks muds cPpksa dh leqfpr ns[kHkky vkaxuokfM+;ks a }kjk dh
tkrh gSA bu dsUnzksa ds ek/;e ls ljdkj dkedkth efgykvksa o cPpksa ds LokLF; ij Hkh utj j[krh
gSA bu dsUnzk sa ds ek/;e ls xzk eh.k ,oa fiNM+s {ks=ksa dh efgykvksa dks O;kolkf;d vkSj izca /kdh;
izf”k{k.k nsdj l”kDr vkSj le`) cuk;k tk ldrk gSA ns”k dh lok vjc ls vf/kd dh tula[;k
esa yxHkx 60 djksM+ efgyk,a gS vxj bu efgykvksa dks vkfFkZd :i ls vkRefuHkZj cuk fn;k tk, rks
ns”k dh le`f) cgqr c<+ ldrh gSA
lanHkZ lwph
1- ,a Vksuksiksy l] vkj ¼2009½ n vuisM ds ;j odZ&isM dusD”ku ¼ofdZax is ij ¼86½] ikfylh ba Vhxzs ”ku ,.M LVS f VDl
fMikVZesaV] vUrjkZ”Vª h; Je dk;kZ y;] ftusokA
2- HkV~Vkpk;Z , ¼2015½ ds;j odZ dSiVfyLV LVª Dpj ,.M okW;ysal vxsaLV foesu us”kuy dusD”ku vkW u ,Moksdslh Qkj
ds;j odZ ubZ fnYyh esa izLrqr isijA
3- ?kks’k] ts ¼2015½ foesUl oMZu tSu] Mh vkSj lqt; lhih ¼la½ bafM;u foesu] izdk”ku foHkkx] HkkjrA
4- ?kks’k ts] foesal] odZ bu bafM;k bu VosaVh QLVZ lsapqjhA http/www.sundarayya.org./site/default/files/papeskyatati.
5- tSu ns] odh ¼1979½ oSY ;wbax odZ&VkbEk ,l vestj bdksukW fed ,.M ikW fyfVdy ohdyh] okY;we AAA uEcj 43] 26
vDVwcj 1996A
6- tSu Mh0] foesUl bdksukW feDl jhtfuax ,.M MsoysiesaV ,dksukW feDl] dqN oxksZ ij ,d ppkZA
mRRkj izns’k esa eujsxk esa efgykvksa ds jkstxkj dk ifjn`’;
vthr ‘ka[k/kkj *
Hkkjr ,d fo”kky tula[;k okyk ns”k gS] ftldh yxHkx 68-8 izfr”kr tula[;k xk¡o esa jgrh gS blfy,
Hkkjr dks xk¡oksa dk ns”k dgk tkrk gSA brus] cMs+ ns”k dh vko”;drk,¡ vlhe gSa vkSj leL;k,¡ HkhA Hkkjr ns”k
dh tks t:jrsa vkSj leL;k,¡ gSa yxHkx ogh t:jrsa ,oa leL;k;sa mRrj&izns”k dh Hkh gSaA blfy, mRrj&izns”k
ns”k dks lh/ks :i ls izHkkfor djrk gSA mRrj&izns”k dh tula[;k ns”k esa lcls vf/kd lu~ 2011 dh tux.kuk
ds vuqlkj yxHkx 19-98 djksM+ gS ftlesa efgykvksa dh tula[;k yxHkx 9-53 djksM+ gS ftlesa ls yxHkx
7-4 djksM+ ls vf/kd efgyk,¡ xk¡o esa fuokl djrh gSaA ftudh eq[; leL;k vf”k{kk] csjkstxkjh vkSj xjhch gSA
mn~ns’;
izLrqr ”kks/k&i= dk mn~ns”; mRrj izns”k esa eujsxk esa efgykvksa ds jkstxkj dk v/;;u djukA mRrj
izns”k esa eujsxk esa efgyk jkstxkj esa o`f) ds izHkkoksa dk v/;;u djuk vkSj leL;kvksa dk v/;;u djukA
ifjdYiuk
mRrj izns”k esa eujsxk esa efgyk jkstxkj esa o`f) vk”kk ds vuqlkj u gksukA mRrj izns”k esa efgykvksa dh
fLFkfr esa T;knk lq/kkj u gksukA
‘kks/k&fof/k
izL rqr ”kks/k&i= f}rh;d vkadM+ ksa ij vk/kkfjr gS ”kks/k&i= esa iqLrdksa] lekpkj&i=] if=dkvksa vkSj
tuZYl dk v/;;u fd;k x;k gS rFkk bUVjusV dh csolkbV~l ls vkadM+s ,d= fd;s x;s gSaA
xzkeh.k csjkstxkjh dh leL;k dks nwj djus ds fy, 2 Qjojh 2006 dks jk’Vªh; jkstxkj xkj.Vh ;kstuk
¼ujsxk½ ”kq: dh xbZA izFke pj.k esa 200 ftys pqus x;s vkSj 1 vizSy 2008 dks ujsxk dks iwjs ns”k esa ykxw fd;k
x;kA bl ;kstuk esa xzk eh.k {ks =ksa esa izR;sd ifjokj ds ,d lnL; dks lky esa de ls de 100 fnu dk
jkstxkj nsuk vkSj izR;sd fnu dh etnwjh 100 :Ik;s nsukA jk’Vªh; jkstxkj xkj.Vh ;sktuk ¼ujsxk½ dk uke
2 vDVwcj 2009 dks egkRek xk¡/kh jk’Vªh; xzk eh.k jkstxkj xkj.Vh vf/kfu;e ¼eujsxk½ dj fn;k x;k gSA
;kstuk esa 1/3 izfr”kr efgykvksa dks jkstxkj fn;s tkus dh ckr dgh xbZ gSA ;g ;kstuk mRRkj&izns”k esa igys
pj.k esa 20 ftyksa esa nwljs pj.k esa 30 ftyksa esa vkSj vUr esa lHkh cps gq;s ftyksa esa ykxw gks xbZA mRrj izns”k
esa foxr foRrh; o’kZ esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh dk izfr”kr fuEufyf[kr rkfydk }kjk iznf”kZr fd;k x;k gSA
* lgk;d izk/;kid] vFkZ”kkL=] V.Mu ysu] flfoy ykbu] cnk;w¡ A

o’kZ 2013&2014 esa efgykvksa dk izfr”kr 22-17] o’kZ 2014&2015 esa 24-77 izfr”kr] 2015&2016 esa 29-
52 izfr”kr] 2016&2017 esa 33-21 izfr”kr rFkk 2017&2018 eas] 34-2 izfr”kr gSA efgykvksa dh Hkkxsnkjh dk
izfr”kr de gS ysfdu fiNys o’kksaZ esa yxkrkj efgykvksa ds izfr”kr esa o`f) gqbZ gS fQj Hkh ;g o`f) vk”kk ds
vuq:i ugha gSA foxr o’kksaZ ls efgykvksa ds jkstxkj izfr”kr esa tks o`f) gks jgh gS og efgykvksa dks “kfDr
iznku dj jgh gSA efgykvksa dh lq/kjrh fLFkfr muds fy;s vkSj vf/kd u;s njokts [kksy jgh gSA
eujsxk us mRrj&izns”k esa xzkeh.k vdq”ky efgykvksa dks jkstxkj iznku fd;k gS vkSj izR;sd o’kZ efgyk
jkstxkj ds izfr”kr esa yxkrkj o`f) gks jgh gS ysfdu bl o`f) dk izfr”kr de gSA efgykvksa dh fLFkfr es a
lq/kkj gks jgk gS vc xzkeh.k efgykvksa dks muds xk¡o ds ikl gh jkstxkj fey tkrk gS ftlls iyk;u dh
fLFkfr esa dqN jksd yxh gS vkSj efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr esa lq/kkj gqvk gS lkFk gh lkFk efgykvks a dks dke
djrs ns[k vU; xzkeh.k efgykvksa us Hkh vius vki dks bl ;kstuk ds lkFk tksM+uk ”kq: dj fn;k gS efgyk,¡
LokcyEch gksus yxh gSa vkSj xjhch dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj gqvk gSA iq:’kksa dks Hkh efgykvksa dk eujsxk esa dke
djuk lgh yxrk gS D;ksafd efgykvksa dks jkstxkj xk¡o ds ikl gh fey tkrk gSA mRrj&izns”k ds lkFk&lkFk
Hkkjr ds fodkl ds fy, Hkh ;g t:jh gS fd efgykvksa dh Hkkxsnkjh vkSj vf/kd c<+s D;kasfd fdlh Hkh ns”k
ds fodkl ds fy, efgyk,¡ Hkh mruh gh lg;ksxh gSa ftrus iq:’kA eujsxk ds ek/;e ls izR;sd foRrh; o’kZ
esa efgykvksa ds jkstxkj izfr”kr esa o`f) mRrj&izns”k ds vykok Hkkjr ns”k ds fy, Hkh ,d ldkjkRed dne
gSA mRrj&izns”k esa jaxjktu lfefr (2014) ds vuqlkj yxHkx 38-1 izfr”kr fu/kZurk vuqikr xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa
gS vkSj yxHkx 600-9 yk[k dh tula[;k fu/kZurk js[kk ls uhps xzkeh.k {ks= esa fuokl djrh gS ogha nwljh vksj
mRrj izns”k esa efgyk lk{kjrk yxHkx 57-2 izfr”kr gSA ftlesa ls xzkeh.k efgyk lk{kjrk yxHkxx 48-5
izfr”kr gS bu nksuksa ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa eujsxk gh xjhch vkSj vf”kf{kr efgykvksa dsk jkstxkj iznku dj ldrh
gS vkSj eujsxk bl fn”kk esa viuk dke dj jgh gSA tks gesa izfr foRrh; o’kZ esa efgykvksa ds izfr”kr esa o`f)
crk jgh gS ysfdu ;g xfr /kheh gS tks ,d xEHkhj leL;k gSA
bl nkSjku eujsxk ls lEcfU/kr dbZ dfe;k¡ Hkh irk pyh gaS tSls lEcfU/kr foHkkx ds deZp kfj;ksa dk
joS;k] efgykvksa ds uke ij iq:’kksa dk dke djuk] iwjk Hkqxrku u gksuk] efgykvksa dh leL;kvksa ij /;ku u
nsuk vkfnA
eujsxk esa dk;Z fnol c<+kuk pkfg, tks yxHkx 200 fnu gksuk pkfg,A orZeku dh egaxkbZ dks ns[krs gq,
vkS j izf rfnu dh fngkM+h dks ns[krs gq, ikfjJfed Hkh c<+ kuk pkfg, blls iyk;u vkSj de gks tk;s xkA
efgykvksa ds cPpksa dh ns[kHkky vkSj f”k{kk dh O;oLFkk gskuh pkfg, iwjk Hkqxrku feyuk pkfg,] deZpkfj;ksa dks
viuk dRrZO; iwjh bZekunkjh ls fuHkkuk pkfg,] efgykvksa dh f”k{kk vkSj izf”k{k.k dh mfpr O;oLFkk gksu h
pkfg,] eujsxk esa efgykvksa ij vkSj /;ku nsus dh t:jr gS ftlls izns”k dk gh ugha cfYd ns”k dk rhozxfr
ls fodkl gks ldsxk vkSj eujsxk efgykvksa dks jkstxkj nsus vkSj mudh vkfFkZd fLFkfr lq/kkjus esa ,d ehy
dk iRFkj lkfcr gksxkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1. Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk& nRr ,oa lqUnje~
2. Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk losZ{k.k ,oa fo”ys’k.k & yky ,oa yky
3. izfr;ksf xrk niZ.k ¼vfrfjDrkad Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk½ lu 2017
4. Indian Women: Socio-Economic and Gender Perspectives, Sushanta Kumar Kashyap
5. UPUEA Economic Journal 12 th Annual Conference 2016
6. SAVASS Journal of Social Sciences, Volume II Year, 2014
7. Statistics on Woman in India, 2014 Report
csolkbV
1. www.nrega.nic.in
2. www.census2011.co.in
3. www.mospi.nic.in
nfyr lekt esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k
jf’e vk;kZ *
izLrkouk
,d cgqr gh my>h gqbZ vo/kkj.kk ÞnfyrÞ gSA blds tkus fdrus vk;ke gSaA blds lkszr ds i`Fkd&i`Fkd
ek/;e gSA izR;sd fo}ku ÞnfyrÞ “kCn dks bfrgkl ds iUuksa esa <w<+us dk iz;kl djrk gSA lekt ds fodkl
ds fofHkUu pj.kksa esa o.kZ vkSj tkfr mHkj dj vkrs gSaA dgha blds vFkZ dks /keZ ls tqMs+ o.kZ ls tks M+k tkrk gS]
dgha dgha bls lH;rk vkSj laLd`fr ds fodkl esa vk;Z vkSj vuk;Z ls uRFkh fd;k tkrk gSA dHkh dchykbZ
laLd`fr esa bls <w<+us dk iz;Ru fd;k tkrk gSA dHkh vkfFkZd&lkekftd <+kpsa esa os O;fDr] tks fuEure fuèkZu
oxZ ds :i esa jgrs gSa] ftuds ikl u rks lEifRr Fkh u “kfDr] u ?kj Fkk vkSj u le>A bl fugk;r “kksf’kr
lekt ds yksxks dks nfyr dh laKk nh x;hA
okLro esa ÞnfyrÞ “kCn pyu esa vkrs vkrs vusd o’kZ yx x;sA le;kuqlkj bls dHkh gfjtu dgk x;k
dHkh vLi`”; tkfr] dHkh nkl] dHkh vuk;Z] dHkh nqcZy oxZ vkSj orZeku le; rd vkrs&vkrs ljdkjh :i
es bls vuqlwfpr tkfr;k¡ uke fn;k x;kA gkaykfd dqN fiNM+h ;k vuqlwfpr tkfr;ksa ds yksx ÞnfyrÞ “kCn
dk fojks/k djrs gSaA mudk dguk gS fd ÞnfyrÞ “kCn viekutud gSA lkFk gh ;g O;fDr esa ghurk dh
Hkkouk dks mRiUu djrk gSA
ÞnfyrÞ “kCn dk vFkZ eksVs rkSj ij tula[;k ds ml “kksf’kr vkSj ihfM+r oxZ ls gS tks lafo/kku dh /kkjk
341¼1½¼2½ ds vUrxZr vuqlwfpr tkfr dh Js.kh esa j[kk x;k gS vuqlwfpr tkfr;ks dh lwph fofHkUu jkT;ksa ds
jkT;ikyksa ls fopkj&foe”kZ djus ds ckn jk’Vªifr }kjk Þf”kM~;wYM dkLV vkMZj] 1950Þ ds rgr tkjh dh
x;hA bls 1956 esa iqu% la”kksf/kr fd;k x;kA
nfyr vkfFkZd lkekftd vkSj /kkfeZd O;oLFkk dk izrhd gS ftlesa O;fDr &O;fDr dk “kks’k.k djrk gSaA
ekuo vf/kdkjksa dk guu djrk gSA “kksf’kr oxZ dk izrhd gS nfyr os yksx ugha gS ftUgksaus ,d gh ns”k ds
O;fDr;ksa vkSj ukfj;ksa dks lekt esa fuEure ik;nku ij cSBk fn;k gS eka dh dks[k ls u rks iq:’k NksVs :i
esa tUe ysrk gS vkSj u gh ukjhA ;g rks lekt gS tks O;fDr;ksa dks i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ Jsf.k;ksa esa vius LokFkZ ds
fygkt ls ckaVrk gSA nfyr ukjh dh fLFkfr rks vkSj Hkh n;uh; gSa og rks lfn;ksa ls ifjokj esa Hkh izs e lEeku
Lusg vknj vkfn dh Hkw[kh gS vkSj ckgj rks mls i”kq rqY; gh le>k tkrk gSA ?kj dh pkjnhokjh esa dSn ,d
* ,lksfl,V izksQslj] jktdh; egkfo|ky; lkses”oj] vYeksM+kA

ukjh dk eka] csVh cgu] iRuh] HkkHkh] rkbZ] ekSlh] cqvk vkSj u tkus fdrus fo”ks’k.k mlds uke ds lkFk tqM+s gSa]
ij og gS rks nfyr gh nwljksa ij vkfJr gSA dBksj Je djds Hkh mls nks oDr Hkkstu tqVkuk dfBu gksrk gS A
og lo.kksZa ds ?kjksa es dkedj cpk [kqpk [kkuk ykdj vius cPpksa dks nsrh gSA ;g fu/kZurk gh nfyr ukjh ds
fy, vfHk”kki gS vkSj lekt ds fy, dyadA 1
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds varxZr efgykvksa ls tqM+s lkekftd] vkfFkZd] jktuSfrd vkSj dkuwuh eqn~nks ij
laosnu”khyrk vkSj ljksdkj O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA l”kfDrdj.k dh izfd;k esa lekt dks ikjaifjd fir`lRrkRed
n`f’Vdks.k ds izfr tkx:d fd;k tkrk gS ftlus efgykvks dh fLFkfr dks lnSo derj ekuk gSA oSf”od Lrj
ij ukjhoknh vkanksyuksa vkSj ;w,uMhih vkfn varjk’Vªh; laLFkkvksa us efgykvksa ds lkekftd lerk] Lor=rk
vkSj U;k; ds jktuhfrd vf/kdkjksa dks izkIr djus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkbZ gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k HkkSfrd
;k vk/;kfRed] “kkjhfjd ;k ekufld] lHkh Lrj ij efgykvksa esa vkRefo”okl iSnk dj mUgsa l”kDr cukus dh
izfØ;k gSA
efgyk ,oa cky fodkl foHkkx] efgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea =ky; }kjk cPpksa ds fy, jk’Vª h; Lrj ij
tkudkjh izkIr djrk gSA iz;ksDrk thou] vfLrRo vkSj Lora=rk ds vf/kdkj dh rjg ,d cPps ds fofHkUu
vfèkdkjks ds ckjs esa irk yxk ldrs gSaA [ksyus vkSj vodk”k eq¶r vkSj vfuok;Z izkFkfed f”k{kk ikus ds vf/
kdkj] ekrk&firk dh ftEesnkjh ds ckjs esa lwpuk vkfn fodykax cPpksa dh lqj{kk vkfn ds fy, Hkh lwpuk
iznku djrk gSA2
lk{kjrk Lrj
tux.kuk 2011 ds vuqlkj mRrjk[k.M jkT; dh lk{kjrk nj 78-82 izfr”kr gSA ftlesa iq:’k lk{kjrk
83 28 izfr”kr vkSj efgyk lk{kjrk nj 59-63 izfr”kr gSA tcfd 2001 ds vuqlkj iq:’k lk{kjrk 87-40
izfr”kr vkSj efgyk lk{kjrk nj 70-01 izfr”kr gSAdqy lk{kj 6880953 gSA ftlesa iq:’k lk{kj 3863708 vkSj
efgyk lk{kj 3017245 gSA3
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds fy, ljdkj }kjk cuk;h x;h ;kstuk,a
fdlh Hkh lekt ds fodkl dk lh/kk lEcU/k ml lekt dh efgykvksa ds fodkl ls tqM +k gksrk gSA
efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fcuk O;fDr ifjokj vkSj lekt ds fodkl dh dYiuk Hkh ugha dh tk ldrh gS
efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy, ljdkj }kjk dqN ;kstuk;sa cuk;h x;h gSaA tks fuEuor~ gS %&
¼d½ csVh cpkvks csVh i<+kvks dk;ZØe
• ckfydkvksa ds vfLrRo laj{k.k vkSj f”k{kk dks c<+kok nsus ds mnns”; ls 22 tuojh] 2015 dks ikuhir
gfj;k.kk esa bl dk;ZØe dh “kq:vkr dh xbZ FkhA
• bl dk;ZØe dk mnns”; yM+fd;ksa ds fxjrs fyaxkuqikr ds eqn~ns ds izfr yksxksa dks tkx:d djuk gSA
• bl dk;ZØe dk lexz y{; fyax ds vk/kkj ij yM+dk vkSj yM+dh esa gksus okys HksnHkko dks jksdus
ds lkFk&lkFk izR;sd ckfydk dh lqj{kk] f”k{kk] vkSj lekt esa Lohd`fr lqfuf”pr djuk gSA
¼[k½ fd’kksfj;ksa ds l’kfDrdj.k ds fy, jktho xk/kh ;kstuk *lcyk*

• dsUnz ljdkj }kjk izk;ksftr bl dk;ZØe dh “kq:vkr 1 vizSy 2011 dks dh x;h FkhA
• bl dk;ZØe dks efgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea=ky; dh ns[k&js[k esa pyk;k tkrk gSA
• xSj iks’k.k 15&18 o’kZ dh yM+fd;ksa dks vk;ju lfgr dbZ vU; nokbZ;ka feyrh gSaA
¼x½ bafnjk xka/kh ekr`Ro lg;ksx ;kstuk
• ;g ekr`Ro ykHk dk;ZØe 28 vDVwcj 2010dks “kq: fd;k x;k FkkA
• bl dk;ZØe dk eq[; mn~ns”; 19 lky ;k mlls vf/kd mez dh xHkZorh vkSj Lruiku djkus okyh
efgykvksa dks igys nks cPpksa ds tUe rd foRrh; lgk;rk iznku djuk gSA
¼?k½ xkW/kh ckfydk fo|ky; ;kstuk
• bl dk;ZØe dk “kqHkkjEHk 2004 esa fd;k x;k FkkA
• ;g ;kstuk 2004 ls mu lHkh fiNM+s {ks=ksa esa fØ;kfUor dh tk jgh gS tgkW xkzeh.k efgyk lk{kjrk
dh nj jk’Vªh; Lrj ls de gksA
• bl ;kstuk esa dsUnz vkSj jkT; ljdkjsa Øe”k% 75 izfr”kr vkSj 25 izfr”kr [kpZ dk ;ksxnku djsaxsA
• ;kstuk esa eq[; :i ls ,slh ckfydkvksa ij /;ku nsuk tks fo|ky; ls ckgj gS rFkk ftudh mez 10
o’kZ ls Åij gksA
¼M+½ iz/kkuea=h mTToyk ;kstuk
• bl ;kstuk dh “kq:vkr iz/kkuea=h eksnh }kjk 1 ebZ 2016 dks dh xbZ FkhA
• bl ;kstuk ds vUrxZr xjhc efgykvksa dks eq¶r ,yihth xSl dusD”ku feysaxsA
¼p½ Lok/kkj ?kj ;kstuk
• bl ;kstuk dks 2001&2002 esa “kq: fd;k x;k FkkA
• bl dk;ZØe dks efgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea=ky; dh ns[k js[k esa pyk;k tkrk gSA
• bl ;kstuk dk mn~ns”; oS”;ko`fr ls ;qDr efgykvksa] fjgk dSnh] fo/kokvksa rLdjh ls ihfM+r efgykvksa]
izkd`frd vkinkvksa] ekufld :i ls fodykax vkSj cslgkjk efgykvksa ds iquokZl dh O;oLFkk djuk gSA
¼N½ efgykvksa ds fy, izf’k{k.k vkSj jkstxkj dk;ZØe
• bl ;kstuk dh “kq:vkr 1986&87 esa ,d dsUnzh; ;kstuk ds :i esa dh x;h FkhA
• bl dk;ZØe dks efgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea=ky; dh ns[k&js[k esa pyk;k tk jgk gSA
• ;kstuk dk eq[; mn~ns”; efgykvksa dk dkS”ky fodkl djkdj mudks bl yk;d cukuk gS fd os
Lo&jkstxkj ;k m|eh cuus dk gquj izkIr dj ldsaA
• bl ;kstuk dk eq[; y{; 16 o’kZ ;k mlls vf/kd dh yM+fd;ksa@efgykvksa dk dkS”ky fodkl djuk gSA
lUnHkZ xzUFk
1- oh-,u- flag ] tuest; flag ] ukjhokn] jkor ifCyds”kUl] ubZ fnYyh] o’kZ 2013] i`- la- 338&339]
2. https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki
3. http://www.census2011.co.in/census/state/uttarakhand.html
4. http://www.jagranjosh.com
Hkkjr esa efgyk laosnh ctV izfØ;k
‘ksQkfydk jk; *
izLrkouk
fo”o vkfFkZd eap dh rktk fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr] “kSf{kd miyfC/k;ksa] LokLF;
vkSj thou izR;k’kk rFkk jktuhfrd l”kähdj.k ds lwpdkadksa ds feys tqys vkdyu esa fo”o esa Hkkjr dk
87oka LFkku gSA ns”k ds mPp inksa ij efgykvksa dh de Hkkxhnkjh vkSj laln esa efgykvksa dk vR;f/kd fuEu
izfrfuf/kRo fpark dk fo’k; gSA efgykvksa ds f[kykQ gksus okys HksnHkko dks lekIr djus vkSj ySafxd lekurk
dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, o’kZ 2005 ls Hkkjr esa vkSipkfjd :i ls foÙkh; ctV esa tasMj mRrjnk;h ctfVax dks
vaxhdkj fd;k x;kA ftldk mn~ns”; jktdks’kh; uhfr;ksa ds ek/;e ls fyax lEcU/kh leL;kvksa dk lek/kku
djuk gSA
v/;;u dk mís’;
“kks/k dk eq[; mís’; tsaMj ctfVax ds }kjk fofHkUu o’kksZ esa ljdkj }kjk fd;s x;s iz;klksa dk fo”ys’k.k
djuk rFkk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds y{; dks izkIr djus esa ;g fdruk lgk;d gS] mldh foospuk djuk gSA
‘kks/k ifjdYiuk
1- tasMj ctfVax ds }kjk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds mís”; dks izkIr djus dk iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gSA
2- udkjkRed igyw gS fd tasMj ctfVax dks efgykvksa rd dsfUnzr djds lhfer j[kk x;k gSA fodkl
ds eq[; /kkjk ls tasMj ctfVax dks izR;{k :i ls ugha tksM+k x;k gSA
‘kks/k fof/k
izLrqr “kks/k i= esa laedks dk ladyu f}rh;d laed ds }kjk fd;k gS] tks fd mRd`’V rFkk oS/k lEiknuksa
dk laxzg gS tSls vkfFkZd losZ{k.k] ;kstuk] fofHkUu vf/kdkfjd osclkbV bR;kfn rFkk bldh izd`fr vuqlwph
ij fuHkZj gSA
* vfl0 izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] jktdh; Luk0 egkfo|ky; pqukj] fetkZiqj ¼m0iz0½A
Hkkjr ds bfrgkl dk ,d Lo.kZ ;qx ,slk Hkh jgk gS tc fL=;ksa us lekt ds mPp Lrj dk miHkksx fd;kA
mUgsa iq:’kksa ds leku gh f”k{kk dk vf/kdkj izkIr FkkA xkxhZ] eS=h;] tSlh izfl) efgyk nk”kZfud Fkh tks
iq:’kksa ds Lrj ij gh Hkk”k.k izopu djrh FkhA jktuhfr esa Hkh fL=;ksa dk izcy ;ksxnku FkkA buesa jft;k
lqYrkuk] pk¡nchch] uwjtgk¡] eqerkt] nqxkZorh] tgk¡vkjk] dqN uke vkt Hkh ;kn fd;s tkrs gSaA gekjs Lok/
khurk vkUnksyuksa esa efgykvksa dk ;ksxnku iq:’kksa ls FkksM+k Hkh de ugha FkkA foxr nks n”kdksa esa gqbZ L=h dh
vkfFkZd mRØkfur dk izHkko Hkkjr ds lkekftd iVy ij Li’V n`f’Vxkspj gksus yxk gSA L=h dh vkfFkZd
l’kDrrk ls iq:’k ds led{k igpku feyh gSA rFkkfir] y{; vc Hkh nwj gSA L=h dh vcyk Nfo vHkh VwVh
ugha gSA ?kj vkSj lekt ls tqM+s cM+s fu.kZ; ysus esa vHkh mls leFkZ ugha ekuk tkrk mls vkxs vkus ds fy,
tks lqfo/kka, pkfg, os cgqr de gSA
efgyk laosnh vuqfØ;k”khy ctV izfØ;k dh igy efgykvksa ds fy, la;qDr jk’Vª fodkl dks”k] jk’VªeaMy
lfpoky; vkSj dukMk ds vUrjkZ’Vªh; fodkl vuqla/kku dsUnz ds lfEefyr iz;klksa dk ifj.kke gSA 1984 esa
vkLVªsfy;k esa efgyk laosnh ctV izfØ;k dk Hkkjr lfgr fo”o ds vusd ns”kksa esa dsUnzh; ctV dk eq[; vax
gks xbZ gSA la;qDr jk’Vª dh fjiksVZ 2003 ds vuqlkj ySafxd lekurk gsrq tsaMj esufLVªfeax dh vko”;drk gSA
blls rkRi;Z ;g gS fd efgyk vkSj iq:’kksa dh fofHkuu Hkwfedkvksa vkSj vko”;drkvksa dks /;ku esa j[krs gq,
muds fy, fØ;kfUor uhfr;ksa vkSj dk;ZØeksa dk ewY;kadu fd;k tk, ftlls fd vlekurk dks lekIr fd;k
tk lds rFkk iq:’k rFkk efgyk leku :i ls ykHkkfUor gks ldsA
ySafxd lekurk ds fy, dkuwuh izko/kkuksa ds vykok fdlh ns”k ds ctV esa efgyk l”kfädj.k rFkk f”k”kq
dY;k.k ds fy;s fd;s tkus okys /ku vkcaVu ds mYys[k dks tsaMj ctfVax dgk tkrk gS] ljdkjh ;kstukvksa
esa efgykvksa ds fy, /ku dk izko/kku lq/kkjus dh n`f’V ls o’kZ 2005 esa fyax vk/kkfjr ctV O;oLFkk vFkkZr
tsaMj fjLikaflo ctfVax izkjEHk dh x;hA blds vuqlkj ljdkj ds lHkh foHkkxksa ds O;;ksa dk vyx ls fuèkkZj.k
gksuk pkfg,] ftlls efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa dh j{kk dh tk lds rFkk iq:’k o efgyk ds e/; O;kIr vlekurk
dks lekIr fd;k tk ldsA
tsaMj ctfVax vke ctV ls vyx ctV ugha gSA ;g dsoy ctV rd lhfer ugha gSA blds vraxZr efgykvksa
ds ifjizs{; ls ljdkj dh fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa dk fo”ys’k.k djuk “kkfey gSA tsaMj ctfVax esa nks izdkj dh
ljdkjh ;kstukvksa dks foRrh; lgk;rk nh tkrh gSA igyh] ,slh ;kstuk,a ftuesa 100 Qhlnh izko/kku efgykvksa
ds fy, gSA nwljh] ,slh ;kstuk,a tgk¡ de ls de 30 Qhlnh efgykvksa ds fy, vkoaVu gSA
Hkkjr esa ekuo fodkl laca/kh miyfC/k;ka Hkkjr dh 586 fefy;u efgykvksa ds fodkl o l”kfDrdj.k ij
fuHkZj djrh gSA efgyk,a ns”k dh dqy tula[;k dk yxHkx 49% gSA tcfd budh lsokvksa vkSj lalk/kuksa rd
igqap vkSj fu;a=.k esa vlekurkvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA efgykvksa dh fof”k’V t:jrsa gSa] ftUgsa fo”ks’k :i
ls iwjk fd;s tkus dh vko”;drk gSA blh vko”;drk dh iwfrZ gsrq tasMj ctfVax ,d egRoiw.kZ lk/ku gSA
efgykvksa ds fy, vc Hkh vusdkus d pqu kSfr;ka Hkkjrh; lekt es a cuh gqbZ gSA Hkkjr esa efgyk,a dqy
tula[;k dk djhc 48 izfr”kr gS ysfdu jkstxkj esa mudh mifLFkfr flQZ 26 izfr”kr dh gSA vFkZO;oLFkk
esa efgykvksa dks eq[; /kkjk ls tksM+us dh vko”;drk dks le>rs gq, Hkkjr esa dsUnz ljdkj us fofHkUu uhfr;ksa]
;kstukvksa vkSj izf”k{k.k dk;ZØe cuk, gSa fdUrq bu lHkh iz;klksa ds i”pkr~ Hkh tsaMj ctfVax ls lEcfU/kr
dqN leL;k;sa n`f’Vxkspj gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% tsaMj ctV fooj.k 2005&06 ls 2015&16 ¼ctV vuqeku½ esa n’kkZ, vuqlkj
efgykvksa gsrq vkcaVu
o"kZ ea=ky;ksa@foHkkxksa dh Hkkxksa dh tsaMj ctV dh dqy ek=k dqy ctV ds izfr'kr
la[;k la[;k ¼ctV dk vuqeku djksM+ :0 ds :i esa
esa½
2005-06 9 10 14379 2.79 %
2006-07 18 24 28737 5.09 %
2007-08 27 33 31178 4.50 %
2008-09 27 33 27662 3.68 %
2009-10 28 33 56858 5.57 %
2010-11 28 33 67750 6.11 %
2011-12 29 34 78251 6.22 %
2012-13 29 34 88143 5.91 %
2013-14 30 35 97134 5.83 %
2014-15 36 39 98030 5.46 %
2015-16 35 35 79258 4.46 %
L=ksr% Hkkjr ljdkj efgyk vkSj fodkl ea=ky; tsaMj ctfVax] vDVwcj 2015
Hkkjr dk tsaMj ctV 2015&16 ls 2017&18

125]00]000
113326-65
vkoaVu ¼:i;s djksM+ esa½
100]00]000
81249-12 90624-76 96331-83
75]00]000
50]00]000
25]00]000
0]00
2015&16 2016&17 2016&17 2017&18
la'kksf/kr ctV la'kksf/kr ctV

vuqeku vuqeku vuqeku vuqeku
L=ksr% ;wfu;u ctV 2017&18
leL;k,a
• tsaMj ctfVax ds izxfr ds ckotwn Hkh bldh igqap izR;sd efgyk rd gks blds fy, vko”;d dne
mBkus dh vko”;drk gSA gky ds o”kksZ ij n`f’V Mkyh tk; rks tsaMj ctfVax ds rgr yxHkx leku
jkf”k dk vkoaVu jgk gSA
• ?kjsyw fgalk ls Hkkjrh; lekt esa u dsoy fuj{kj cfYd lk{kj rFkk vkfFkZd :i ls lEiUu efgyk,a
Hkh izHkkfor gS] tcfd tsaMj ctfVax ds vUrxZr ?kjsyw fgalk vf/kfu;e ds fØ;kUo;u ds fy, fo’ks”k
vkcaVu dh vko’;drk gSA
• efgyk dY;k.k gsrq gksus okys vkcaVu dk fodsUnzhdj.k u fd;k tkukA
• losZ ds fofHkUu fjiksVksZ ls ;g Kkr gksrk gS fd dSalj tSlh chekjh ls efgyk,a fo”ks’k rkSj ij izHkkfor
gS rFkk vkfFkZd :i ls l”kDr u gksus dh otg ls LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa ls oafpr jgrh gSA vr% vko”;drk
gS thou j{kd ;kstukvksa ls efgykvksa dks tksM+us dhA
lq>ko
• dkedkth efgykvksa ds fy, leku dk;Z leku osru rFkk lqjf{kr ukSdjh lqfuf”pr djuk rFkk
ljdkjh {ks=ksa dh Hkkafr futh {ks=ksa esa Hkh ekr`Ro vodk”k ls lacaf/kr dkuwu dks l[rh ls ykxw djuk
gksxkA
• LokLF;] j{kk] lkekftd lqj{kk] mPp f”k{kk esa] lkoZtfud inksa ij efgykvksa dh leku igqap gksA
• efgykvksa ds ,fuehd] dSalj ,oa vU; LokLF; leL;kvksa gsrq ctV dk vkoaVu rFkk mldh igq¡p dks
lqfuf”pr fd;k tk,A
fu”d”kZ
tsaMj ctfVax vkSj lkekftd lq/kkjksa ds ,dhd`r iz;kl ls gh Hkkjr dks ySafxd vlekurk ds cU/kuksa ls
eqDr fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl ckr dks le>uk gksxk fd tsaMj ctfVax dk vk”k; fofHkUu ljdkjh ;kstukvksa
ds vUrxZr efgykvksa ds fy, vf/kd /ku vkoafVr djuk gh ugha gS oju bldk vFkZ ;g gksuk pkfg, fd
ljdkjh vk; vkSj O;; dh izkFkfedrkvksa dks bl rjg fu/kkZfjr fd;k tk, fd mlls ySafxd lekurk Li’V
gksA blesa dksbZ la”k; ugha gS fd tsaMj ctfVax }kjk ljdkj us efgykvksa ds LokLF; ,oa vkfFkZd l”kfDrdj.k
dh n`f’V ls egRoiw.kZ dne mBk;s gSaA ljdkj dh ;kstuk,a vkSj mlls lEcfU/kr ctVh; izko/kku efgykvksa
ds l”kfDrdj.k dk ewyk/kkj gSA orZeku le; esa efgyk,a ftl LFkku ij gS mls gkfly djus esa ljdkj dk
cM+k ;ksxnku gSA ysfdu vHkh bldk iwjk ykHk efgykvksa dks ugha fey ik;kA vko”;drk bl ckr dh gS fd
ctV esa gq, izko/kkuksa dk muls lEcfU/kr foHkkxksa }kjk le; lhek ij ykxw dj mís”;ksa dks iwjk fd;k tk;A
ifjorZu dh ,d vka/kh pys ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i efgyk lkekftd] jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd lHkh fn”kkvksa esa
fodkl ds iFk ij vxzlj gks ldsaA
lUnHkZ xzUFk
1- efgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea=ky; dh vf/kdkfjd osclkbV www mpwed.in
2- hindibusinessstandard.com/survey php 7 outone
3- vkfFkZd losZ{k.k 2006&07 Hkkjr ljdkjA
21oha lnh esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds lkekftd&vkfFkZd vk;ke
xtsUnz ukFk *
lHkh ekuo ewyr% cqf˜thoh gSaA vkSj mudks f”k{kk nsdj cqf} ijd v/;;u djds lgh lR; dh igpku dj
ldrs gSaA ;wjsfi;u fgEisy On the Civil Improvement of Woman uked xzaFk 1794 eas izdkf”kr gqvk] ftleas
Li’V fd;k fd ukfj;ksa dh {kerk Hkh iq:’kksa ds leku gh gS A ysfdu mudh vksj /;ku gh ugha fn;k x;k vkSj
tku cw>dj mUgsa nckdj j[kk x;kA izkd`frd fu;eksa dk ,d ewyHkwr rRo ;g gS fd lHkh ekuoksa ds lEiw.kZ
fodkl ds fy, tks ckr [krjs dh gS] mldk fojks/k djks A ;g rRo uSfrdrk ds loksZPPk HkkSfrd fu;eksa esa ls ,d
gSA izR;sd ekuo dks mldh {kerkuqlkj lEiw.kZ fodkl djuk pkfg,A blh rjg tkWu LVqvVZ fey us ‘The
Subjection of Woman’ uked xzaFk fy[kk ftldk ;wjksi dh lqf”kf{kr ukfj;ksa ij O;kid izHkko iM+k A fey ds
bl xzaFk dks ukjh vkUnksyu dk ckbfcy ekuk tkrk gSA fey us mnkj C;fDrokn ds jktuhfrd fl)kUr ds lkFk
ukjhokn dk lEcU/k tksM+k A ekuo ds lekt ds lEiw.kZ fodkl ds fy, ukfj;ksa dks lekurk feyuh vko”;d gSA
uj&ukjh eas ekufld rFkk jpukRed “kfDr leku gksrh gS ] bl ckjs eas cgqr ls izek.k gSA
ukjh vkUnksyu ds lUnHkZ eas Feminism “kCn dk iz;ksx lEiw.kZ fo”o eas fd;k tkrk gSA Womennism “kCn
ds LFkku ij Feminism “kCn 1890 eas mi;ksx eas yk;k x;k A ;g “kCn QzsUp Hkk’kk ls vaxzsth eas vk;k A
ukfj;ksa ds fy, leku vf/kdkjksa dk rRo tks fyax dh lekurk ds fl˜kUr ij vk/kkfjr gSA bl izdkj Feminism
“kCn dh C;k[;k dh xbZ (The term Feminism is defined as the doctrine of equal right for women based
on the theory of equality of sexes- ‘Feminism’) ukjh ds iz”u ij igyh vUrjkZ’ Vªh; dkaxzsl teZuh ds cfyZu
“kgj eas 1896 eas gqbZ Fkh A
ukjh LorU=rk vkUnksyu ds mijksDr foospu ls ;g Li’V gksrk gS fd ukjh rFkk iq:’k nksuksa gh ekuo
izk.kh gSaA blfy, nksuksa dks leku vf/kdkj feyuk pkfg, A L=h & iq:’kksa dks leku vf/kdkj ds ewy rRo ij
gh ukjhokn dh ladYiuk vk/kkfjr gSA leLr pedus okyh oLrq,a lksuk ughsa gksrh gSaA blh izdkj leLr
izkphu ijEijk,a vFkok jhfr;kWa rFkk fu;e xzkg; vFkok R;kT; ugha gksrs Bhd blh izdkj lHkh uohu fopkj]
ijEijk,a rFkk uhfr;kWa rFkk fu;e R;kT; vFkok xzkg; ugha gksrsA izkphu dky eas lrh izFkk fu;ksx izFkk tqvk
[ksyuk] ukjh dks oLrq ds leku tq, esa gkj tkuk vFkok nko ij yxk nsuk] o.kZ O;oLFkk] tkfrokn] NwvkNwr
HksnHkko rFkk Åap&uhp ekuus dh izFkk vkt xzkg; ugha gSA L=h iq:’k dh izd`fr dh nsu gSA L=h iq:’k dh
iSnkb”k fcYdqy vkdfLed ?kVuk gSA fdlh dk L=h ;k iq:’k iSnk gksus eas O;fDr] ifjokj ;k lekt dk fdlh
rjg dk tksM+ & ?kVko ugha gSA izd`fr ds ?kVuk Øe eas Ik”kqvksa eas] if{k;ksa eas] euq’; eas] eryc ukuk izdkj ds
tho tUrqvksa eas uj vkSj eknk iSnk gksrs jgs gSa] gksrs jgsaxsA
* vfl0 izk sQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] jktdh; egkfo|ky; rkycsg V ¼yfyriqj½A
euq’; lekt ds lEidZ eas jgus okys i”kq&if{k;ksa ds ikfjokfjd lkekftd thou ij xkSj djus dh t:jr
gSA i”kq if{k;ksa eas eknk i”kq ;k i{kh u misf{kr gS] u viekfurA mudk thou lkekU; gSA thou ds fdlh {ks=
eas uj i”kq ;k i{kh dh eknk i”kq&i{kh ij ccZjrk ns[kh lquh ugha tkrhA “kkjhfjd :i ls tks Hkh etcwr jgs]
cs FkksM+k cgqr /kksal tekus dh gjdr dj ysrs gSaA ;g gjdr Hkh {kf.kd gS] vkSj fQj fyax ds vk/kkj ij rks
fcYdqy ugha gSA
euq’; lekt eas L=h dh fLFkfr fcYdqy fHkUu gS ;gk¡ efgyk ds fy, vusd fu;e gSa A fL=;ksa ds fy,
vusd izos”k &fu’ks/k gSA iq:’k vkSj L=h “kkjhfjd :Ik ls fHkUu gSA jgu&lgu [kku&iku] vkpkj &fopkj lHkh
L=h&iq:’k dh fHkUurk Li’V gksrh gS A i”kq&if{k;ksa eas uj vkSj eknk dh fHkUurk “kkjhfjd :i ls gS] fdUrq
jgu&lgu] [kk iku] vkpkj&fopkj eas uj vkSj eknk i”kq&if{k;ksa eas fHkUurk “kk;n gh fn[kk;h iM+h gksA iq:’k
dgha Hkh vdsyk jg ldrk gSA L=h vdsyh ugha jg ldrhA L=h dks dgha vdsyk jgus gh ugha fn;k tkrk gSA
cpiu eas firk] tokuh eas ifr] cq<+kis eas iq= L=h dk laj{kd gksrk gSA ,slh ckr ugha gS fd iq:’k] L=h dks
vdsyk ugha jgus nsrkA L=h Hkh L=h dks dgha vdsyh ugha jgus nsrh gSA ;g fu;e vkSj ekufldrk L=h dks
u flQZ detksj cukrh gS] cfYd L=h dks iq:’k dk xqyke Hkh cukrh gSA iq:’k vdsys dgha Hkh vk tk ldrk
gSA L=h dgha vdsyh vk tk ugha ldrh gSA fL=;ksa dks dgha vdsyh vkus tkus eas iq:’k gh ugha] [kqn fL=;ka
Hkh ck/kd gSaA fL=;ksa dks dgha vdsyh vkus &tkus eas lekt ds fu;e vkSj ekufldrk ck/kd gSA ;gkWa Hkh fu;e
vkSj ekufldrk L=h dks u flQZ detksj cukrh gS] cfYd L=h dks iq:’k dh xqyke Hkh cukrh gSA
vkt Hkh dqN viokn Lo:i NksM+ fn;k tk;s rks ns”k dh vf/kdka”k xzkeh.k vkcknh eas izk;% xjhch ns[kus
dks feyrh gSA efgyk;sa Hkh LokHkkfod fLFkfr eas xjhc gSA xjhch esa thuk ,d vfHk”kki gSA xzkeh.k fu/kZu
efgyk,a vfHk”kki eas tk jgh gSaA xzkeh.k efgyk;sa vusd rjg ds “kks’k.k eas thus dks etcwj gSaA ?kj eas ikfjokfjd
“kks’k.k ls ysdj ckgj ds lkekftd “kks’k.k ds vusd nkao&isap eas efgyk;sa foo”krkiwoZd “kksf’kr gksdj th jgh
gSaA lekt eas ukuk izdkj ds vR;kpkj dh ifjf/k eas efgyk gh lokZf/kd fn[kk;h nsrh gSA xjhc efgyk, pkgs
?kj eas nkbZ dk dke djsa] [ksr eas etnwjh djsa] ;k fey eas] [kku eas etnwjh djsa] mUgsa izR;sd LFkku ij vius
izk.k vkSj lEeku cpkus dh fpUrk ijs”kku fd;s jgrh gSA mudh vlqj{kk izR;sd txg ij gSA mudks cqjh
utjksa ls izR;sd txg ns[kk tkrk gSa muds :[ks &lw[ks Je ds ilhus ls yFkiFk “kjhj dks Hkh cckZn djus ds
fy, Hkw[ks HksfM+;s ?kkr yxk;s jgrs gSaA
efgyk,a lEiw.kZ fodkl dh /kqjh gS ftldh vogsyuk djuk fdlh Hkh lwjr eas vfgrdj gh gksxkA izxfr
dh fn”kk eas fdlh Hkh lrr ifjorZu ds fy, efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk vfr vko”;d gSA vkt dk ;qx lwpuk
ØkfUr dk ;qx gS ftl dkj.k fo”o vkt ,d NksVs ls xk¡o tSlk izrhr gksrk gSA efgyk,a vkt gokbzZ tgkt
mM+krh gSa] dEifu;ka pykrh gSa] dkystksa eas izkpk;Z gSa] oSKkfud gSaA jktuhfr dk {ks= gks ;k [ksyks a dk {ks= gks
lHkh txg viuh ,d vyx igpku cukus eas lQyrk vftZr dh gSA vkt dh ukjh ?kwa?kV pwYgk pkSdk] [ksr
[kfygku ls fudydj iq:’kksa ds lkFk dU/ks ls dU/kk feykdj dgha ls Hkh derj ugha gS c”krsZ ,d vuqdwy
okrkoj.k ,oa LoLFk ijEijk ds lkFk iq:’koknh lksp eas cnyko ykus dh t:jr gSA
efgyk ,oa iq:’k eas lk{kjrk nj dk vUrj 1951 eas tgkWa 18-30 Qhlnh Fkk] og vc c<+dj 21-70 Qhlnh
gks x;k gSA blh rjg ysafxd vuqikr 1901 eas 972 Fkk vkSj vc ?kVdj 829 gks x;kA vkt oSf”od Lrj ij
efgyk vf/kdkj vkSj efgyk l”kfDr dj.k dh ckrsa gks jgh gSa ftldk mÌs”; vk/kh vkcknh dks lekt dh
eq[;/kkjk ls izR;{k tksM+uk gS A ljdkjh vkadM+ksa ds eqrkfcd 6 ls 10 lky dh djhc 25 Qhlnh yM+fd;ka
i<+kbZ ds chp gh Ldwy NksM+ nsrh gSaA ogha 10 ls 13 lky dh 50 izfr”kr ls T;knk yM+fd;ksa dks Kdwy
NksM+uk iM+rk gSA Hkkjr eas 20 ls 24 lky dh “kknh “kqnk vkSjrksa eas ls 44-5 izfr”kr ,slh gSa ftudh “kkfn;ka
18 o’kZ dh mez ls iwoZ dj nh x;hA bueas 22 izfr”kr efgyk,a 18 o’kZ ds igys gh eka cuh gSaA bu de mez
dh yM+fd;ksa ls 73 izfr”kr cPps iSnk gq, gSaA bu cPpksa eas 67 izfr”kr dqiksf”kr gSa ;s rF; gekjh lH; lekt
ij ,d rekpk gSA Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dk l”kfDrdj.k rc rd lEHko ugha gS tc rd mUgsa vkfFkZd Lrj ij
l”kDr ugha fd;k tk,A bfrgkl ds fofHkUu dky[k.Mksa eas Hkkjrh; efgyk,a vkfFkZd :Ik ls lnk iq:’kksa ij
fuHkZj jgh gsa vkSj ;gh ekufldrk vkt Hkh dekscsl lekt dh ekufldrk eas fo|eku gSA oSf”od ySafxd Hksn
lwpdkad 2014 eas 142 ns”kksa dh lwph eas Hkkjr dks 114 osa LFkku ij j[kk x;kA o’kZ 2010 ds la;qDr jk’Vª }kjk
tkjh vkadM+s crkrs gSa fd Hkkjr eas izfrfnu izlo ihM+k ls djhc 150 efgykvksa dh e`R;q gks tkrh gS a jk’Vªh;
iks’k.k ekWfuVfjax C;wjksa ds vuqlkj 13&15 vk;q oxZ dh fd”kksfj;ksa ds fy, 2050 dSyksjh dh t:jr gksr h gS
ysfdu mUgsa dsoy ceqf”dy 1620 dSyksjh dk Hkkstu gh fey ikrk gSA o’kZ 2013 eas ns”k Hkj eas nq’deZ ds djhc
33 gtkj ekeys lkeus vk, Fks tcfd o’kZ 2012 eas ;g vkadM+k 24 gtkj ds vkl&ikl FkkA bu vkadM+ksa ls
irk pyrk gS fd ns”k Hkj eas djhc 92 efgyk,a izfrfnu nq’deZ dk f”kdkj gksrh gSaA
vkt ns”k eas efgykvksa ds izfr gksus okys vijk/kksa eas dsoy nq’deZ gh “kkfey ugha gS cfYd efgykvks a dks
ns”k eas nks;e ntsZ dh ukxfjdrk Hkh lekt us ns nh gSA jk’Vªh; efgyk vk;ksx ds fiNys o’kZ tkjh vkadM+ ksa ds
vuqlkj Hkkjr eas izfr 24 feuV ij efgyk ;kSu “kks’k.k izfr 43 feuV eas ,d efgyk vigj.k] izfr 45 feuV
eas ,d efgyk cykRdkj] izfr 102 feuV eas ,d efgyk ngst izrkMuk dh f”kdkj gksrh gSA ;s vkadM+s fdlh
Hkh lH; lekt dks Lohdk;Z gksaxs fQj Hkh gekjk lekt gh bu ?kVukvksa dks vatke nsrk gS A bldk dkj.k ;g
gS fd gekjk lekt vkt Hkh ml izkphu “kks’k.k oknh ekufldrk ls ckgj ugha vk ik;k gS A tks fd efgyk
dks vcyk dk ntkZ nsrk gSA
pwafd efgyk,a vius dkj.k ugha oju lkekftd C;ogkj ds dkj.k fiNM+ jgh gSa ] ,sls eas tc rd lkekftd
ifjos”k dks cnydj U;k;ksfpr ,oa ekuoksfpr ifjfLFkfr;ksa dk fuekZ.k ugha fd;k tkrk rc rd efgykvksa dh
mUufr lEHko ugha gS aA vkt efgykvksa ds mRFkku ds fy, t:jh gS fd lekt eas ifjorZu dh ekufldrk vkSj
tupsruk fodflr dh tk, A lkFk gh t:jr gS csfV;ksa dks f”kf{kr djus dh vkSj mUgsa vkfFkZd :Ik ls vkRe
fuHkZj cukus dh aA lekt eas iq:’k vkSj efgyk nksuksa gh feydj ifjokj :ih xkM+h dks pykrs gSa A ,slh
C;oLFkk fodflr dh tk, ftlls dkuwuh ] lkekftd ]/kkfeZd ]vkfFkZd vf/kdkjksa o drZC;ksa dh Bhd ls tkudkfj;ka
gks lds A fopkj foe”kZ ] lHkk lEesyuksa o lkfgR; ds }kjk bu tkudkfj;ksa ,oa lafo/kku iznRr dkuwuh vf/
kdkjksa dh tkudkjh dks fujUrj c<+kus ds izfr tkx:d djuk vko”;d gSA
lUnHkZ xzUFk
1- MkW - vkxykos ljkst ¼2010½] T;ksfrok Qqys dk lkekftd n”kZu] lE;d izdk”ku] ubZ fnYyhA
2- gal cq) “kj.k] flrEcj 2001] vEcsMdj fe”ku izdk”ku] vuhlkckn iVukA
3- ;kstuk ,oa dq:{ks=] ekfld if=dk,W a] xzkeh.k fodkl ea=ky; Hkkjr ljdkj ubZ fnYyhA
4- le lkef;d i=&if=dk,a ,oa nSfud lekpkj i=A
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh vksj ctVh; igy ,oa fodkl ;kstuk,a
‘kf’k ckyk *
fdlh Hkh lekt eas lekurk dh vko”;drk cs”kd ubZ ugha gS] ijUrq bl lekurk dks ikus dh fn”kk esa
fd, tk jgs iz;kl ;dhuu vk/kqf ud le; dh igpku gS a vrhr ds lkekftd rkus&ckus us lEeku vkSj
vfèkdkj ds Hkko ls fL=;ksa dks oafpr j[kkA bl ifjizs{; esa lekt esa O;kIr ySafxd vlekurk ,d cM+h pqu kSrh
gSA blds fy, ljdkj }kjk u,&u, dk;ZØeksa ds tfj, bl ySafxd vlekurk dh [kkbZ dks ikVus o vk/kh
vkcknh ds fy, ,d csgrj ftUnxh dks lqfuf”pr djus ds iz;kl fd, tk jgs gSaA /khjs&/khjs bl leL;k dh
vksj vkèkqfud jk’Vª vkSj lekt dh n`f’V xbZ vkSj bl vksj laxBukRed rFkk jk’Vª&ljdkjksa us Hkh mfpr /;ku
fn;k gSA
o’kZ 2010 ls gh ySafxd fodkl vkSj vlekurk dks n”kkZus ds fy, ekuo fodkl fjiksVZ esa ySafxd fodkl
lwpdkad ¼thMhvkbZ½ vkSj ySafxd vlekurk lwpdkad ¼thvkbZvkbZ½ Hkh tksM+k x;kA o’kZ 2015 esa Hkkjr dks
thvkbZvkbZ esa 159 ns”kksa esa 125oka LFkku feykA
efgyk,a ,oa cPps fdlh Hkh ns”k vkSj lekt ds lcls egRoiw.kZ ijUrq laosnu”khy oxZ gSA budh mUufr
ls gh oSf”od Lrj ij fdlh ns”k dks fodflr ;k fodkl”khy dh laKk izkIr gksrh gSA tUe ls iwoZ laj{k.k ds
fy, csVh cpkvks] tUe ds ckn lqjf{kr Hkfo’; ds fy, lqdU;k le`f)] x`gf.k;ksa ds fy, iz/kkuea=h mTToyk
;kstuk] m|ferk esa :fp j[kus okyh efgykvksa ds fy, LVsi] lkekftd :i ls l”kDrhdj.k ds fy, ukjh
“kfDr iqjLdkj] m|fe;ksa ds fy, efgyk bZ&gkV] ekuo rLdjh dh ihfM+rkvksa ds fy, mTToyk bR;kfn ;kstuk,a
dqN gkfy;k igys gSA ftUgksaus efgyk l”kDrhdj.k dh fn”kk esa mEehn dh fdj.k txkbZ gSA
fiNys foÙkh; o’kksZa esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k] ns”k dh dsanzh; ;kstuk dk ,d egRoiw.kZ Hkkx jgk gSA Hkkjr
esa efgyk l”kDrhdjk ds ladsrdksa dks ns[kus ls vkHkkl gksrk gS fd fiNys dqN o’kksZa eas efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd
fLFkfr esa lq/kkj gqvk gSA L=h l”kDrhdj.k ,d tfVy “kCnkoyh gS ftldh O;k[;k lgt ugha gS fQj Hkh
lkèkkj.k “kCnksa esa L=h l”kDrhdj.k dks vxj ge ,d okD; esa le>uk pkgsa rks og gS fu.kZ; ysus dh {kerk
;g rHkh laHko gS tc efgykvksa ds fy, ldkjkRed :i ls vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd uhfr;ksa ds fuekZ.k dk
okrkoj.k rS;kj fd;k tk, vkSj ;gh ps”Vk foRr o’kZ 2017&18 esa dh x;h gSA gky ds dqN o”kksZa esa ljdkj
us vius ctV izko/kkuksa esa efgykvksa ,oa cPpksa ds mUu;u gsrq fofHkUu dY;k.kdkjh ;kstuk,a pykbZ gSa &
* vfl0 iz ks-] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] e0xka0 dk”kh fo|kihB] okjk.klhA

iz/kkuea=h eqnzk ;kstuk

Lojkstxkj dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, iz/kkuea=h eqnzk ;sktuk] ftldk vkjaHk 8 vizSy] 2015 dks gqvk] blesa
vHkh rd 1-15 yk[k djksM+ :i;s dk dtZ Lohd`r fd;k x;k gS vkSj buesa ls 70 izfr”kr ls vf/kd efgykvksa
dks bldk ykHk feyk gSA efgyk m|ferk; dks vkfFkZd izxfr dk ,d egRoiw.kZ lzksr ekuk x;k gS] ijarq
efgyk m|eh dks vDlj vius O;olk; dks “kq: djus vkSj mUgsa c<+kus esa fyax&Hksn vk/kkfjr ck/kkvksa dk
lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA efgykvksa dks eqnzk ;kstuk ls vf/kdre ykHk feys blfy, o’kZ 2017&2017 ds fy,
foÙkea=h us 2015&2016 ds _.k nsus ds y{; dks nksxquk djds 2-44 yk[k djksM+ djus dk izLrko fd;kA chrs
o’kksZa ds vkadM+ksa ls Li’V gksrk gS fd Hkfo’; esa efgykvksa dks bldk ykHk feysxkA
LVsi rFkk LVSaM vi ;kstuk
efgykvksa ds fy, vyx&vyx izdkj ds izf”k{k.k vkSj jkstxkj dk;ZØe ¼,l0Vh0bZ0ih0½ ds rgr o’kZ
2013&2014 esa bu {ks=ksa esa dk;Zjr laxBuksa dks 702 yk[k :i;s dh jkf”k tkjh dh x;hA Hkkjr ds xzkeh.k ,oa
“kgjh {ks=ksa esa xjhc efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd l”kDrhdj.k ds fy, la”kksf/kr izf”k{k.k vkSj jkstxkj dk;Z Øe ;kstuk
fn”kk&funsZ”k 2014 esa “kq: dh x;h Fkh] blds ek/;e ls [kk| izlaLdj.k] lwpuk ,oa izkS|ksfxdh] ckxokuh]
gFkdj?kk] flykbZ] d<+kbZ] tjh] d`f’k] gLrf”kYi esa muds dkS”ky fodkl ds fy, lgk;rk nh x;hA
eujsxk ;kstuk ds ctV vkoaVu esa o`f)
vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dks eq[;/kkjk ls tksM+us dh egRrk dks Lohdkj djrs gq, Hkkjr us fofHkUu uhfr;ka]
;kstuk,a vkSj izf”k{k.k dk;ZØe rks cuk;s gSaA tehuh Lrj ij xzkeh.k vkSj fu/kZu efgykvksa ds Lokoyacu gsrq
foÙk o’kZ 2017&18 esa eujsxk ds fy, vkoaVu 11 gtkj djksM+ :i;s dk btkQk djrs gq, bls 48 gtkj djksM+
:i;s dj fn;k gSA
lkekftd lqj{kk ;kstuk
ctV 2017&18 esa efgykvksa ds fy, Jekuqdwy okrkoj.k cukus gsrq Hkh dsanz ljdkj us viuh izfrc)rk
fn[kkrs gq, ekStwnk Je dkuwuksa dks ljy vkSj ;qfDrlaxr cukus rFkk osru] vkS|ksfxd laca/k] lkekftd lq j{kk
vkSj dY;k.k rFkk lqj{kk vkSj dk;ZfLFkfr dks 4 lafgrkvksa eas lfEefyr djus ds fy, fo/kk;h lq/kkj dh ?kks’k.kk
dh gSA
csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+kvks ;kstuk
ctV 2016&17 eas foRrea=h us csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+kvks tks cky fodkl ea=ky;] LokLF; ea=ky;] ifjokj
dY;k.k ea=ky; rFkk ekuo lalk/ku foHkkx dh la;qDr igy Fkh] esa 100 djksM+ :i;s dk izko/kku fd;k Fkk
ftls orZeku foRrh; o’kZ esa c<+kdj 200 djksM+ :i;s dj fn;k x;k gSA csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+kvksa ,d f}vk;keh
;kstuk gSA ftldk mn~ns’; fyaxkuqikr esa lq/kkj djuk vkSj csfV;ksa dks i<+kuk gSA
lqdU;k le`f) [kkrk ;kstuk
dsanz us csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+kvks ;kstuk ds rgr lqdU;k le`f) [kkrk dh ?kks’k.kk 2 fnlEcj] 2014 dks
dh FkhA bl ;kstuk dk mn~ns’; vfHkHkkodksa dks viuh csfV;ksa dh f”k{kk vkSj Hkfo’; ds fy, iSls cpkus ds fy,
izksRlkfgr djuk gSA ;g ;kstuk vc rd Hkkjr dh lcls T;knk ykHk iznku djus okyh cpr ;kstuk gSA
LokLF; ,oa iks”k.k ;kstuk

Hkkjr ds lokZaxh.k fodkl eas] vxj dksbZ lcls cM+h pqukSrh gS rks og gS eka vkSj cPps dk LokLF;A Hkkjrh;
efgyk,a ,oa cPps dqiksf”kr gSaA blds dbZ dkj.k gS] tks fd fofHkUu “kks/k ls Li’V gksrs gSaA fizlaVu ;wfuoflZVh
dh Mk,u dksQs }kjk fd, x, v/;;u esa ik;k x;k gS fd 15 ls 49 o’kZ dh vk;q dh lHkh efgykvksa dh rqyuk
esa Hkkjr eas xHkZ/kkj.k ds igys 7 izfr”kr T;knk efgyk,a de otu dh gksrh gSaA
efgyk ‘kfDr dsUnz
orZeku foRrh; o’kZ esa xkao Lrj ij 14 yk[k vkbZ0lh0Mh0,l0 vkaxuokM+h dsUnzksa esa 500 djksM+ :i;s ds
vkoaVu ls efgyk “kfDr dsUnz LFkkfir djus dh ?kks”k.k dh x;h gSA ;g xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds l”kDrhdj.k
gsrq dkS”ky fodkl] jkstxkj] fMftVy lk{kjrk] LokLF; vkSj iks’kkgkj ds voljksa ds fy, ôu&LVkWi* lkewf gd
lgk;rk lsok,a iznku djsxkA
fuHkZ;k QaM
LoLFk Hkkjr dh vksj dne c<+krh uhfr;ksa ds chp efgykvksa ,oa cPpksa dh lqj{kk ij Hkh fo’ks”k /;ku fn;k
x;k gSA o’kZ 2016&17 esa fuHkZ;k QaM esa fnYyh iqfyl dks 3-4 djksM+ :i;s vkcafVr fd, x, Fks ftls c<+ kdj
orZeku esa 28-9 djksM+ dj fn;k x;k gSA lkFk gh fuHkZ;k QaM esa Hkh 90 izfr”kr dk btkQk fd;k x;kA
iz/kkuea=h mTToyk ;kstuk
Hkkjr esa jlksbZ bZ/ku dh leL;k dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, 01 ebZ] 2016 dks iz/kkuea=h mTToyk ;kstuk dk
vkjEHk fd;k x;kA ;g ;kstuk /kqavkjfgr xzkeh.k Hkkjr ds lius dh vksj l”kDr dne gS vkSj bldk ewyea=
gS& LoPN bZ/ku] csgrj thou bl ;kstuk esa 2019 rd xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa ewyr% xjhch js[kk ls uhps jgus okyh
efgykvksa dks 5 djksM+ fj;k;rh ,y0ih0th0 dusD’ku nsuk gSA ctV 2016 esa blds fy, 2000 djksM+ dk
foRrh; izko/kku gSA iz/kkuea=h ds fxo bV vi vfHk;ku ds rgr 1-13 djksM+ e/;oxhZ; ifjokjksa us lfClMh dk
ifjR;kx dj cktkj ewY; dks Lohdkj fd;kA
dsUnz ljdkj dh fofHkUu dY;k.kdkjh ,oa fodkl ;kstukvksa dks rkfydk la0 1 esa fn[kk x;k gS&
rkfydk la[;k 1% lkekftd lqj{kk ;kstuk,a ¼19 vizSy] 2017 rd½

;kstuk,¡ xzkeh.k xzkeh.k 'kgjh 'kgjh dqy
iq:"k efgyk,a iq:"k efgyk,a
vVy isa'ku ;kstuk 15]54]787 7]54]526 13]59]374 7]62]143 44]30]530
iz/kkuea=h thou T;ksfr 95]14]913 59]20]063 100]40]736 56]65]184 311]40]896
chek ;kstuk
iz/kkuea=h lqj{kk 317]85]473 212]71]271 296]28]692 174]46]356 1001]31]792
chek ;kstuk
dqy ¾ 428]55]173 279]45]860 410]28]802 238]73]683 1357]03]518
lzksr% foRr ea=ky;
dsUnz ljdkj }kjk “kq: dh xbZ csVh cpkvksa] csVh i<+kvksa ;kstuk dk mn~ns”; cfPp;ksa dks leFkZ o l{ke
cuk;k gSA bl ;kst uk esa Hkkjr ljdkj ds rhu ea=ky; ftles a efgyk cky fodkl] LokLF; ,oa ifjokj
dY;k.k] ekuo lalk/ku fodkl ea=ky; “kkfey gSA orZeku esa ;g ;kstuk dsUnz ljdkj ls lh/ks ftykf/kdkjh
ds ek/;e ls lapkfyr gks jgh gSA ftys Lrj ij fofHkUu enksa esa tkjh dh tk jgh jkf”k dk fooj.k rkfydk
la[;k& 3 esa izLrqr gSA
Ng ekg ds vkadM+s ¼jkf”k yk[k :i;s esa½ ekuo lalk/ku fodkl o LokLF; ea=ky; ds ;kstukc) igyksa
ds dk;kZUo;u gsrq izfr ftyk :0 5 yk[kA
fu”d”kZ
Hkkjr ljdkj vius tudY;k.kdkjh :i esa efgykvksa vkSj cPpksa ds fy, fo”ks’k dk;ZØe pykdj lkekftd
U;k; vkSj lcy ukxfjd ds y{; dks izkIr djus ds fy, opuc) gSaA ljdkj ;g y{; laxBukRed iz;kl]
vkfFkZd lgk;rk vkSj tulgHkkfxrk rhuksa vk;keksa ls izkIr djuk pkgrh gS rkfd Hkkjr dks fodflr jk’Vª ds
:i esa lEekutud LFkku fey ldsA vkt ;g vko”;d gS fd ge csfV;ksa dks cks> u le>s vkSj lekt ds
ySafxd lekurk dk okrkoj.k fodflr djsaA efgykvksa ,oa cfPp;ksa dks f”k{kk] jkstxkj] m|ksx rFkk vU; lHkh
{ks=ksa esa leku LFkku nsdj fodkl dh eq[; /kkjk esa lgHkkxh cuk;saA
efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd l”kDrhdj.k gsrq vko”;d vk;keksa dks lek;ksftr djus dh ps’Vk foRr o’kZ 2017&18
ds ctV esa ifjyf{kr gksrh gS] ijUrq ,d dk;Z”khy efgyk dh eq[; leL;k gS mlds cPps dk ikyu iks’k.kA
dk;ZLFkyksa ij Øsp dk izkfo/kku gsrq og ctV esa izrh{kkjr jgrh gS ftlls mlds dk;Z esa dksbZ ck/kk u gks
vkSj og ruko eqDr gksdj ekr`Ro vkSj dfj;j esa larqyu LFkkfir dj ldsA ,d vkSj egRoiw.kZ i{k ftls
lfEefyr djds ns”k dh cfPp;ksa ds Hkfo”; dks lqugjk fd;k tk ldrk gS og gS fu/kZu ifjokjksa esa csVh ds
tUe ij ,d lqfuf”pr jkf”k dk fQDl fMiksftV ds :i esa Hkqxrku] ftldh ifjiDork dh “krZ cPph dh
12oha d{kk esa mRrh.kZ gksuk gS] f”k{kk ds ifjn`”; dks cny ldrh gSA f”k{kk fu.kZ; ysus dh {kerk] vkfFkZd
LokoyEcu vkSj vf/kdkjksa dh izfr tkx:drk dk ekxZ izlLr djrh gSA mEehn gS Hkfo”; esa ljdkj bl vksj
n`f’Vikr djsxk fdUrq vHkh vko’;d ;g gS fd efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd lqn‘<+hdj.k gsrq ctV esa tks izko/kku
fd, x;s gS mudk mi;ksx le; lhek ij fd;k tk; rFkk le;≤ ij mu ;kstukvksa dk ewY;kadu Hkh
fd;k tk; ftlls ge Hkkjr dh vk/kh vkcknh dks fodkl dh eq[; /kkjk esa ‘kkfey dks ,d csgrj Hkfo’;
lqfuf”pr dj ldsaA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- Hkkjr ljdkj ds foRr ea=ky; dh vkf/kdkfjd
osclkbV
1. finmin.nic.inhindi.index.asp
2. indiabudget.nic.inub2017-18/bs/hbs.pdf
3. indiabudget.nic.inub2016-18/impbud.pdf
4- la;qDr jk’Vª laxBu dh vkf/kdkfjd osclkbV
Ekfgyk fodkl gsrq viukbZ x;h ;kstukvksa dh Hkwfedk % fo’ys”k.kkRed vè;;u
;ksxsUnz dqekj*
Hkwfedk
ukjh Hk;eqDr gksdj lEeku [kks, cxSj ftl y{; dks pkgrh gS mldk iz;kl dj ldrh gS vkSj vius
ear`; rd igqWap ldrh gSA mls lapkj dk gd lqj{kk dk gd rFkk vkRefuHkZjrk dk gd feysA ;gh lQyrk
vkSj lq;ksX;rk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k@fodkl dh igpku gSA efgyk fodkl ij Hkkjr ljdkj dh uhfr esa
LorU=rk ds ckn ls vusd ifjorZu gq, gSaA lcls mYys[kuh; ifjorZu ikapoh iapo’khZ; ;kst uk ds nkSjku
vk;k tc efgykvks ds dY;k.k ls gVdj efgykvks ds fodkl ij tksj nsus dh uhfr viukbZ x;hA vkBoha
;kstuk es a iqu% fodkl izfØ;k esa efgykvks dks leku Hkkxhnkj cukus ij tksj fn;k x;k] vkt lekos” kh
fodkl ij /;ku dsfUnzr gSA ,sls esa efgykvksa ds l”kfDrdj.k ds izfr gekjh tkx:drk esa vkSj o`f) gqbZ gSA
Li’V gS mldh leL;k,a vlekurk ds bnZ&fxnZ ?kwerh gSA blfy, efgykvksa ds lkFk O;ogkj esa lekurk vkSj
ns”k ds fodkl esa mudh iwjh lgHkkfxrk ds fy;s dne mBkuk vko”;d gSA tsaMj bDofyVh vFkkZr~ L=h&iq:’k
lekurk dk fl}kar gekjs lafo/kku esa gh fn;k gqvk gS] ftlesa efgykvks dh lekurk dh xkjaVh fufgr gSA
blls o’kksZ ls lkekftd] vkfFkZd] “kSf{kd HksnHkko lrk jgh efgykvksa dh leL;kvksa dks nwj dj muds i{k esa
lkFkZd okrkoj.k rS;kj djus dk volj gesa feyrk gSA yksdrkfU=d] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ds vrZxar gekjs
dkuwu] fodkl lEcU/kh uhfr;ksa] ;kstukvks rFkk dk;ZØeksa esa efgykvks dh mUufr gekjk izeq[k y{; jgk gSA
Lkjdkj ds ,sls vusd dk;ZØe gSa ftuesa efgyk laosnh dY;k.k dk;ZØe] lgk;d lsok,a vkSj tkx:drk
QSykus ij tksj fn;k x;k gSA ;s dk;ZØe LokLF;] f”k{kk] d`f’k vkSj xzkeh.k fodkl {ks=ksa ds dk;ZØeksa ds iwjd
ds rkSjs ij dke djrs gSA bu lHkh dk;ZØeksa dk mn~ns ”; efgykvks dks vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd n`f’V ls
l”kDr cukuk gS rkfd os jk’Vªh; fodkl ds iz;klksa esa iq:’kksa ds leku vkSj lfØ; Hkwfedk vnk dj ldsA
‘kks/k ds mn~ns’;
1- efgyk fodkl dk;ZØeksa ij izdk”k MkyukA
2- dk;ZØeksa ds izHkkoksa dk ewY;kadu djukA
3- dk;ZØeksa ds lQy u gksus ds dkj.kksa dk v/;;uA
4- ;g irk yxkuk gS fd l”kfDrdj.k dk Lrj D;k gSA
5- efgyk fodkl gsrq dk;Z ;kstuk fodflr djus dk lq>ko nsukA
* vflLVs UV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] jktdh; LukRdksRrj egkfo|ky;] gehjiqjA

‘kks/k ifjdYiuk
1- efgyk Hkkjrh; lekt dk misf{kr oxZ gSA ftldk fujkdj.k ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa dks lgh <ax ls
ykxw djus ij fuHkZj gSA
2- efgykvks dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj fcuk dk;ZØe ds ugha gks ldrhA
3- fodkl dk;ZØeksa ls gh budh leL;kvksa dk fujkdj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA
4- f”k{k.k ,oa izf”k{k.k nsdj budh leL;kvksa esa lq/kkj fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Ekfgyk rFkk cPpksa ds fodkl gsrq Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk dbZ ;kstukvksa dh “kq: dh x;h gS budh ;kstuk,a
uhfrxr igy dh gSA ftlesa efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd rFkk lkekftd l”kfDrdj.k] vkfFkZd ,oa jktuhfrd thou
esa muds igyqvks esa cjkcjh gkfly djus ds fy;s dne Hkh “kkfey gSA ljdkj dh eq[; ;kstukvksa dk fo”ys’ k.k
fuEuor~ gSA
1- ,dhd`r cky fodkl lsok,a ¼vkbZ-lh-Mh-,l-½
;g ;kstuk 6 o’kZ a vk;q okys cPpksa ds lEiw.kZ fodkl rFkk xHkZorh o Lruiku djkus okyh efgykvks ds
leqfpr iks’k.k o LokLFk f”k{kk dh 33 ifj;kstukvks rFkk 4891 vkaxuckM+h dsUnzks ds lkFk 1975 esa “kq: dh
x;h FkhA ljdkj }kjk lap;h :Ik ls 7076 ifj;kstukvksa rFkk 20]000 ^vku fMekaM^^ vkaxuckfM+;ksa lfgr 14
yk[k vkaxuckfM+;ks ds vuqeksnu ls vc ;g loZO;kih gks x;h gSA
2- fd’kksfj;ksa dh vf/kdkfjrk gsrq jktho xka/kh ;kstuk ¼vkj-th-,l-bZ-,th-½
bu ;kstukUrxZr 4&18 o’kZ dh vk;q oxZ dh fd”kksfj;ksa dks mudh iks’kkgkj rFkk LokLF; fLFkfr esa lqèkkj
ykdj fofHkUu dkS”kyks tSls&x`g dkS”ky thou dkS”ky rFkk O;olkf;d dkS”ky esa mUur dj mUgsa vf/kdkfjrk
fnykuk gSA
3- dkedkth ekrkvksa ds cPpks ds fy;s jktho xka/kh jk”Vªh; f’k’kq xzg ;kstuk
;g ;kstuk dkedkth ekrkvksa 0&6 o’kZ dh vk;q ds cPpksa dks f”k”kq xzg rFkk fodkl lsok,a ;Fkkiwjd]
iks’k.k LokLF; ns[kHkky dh lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djkuk gSA
4- Ekfgykvksa ds fy;s izf’k{k.k rFkk jkstxkj dk;ZØe lgk;rk ¼,l0Vh0bZ0ih0½ ;kstuk
;g ;kstuk xjhc efgykvksa dks d`f’k] Ik”kq ikyu Ms;jh] eRL; ikyu gFkdj?kk] nLrdkjh] [kknh rFkk
xzkeh.k m|ksxksa] js”ke mRiknu] lkekft;ks rFkk catj Hkwfe fodkl tSls 10 ikjEifjd {ks=ks esa ikjaxr djuk gSA
5- Lok/kkj xzg ;kstuk@jk”Vªh; efgyk dks”k
mDr ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls efgykvksa dks vkRefuHkZj cukuk gSA
6- tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk
7- efgyk vf/kdkfjrk gsrq jk”Vªh; fe’ku

mDr ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls Hkkjrh; efgykvksa ds thou Lrj esa lq/ kkj vk;k gS ijUrq efgykvks ds
fodkl ds fygkt ls Hkkjr ds lHkh jkT;ksa us ;g ,d leku ugha gSA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds {ks= esa dsjy us
igyk LFkku izkIr fd;k gS ogh mRrj izns”k] fcgkj tSls fiNM+s jkT;ks esa efgyk fodkl ds iz;klks esa dksbZ
[kkl o`f) ugha gqbZ gSA
vr% blls Li’V gS fd brus o`gn Lrj ij pyk;s tk jgs dk;ZØeksa ls efgykvksa ds Lrj esa T;knk o`f)
ugha gqbZ gSA Hkys gh vkt efgyk,a lHkh {ks=ksa esa dk;Z djus yxh gSA ijUrq iq:’k ekufldrk esa vHkh Hkh U;wu
cnyko vk;k gSA t:jr gS iq:’k ekufldrk esa cnykoA tc rd ekufldrk esa cnyko ugha vk;sxk rc rd
efgykvksa dks lekt esa Hkkxhnkjh feyuk lqfuf”pr ugha gks ldsxkA
lUnHkZ xzUFk lwph
1- ;kstuk] vad la0&2012
2- dq:{ks=] vDVwcj vad
3- Hkkjrh; vFkZO ;oLFkk] fo”ks’kkad
4- ;w0ih0;w0bZ0,0 bdksukfed tuZy] i`’B & 25
5- ;w 0ih0;w0 bZ0,0 bdks uksf ed tuZy Nov-7 April-14
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh vksj fodkl ;kstukvksa dh Hkwfedk
ohjsUnz ;kno *
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k* ,d ,slk rF; gS ftldh vogsyuk fdlh Hkh lekt] ns”k ds fodkl dh xfr dks
èkhek dj ldrh gS vkSj tc bl lanHkZ esa Hkkjr dh ckr gks rks ;g vkSj Hkh vf/kd vko”;d gks tkrk gS D;ksa
fd Hkkjrh; efgyk,a u dsoy ns”k dh vk/kh vkcknh gSa cfYd mUgksaus chrsa n”kdksa esa reke ck/kkvksa ds ckotwn
vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd {ks= esa vf}rh; ;ksxnku fn;k gSA LOkra=rk ds ckn ls efgykvksa dk ^l”kfDrdj.k*
uhfrxr ekeyksa esa dsUnzh; jgk gSA veweu ge HkkSfrd vkSj lkekftd cqfu;knh <kaps esa vUrj djrs gSa] ijUrq
okLrfodrk ds /kjkry ij nksuksa iwjd gSaA Ldwy vkSj LokLF; dsUnz vFkkZr~ lkekftd cqfu;knh <kapk dq”ky]
f”kf{kr o etcwr ekuo”kfDr ds fuekZ.k ds fy;s t:jh gSA
Hkkjr ds lanHkZ esa nsa[ksa rks ukjh ,d tfVy lkekftd jpuk gSA ekuo ds :i esa og iSnk Hkj gksrh gS] ij
tUe ds lkFk gh mldh iqujZpuk dk miØe laLd`fr ds dBksj vkStkjksa ds cy ls vkjEHk gks tkrk gSaA csfV;ksa
dks iwjk balku u ekuus dh gekjh ekufldrk ml dafM”kfuax dks vkSj cy nsrh gSa ftldh cnkSyr lekt ds
fy;s os ^vU;* cuk nh tkrh gSa] tc fd okLrfodrk esa mudh fLFkfr ^vuU;* dh gSA
vrhr ds lkekftd rkus&ckus esa lEeku vkSj vf/kdkj ds Hkko ls fL=;ksa dsk oafpr j[kkA bl ifjizs{; esa
lekt esa O;kIr ySafxd vlekurk ,d cM+h pqukSrh gSA fdlh Hkh lekt esa lekurk dh ;g vko”;drk cs”kd
ubZ ugha gS] ijUrq bl lekurk dks ikus dh fn”kk esa fd;s tk jgs iz;kl ;dhuu vk/kqfud le; dh igpku
gSA bl vko”;drk dks le>rs gq, ljdkj }kjk u;s&u;s dk;ZØeksa ds tfj;s bl ySfaxd vlekurk dh [kkbZ
dks ikVus o vka/kh vkcknh ds fy;s ,d csgrj ftUnxh dks lqfuf”pr djus ds iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gSaA èkhjs& èkhjs
bl leL;k dh vksj vk/kqfud jk’Vª vkSj lekt dh n`f’V x;h vkSj bl vksj laxBukRed rFkk jk’Vªh; ljdkjksa
us Hkh mfpr /;ku fn;k gSA
Hkkjr esa vktknh ds i”pkr~ bl fo’k; ij fo”ks’k /;ku fn;k x;kA lafo/kku us fL=;ksa vkSj iq:’kksa dks
leku vf/kdkj fn;s ftlls erkf/kdkj] lEifRr] fookg vkSj jkst xkj lEcU/kh vkfn fo’k;ksa es a fL=;ksa dsk
cjkcjh dk Lrj izkIr gqvkA fdUrq og leku Lrj vHkh iw.kZ :i ls izkIr ugha gks ldk gSA blds fy;s Hkkjr
ljdkj vyx&vyx vk;keks a ls fofHkUu ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls fL=;ksa ds thou Lrj esa lq/kkj ykus dk
iz;kl dj jgh gSA bu ;kstukvksa ds ldkjkRed izHkko lkeus vk t:j jgs gSa] ij ;s izHkko fdl ek=k esa gks
jgs gSa] blfy;s leqfpr ewY;kadu dh vko”;drk gSA le; le; ij bu ;kstukvksa dk ewY;kadu fd;k tkrk
gSA bu vkys[k ds mn~ns”; ,s lh gh ;kstukvksa vkSj mlds ihNs dke ljdkj ds n`f’Vdks. k vkSj y{;ksa dks
lkeus ykuk gS tks efgykvksa ds l”kfDrdj.k ij dsUnzhr gSaA buesa ls izeq[k ;kstukvksa dk fcUnqokj foojku
vkxs izLrqr gSA
* izoDrk vFkZ”kkL=] ts0ch0 egkfo|ky;] lqjtwiqj] vEcsM djuxjA
efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy;s Hkkjr ljdkj dh vksj ls “kq: dh x;h ,d egRoiw.kZ ;kstuk ^^mTtoyk**
dk ewY;kadu lkekftd dk;Z foHkkx] fnYyh fo”ofo|ky; }kjk fd;k x;kA bl ewY;kadu fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj
bl ;kstuk dh :ijs[kk cgqr vPNs ls rS;kj dh x;h gS vkS j bl ;kstuk dks Hkfo’; es a tkjh j[kk tkuk
pkfg,A blh rjg lkekftd lqj {kk ls tqM+s vkdMksa ds k ns[kdj efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh ,d u;h rLohj
fn[krh gSA
csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+kvks
bl ;kstuk dk mn~ns”; cPPkksa dsk leFkZ o l{ke cukuk gSA bl Øe esa ljdkj dk tksj cfPp;ksa dh f”k{kk
ij Hkh gSA cfPp;ksa esa Mªki vkmV dh c<+rh nj Hkh ,d leL;k cuh gqbZ gSA blh dkj.k cfPp;ksa esa f”k{kk
dkS”ky fodkl lkekftd fodkl ds fy;s dkQh t:jh gSA o’kZ 2011 esa izkIr vkadM+ksa ls ;g Kkr gqvk fd
f”k”kq fyax vuqikr esa Hkkjh vUrj vk x;k gSA 0&6 o’kZ rd ds cPpksa esa izR;sd 1000 yM+dksa ds vuqikr esa
yM+fd;ksa dh la[;k 918 izkIr gqbZ tks cgqr gh fpUrktud fLFkfr dh vksj b”kkjk dj jgh FkhA ;g tUe ls
igys vkSj ckn esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk fo’k; ekuk x;kA
rkfydk la[;k 1% lkekftd lqj{kk ;kstuk,a ¼19 vizSy 2017 rd½

;kstuk xzkeh.k iq: ’k xzkeh.k “kgjh Ikq:’k “kgjh efgyk,a dqy
efgyk,a
vVy isa”ku ;kst uk 15]54]787 7]54]526 13]59]374 7]62]143 44]30]530
iz/kkuea=h thou T;ksfr chek ;kst uk 95]14]913 59]20]063 100]40]736 56]65]184 311]40]896
iz/kkuea=h lqj{kk chek ;kstuk 317]85]473 212]71]271 296]28]692 174]46]356 1001]31]792
dqy 428]55]173 279]45]860 410]28]802 238]73]683 1357]03]518
lqdU;k le`f) ;kstuk

ljdkj }kjk “kq: dh x;h ;g ;kstuk ckfydkvksa ds Hkfo’; dks lqjf{kr djus dh fn”kk esa csgrjhu iz;kl
gSA foRrh; lekos”ku dh vksj ekStwnk ljdkj dk fo”ks’k /;ku jgk gSA bl fn”kk esa chrsa o’kksZ esa ljdkj }kjk
dbZ egRoiw.kZ ;kstuk,a “kq: dh x;h gS] lqdU;k le`f) ;kstuk mUgha ;kstukvksa esa ls ,d gSA bl ;kstuk dh
“kq:vkr tuojh 2015 esa ekuuh; iz/kkuea=h }kjk *csVh cpkvksa] csVh i<+kvksa* ;kstuk ds vUrxZr dh x;h gSA
bl ;ks tuk ds vUrxZr cPpha ds ekrk&firk ;k fof/kd vfHkHkkod fdlh Hkh Mkd?kj ;k vf/kd`r cS ad esa
U;wure :0 1000 ds lkFk mDr [kkrk [kksy ldrs gSaA bl ;kstuk ds rgr ,d ifjokj ls nks cfPp;ksa ds [kkrs
[kksys tk ldrs gSA tqM¡+ok cfPp;ksa dh fLFkfr esa rhu [kkrs Hkh [kksys tk ldrs gSaA bl [kkrs esa ,d o’kZ ds
nkSjku U;wure :0 1000 o vf/kdre : 1]50]000 tek fd;s tk ldrs gSaA bl [kkrs esa ckfydk ,d le;
esa cM+h /kujkf”k izkIr dj ysrh gS ftlls og vius thou esa vkfFkZd lqj{kk vuqHko dj ldsaA lqdU;k le`f )
;kstuk dh “kq:vkr ds nks eghus ds Hkhrj gh bl ;kstuk ds rgr ns”k Hkj esa 1]80]000 [kkrs [kksy fy;s x;sA
iz/kkuea=h mTtoyk ;kstuk
Hkkjr esa jlksbZ bZa/ku dh leL;k dks /;ku esa j[krs gq, 1 ebZ 2016 dks iz/kkuea=h mTtoyk ;kstuk dk
vkjEHk fd;k x;kA ;g ;kstuk /kqavkjfgr xzkeh.k Hkkjr ds lius dh vksj l”kDr dne gS vkSj bldk ewy ea=
gS&LoPN bZa/ku] csgrj thou bl ;kstuk esa 2019 rd xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa ewyr% xjhch js[kk ls uhps jgus okyh
efgykvksa dks 5 djksM+ fj;k;rh ,y0ih0th0 dusD”ku nsuk gSA
bu ;kstuk ls tgka efgyk LoLF; ij /kq,a ds izHkko dks lekIr fd;k tk;sxk ogha ok;q iznw’k.k vkSj taxy
dVkbZ dh leL;k dk Hkh fuokj.k gks ldsxkA bl ;kstukj dk y{; tho”e bZa/ku ij fuHkZjrk dks [kRe djuk
Hkh gSA ;g iz;kl efgykvksa vkSj cPpksa nksuksa ds fy;s gh izHkkoh fl) gksxkA D;ksa fd /kqa, dk lcls vf/kd
vlj ;gh oxZ lcls vf/kd lgrk gSA
LVsi
Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk efgykvksa dks vkREkfuHkZj cukus ds fy;s efgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea=ky; us LVsi
¼liksVZ Vwa Vsªfuax ,.M ,Iyk;esUV izksxzke QkaWj oqesu½ dk;ZØe vkjEHk fd;k gS ftlesa efgykvksa dsk dkS”ky vkSj
jkstxkj lEcU/kh vkfFkZd o laxBukRed lgk;rk miyC/k djk;h tk;sxhA blds fy;s lgk;r lewg fufeZr
fd;s x;s gSa vkSj vkfFkZd en~n ds fy;s 1600 djksM dk vko.Vu Hkh fd;k x;k gS ftls ;kstuk dh lQyrk
ds Øe esa c<+k;s tkus dk y{; Hkh j[kk x;k gSA ;g ;kstuk dkS”ky vk/kkfjr jkstxkj dks c<+kok nsrs gq,
fLdy bf.M;k dk;ZØe esa efgyk Hkkxhnkjh dks Hkh lqfuf”pr djrh gSA
fu”d”kZ
,d fodflr jk’Vª mlds lcy ukxfjdksa ls vfLRo xzg.k djrk gSA bl rjg ;g lkQ tkfgj gksrk gS
fd Hkkjr ljdkj vius tudY;k.kdkjh :i ls efgykvksa vkSj cPpksa ds fy;s fo”ks’k dk;ZØe pykdj lkekftd
U;k; vkSj lcy ukxfjd ds y{; dks izkIr djus ds fy;s opuc) gSaA ljdkj ;g y{; laxBukRed iz;kl]
vkfFkZd lgk;rk vkSj tulgHkkfxrk rhuksa vk;keksa ls izkIr djuk pkgrh gSa rkfd Hkkjr dks fodfly jk’Vª ds
:i esa lEekutud LFkku fey ldsaA vkt t:jh gks pyk gS fd ge csfV;ksa dks iw.kZ balku le>uk “kq: djsaA
muds thou dks cks> u le>saA muds liuksa dks ia[k nsaA muds gkSlyksa dks mM+kui nsaA fQj [kqn o [kqn ge
le> ik;saxsa fd csfV;k njvly thou ls ycjst jks”kuh gSa] tks lerkewyd lekt ds [kwclwjr lius dks lp
djus dk gkSlyk j[krh gSaA csVh cpkvksa] csVh i<+kvksa o bl rjg dh vU; ;kstukvksa ds :i esa dh x;h Hkkjr
ljdkj dh igy ml [kwclwjr lius ds lp gksus dk mEehn txkrh gSaA
lanHkZ lwph
1- Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk feJk ,oa iwjh
2- Hkkjrh; vFkZ O;oLFkk,a dh leL;k,a] ts0ih0 feJk
3- dq:{ks=] ;kstuk ebZ 2017
iapk;rh jkt vkSj OkrZeku esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh fLFkfr
foØe flag *
Ekfgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls vk”k; efgykvksa dh f”k{kk vkSj LorU=rk dks lekfgr djrs gq, lkekftd lsokvksa
ds leku volj izkfIr] jktuSfrd vkSj vkfFkZd uhfr fu/kkZj.k esa lgHkkfxrk] leku dk;Z leku osru] dkuwuu
lqj{kk nsus d vf/kdkj vkfn miyC/k djkus ls gSA fo”o esa ,slk dksbZ Hkh ns”k ugha gS tgk¡ efgykvksa dks gkf”k,
ij j[kdj lkekftd &vkfFkZd fodkl lEHko gqvk gSA efgykvksa dks fodkl dh eq[; /kkjk ls tksM+s fcuk
fdlh lekt jkT; ,oa ns”k ds lkekftd&vkfFkZd ,oa jktuSfrd fodkl dh vk”kk ugha dh tk ldrh gSA
vkt 21oha0 lnh ds nkSj esa vuojr la?k’kksZ fir` lRrkRed lksp dks pqukSrh nsrs gq, ns”k esa efgykvksa us lÙkk
ds loksZPp f”k[kj rd p<+dj gj {ks= esa Lo;a dks iq:’kksa ds led{k lQyre~ fl) djds fn[kk fn;k gSA
efgykvksa dh u flQZ vkfFkZd fLFkfr esa lq/kkj vk;k oju~ os u, tks”k ds lkFk jlksbZ?kj dh ngyht yka?kdj
lkekftd nkf;Ro fuHkkrh fn[kk;h iM+ jgh gSA vius LoIuksa dks lkdkj djus ds fy, efgykvksa us xjhch vkSj
lkekftd ca/kuksa dks Hkh rksM+k gSA
jkT;ksa esa iapk;r O;oLFkk dks ysdj Ik;kZIr fHkUurk O;kIr jgh gSA fdarq 73osa lafo/kku la”kks/ku ds ek/;e
ls yksdrkaf=d foØsUnzhdj.k ds u, lw= dh “kq:vkr dh xbZ ftlds vUrxZr “kfDr;kW vkSj ftEesnkfj;kW nksuksa
gh rhuksa Lrjksa ij pquh iapk;rksa dks lkSaih xbZA tks efgyk,W vHkh rd misf{kr jgus dks etcwj Fkh] 33 Qhlnh
vkj{k.k nsdj mUgsa dsoy lnL; ds :Ik esa gh ugha oju~ iapk;r ds eqf[k;k ds :Ik esa pqus tkus dk volj
iznku fd;k gSA bl la”kks/ku ls Bgjs gq, xzkeh.k lekt esa cnyko vk;k gS vkSj /khjs&/khjs iapk;rs xzkeh.k
fodkl dh egRoiw.kZ dM+h curh tk jgh gSA
vk/kkjHkwr lqfo/kkvksa dk fodkl
ns”k ds ftl xzkeh.k {ks= esa vk/kkjHkwr lqfo/kkvksa dk vHkko ugha gksxk] ogk¡ fodkl dh /kkjk Lo;aeso
izokfgr gksus yxrh gSA blds fy, iapk;rksa dks Ldwyksa dks fuekZ.k ,oa Ldwyksa esa “kSf{kd xfrfof/k;ksa esa lrr~
fuxjkuh j[kuh pkfg,A lqxe vkokxeu ds fy, xk¡oksa dks “kgjksa ls tksMus ds fy, lMdksa dk fuekZ.k] ikuh
,oa fctyh dh O;oLFkk] LokLF; lsokvksa gsrq fpfdRlk dsUnzksa dh LFkkiuk] “kkSpky;ksa vkSj lkeqnkf;d dsUnzksa
dk fuekZ. k vkSj ifjogu O;oLFkk dk vR;kf/kd cy nsus dh egrh vko”;drk gS] rkfd xz keh.k tuksa dks
vHkkoksa ds fy, 21oha lnh esa Hkh de ls de mDr ewy Hkwr lqfo/kkvksa ds fy, la?k’kZ u djuk iMs+A
* vfl0 izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] jktdh; egkfo|ky;] VIiy] vyhx<+] m-izA

lkEiznkf;d ,oa ln~Hkko

ftl LFkku ij “kkfUr vkSj HkkbZpkjk fo|eku gksxk] ogkW lkjs fu.kZ; ijLij fopkj&foe”kZ ds ek/;e ls
fcuk fdlh fojks/k ds fØ;kfUor fd;s tk ldrs gSaA tkfrxr ,oa lkEiznkf;d vk/kkj ij caVk gqvk xk¡o dHkh
rjDdh ugha dj ldrk D;ksafd xk¡oksa dk izR;sd O;fDr lHkh ;kstukvksa dks “kadk dh n`f’V ls ns[kus yxrk gSA
ogk¡ ges”kk ;gh lksp cuh jgrh gS fd lqfo/kkvksa vkSj fodkl ;kstukvksa ds forj.k esa i{kikr fd;k tk ldrk
gSA ftlds QyLo:Ik xk¡o esa >xMs+ mRiUu gksus dk [krjk cuk jgrk gS vkSj izR;sd ;kstuk dk fojks/k gksu k
vkjEHk gks tkrk gS] xk¡o dk izxfr dk ekxZ :d tkrk gSA blfy, iapk;r dks loZizFke xkWo esa ,slk okrkoj.k
rS;kj djuk pkfg, ftlls lHkh yksx xk¡o ds fodkl ds fy, fey tqydj dke djsa vkSj izR;sd tu dks yxs
fd xk¡o esa gksus okys izR;sd fodkl dk;ksZ esa esjk Hkh fgr gS vkSj xk¡o esa pyk;h tk jgh ;kstuk ls fuf”pr
gh xk¡o dk fodkl gksrk gSA
lkekftd dqjhfr;ksa dk mUewyu
ns”k ds fiNM+s {ks=ksa esa [kkldj xzkeh.k lekt esa dqN ,slh dqjhfr;kW] jhfr&fjokt vkt Hkh fo|eku gSA
ftuds dkj.k ogkW ds fuoklh ges”kk vkfFkZd n‘f’V ls detksj cus jgrs gSA tgkW rd fd bl dqjhfr;ksa dks
iwjk djus ds fy, _.k ysus vFkok d`f’kZ] Hkwfe] ?kj ;k vkHkw’k.kksa rd dks fxjoh j[k nsrs gSaA ,slh fLFkfr es os
u rks cPpksa dks vPNh f”k{kk fnyk ikrs gS vkSj u gh mUgsa iks’kd vkgkj ns ikrs gSA ngst izFkk] e`R;q Hkkst tSlh
lkekftd cqjkbZ izeq[krk ls ns[kus dks feyrh gSA jkt/kkuh fnYyh ds dq N xzkeh.k bykdksa vkSj fl[kksa dh
èkkfeZd laLFkk ds vuqlkj dksbZ u ngst ysxk] u nsxk] “kknh jkr esa u gksxh vkSj cS.M&cktk ugha ctsxkA ;fn
bl izdkj tkx:drk xkWoksa dh iapk;rksa izfrf’Br yksxksa ds lkFk feydj xzkeokfl;ksa esa iSnk djsa rks xkWoksa dh
cgqr lh leL;kvksa dk lek/kku gks tk,xkA
fyaxkuqikr esa o`f}
xkWoksa esa fyaxkuqikr esa vLkUrqyu ,d leL;k cuk gqvk gSA dqy 1000 yM+dksa dh rqyuk esa yM+fd;ksa dh
laLFkk 900 ls Hkh uhps pyh x;h gSA bldk ewy dkj.k vf”k{kk o ngst izFkk gSA xzke iapk;rksa dks viuk
lkekftd dÙkZO; le>rs gq, xk¡o dh f”kf{kr ,o a le>nkj efgykvksa ds lewg cukdj tkx:drk dk izlkj
djuk pkfg,A
Lojkstxkj {ks= dk fodkl
izk;% ns[kus esa vk jgk gS fd dke /ka/kksa ds u gksus dkj.k jkstxkj ds vHkko esa viuh thfodk ds fy, xkWoksa
ds ;qok “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dj jgs gSA ftlls uqdlku gksrk gS& igyk xkWoksa dk fodkl vo:) gksrk gS]
nwljk “kgjksa ds Åij tula[;k dk ncko c<+rk gSa ;fn xkWoksa esa gh jkstxkj ds lk/ku miyC/k gks tk, tks bu
leL;kvksa dk lek/kku gks ldrk gSA
2 vDrwcj] 1959 dks jktLFkku ds ukxkSj esa iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk dh uhao iM+hA o’kZ 1973 esa if”pe
caxky ls efgykvksa ds tuizfrfuf/k cuus dks flyflyk “kq: gqvkA o’kZ 1983 esa rRdkyhu dukZVd ljdkj
us ,sfrgkfld QSlyk fy;kA efgykvksa dks 25 Qhlnh vkj{k.k nsus dh ?kks’k.kk dh vkSj yEcs la?k’kZ ds ckn
1987 esa ;g ,DV ykxw gks x;kA iapk;rksa vkSj uxj fuxeksa esa efgykvksa ds fy, lhVsa vkjf{kr djus ds
fy, lu~ 1993 esa lafo/kku dk 73okW vkSj 74okW lafo/kku la”kks/ku fd;k x;kA bl izdkj LFkkuh; Lrj ij
fu.kZ; ysus dh izfØ;k esa mudh lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh dh vk/kkjf”kyk j[kh x;hA
Lkafo/kku ds 74osa la”kks/ku ds ckn iapk;rh jkt ,oa LFkkuh; fudk; esa efgykvksa dk pquk tkuk r; gks
x;k A bl la”kks/ku ds ckn lcls T;knk [qk”kh mUgsa feyh tks pquko yM+dj lgizfrfu/kRo djus dk gkSlyk
j[krh Fkh] ysfdu lkekftd ,oa ifjokfjd ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds dkj.k mUgs ;g ekdkS ugha feyk ik jgk FkkA tc
mUgsa pquko yM+ds dk ekSdk feyk rks mlds ifj.kke Hkh lkeus vkus yxsA vc os lQy tuizfrfuf/k ds :Ik
esa xzkeokfl;ksa dh gj leL;k dk lek/kku dj jgh gS A bu fnuksa iwjs ns”k esa 10 yk[k ls vf/kd efgyk,W
ljiap@xzke iz/kku ds :Ik eas viuh Hkwfedk fuHkk jgh gS A iapk;rksa dh fuokZpu efgyk izfrfuf/k;ksa dh la[;k
yxHkx 28-18 yk[k gS tks dqy fuokZfpr izfrfuf/k;ksa dk 36-87 Qhlnh gSA
lq>ko o fu”d”kZ
Ekfgyk ,oa cky fodkl ea=ky; dh vksj ls 18 ekpZ 2010 ls jk’Vªh; efgyk l”kfDrdj.k fe”ku dk
“kqHkkjaHk fd;k x;kA jkT; Lrj ij jkT; fe”ku izf/kdj.k dk xBu fd;k x;k gS A blds vykok efgykvksa
dks jktuSfrd ,ao “kSf{kd :Ik ls Hkh l”kDr cukus dh fn”kk esa fujUrj iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gSA gkyafd Hkkjr
esa efgykvksa ds leku vf/kdkj iznku djus okys fofHkUu varjkZ’Vªh; le>kSrk vkSj lkaf/ki=ksa dks Hkh vuqeksfnr
fd;k gSA muesa 1993 esa efgykvksa ds f[kykQ lHkh izdkj ls HksnHkko ds mUewyu laEcU/kh laf/ki= dk vuqeksnu
lcls izeq[k gSA efgykvksa dh jk’Vªh; uhfr cukbZ x;h ftldk eq[; y{; efgykvksa dh mUufr fodkl l”kfDrdj.k
lqfuf”pr djuk gSA mlds mn~ns”;ks esa efgykvksa ds fy, ldkjkRed vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd uhfr;ksa esa ,slk
vuqdwy ekgkSy rS;kj djuk gS ftlls efgyk,W viuh {kerk dks lkdkj dj ldsa rFkk LokLF; ns[kHkky] iw.kZ
f”k{kk] jkstxkj] leku ikfjJkfed ,oa lkekftd lqj{kk dk ykHk mBk ldsaA muesa efgykvksa vkSj ckfydkvksa
ds f[kykQ lHkh izdkj ds HksnHkko ,oa fgalk ds mUewyu rFkk lkekftd n‘f’Vdks.k esa cnyko Hkh lqfuf”pr
djuk Hkh “kkfey gSA
blesa dksbZ lansg ugha gS fd vkt efgyk,a Hkh lh<+h nj lh<+h izxfr dh jkg ij vxzlj gSaA ysfdu bldk
rkRi;Z ;g drbZ ugha gS fd muds f[kykQ vijk/k [kRe gks x;k gS A vkt Hkh dU;k Hkwz.k gR;k] efgykvksa ds
izfr ;kSu fgalk vkSj ngst mRihM+u] ?kjsyw fgalk tSlh lkekftd cqjkbZ;k¡ gekjs lekt esa cM+s iSekus ij fo|eku
gSA gkykafd budh rknkn esa t:j deh vkbZ ij vkus okys le; esa efgykvkas dk Hkfo’; mTToy fn[k jgk
gSA pwafd vkt dh vkSjr u dsoy i<+&fy[kdj vkRe fuHkZj cuuk pkgrh gS cfYd og lekt esa vkRe lEeku
ds lkFk thuk pkgrh gS vkSj ns”k ,oa lekt ds fodkl esa viuh mifLFkfr ntZ djkus esa vge~ Hkwfedk dk
fuoZgu djus gsrq rRij fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA
LkUnfHkZr L=ksr
1- nSfud lekpkj i= ,OkeW lelekf;d if=dk,W A
2- dq:{ks= ,oa ekStwn xzkeh.k Hkkjr ljdkj] fnlEcj 2009A
3- dq:{ks= ,oa ekStwn xzkeh.k Hkkjr ljdkj] twu 2011A
4- bf.M;k VwMs vkmV yqd
fyax fo”kerk&tSfod ;k lkaLd`frd
f’kizk jk; *
Hkwfedk
fyax fo’kerk dk “kkfCnd vFkZ gS&ySafxd vk/kkj ij gksus okyk HksnHkkoA lkekU;r;k iq:’kksa }kjk efgykvksa
ds lkFk fd;k tkus okyk foHksn fyax foHksn ekuk tkrk gSA ijUrq O;kid vFkksZ aesa ns[ks rks lekt esa rhu rjg
ds fyax fn[kkbZ nsrs gSa&iq:’k] efgyk o vU;A ;fn buesa ls fdlh ds }kjk fdlh ds lkFk dsoy fyax ds
vkèkkj ij vleku O;ogkj fd;k tk, rks og fyax fo’kerk@ fyax foHksn dgk tk,xkA pwwafd gekjk lekt
iq:’k iz/kku jgk gS] vr% vDlj ;g foHksn iq:’kksa }kjk gh iSnk fd;k tkrk gSA blds dbZ lk{kkr mnkgj.k
gekjs lkeus fo|eku gS tSls csVs ds tUe ysus ij feBkbZ ckaVh tkrh gS rFkk csVh ds iSnk gksus ij ifjokj esa
vthc lh “kkfUr Nk tkrh gSA dqN ,sls nfjaans Hkh gSa ftUgs ;fn irk py tk, fd iSnk gksus okyh lUrku dU;k
gS rks oks mls dks[k esa gh ekj nsrs gSaA bls gh dU;k Hkzw .k gR;k dgk tkrk gS tks fyax fo’kerk dh pje
ijkdk’Bk gksrh gSA blds vfrfjDRk fyax fo’kerk ds vU; :i Hkh gSa tSls&f”k{kk] LokLF; esa fd;k tkus okyk
HksnHkko] fookg esa o/kq i{k }kjk oj i{k dks ngst nsuk] e`R;q i’pkr vfUre laLdkj dk gd dsoy yM+ds dks
fn;k tkuk vkfnA
bl “kks/k i= esa ml lzksr dks <aw<us dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gS tks mDr mnkgj.kksa ds eq[; dkj.k gSaA dgus
dk vk”k; gS fd fyax fo’kerk dk eq[; dkj.k D;k mldk dsoy efgyk gksuk gS ;k gekjh lkekftd&lkaLd`frd
lajpuk ,slh gS ftlds vk/kkj ij ;g foHksn mRiUu gksrk gSA bldks le>us ds fy;s lsDl cuke tasMj dk
tkuuk vR;ar vko”;d gS A
lsDl cuke tasMj@tSfod fyax cuke lkekftd fyax
fyax fo’kerk dh leL;k ds laca/k esa egRoiw.kZ fookn ;g gS fd ^lsDl^ o ^tsaMj^ lekukFkZd “kCn gS ;k
buesa dksbZ vFkZ Hksn gS\
:f<+oknh fopkjdksa dk nkok gS fd ^lsDl^ ls iq:’k o ukjh dh “kkjhfjd fHkUurkvksa dk Hksn gksrk gS tcfd
^tsaMj^ ls mudh lkekftd o lkaLd`frd fLFkfr;ksa dkA ;fn efgyk,W lkekftd n`f’V ls fiNM+h gqbZ gSa rks
bldk ewy dkj.k iq:’k ugh gSa cfYd mudh “kkjhfjd lajpuk esa fufgr nks”k gh gS( tSls mUgs xHkZ/kkj.k djuk
i+M+rk gS] cPps ikyuk gksrk gS ukjhokfn;ksa us :f<+oknh fopkj/kkjk ds bl er dk [kaMu fd;k gSA os Hkh ekurh
gS fd ^lsDl^ dk laca/k ‘kkjhfjd varj ls gS tcfd tasMj dk laaca/k lkekftd&lkaLd`frd varjksa ls gSA mudk
* vflLVsaV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] MkW - jke euksgj yksfg;k jk0 egk0 eq¶rhxat] tkSuiqj] m-iz-A
erHksn ^lsDl^ o ^tsaMj^ ds laca/kksa dks ysdj gSA mudk nkok gS fd ^lsDl^ o ^tsaMj^ esa mruk lh/kk o rkfdZd
laca/k ugh gSa ftruk :f<+okfn;ksa us crk;k gSA
^lsDl^ o ^tsaMj^ esa lcls Li’V varj izfl) ukjhoknh ysf[kdk ^,s u vksd ys^ us 1972 bZ- esa fyf[kr
viuh izfl) iqLrd ^ lsDl tsaMj ,.M lkslk;Vh^ esa fd;k gSA mUgksaus lkQ rkSj ij fy[kk fd iq:’k o ukjh
esa ^lsDl^ laca/kh varj cgqr FkksM+s ls gSa ftudk laca/k iztuu rFkk iks’k.k ls lacaf/kr vaxksa rd lhfer gSA iq:’k
o ukjh ds ckdh lkjs varj laLd`fr }kjk fufeZr gSa D;ksafd laLd`fr gh îq:’kksfpr o fL=;ksfpr^ dk;ksZ dk Hksn
djrh gSA mUgksaus dbZ tutkrh; lektksa dk v/;;u djds lkfcr fd;k fd tks dk;Z lkekU;r% iq:’kksfpr
ekus tkrs gS] os dbZ tutkrh;ksa esa dsoy efgyk,W djrh gSa] tSls d`f’k] “kkjhfjd Je ls lacaf/kr dk;Z vkfnA
blh izdkj] cPPkksa ds ikyu&iks’k.k tSls dk;Z tks lkekU;r% fL=;ksfpr ekus tkrs gSa] dbZ tutkrh;ksa es a iq:’kksa
}kjk fd, tkrs gSaA bldk vFkZ gS fd îq:’kRo^ o ^L=hRo^ tSlh /kkj.kk,W laLd`fr ds vuqlkj fu/kkZfjr gksrh gSa]
u fd “kkjhfjd fHkUurkvksa ds vk/kkj ijA foHksn dh ;g ijEijk dsoy efgykvksa ds lkFk gh ugh gSa vfirq
gekjs lekt ds r`rh; fyax ds lkFk Hkh ;g foHksn gksrk jgk gSA ogkW Hkh foHksn dk vk/kkj dsoy ‘kkjhfjd
lajpuk u gksdj lkekftd&lkaLd`frd lajpuk gh gSA ftlds dkj.k iq:’k vkSj efgyk nksuks feydj muds
lkFk fo’ke O;ogkj djrs gSaA
Li’V gS fd ^lsDl^ o ^tsaMj^ lekukFkZd “kCn ugh gSaA fyax fo’kerk tks vkt gekjs lekt esa fo|eku gS
og lekt }kjk gh fufeZr gSA
fyax Hksn ds ewy dkj.k tSfod gSa ;k lkaLd`frd
lkekU;r% fyax fo’kerk dks mfpr ekuus okys :f<+oknh fopkjd o dqN vU; fpard tSfod dkjdksa dks
ewy ekurs gSa tcfd ukjhoknh vkanksyu dh izeq[k /kkjk,W lkekftd&lkaLd`frd dkjdksa dks fyax fo’kerk ds
fy, mRrjnk;h ekurh gSaA
tSfod dkj.k
bl er ds vuqlkj fyax fo’kerk ds ewy dkj.k iq:’k o ukjh dh tSfod fHkUurkvksa esa fufgr gSaA bl er
dk leFkZu fuEufyf[kr izdkjksa ls fd;k x;k gS&
¼1½ dqN ekuo”kkfL=;ksa dk nkok gS fd iq:’k dh ekufld {kerk tSfod rkSj ij gh ukjh ls vf/kd gSA
mnkgj.k ds fy, , , jksCkSd us viuh iqLrd ^n lkbdksyksth vkWQ dSjsDVj ^ esa fy[kk gS fd iq:’kksa
esa rkfdZd fparu djus dh {kerk tUetkr :i ls fo|eku gksrh gS tcfd efgykvksa esas lkekU;r%
bldk vHkko ik;k tkrk gSA bldk izek.k dqN yks x ;g Hkh nsrs gS fd iq:’kks a esa vkSlr :i ls
efgykvksa ls csgrj ^vkbZ-D;w^ ik;k tkrk gSA
lkaLd`frd dkj.k
tks fopkjd fyax fo’kerk ds ewy esa lkekftd&lkaLd`frd dkj.kksa dh Hkwfedk dk T;knk egRo nsrs gSa]
mUgksus u flQZ mijksDr rdksZ dk [kaMu fd;k gS cfYd fojks/kh rdZ Hkh fn, gSaA izeq[k vkykspuk,W o rdZ bl
izdkj gSa&
¼1½ tgkW rd efLr’d ds vkdkj dk iz”u gS] ;g vk/kkj gh Hkzked gSA ;fn vkdkj dh n`f’V ls ns[ksa rks
gkFkh tSls dbZ i”kqvksa dk efLr’d euq’; ds ugha cfYd lkekftd varjksa efLr’d ls cM+k gksrk gS
fdUrq ckSf)d {kerk,W bl vuqikr esa ugha fn[krhA nwljh vksj] ;g Hkh lkfcr gqvk gS fd iq:’k dk
efLr’d vius “kjhj ds vuqikr esa ftruk cM+k gS] mlls T;knk cM+k ukjh dk efLr’d ukjh ds “kjhj
ds vuqikr esa gSA
¼2½ tgakW rd tSo O;kdj.k ;k gkeksZuksa dh fHkUurk dk iz”u gS] ukjhokfn;ksa dk Li’V er gS fd tSo
O;kdj.k ls lkekftd varj ls tSo O;kdj.k cuk gSA
ckfydk Hkzw.k gR;k
ckfydk Hkzw.k gR;k p;ukRed fyax fu;a=.k dh ,d O;oLFkk gSA ;Ww rks nqfu;k ds dbZ ns”kksa esa ySafxd
p;u dh laLd`fr fn[kkbZ iM+rh gS] fdUrq ckfydkvksa ds i{k esa ,slh LkaLd`fr dgha ekStwn ugh gSA ckfydk Hkzw.k
gR;k fyax p;u dk og :i gS tks vk/kqfud rduhdksa ds dkj.k vfLRkRo esa vk;kA ;g leL;k ewYkr% blfy,
gS fd lekt esa efgykvksa dks cks> ekuk tkrk gSA tc lekt bl cks> dks gVkus dh ekufldrk cuk ysrk
gS rks ckfydk gR;k tSlh ijEijk,W “kq: gksrh gSaA dbZ /keksZa tSls fgUnw rFkk dUQ~;wf”k;u /keZ esa dbZ /kkfeZd
nkf;Ro fuHkkus dk vf/kdkj flQZ iq:’k ds ikl gSA blds vfrfjDr] efgyk dh lqj{kk vkSj ngsTk tSlh leL;k,W
mlds ekrk &firk ij vR;f/kd ncko cukrh gSaA fQj] o`)kJe esa iq:’k larku gh ekrk&firk dks lgkjk ns
ikrh gS&;g lkekftd lqj{kk dk Hkko Hkh iq:’k larku ds i{k es a gSaA nqfu;k ds vf/kdka”k lektksa esa oa ”k
ijEijk iq= ds uke ls pyrh gS] blfy, Hkh csVs dk egRo csVh ls T;knk gSA dqN /keZ Hkzw.k gR;k dk dBksj
fojks/k djrs gSa tSls bLyke o dSFkksfyd bZlkbZA fdUrq] lS)kfUrd fo”oklksa ds foijhr bu /keksaZ esa Hkh O;kogkfjd
:i esa iq:’k larku dks gh ojh;rk feyrh gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% fyaxkuqikr cuke f’k’kq fyaxkuqikr
lzksr% Hkkjrh; tux.kuk 2011
Hkwfe o lEifRr vf/kdkj

efgykvksa dh lkekftd fo’kerk dk ,d cM+k dkj.k mudh vkfFkZd fLFkfr detksj gksuk gS ftlesa cgqr
cM+h Hkwfedk Hkwfe o lEifRr vf/kdkjksa ds vHkko dh Hkh gSA ;g leL;k iwjs fo”o esa rFkk gj dky esa jgh gSA
;wjksi o vesfjdk esa 19oha “krkCnh esa blds fo:) yEck la?k’kZ gqvk ysfdu fookfgr efgykvksa dks lEifRr esa
cjkcjh dk vf/kdkj O;kogkfjd :i esa vHkh rd ugha fey ik;k gSA ;gh leL;k Hkkjr tSls ns”kksa esa Hkh gS A
dqy feykdj] Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh detksj fLFkfr dk ,d cM+k dkj.k mUgsa Hkwfe o lEifRr vf/kdkj u fey
ikuk gSaA jkT; us bl laca/k esa dbZ iz;kl fd, gSaA mnkgj.k ds fy,] lEifRr ds iathdj.k esa yxHkx lHkh
jkT; efgykvksa ls de LVkEi “kqYd ysrs gSa tcfd iq:’kkas ls vf/kdA dbZ ,sls dkuwu Hkh cuk;s x, gSa ftuesa
vkokl o lEifRr dh ljdkjh O;oLFkkvksa esa efgykvksa dks fo”ks’k ojh;rk feyrh gSaA fdUrq] lexzr% vHkh Hkh
fLFkfr csgrj ugh gSA ;g le>uk csgn t:jh gS fd efgykvksa ds okLrfod l”kfDrdj.k rFkk ngst tSlh
leL;kvksa dk okLrfod lek/kku ;gh gS fd efgykvksa dks lEifRr esa cjkcjh dk vf/kdkj feysaA
fu”d”kZ
fu’d’kZ :i esa ge ns[ksa rks ;g lgh gS fd efgykvksa dh “kkjhfjd lajpuk iq:’kksa ls fHkUu gS ijUrq fyax
fo’kerk “kkjhfjd lajpuk ls lEc) ugha gS vfirq gekjh lkekftd &lkaLd`frd lajpuk bl izdkj dh gS
ftlds dkj.k ;g fo’kerk mRiUu gksrh gSA blh lajpuk ds dkj.k ge r`rh; fyax dks Hkh gs; n`f’V ls ns[krs
gSaA /keZ euq’; ds thou dk vfHkUu vax gS rFkk fo”o ds lHkh /keksaZ esa efgykvksa dks iq:’kksa ds ckn dk ntkZ
fn;k x;k gSA ;g Hkh fyax fo’kerk dk ,d egRoiw.kZ dkj.k gSA oLrqr% lw{e utfj, ls ns[ksa rks efgykvksa ds
lkjs fu;e iq:’kksa ds vuq:i cuk, x, gS rFkk mUgs rdZ dh dlkSVh ij u vkadk tk, blfy, mUgsa laLdkj
dk uke ns fn;k x;k gSA
fyax fo’kerk dks lekIr ;k de djus ds fy, oSf”od Lrj ij iz;kl tkjh gSaA oSf”od ljdkjsa ckfydk
Hkzw.k gR;k dks cUn djus ds fy, dkuwuh izko/kku dj jgh gSaA efgykvksa dks Hkwfe o lEifRr esa vf/kdkj nsus
ds fy, u, dkuwu cuk, tk jgs gSaA Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk Hkh csVh cpkvks] csVh i<+vksa] lqdU;k le`f) ;kstuk
tSls dk;ZØe pyk, tk jgs gS rkfd fyax fo’kerk dh [kkbZ dks ikVk tk ldsA fof/kd izko/kkuksa ls vyx
gVdj ns[kk tk, rks fyax lekurk ,d uSfrd vo/kkj.kk Hkh gSA uSfrdrk dh n`f’V ls ns[ksa rks fyax lekurk
dh LFkkiuk gekjs oSf”od lekt dk eq[; y{; Hkh gksuk pkfg,A gekjh lkekftd&/kkfeZd&lkaLd`frd lajpuk
bl :i esa gksuh pkfg, fd ge efgykvksa ,oa r`rh; fyax dks bl izdkj dh ifjfLFkfr;kW nas tks budks lEekutud
thou thus esa enn djsa vkSj fyax lekurk LFkkfir djus esa lg;ksx iznku djsaA
lanHkZ lwph
1. ¼2012½ % fyax lekurk vkSj fodkl % oYMZ cSad
2. ¼1972½ % lsDl tsaMj ,aM lkslk;Vh % ^,su vksdys^
3. ¼2011½ % Hkkjrh; tux.kuk
4. www.academia.edu/sex_discrimination
5. www.thebalance.com/sex-vs-gender
6. www.iosrjournals.org>vol2-issue5
Hkkjr mn; esa xzkeh.k efgykvksa dk ;ksxnku
f’kodqekj yky *
Hkwfedk
lu 2011 dh tux.kuk ds eqrkfod ns”k dh xzkeh.k vkcknh yxHkx 84 djksM+ gS ;g dqy vkcknh dk
djhc 70 izfr”kr gSA 84 djksM+ xzkeh.k vkcknh ds djhc 48 izfr”kr efgyk,sa gS nwljs “kCnksa esa dgsa rks ns”k
dh djhc 40-32 djksM+ efgyk,sa xkWoksa esa jgrh gS dbZ lkekftd vkfZFkZd losa{k.k “kks/k vkSj vkadMs+ bl ckr
dh iqf’V djrs gSa fd aLora=rk izkfIr ds N% n”kd ls T;knk le; chr tkus ds ckn Hkh xzkeh.k Hkkjr xjhch]
vf”k{kk] dqiks’k.k] csjkstxkjh] va/kfo”okl tSls lkekftd vkfFkZd vfHk”kkiks ls iwjh rjg eqDr ugha gks ldk
vkSj vc Hkh fo”kky xzkeh.k vkoknh fctyh ikuh lM+d tSlh cqfu;knh t:jrksa o lqfo/kkvksa ds vHkko dh ekj
>sy jgh gS ;g Hkh ,d rF; gS fd bu vHkkoksa dfe;ksa dh ekj rqyukRed rkSj ij efgyk,sa T;knk >sy jgh
gSaA xzkeh.k Hkkjr [kkldj xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds lekftd vkfFkZd “kS{kf.kd o LokLF; fLFkfr;ksa esa ldkjkRed
o xq.kkRed cnyko ykus ds fy, ljdkj us dbZ ;kstukvksa dh “kq:vkr dh gSA bu ;kstukvksa dh cukoV
ldkjkRed o mEehn txkus okyh igy yxrh gSA vxj jkT; o dsUnz vkilh rkyesay ls bu ;kstukvksa ij
dk;Z djsa rks xzekh.k efgykvksa ls Hkkjr mn; esa lg;ksx izkIr gksxkA
efgykvksa ds fy, xkWo esa jkstxkj
Hkkjr esa vk/kh vkoknh yxHkx 48 izfr”kr efgykvksa dh gSA gekjs ns”k ds [ksrksa esa efgykvksa ds rjg rjg
ds d`f’k dk;Z djrs gq, ns[kuk ,d vke vuqHko gSA Qlyksa dh cqokbZ ls ysdj ns[kHkky vkSj dVkbZ rd gj
dk;Z esa efgyk;sa c<+ p<+ dj fgLlk ysrh gSaA mRiknd dk;Z djus okyh efgykvksa esa ls yxHkx 40 izfr”kr
d` f’k dk;Z ,oa lEcfU/kr dk;kZs esa layXu gS A xzkeh.k efgyk;sa rFkk d` f’k ds vf/kdrj dk;Z es a iq:’kks a dk
lg;ksx djrh gSA ijUrq muds }kjk fd;s x;s dk;ksZ dks vf/kd egRo ugh fn;k tkrk d`f’k esa lexz Qly
mRiknu ls ysdj Hk.Mkj.k rd 40 izfr”kr vkadh x;h gSA efgyk,a gj {ks= esa viuk ;ksxnku ns jgh gSA ij
og vf/kdrj vkSipkfjd :i ls x.kukvksa es ifjyf{kr ugh gksrk] fQj Hkh d`f’k “kks/k f”k{kk vkSj izlkj ds {ks=
esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh visf{kr Lrj rd ugha igqWp ik;h efgykvksa ds lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh ds fcuk ns”k nqfu;k
ls xjhch vkSj Hkw[k ukeksfu”kku feVkuk lEHko ugha gSA
* vflLVsaV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL++=] Qwy flag fc’V jktdh; egkfo|ky;] yEoxkao] fVgjh x<okyA
lekt esa mudh fLFkfr

ySfxad vuqikr ls lekt esa fL=;ksa dh n”kk dk irk yxrk gS lu&2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj Hkkjr
esa dqy ySfxad +vuqikr 1000 iq:’kksa ij 943 fL=;ksa dk gSA xzkeh.k vuqikr 949 vkSj “kgjh vuqikr 923 dk
gS ns”k ds vyx& vyx bykdksa us ;g vyx&vyx gSA ij lols [kjkc fLFkfr gfj;k.kk dh gSA ;gkW uohre
vkWdMksa ds vuqlkj 6 lky ds de mez ds cPpksa ySfxad vuqikr 834 dk gSA iatkc esa 846] tEew dk”ehj esa
862] jktLFkku 888] vkSj mRrj izns”k esa 902 gSA ySfxad vuqikr crkrk gS fd lekt fL=;ksa dks fdl :i es a
ns[krk gS ns”k esa yxHkx 12 djksM+ ;qok fL=;kW ;fn lgh le; ij mRiknd dk;ksZ esa yx lds rks jk’Vªh;
vFkZO;oLFkk es Hkkjh cnyko yk;k tk ldrk gSA
jktuhfrd l’kfDrdj.k& lkekU;r% jktuhfr esa fL=;ksa dh Hkwfedk vkSj Hkh de gS lekU;r% laln
foèkkulHkk] fo/kkue.My] ftykiapk;r {ks=] iapk;r o xzke lHkkvksa esa izfrfuf/k ds :i esa efgyk lnL;ksa dh
la[;k 10 fQlnh ds mij ugh tkrh A
efgykvkssa ls tqM+s laoS/kkfud micU/k vkSj vf/kfu;e & Hkkjrh; lafo/kku dh izLrkouk esa mYysf[kr
mnns’; tks lHkh ukxfjdks dh lekftd vkfFkZd vkSj jktuSfrd U;k; fopkj fo”okl /keZ vkSj mikluk dh
LorU=rk izfr’Bk vkSj volj dh lekurk iznku djrs gSA ftlesa efgyk vf/kdkjksa dh Hkko Hkkjrh; lafo/kku
ds fofHkUu vuqPNsnksa esa fuEu izdkj ifjyf{kr gksrh gSA&
vuqPNsn 14&jktuSfrd vkfFZkd vkSj lekftd {ks=ksa esa leku vf/kdkj ,oa volj ij cy A
vuqPNsn 15&fyax ds vk/kkj ij HksnHkko A
vuqPNsn 15¼3½&efgykvksa ds i{k esa ldkjkRed n`f’Vdks.kA
vuqPNsn 16&yksdfu;kstu ds volj
vuqPNsn 19&fopkj vkSj vfoO;fDr dh Lora=rk
vuqPNsn 21&izk.k ,oa nSfgd Lora=rkA
vuqPNsn 23&cykr csxkj vkSj nqO;Zogkj dh eukghA
vuqPNsn 24&14 o’kZ ls de vk;q ds ckyd @ckfydk ds fu;kstu dh eukghA
vuqPNsn 39&leku :i ls thfodk leku osru ,oa xfjeke; okrkoj.k dk fuek.kZA
vuqPNsn 42&dke dh U;k; laxr ekuuksfor n”kkvksa dk fuekZ.k rFkk izlwfrdky esa lgk;rk A
vuqPNsn 51 ¼d½&efgykvks ds lEeku ds fo:+) tkjh izFkkvksa dk R;kx ,oa lejlrk ,oa ekr`Ro dh Hkkouk
dk fodklA
vuqPnNsn 243&¼?k½&iapk; es fofHkUu oxksZ dh efgykvksa dk vkj{k.k A
vuqPNsn 243&¼u½&foukHksnHkko uxj ikfydkvksa esa fofHkUu oxksaZ dh efgykvksa dk vkj{k.k A
vuaqPNsn 325&HksnHkko fouk fuokpd fu;ekoyh esa lfEefyr gksus dks vf/kdkj
vuqPNsn 226&o;Ld erkf/kdkj A
laoS/kkfud micU/kksa ds vfrfjDr efgykvksa dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj ykus fd fy, vf/kfu;eksa dk iz;ksx tkW p
fuos”k dky lsa gh fd;k x;k muls tqM+h lkekftd dqjhfr;ksa dks nwj djus dh “kq:vkrh iz;kl ds rkSj ij
foèkok iqufoZokg vf/kfu;e 1856] ckyfookg vf/kfu;e fu;e 1925] vkSj “kkjnk ,DV 1929] vaxzsth gqdwer
}kjk fØ;kafUor fd;k x;k Lora=rk i”pkr efgyk mUeq[k okrkoj.k fd fuekZ.k ij cy fn;k x;k lkFk gh
efgykvksa ds izfrlksp esa cnyko ykus ds vf/kfu;eksa dk fuekZ.k ,oa fØ;kaU;o;u fd;k x;k ftlesa fgUnw
fookg vf/kfu;e 1955] os”;ko`fr fuokj.k vf/kfu;e 1956 fgUnw mÙkjkf/kdkj vf/kfu;e 1995 ?kjsyw fgalk ls
efgykvksa dk laj{k.k 2005] efgykvksa dk ;kSu mRihM+u jksdFkke izfrjks/k vkSj fuokj.k fo/sk;d 2012 vkSj
efgykvksa ds f[kykQ t?kU; ;kSu vijk/k fo/ks;d 2013 eq[; gSaA
efgykvksa ds izfr vijk/k&jk’Vªh; vijk/k fjdkMZ O;wjks dh ,d uohure fjiksVZ ds ewdkcys fiNys o’kZ
ns”k es nq’deZ dh ?kVuk,a c<+h gSA 2013 ds eqdkcys fiNys o’kZ ns”k esa nq’deZ 33 gtkj ds vklikl FkkA tc
fd 2012 esa 24 gtkj FkkA bu vkadMksa ls ;g irk pyrk gS fd 92 izfr”kr efgyk,sa izfrfnu nq’deZ fd
f”kdkj gksrh gS *fnYyh esa ;g 1636 ekeysa ntZ fd;s x;sa gSaA jk’Vªh; vijk?k C;wjksa ds eqrkfcd ns”k dh vkfFkZd
jkt/kkuh esa fiNys o’kZ nq’deZ ds 391 ekeys ntZ fd;sa x;s gSaA ;gh fLFkfr ns”k ds NksVs&cMs “kgjks esa gSA
t;iqj esa nq’deZ ds djhc 192] iq.ks esa 171] e/;izns”k esa 4335] jktLFkku esa 3285] egkjk’Vª eas 3063] mRrj
izns”k esa 3050] ekeys fiNys o’kZ ntZ fd;s x;s A fiNys o’kZ jk’V~h; efgyk vk;ksx }kjk tkjh vkadM+ksa ds
vuqlkj Hkkjr esa izfr 24 feuV ij ,d efgyk ;kSu “kks’k.k] izfr 43 feuV ij ,d efgyk dk vigj.k] izfr
54 feuV ij cykRdkj] izfr 102 feuV ij ,d efgyk ngst izrkM+uk dh f”kdkj gksrh gS A
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds fy, pyk;s x;s fo”ks’k dk;ZØe& jk’V~h; efgyk l”kfDrdj.k uhfr 2001
Hkfo’; ds fy, efgykvksa dh vuqHko dh x;h t:jrksa dk lek/kku vkSj mldh mUufr fodkl vkSj l”kfDrdj.k
cukus ds fy, ;ktuk;sa pyk;h x;h ftuesa fu%”kqYd ckfydk f”k{kk 2005 es a] okfydk izk sR lkgu ;ks tuk
2006-07 esa fd”kksjh “kfDr ;kstuk 2001 esa] jk’V~h; iks’kkgkj fe”ku 2001 es] efgyk m|eh }kjk iz.k 15 vxLr
2001 esa] tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk 01 vizSy 2005] thou Hkkjrh ;kstuk 08 ekpZ 2003 esa] oUnsekrje ;kstuk
flrEcj 2005 esa] mTToyk ;kstuk fnlEcj 2007 es] tuuh lqj{kk dk;ZØe 01 twu 2011 esa] lqdU;k le`f}
;kstuk] csVh cpkvks csVh i<kvks 22 tuojh 2015 dks gfj;k.kk ds ikuhir ls ljdkj us izkjEHk fd;kA dsUnz
ljdkj }kjk efgyk lqj{kk fodkl vkSj l”kfDrdj.k dh fn”kk esa fy;k x;k ;g egRoiw.kZ dne gS tks lekt
dks tkx:d djus ds mn~ns”; ls fufeZr gS ftldk edln gS yksxks ds os fL=;ks ds tUe ls lEcfU/kr tks
:f<+xr /kkj.kk gS mls rksM+k tk;A
fu”d”kZ
vkt tofd oqf}thoh oxZ esa ;g loZaLohdk;Z gks pqdk gS fd efgykvksa dks muds gd vkSj lekurk ls
oafpr djuk ,d yksdrkaf=d lekt ds fy, ?kkrd gS rc bl rjg ds fopkjks dk fdlh Hkh :i esa lekt esa
izpfyr gksuk Lohdk;Z ugh± fd;k tkuk pkfg,A pkgs og efgyk ds tUe ls iwoZ fyax ijh{k.k gks ;k efgykvks a
ds izfr ;kSu geykA gekjk lekt ,sfrgkfld dkjdksa ds vk/kkj efgykvksa dksa lekt esa mPp ;k fuEu ntkZ
nsrk jgk tc fd ;g xzkeh.k efgykvksa esa vR;f/kd loZO;kIr gSA og le; vkSj og lekt vkt ds le; vkSj
lekt ls dkQh fHkUu FkkA vkt ml rjg ds uk fopkj gS vkSj uk oSlh ifjfLFkfr;ka fQj Hkh ge mlh iqjkuh
ekufldrk ls D;ks xzflr gSaA
;g lgh gS fd f”k{kk gh ,slh pht gS tks O;fDr] lekt vkSj Hkkjr mn; esa xzkeh.k efgyk ,d vewY; fuf/k gSA
lanHkZ lwph
1- dq:{ks=] Qjojh] 2015
2- dq:{ks=] ekpZ] 2015
3- dq:{ks=] tqykbZ] 2015
Hkkjr ds d`f”k {ks= esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh vko’;drk % ,d v/;;u
eks- Qqjdku* ,oa ghjkyky**
izLrkouk
fo”o dh dqy vkcknh ds yxHkx 50 izfr”kr vkcknh efgykvksa dh gSA Hkkjr esa 48-46 izfr”kr vkcknh
efgykvksa dh gSA bruh vkcknh gksus ds ckotwn efgykvksa dsk lkekftd] jktuSfrd rFkk vkfFkZd vktknh ugha
fey ikbZ gSA mUgsa lekt esa visf{kr LFkku ugha fey ik;k gS iqjkru le; ls gh efgykvksa dks ?kj dh pkj
nhokjh ds vUnj j[kus dh izFkk jgh gSA mudks f”k{kk] jkstxkj] tSls vf/kdkjksa ls oafpr j[kk x;k gSA ftlds
dkj.k mudk lewfpr fodkl ugha gks ldk vkSj vkt Hkh og vius vf/kdkjkss dks izkIr djus gsrq la?k’kZjr gSaA
iq:’k iz/kku lekt dh izo`fRr muds fodkl esa ck/kk cuh jgh gSA fo”o dh dqy efgyk vkcknh dk 50 izfr”kr
ls Hkh de Hkkx vkt f”kf{kr gSA efgyk,sa lekt esa iq:’kksa }kjk “kksf”kr thou thus ds fy, etcwj gSaA vkt
Hkh efgyk,sa viuh b{kk ds vuqlkj uk rks f”k{kk] jkstxkj ,oa [kku&iku] igukok ugha dj ldrh gSa vkSj mUgsa
izR;sd Lrj ij viuh bPNkvksa dk neu djuk iM+rk gSA Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lekt esa fLFkfr lq/kkjus gs rq
Lora=rk ds iwoZ lrh izFkk mUewyu 1829] fo/kok iqufoZokg vf/kfu;e 1856] efgyk lEifRr vf/kdkj vfèkfu;e
1837 bR;kfn vf/kfu;e ,oa dkuwuksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k gS A Lora=rk ds ckn fgUnw fookg vf/kfu;e 1955]
ngst izFkk vf/kfu;e 1955] ?kjsyw fgalk vf/kfu;e] Hkkjrh; efgyk vk;ksx] Hkkjrh; lafo/kku dk vuqPNsn 14
lerk dk vf/kdkj] vuqPNsn 15 fyax ds vk/kkj ij HksnHkko jksdus gsrq rFkk vuqPNsn 73 vkSj 74 ¼la”kksfèkr½
esa dqN fo”ks’k vf/kdkj iznku fd;s x, gSA bu dkuwuksa ds }kjk efgykvksa dks l”kDr cukus dh fn”kk esa Hkkjr
ljdkj vkSj jkT; ljdkjsa dk;Z dj jgha gSaA
v/;;u ds izeq[k mn~ns’;
• orZeku v/;;u ds izeq[k mnns”; fuEu gSa&
• Hkkjrh; lekt esa efgykvkss dh orZeku vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd fLFkfr dk v/;;uA
• Ekfgykvksa dk d`f’k {ks= ,oa d`f’k ls lacaf/kr vU; dk;ksaZ esa Hkwfedk dk v/;;u A
• d`f’k {ks= esa efgykvksa dks volj ,oa pqukSfr;ksa dk v/;;uA
* vflLVsUV iz ksQslj] cqUnsy [k.M fo”ofo/kky;] >kW lhA

** vflLVs UV izksQslj] okf.kT;] jktdh; Lukrdks Rrj egkfo|ky; pj[kkjh] egksckA
‘kks/k izfof/k
orZeku v/;;u dh izfof/k fooj.kkRed gS laeadksa dk ladyu f}rh;d lkzsrksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA “kks/k dk;Z
dks iwjk djus gsrq fofHkUu “kks/k i=ksa ,oa fofHkUu ea=ky;ksa dh fjiksVZ] i=&if+=dkvksa es izdkf”kr ys[k vkSj
d`f’k ea=ky; dh osclkbV bR;kfn dk mi;ksx fd;k x;kA
Hkkjrh; lekt esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd&vkfFkZd fLFkfr
Hkkjrh; iq:’k iz/kku lekt esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd fLFkfr feyh tqyh gS ,d vksj lekt mUgsa nsoh
“kfDr ds :Ik esa iwtrk gS vkSj nqxkZ] y{eh] lkfo=h dh laKk iznku djrk gS A csVh dks dU;k ds :Ik esa ns[kk
tkrk gSA jkuh y{eh ckbZ] ljkstuh uk;Mw] lkfo=h Qwys ] >ydkjh ckbZ] enj Vsjslk] baf njk xkW/kh bR;kfn
efgyk,sa vkt gekjs lekt dh vkn”kZ efgykvksa ds :Ik esa tkuh tkrh gS vkSj buds dk;kZsa dks ns”k dHkh Hkqyk
ugha ldrk rFkk buds dk;Z vkSj fl)kUr lekt esa vkt Hkh izlakfxd gSaA nwljh vksj vkt efgykvksa dqy
vkcknh esa 48-46 ¼tux.kuk 2011 ds vuqlkj½ dh fgLlsnkjh gSA dqy lk{kjrk nj 74 izfr”kr esa efgykvksa dh
lk{kjrk nj 65-50 izfr”kr gS vkSj 1000 iq:’kksa ds lkis{k 940 efgyk,sa gSaA bu lcds ckotwn vkt Hkh efgykvksa
dks fyax vk/kkj ij vlekurk ns[kus dks feyrh gSA Hkkjrh; lafo/kku }kjk mUgsa cjkcjh dk ntkZ iznku fd;k
x;k gS vkSj laxfBr {ks= esa mUgsa og ntkZ izkIr Hkh gS ysfdu vkt Hkh vlaxfBr {ks= esa muds lkFk Hksn Hkko
fd;k tkrk gSA mUgsa Hkqxrku Lrj ij dk;ZLrj ij vyx le>k tkrk gSA mUgsa fu.kZ;u izfØ;k esa “kkfey ugha
fd;k tkrk gSA lkFk gh dk;Z dks vkoafVr djrs le; mUgsa “kkjhfjd] ekufld :i ls detksj le>dj dk;Z
fn;k tkrk gSA Hkkjrh; lekt esa efgykvksa dks ?kjsyw dk;ksaZ dks djus gsrq ?kjsyw efgyk ds :Ik esa ns [kk tkrk
gSA og ?kj dh lkQ&lQkbZ] cPpksa dh ns[kHkky] jlksbZ esa [kkuk idkuk] ikuh dh O;oLFkk djuk] tkuojksa dh
ns[kHkky djuk rFkk iq:’kksa dh lsok djuk gh mudk dk;Z le>k tkrk gSA vkt efgyk,sa fofHkUu {ks=ksa esa
iq:’kksa }kjk “kksf’kr gksrh gSaA pkgs og ?kj gks ;k dk;Z djus dk LFky bR;kfnA efgykvksa dks vius Hkfo’; dks
cukus gsrq Lo;a ds fu.kZ;ksa ij lekt jksd yxkrk gS vkSj mudh bPNkuqlkj dk;Z djus dk volj cgqr gh
de iznku fd;k tkrk gSA
Hkkjr esa dqy 24-39 djksM+ ?kjsyw ifjokj jgrs gSaA ftuesa ls 17-91 xkWo esa jgrs gSaA Hkkjr esa 56 izfr”kr
xzkeh.k ifjokjksa ds ikl [ksrh ;ksX; Hkwfe ugha vkSj fujUrj vk; dekus dk dksbZ lk/ku ugha gSA 14 izf r”kr
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa ?kjsyw ifjokj ljdkjh rFkk futh {ks= esa dk;Zjr gSaA 60 izfr”kr ?kjsyw ifjokj xjhc gSa ;k
xjhch esa thou;kiu dj jgs gSaA
Hkkjr esa dy Jfedksa dk ifjn`’;

Population/Workers Persons Male Female
1 2 3 4
Population Total 1210569573 623121843 587447730
Workers “ “ 481743311 331865930 149877381
Percentage of workers “ “ 39.79 53.26 25.51
Population Rural 833463448 427632643 405830805
Workers “ “ 348597535 226763068 121834467
Population Urban 377106125 195489200 181616925
Workers “ “ 133145776 105102862 28042914
Sources: Office of the Registrar General , India.

Note: Workers Include both Main workers and Marginal workers.
d`f”k {ks= esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k

Hkkjr ,d fodkl”khy ns”k gS vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dk izeq[k O;olk; d`f’k gSA D;ksafd ;gkW dh 65 izfr”kr
vkcknh d`f’k dk;kZsa esa izR;{k vkSj vizR;{k :Ik ls layXu gSA tgkW rd efgykvksa dh ckr gS rks d`f’k {ks= esa
80 izfr”kr efgyk,sa dk;Zjr gSaA efgyk,sa d`f’k {ks= esa weeding, hoeing, grass, cutting, picking, cotton stic
collection, separation of seed from fibre, poultry, animal husbandry bR;kfn dk;ksaZ es a layXu gSaA blds
lkFk&lkFk og ?kjsyw dk;kZsa dks Hkh cgqr vPNs rjhds ls iwjk djrh gSA Hkkjrh; ifjn`“; esa dgk tkrk gS fd
d`f’k {ks= esa ,d o’kZ esa ,d gsDVs;j d`f’k Hkwfe ij ,d cSy ¼bull½ 1064 ?k.Vs] ,d iq:’k 1212 ?k.Vs vkSj
,d efgyk 3425 ?k.Vs dk;Z djrh gS A bl n`f’V ls ns[kk tk, rks efgyk,sa d`f’k {ks= esa iq:’kksa dh rqy uk esa
3 xquk dk;Z djrh gSaA bl lc ds ckotwn Hkh og mit dks cspus] j[kus vkSj d`f’k fu.kZ;u ls mUgsa oafpr dj
fn;k tkrk gSS vkSj lekt mUgsa fdlku gksus dh laKk iznku ugha djrk gSA
Ekfgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk vfeizk; HkkSfrd ;k vk/;kfRed] “kkjhfjd ;k ekufld :Ik ls lHkh Lrjksa ij
efgykvksa dks l”kDr cukus dh izfØ;k ls gSA efgykvksa dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd ,oa jktuSfrd vktknh iznku
djus ls gSA ekuo lalk/ku ,oa fodkl ea=ky; ¼MHRD-1985½ vkSj jk’Vªh; efgyk vk;ksx ¼NCW½ efgykvksa
dks muds vf/kdkjksa dks lajf{kr djus dh fn”kk esa izfrc) gSA efgykvksa dk fofHkUUk {ks=ksa esa ;ksxnku ns[kk
tk, rks dqy Jfedksa dk izkFkfed {ks= esa 1995] 2000] 2005 vkSj 2010 esa Øe”k% 61-90] 59-80] 55-80 vkSj
51-40 izfr”kr jgk gS vkSj lsok {ks= esa budk ;ksxnku Øe”k% 22-40] 24-10] 25-20] vkSj 26-50 izfr”kr jgk
gS RkFkk m/kksx {ks= esa Øe”k% 15-70] 16-10] 19-00 vkSj 22-40 izfr”kr jgk gSA mDr leadksa ds vk/kkj ij dgk
tk ldrk gS fd efgyk,sa fofHkUUk {ks=ksa esa viuh egrh Hkwfedk dk fuoZgu lQyrkiwoZd dj jgh gSa A
Hkkjr ds d`f”k {ks= esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k dh ck/kk,sa
d`f’k {ks= esa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dks vkxs c<+kus esa fuEu ck/kkvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS&
• efgykvksa dks d`f’k dk;ksaZ dks djus laca/kh :Ik js[kk fu/kkZj.k djus vFkkZr fu.kZ;u izfØ;k esa “kkfey
ugha fd;k tkrk gSa A
• efgykvksa dks ges”kk xSj e”khujh dk;ksaZ dks djus ;ksX; gh le>k tkrk gSA
d`f”k {ks= esa efgykvksa dks volj ,oa pqukSfr;kW
• efgykvksa dks iq:’kksa dh euksn”kk dks cnyus gsrq vius vki dks dk;Z ds }kjk LFkkfir djuk gksxk fd
efgyk,sa iq:’kksa dh Hkkafr dk;Z dj ldrh gSaA
• efgykvksa dks vdq”ky efgyk fdlku ls dq”ky efgyk fdlku dh fn”kk esa dk;Z djuk gksxk vFkkZr~
mUgsa d`f’k rduhd Kku ls ;ksX; cuuk gksxkA
Hkkjr esa d`f’k {ks= esa efgyk,sa iq:’kksa ls vf/kd dk;Z djus ds ckotwn mUgsa iq:’k iz/kku lekt esa mfpr LFkku
vkt rd izkIr ugha gqvk gSA vkt efgyk,ssa d`f’k {ks= ds fdlh Hkh dk;Z dks djus dh ;ksX;rk j[krh gSa tSls [ksrksa
esa dke djuk] VªSDVj pykuk] ikuh dk iEilsV pykuk] [ksrksa esa flapkbZ djuk] d`f’k {ks= esa O;kikj] izlaLdj.k]
ckxokuh] Ik”kq&ikyu] eRL; ikyu] eqxhZ ikyu bR;kfn {ks=ksa esa lQyrkiwoZd dk;Z dj ldrh gSaA Lora= Hkkjr
dh efgyk vkt iq:’kksa ls Hkh vkxs fudyus dh {kerk j[krh gS vkSj dbZ {ks=ksa esa og bldks lkfcr Hkh dj pqdh
gSA vkt dh efgyk [kqys fopkjksa okyh rFkk fuMj efgyk ds :Ik esa vius vki dks LFkkfir djus dh fn”kk esa vkxs
c<+ jgh gS ysfdu vkt Hkh mudks lekt esa fofHkUUk izdkj ds “kks’k.k dk f”kdkj gksuk iM+ jgk gSA efgykvksa dks
lqj{kk iznku djus rFkk vkfFkZd :Ik ls l”kDr cukus gsrq ljdkj fujUrj iz;kljr gS rFkk fofHkUu ;kstukvksa ds
}kjk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dks ia[k iznku djus dk dk;Z fd;k tk jgk gSA
lq>ko
efgykvksa dks d`f’k {ks= esa l”kDr cukus gsrq fuEu fcUnqvksa ij dk;Z djus dh vko”;drk gS&
• efgykvksa dh lk{kjrk nj esa o`f) djus dh fn”kk esa dk;Z djus dh vko”;drk gS D;ksafd vkt Hkh
50 izfr”kr ls vf/kd efgyk,sa vf”kf{kr gSaA
• efgykvksa dks d`f’k {ks= esa LokfeRo iznku djus gsrq fo”ks’k fj;k;rssa iznku djus dh vko”;drk gSA
• efgykvksa dks d`f’k dk;Z djus gsrq vk/kqfud rduhd ls izf”kf{kr djus dh vko”;drk gS D;ksafd
Hkkjr ds d`f’k {ks= esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr ,d vdq”ky Jfed ds :Ik esa tkuh tkrh gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1. Rao Shankar, C.N. Indian Society, S Chand and Company Ltd. 2005 , Delhi.
2. Hasnain, Nadeem, Indian Sociaty and Culture, Jawahar Publishers and Distributor, 2004 , New Delhi.
3. Bala . N (2010), Selective discrimination against women in Indian agriculture- A Review Agricultre Reviews 31(3)
224-228.
mÙkjk[k.M ds ioZrh; xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgyk jkstxkj dk Lo:i ,oa Je

lgHkkfxrk
Ekuh”kk jkor* ,oa iz’kkUr daMkjh**
fo”k; dk izLrqrhdj.k
fdlh ns”k dh vFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh cgqr ek;us j[krh gSA Ekfgyk,a vkfFkZd fodkl esa
egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk rks fuHkkrh gSa ysfdu muds dke dk lgh ewY;kadu ugha fd;k tkrk gSA jk’Vªh; vkadM+k
laxzg.k ,atsfl;ka Hkh bl rF; dks Lohdkj djrh gSa fd Jfedksa ds :i esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh dks ysd j
,d xaHkhj U;wukuqeku gSA us”kuy lSaiy losZ ds losZ{k.k ls Kkr gksrk gS fd ns”k esa 1999&2000 dh rqyuk esa
2011&12 esa efgyk Jfedksa dk izfr”kr vkSj Hkh de gks x;k gSA fo”o cSad fjiksVZ ¼2017½ds vuqlkj 131 ns”kksa
esa ls Je lgHkkfxrk nj esa Hkkjr dk LFkku 120osa ik;nku ij gSA vf/kdka”k v/;;uksa esa ik;k x;k gS fd Hkkjr
esa fiNys dqN n”kdksa esa tgkWa ns”k dh vkfFkZd o`f} dh nj Åaph gks jgh Fkh ogha efgykvksa dh Je “kfDr
lgHkkfxrk esa Hkkjh cnyko ugha fn[kkbZ fn[kkbZ fn;k] ¼ fgeka”kq 2011] Fkkel 2012] etwenkj vkSj uhrk 2011]
lsu 2013½Agkykafd dqN lajpukRed ifjorZu vkSj fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa esa efgykvksa ds dke dh Hkkxhnkjh dh
izo`fr esa cnyko ns[kk x;k gS]¼JhokLrok vkSj JhokLrok 2010] jLrksxh ,oa esgrk 2012½A mYys[kuh; gS fd
d`f’k ls xSj d`f’k {ks=ksa esa ifjorZu] vkSj ftlesa fo”ks’k :i ls “kgjh {ks=ksa esa fu;fer jkstxkj dh Hkkxhnkjh esa
Øfed o`f} ls gSA bu ifjorZuksa dk dkj.k “kSf{kd Lrj esa o`f} dk ;ksxnku gSA ysfdu fQj Hkh D;ksa Hkkjr esa
efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh esa deh vkbZ gS\ ;fn ukSdfj;ksa esa deh ,d pqukSrhiw.kZ dk;Z gS rks fQj D;ksa iq:’kksa dh
Je “kfDr blls izHkkfor ughsa gSA fofHkUu vk;q oxZ] oSokfgd fLFkfr] f”k{kk vkSj LFkkuksa dh fofHkUurk] efgykvksa
dh Je “kfDr Hkkxhnkjh dks izHkkfor djus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gSaA
efgyk jkstxkj dh fLFkfr
la;qDr jk’Vª la?k dh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj efgykvksa Je”kfDr esa Hkkxhnkjh vFkkZr~ o;Ld efgykvksa dk
izfr”kr tks okLro esa dke dj jgh gSa] efgykvksa ds ntsZ dk ladsrd gSA rFkk la;qDr jk’Vª fodkl dk;ZØeksa
dh ekuo fodkl fjiksVZ esa tsaMj l”kfDrdj.k ekid ¼tse½ ,d vge ?kVd gSA ;|fi jkstxkj esa efgykvksa
* ”kks/k Nk=k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ch-th-vkj- ifjlj ikSM+h ] gs-u-c- x<+oky fo”ofo|ky;] Jhuxj x<+oky] mÙrjk[k.MA
** lgk;d izk/;kid] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ch-th-vkj- ifjlj ikSM+h] gs-u-c- x<+oky fo”ofo|ky;] Jhuxj x<+oky] mÙrjk[k.MA
dh la[;k esa o`f} gks jgh gS ysfdu mUgas de osru fey jgk gSA vkSj muds dk;Z dh ifjfLFkfr;ka vlarks’ktud
gSaA efgyk,a vf/kdk”kr% ikfjokfjd nkf;Rokasa dk fuoZgu djrh gSaA os cPpksas vkSj cM+ksa dh ns[kHkky djrh gSaA
ikfjokfjd Hkwfe ds dkeksa esa ;k O;kikj esa lg;ksx djrh gSas A xkao esa ikuh] bZ/ku vkSj pkjk ykus esa thou
O;rhr djrh gSaA muds ;s dk;Z fu”kqYd rFkk vizR;{k gksrs gSaA thMhih esa bldh x.kuk ugha gksrh gSA 2001
dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj Hkh efgykvksa dh ?kjsyw dk;ksZa dh x.kuk ugha gksrh gSA “kks/kksa ls irk pyrk gS fd
vxj efgykvksa dks dke djus ds volj feys] rks os bUgsa lg’kZ Lohdkj djrh gSA ;g Hkh irk pyrk gS fd
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa es eujsxk ds ek/;e ls 45 izfr”kr ,slh efgykvksas dk oSrfud Je miyC/k djk;k tk ldk tks
mUgsa igys dgha ugha feyk FkkA vkSj blds ifj.kkeLo:i blls ifjokj ds QSlyksa esa efgykvksa dh Hkwfedk
vge gks x;h gSA Hkkjr esa jk’Vªh; vk; esa efgykvksa dk ;ksxnku dsoy 10 izfr”kr gS mudk “ks’k 90 izfr”kr
dk;Z vlaxfBr {ks=ksa esa de etnwjh vkSj fcuk etnwjh ds gksrk gSA valxfBr {ks=ksa esa de ls de 80 izf r”kr
efgyk Jfed dk;Z djrh gSaA os d`f’k {ks=] eNyh ikyu] [kknh ,oa xzkeh.k m|ksx] gSaMywe] gLrdyk] fuekZ. k
dk;Z] ?kjsyw dk;Z] [kknh m|ksx vkfn fofHkUu m|ksxksa esa dk;Zjr gSaA
rkfydk la[;k 1-1% dk;Z’khy tula[;k dk forj.k jkstxkj fLFkfr ds }kjk

xz keh.k Lojkstxkj fu;fer Jfed vfu;fer Jfed
2004&05 2011&12 2004&05 2011&12 2004&05 2011&12
iq:’k 58 54 9 10 33 35
Ekfgyk 64 59 4 6 33 35
Dqy 60 56 7 9 33 35
Ukxjh;
iq:’k 45 42 41 43 15 15
Ekfgyk 48 43 36 43 17 14
dqy 45 42 40 43 15 15
L=ksr% us”kuy lsEiy losZ vkadM+s] fofHkUu o’kZ ds
jkstxkj fLFkfr esa Lojkstxkj ds {ks= esa ns[kk x;k gS fd xzkeh.k o “kgjh nksuksa {ks=ksa esa efgyk dk izfr”kr
2004 ls 2012 ds e/; fxjk gqvk gSA
Je’kfDr esa efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh
“kgjh Hkkjr esa efgyk Jfedksa dh ,d cM+h la[;k ekStwn gSA os ikfjJfed vkSj dk;ZLFy ij viuh fLFfr
ds ekeys esa vius iq:’k lgdfeZ;ksa ds lkFk cjkcjh ij gSA xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa d`f’k vkSj lac) {ks=ksa esa dqy
efgyk Jfedksa ds vf/kd 89.5 izfr”kr rd dks jkstxkj fn;k tkrk gSA dqy d`f’k mRiknu esa efgykvksa dh
vkSlr Hkkxhnkjh dk vuqeku dqy Je dk 55 izfr”kr ls 66 izfr”kr rd gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1-2% Hkkjr ds xzkeh.k o ‘kgjh {ks=ksa esa Je lgHkkfxrk nj ¼ LFPR½
Xkzkeh.k 1993&1994 1999&2000 2004&2005 2009&2010 2011&2012
Ekfgyk 33-0 30-0 33-3 26-0 24-7
iq: ’k 56-1 54-0 55-5 54-6 54-2
“kgjh
Ekfgyk 16-5 14-7 17-8 13-7 14-6
iq: ’k 54-3 54-3 57-0 54—2 54-5
L=ksr% us”kuy lSEiy losZ ¼fofHkUu o’kZ ds½
rkfydk la[;k 1-3% Xkzkeh.k vkSj ‘kgjh Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh dk;Z cy Hkkxhnkjh
¼WPR½&¼izfr’kr esa½
1999&2000 2004&2005 2009&2010 2011&2012
Xkzkeh.k “kgjh Xkzkeh.k “kgjh Xkzkeh.k “kgjh Xkzkeh.k “kgjh
35 20 36 22 31 19 30 20
¼106 fefy;u½ ¼19 fefy;u½ ¼125 fefy;u½ ¼27 fefy;u½ ¼106 fefy;u½ ¼25 fefy;u½ ¼104 fefy;u½ ¼29 fefy;u½
L=ksr% us”kuy lssEiy losZ vkxZukbts”ku ¼68oha 2011&12½
mŸkjk[k.M ds lanHkZ esa efgyk jkstxkj dk Lo:i ,oa Je lgHkkfxrk

mŸkjk[k.M jkT; ds ioZrh; {ks= viuh izk—frd ,oa /kkfeZd fuf/k ds fy, fo”oHkj esa iz[;kr gSA;gka fd
75&85 izfr”kr tula[;k —f’k ij fuHkZj gSa ¼L=ksr% lkaf[;dh; —f’k ifjn‘“; 2007½A mRrjk[k.M dh dqy
tula[;k dk rhu pkSFkkbZ Hkkx thou fuokZZ g gsrq d`f’k lacf/kr xfrfof/k;ksa esa layXu gS]tcfd ;gkWa fd d`f’k
eq[; :i ls ioZrh; {ks= esa gSA tgkW d`f’k tksr NksVh gSa o fc[kjh gqbZ vkSj flapkbZ dh lqfo/kk ux.; gSA bu
izns”kksa dh izk—frd ,oa HkkSxksfyd ifjfLFkfr;ksa us ijks{k :i ls ;gka fodkl ds ekxZ ckf/kr fd;s gSa A ftl
dkj.k vf/kdak”k ;qok”kfDr thfodksiktZu gsrq bu {ks=ksa ls “kgjh {ks=ksa dh vksj iyk;u dj jgs gSaA bu {ks=ksa
esa LFkkuh; jkstxkj o vk; l`tu djuk ,d pqukSrh gS]¼fery] f=ikBh] lsBh 2008½A iq:’kksa ds iyk;u ls
eq[; :i ls ifjokj dk leLr dk;ZHkkj efgykvksa dks ogu djuk iM+rk gSA eq[; :i ls bu {ks=ksa esa iq:’kksa
dh vis{kk efgyk,a vf/kd ifjJeh o la?k’kZiw.kZ thou O;rhr djrh gSaA
rkfydk la[;k 1-4% mRrjk[kaM o Hkkjr ds lUnHkZ eaas Je ‘kfDr Hkkxhnkjhrk nj ¼2011½
LFkku xzkeh.k dqy uxjh; dqy
mRrjk[kaM Ekfgyk iq: ’k Ekfgyk iq: ’k
izfr”kr 32-9 49-1 41-0 11-3 50-98 32-36
Hkkjr Ekfgyk iq: ’k dqy Ekfgyk iq: ’k dqy
izfr”kr 30-0 53-0 41-8 15-4 53-76 5-31

L=skr% tux.kuk vkdM+s ¼2011 ½ Hkkjr
rkfydk la[;k 1-5% mRrjk[kaM o Hkkjr ds xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ds lUnHkZ eas dk;Zjr~ O;kid jkstxkj
Lrj ¼2011½& dqy Jfed
LFkku Lojkst xkj fu;fer etnwjh vfu;fer etnwj h
mRrjk[kaM Ekfgyk iq:’k Ekfgyk iq:’k Ekfgyk iq:’k
92-2% 61-9% 3-2% 16-6% 6-45% 21-6%
Hkkjr 59-3% 54-5% 5-6% 10-0% 35-1% 35-5%
L=skr% tux.kuk vkdM+s 2011 Hkkjr
mŸkjk[k.M ds xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vf/kdka”k efgyk;sa ¼92-2 izfr”kr½ Lojkstxkj essa layXu gSaA tcfd fu;fer
etnwjh esa mudh lgHkkfxrk iq:’kksa dh vis{kk dkQh de gSA
milagkj
Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh dk;Z lgHkkfxrk lHkh Hkkxksa esa iq:’kksa dh rqyuk de gSA ;|fi mi;qZDr v/;;u ls ;g
Kkr gqvk gS fd fo”ks’kr% mÙkjk[k.M ds xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa “kgjh {ks=ksa dh vis{kk +cgqr vf/kd gSA ;|fi vraj{ks=h;
fo’kerk Hkh xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa Hkh cgqr vf/kd gSA bu xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vlaxfBr {ks= esa +d`f’k ,oa lacfèkr xfrfof/k;ksa
esa efgykvksa dh Je lgHkkfxrk nj vf/kd gSA d`f’k {ks= ,oa okfudh gh efgykvksa dh vkfFkZd xfrfof/k;ks a dk
izeq[k {ks= gSA izkFkfed {ks=& d`f’k dk;Z] eNyhikyu] o`{kkjksi.k] dqVhj m|ksxksa vFkok ukSdjh esa dk;Zjr gSA
efgykvksa dk dk;Z {ks= vdq”ky dk;ksZ esa vf/kd gSA ;s efgyk;sa vdq”ky gksus ds lkFk&lkFk vf”kf{kr gksus ds
dkj.k laxBu ugha cuk ikrhA blfy, vlaxfBr {ks=ksa esa budk “kks’k.k gksrk gSA “kgjh {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa esa Je
lgHkkfxrk dh nj xzkeh.k efgyk dh vis{kk de gSA lkekU; rkSj ij efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk nj esa fxjkoV dh
izo`fr gSA ;fn bls jksdus gsrq izHkkoh dkjd lfØ; u gq;s rks vkfFkZd fodkl ds lkFk c<+rs gq,s “kgjhdj.k] f”k{kk
ds izlkj ,oa vk/kqfud m|ksxksa ds foLrkj ds lkFk efgykvksa dh Je lgHkkfxrk nj esa fujarj deh vkus dh
laHkkouk lkekftd ekU;rk;sa] leqfpr O;kolkf;d izf”k{k.k rFkk rduhdh Kku dk vHkko efgykvksa esa jkstxkj
dh deh dj izeq[k dkj.k gSA v/;;u ls Kkr gqvk gS fd ikfjokfjd vk; esa o`f) ds lkFk gh efgyk;sa dk;Z{ks=
ls gV tkrh gSA vk; esa deh gksus ls efgyk lgHkkfxrk nj c<+rh gSA blds lkFk gh lk{kjrk dk Lrj Hkh
efgykvksa dss dk;Z& lgHkkfxrk nj dks izHkkfor djrk gSA lk{kjrk nj esa o`f} ls efgykvksa dk dk;Z lgHkkfxrk
de gqbZ gSA iq:’kksa dh dk;Z{ks= esa Hkkxhnkjh c<+us ls efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh de gqbZ gSA Je lgHkkfxrk nj esa
deh dk izeq[k dkj.k dk;Z{ks=ksa esa efgykvksa dk nwljk ntkZ dk gksuk gSA vlaxfBr {ks=ksa esa ,d gh dk;Z ds fy,
Hkh iq:’kksa dks efgykvksa ls vf/kd osru fn;k tkrk gS] blds vykok vf/kd Je lk/; dk;ksZa gsrq Hkh efgyk Jfed
dks de osru fn;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj Hkkjr dh xzkeh.k efgyk;sa xjhch] lkekftd fiNM+kiu] vf”k{kk] rFkk
vlaxfBr Lo:i ds dkj.k vkfFkZd {ks= esa mudk ;ksxnku cgqr de gSA
lanHkZ lwph
1- dq:{ks=] tuojh 2016] ßHkkjr esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd& vkfFkZd fLFkfrß
2- ;kstuk] vDVwoj 2008] ßvFkZO;oLFkk esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfrß
3- Azam, Mehtabul. (2012). “The Impact of Indian Job Guarantee Scheme on The Impact of Indian Job Guarantee Scheme
on Labor Market Outcomes / : Evidence from a Natural Experiment”. Bonn, Germany.
tuin Å/keflag uxj ds fodkl[k.M flrkjxat esa dk;Zjr efgyk Jfedksa

dh vk;&O;; o cpr dk fo’ys”k.k ¼vkS|ksfxd vkLFkku flMdqy] flrkjxat
ds fo’ks”k lUnHkZ esa½
m”kk iks[kfj;k*
orZeku esa vkS|ksfxdj.k fdlh ns”k dh çxfr dks ekius dk lwpd gSA mPp mRikndrk vkS|ksfxdhj.k dh
çdj.k dk ,d vax gS rFkk nksuksa ,d&nwljs ls ijLij lEcfU/kr ,oa çHkkfor gksrs gSaA ;g loZfofnr rF; gS
fd vkfFkZd fØ;kvksa ds fy, Je ,d vk/kkjHkwr vko”;drk gSA vFkZO;oLFkk dk fodkl rFkk mUufr dk Lrj
ekuoh; Je ls lEcfU/kr gSA ekuoh; Je dh dq”kyrk] lkFkZd ç;Ru mfpr Kku vFkZO;oLFkk ds fodkl ds
fy; vR;Ur vko”;d gS D;ksafd vkfFkZd fodkl ekuoh; çR;uksa dk gh ifj.kke gSA çR;sd O;fDr tks vkfFkZd
rkSj ls dk;Zjr gS og Jfed gSA lkekU;r% “kkjhfjd “kfDr ls fd;s tkus okys dk;Z dks gh Je dg dj iqdkjk
tkrk gSA çk;% ekufld dk;ksZa dks Je dh laKk ugha nh tkrh gSA vkfFkZd mn~ns”; ls fd;s tkus okys ç;Ru
pkgs og ekufld gks ;k “kkjhfjd Je dh laKk esa j[ks tkrs gSaA Je dks vkaf”kd ;k iw.kZ #i ls fdlh vkfFkZd
ykHk dh n`f’V ls fd;s tkus okys fdlh Hkh ekufld ;k “kkjhfjd dk;Z ds #i esa ifjHkkf’kr fd;k tkrk gSA
Je] Jfed dkexkj ;k deZpkjh “kCn dk ç;ksx çk;% ,d gh vFkZ esa fd;k tkrk gSA ftldk vFkZ gS etnwjh
esa dke djus okys O;fDr] Jfed dks thfodk pykus dk mudh Je “kfDr vFkkZr~ ekufld ;k “kkjhfjd dk;Z
djus dh ;ksX;rk ds vykok dksbZ vU; “kkjhfjd ;k ekufld dk;Z djrs gSaA çLrqr “kks/k dk;Z tuin Åèkeflag
uxj ds fodkl [k.M flrkjxat esa O;oLFkkfir flMdqy esa dk;Zjr efgyk Jfedksa dks vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd
leL;kvksa ds vè;;u ij vk/kkfjr gSA flMdqy esa dk;Zjr Jfedksa esa ls 25 efgyk Jfedksa dks vè;;u gsrq
pquk x;kA vè;;u gsrq p;fur Jfedksa ds vk;&O;;] cpr rFkk jkstxkj ds Lrjksa ij fo’ks’k #i ls çdk”k
Mkyk tk;sxkA lkFk gh mudh leL;kvksa] Hkwfedk o fo”ks’k Hkkxhnkjh ij Hkh çdk”k Mkyk tk,xkA
‘kks/k fof/k
“kks/kkfFkZuh dk vè;;u {ks= flrkjxat esa fLFkr flMdqy vkS|ksfxd vkLFkku gSA flMdqy esa mu fu;kstuks@O;olk;ks
a a
dk ik;ysV losZ@fujh{k.k fd;k tgk¡ efgyk Jfedksa dh cgqyrk ns[kus dks feyhA “kks/kkfFkZuh ds }kjk pkj
fu;kstuksa@O;olk;ksa dks ykWVjh fof/k }kjk pquk x;k] ftuesa VksVdks vkVkseksfVo fy0] gSUt] lkfo=h] lwfju
vkVkseksfVo fy0 bl çdkj “kks/kkfFkZuh }kjk dqy 25 efgyk Jfedksa dks nSo funZ”ku ds vk/kkj ij vè;;u gsrq
pquk x;kA
* ih-,p-Mh- vFkZ” kkL= foHkkx] dqekÅ¡ fo”ofo+| ky;] uSuhrky] mÙkjk[k.MA

flrkjxat es a LFkkfir flMdqy es a dk;Z jr efgykvksa dh dk;Z layXurk mRiknu vk; o jkstxkj dh
n”kkvksa dk fo”ys’k.k djrs gq, bl vè;;u dk eq[; mn~ns”; Kkr djuk gS fd&
1- lcls egRoiw.kZ ;g i{k gS fd D;k vukSipkfjd {ks=ksa esa dk;Z dj jgh efgyk,sa LokyEcu ,oa l”kfDrdj.k
dh fn”kk esa l{ke gks jgh gSaA ftlls fd mudh mRikndrk ,oa vk; l`tu dh fØ;k,sa c<+ ldsA
2- ljdkj }kjk jkstxkj ,oa etnwjh vk/kkfjr jkstxkj gsrq dq”kyrk esa fuekZ.k dh ftu ladYiukvksa dks
è;ku esa j[kk x;k Fkk og fdlh lhek rd pfjrkFkZ gqbZ gSaA
3- vukSipkfjd {ks= dh efgykvksa dks mudh dq”kyrk dh vfHko`f) mRiknd ifjlEifÙk;ksa rd igaqp]
etnw jh jks txkj çnku djus dh igqap v|ksxkeh ,oa m/oZxkeh Jà [kykvksa ds fuekZ. k ¼ Backward-
forward Linkage) lgk;d lqfo/kkvksa rd igqapkuk ftlesa lk[k dh lqfo/kk] tkx#drk] l”kfDrdj.k]
iks’k.k LokLFk ,oa f”k{kk ,oa çf”k{k.k ds Lrj esa lq/kkj lfEefyr gSA
rF;ksa dk ,d=hdj.k&çkFkfed vkadM+s ç”ukoyh ,oa lk{kkRdkj ds vk/kkj ij fy;s x, gSa rFkk f}rh;
vkadM+ksa fy, iqLrdksa ,oa foHkkxh; if=dkvksa dks vk/kkj cuk;k x;k gSA
rkfydk ua- 1% U;kn’kZ {ks= esa efgyk Jfedksa dh ekfld vk; dk fooj.k
Ø-la- oxkZUrjky Jfedksa dh la[;k M id Value Fixi çfr'kr
1 0&5000 0 2500 0 0%
2 5001&10000 19 75000 142500 76%
3 10001&15000 6 12500 75000 24%
dqy 25 217500 100%
çkFkfed losZ ij vk/kkfjr
217500
= = 8700.00
25
rkfydk ua- 2% U;k;n’kZ {ks= esa efgyk Jfedksa dh ekfld O;; dk fooj.k
1 0&5000 0 2500 0 0%
2 5001&10000 23 75000 172500 92%
3 10001&15000 2 12500 25000 8%
dqy 25 197500 100%

197500
= = 7900.00
25
rkfydk ua- 3% U;kn’kZ {ks= esa efgyk Jfedksa dh ekfld cpr dk fooj.k
1 0&1000 9 5000 4500 36%
2 1001&2000 12 1500 18000 48%
3 2001&3000 3 2500 7500 12%
4 3001&4000 1 3500 3500 4%
dqy 25 33500 100%

33500
= = 1340.00
25
rkfydk ua- 4% losZf{kr efgyk Jfedksa dh vk;q ds vk/kkj ij vè;;u

1 18&25 15 22 330 60 %
2 25&32 9 29 261 36 %
3 32&39 1 36 36 4 %
4 39&46 0 43 0 0%
dqy 25 627 100 %

6270
= = 25.08
25
losZf{kr efgyk Jfedksa dk f’k{kk ds vk/kkj ij fooj.k

çkFkZfed losZ ij vk/kkfjr ds vk/kkj ij vè;;u {ks= esa dk;Zjr efgykvksa ds f”k{kk ds Lrj dk loZs{k.k
djus ij Kkr gqvk gS fd 0&5oha d{kk rd f”k{kk çkIr efgyk 0 % gS vkSj 5&8 ds eè; 24% çfr”kr f”kf{kr
gSaA 8&10 oh f”kf{kr efgykvksa dh la[;k 28 % gS 10&12 rd 12% Åij f”k{kk çkIr efgyk,sa 12 % buesa ITI
dh gqbZ efgyk,sa 16 % gSA
losZf{kr efgyk Jfedksa dk dk;Z ds ?k.Vs ds vk/kkj ij fooj.k
çkFkZfed losZ ij ls Li’V gksrk gS fd losZf{kr efgykvksa esa 0% efgyk,as 8 ?k.Vs ls de dk;Z djrh gSa rFkk 0%
efgyk,as 8 ?k.Vs ls vf/kd dk;Z djrh gSa rFkk 100% efgyk,as 8 ?k.Vs dk;Z djrh gSaA
losZf{kr efgyk Jfedksa dk ekfld cpr dk fooj.k
çkFkZfed losZ ij ls Li’V gksrk gS fd efgykvksa dks ekfld cpr dks lqjf{kr j[kus ds fy, cSad esa 36 %
efgyk,sa gSa] iksLV vkfQl esa 24 % rFkk efgyk lewgksa esa 40 % efgyk,sa viuh ekfld cpr dks lqjf{kr j[krh
gS aA
losZf{kr efgyk Jfedksa dk tkfr ds vk/kkj ij fooj.k

çkFkZfed losZ ij vk/kkfjr mijksDr rkfydk ls Li’V gksrk gS fd efgykvksa esa 20 % vuqlwfpr tutkfr]
vuqlwfpr tkfr 40 % rFkk 16% fiNM+h tkfr dh efgyk,sa dk;Zjr gSa vkSj lkekU; tkfr dh efgyk,sa 24 % gSaA
dk;Zjr Jfedksa dh leL;k,sa
1- etnwjh lEcU/kh leL;kA 2- vkokl lEcU/kh leL;kA 3- vKkurk ,oa vU/kfo”okl lEcU/kh leL;k,saA
4- lkekftd uSfrdrk lEcU/kh leL;kA 5- laxBu dk vHkkoA 6- jkstxkj dh vfuf”prk dk Hk;A
fu”d”kZ
• vè;;u djus ij Kkr gksrk gS fd Jfedksa dh ekfld vkSlr vk; #0 8700@& ekfld vkSlr O;;
#0 7900@& gS rFkk ekfld cpr #0 1340@& gSA Jfedksa dh vkSlr vk;q 25-8 gS rFkk dk;Zjr
efgyk,sa lHkh f”kf{kr gSa ysfdu iw.kZ #i ls ugha gSaA
• efgyk,sa viuh ekfld cpr dks cSad ;k iksLV vkWfQl ds vykok efgyk lewg esa cpr djus dks
j[kus okyh vf/kd gSaA bls mudks tc _.k dh t#jr gksrh gSA de C;kt nj ij _.k çkIr dj
ldrh gSA
• losZf{kr efgyk Jfedksa esa fookfgr efgykvksa dh la[;k vf/kd gS os efgyk,sa vius ?kj ds dkeksa dks
djus ds i”pkr vkfFkZd fLFkfr dks lq/kkjus esa Hkh vius ifr dk lkFk ns jgh gSaA
lq>ko
losZ ls çkIr fu’d’kZ ds vk/kkj ij Jfedksa ds dY;k.kdkjh rFkk mRFkku gsrq fuEukafdr lq>ko fn;s tk
lds gSa %&
1- Jfedksa dk osru c<+k;k tkuk pkfg, ftlls os viuk jgu&lgu dk Lrj lgh dj ldsA
2- iSa”ku lqfo/kk nh tk, tks dkQh le; ls LFkk;h rkSj ij dk;Zjr gSaA
3- ;krk;kr lqfo/kk fujUrj gSA
4- nq?kZVukxzLr gksus ij mUgsa eqvkotk feyuk pkfg,A
lUnHkZ lwph
1- vkfFkZd] lkekftd fo’k;ksa dh çfr dk uo vkfFkZdh] i`‘B la0 16
2- mÙkjk[k.M ,d n”kZu] b;j cqdA
3- Affred Marshal, Principles of Economics 1961, p. 51
xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh LokLF; izfLFkfr % ,d lekt’kkL=h; v/;;u ¼xkSykikj

{ks= ds dq¡ojiqj xzke ds fo’ks”k lUnHkZ esa½
fdju ckyk *
izLrkouk
efgyk ds LokLF; dk izHkko mlds iwjs ifjokj ij iM+rk gSA vkt efgyk,¡ ?kj ds Hkhrj dkedkt o
cPpksa dh ns[kHkky rd gh lhfer ugha gS os ?kj ds ckgj vkfFkZd xfrfof/k;ksa esa iwjh rjg ls O;Lr gSaA fQj
pkgsmud k i kfj okfj d O x A1 xzkeh.k vFkZO ;oLFkk esa rks mudk eq[; ;ksxnku
; ol k; gks; k fQj [ ksr h ; k m| ks
rks gS gh] LoHkkfod gS fd bu efgykvksa dk fujksx o LoLFk gksuk vius ifjokj ds fy, gh ugha jk’Vª ds
vkfFkZd fodkl ds fy, Hkh t:jh gS fo”o LokLF; laxBu ds vuqlkj ^^LokLF;** dk vFkZ fdlh chekjh ;k
detksjh dk u gksuk ek= ugha gSA ;g “kkjhfjd] ekufld o lkekftd :Ik ls iw.kZ LoLFk gksus dk uke gSA
LokLF; izR;sd O;fDr dk vk/kkjHkwr t:jr vkSj ekSfyd vf/kdkj gSA efgykvksa ds lUnHkZ esa ;g ckr dbZ
dkj.kksa ls vkSj Hkh egRoiw.kZ gks tkrh gSA lcls igys rks os dqy tula[;k dk vk/kk fgLlk gS] vkSj dqy Je
cy dk ,d frgkbZ ls T;knk Hkh gSA nwljk cPpk iSnk djus ls ysdj mlds ikyu&iks’k.k dh eq[; ftEesnkjh
mudh gh gSA muds LokLF; dk cPpksa ds LokLF; o ranqjLrh ij lh/kk vlj iM+rk gSA LokLF; dk thou esa
vR;f/kd egRo gSA ,d vksj tgk¡ ,d LoLFk O;fDr vius thou dks lq[kiwoZd O;rhr djrk gSA ogha nwljh
vksj ,d vLoLFk O;fDr dks viuk thou cks> yxus yxrk gSA Hkkjr esa ik, tkus okys lkekftd] lkaLd`frd
<k¡ps esa ^êfgykvksa ds LokLF; dh ns[kHkky cgqr gh laLrj.k esa efgyk,¡ fuEu Lrj ij vkrh gSa] vkSj xzkeh.k
{ks=kksa esa ;g i{k vkSj Hkh Hk;adj gSA
‘kks/k vfHkdYi
izLrqr “kks/k gsrq o.kZukRed “kks/k vfHkdYi dk p;u fd;k x;k gS] izLrqr v/;;u ds mn~ns”; fuEu izdkj gS %&
mn~ns’;
1½ efgykvksa dh LokLF; fLFkfr ij ikfjokfjd ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds izHkko dh tk¡p djukA
2½ efgyk LokLF; fLFkfr o fpfdRlk O;oLFkk ds lUnHkZ esa xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh tkx:drk ds Lrj dh
tk¡p djukA
* *xSLV izoDrk] lekt”kkL= foHkkx] jktdh; egkfo|ky;] csrky?kkV ¼uS uhrky½A

v/;;u {ks=
izLrqr v/;;u gsrq xkSykikj {ks= ds dq¡ojiqj xzke dk p;u fd;k x;k gSA bl {ks= esa fuokl djus okys
50 xzkeh.k efgykvksa dk p;u nSo fun”kZu dh ykSVjh i)fr }kjk fd;k x;k gSA
rkfydk la[;k 1% ifjokj dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr ds lUnHkZ esa mÙkjnkrkvksa dk izR;qÙkj

Ø0la0 vkfFkZd fLFkfr mÙkjnkrkvksa dh la[;k izfr”kr
1- mPp fLFkfr 11 22
2- e/;e fLFkfr 23 46
3- fuEu fLFkfr 16 32
dqy ;ksx 50 100
rkfydk la[;k& 1 ls Li’V gksrk gS fd 22 izfr”kr xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh ifjokj dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr mPp
Lrj dh gS] 46 izfr”kr xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh e/;e rFkk 32 izfr”kr xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds ifjokj dh fLFkfr
fuEu Lrj dh gSA vr% rkfydk }kjk Li’V gS fd vf/kdrj lwpuknkrkvksa dh ikfjokfjd fLFkfr e/;e Lrj dh
gSA ftlls mudk LokLF; izHkkfor gksrk gSA
rkfydk la[;k 2% ifjokj esa dekus okys lnL;ksa ds lUnHkZ esa mÙkjnkrkvksa dk izR;qÙkj
Ø0la0 dekus okys lnL; mÙkjnkrkvksa dh la[;k izfr”kr
1- ,d lnL; 19 38
2- nks lnL; 22 44
3- rhu lnL; 09 18
dqy ;ksx 50 100
rkfydk la[;k& 2 ls Li’V gksrk gS fd xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds ifjokj esa dekus okys lnL; fdrus gSa]
vfèkdrj mÙkjnkrkvksa ds ifjokj esa dekus okys lnL;ksa dh la[;k dsoy nks gS] ftldk izfr”kr lokZf/kd 44
gSA tcfd dekus okys lnL;ksa dh rqyuk esa] lnL;ksa dh la[;k T;knk gSA ftlls mudh ikfjokfjd fLFkfr ij
izHkko iM+rk gSA
rkfydk la[;k 3% vk; ds lzksr ds lUnHkZ esa mÙkjnkrkvksa dk izR;qÙkj

Ø0la0 vk; ds lzksr mÙkjnkrkvksa dh la[;k izfr”kr
1- [ksrh 27 54
2- Ik”kqikyu 16 32
3- O;kikj 0 0
4- ukSdjh 07 14
5- vU; 0 0
dqy ;ksx 50 100
rkfydk la[;k& 3 ls Li’V gksrk gS fd xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds vk; dk lzksr D;k gSA 54 izfr”kr dh vk;
dk lzksr [ksrh] 32 izfr”kr dk Ik”kqikyu] 14 izfr”kr dk ukSdjh] vf/kdka”k xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh vk; dk lzksr
[ksrh gSA
rkfydk la[;k 4% fookg ds le; vk;q ds lUnHkZ esa mÙkjnkrkvksa dk izR;qÙkj

Ø0la0 fookg ds le; vk;q mÙkjnkrkvksa dh la[;k izfr”kr
1- 18 o’kZ ls de 09 18
2- 18&21 o’kZ 13 26
3- 22&25 o’kZ 24 48
4- 25 o’kZ ls vf/kd 04 08
dqy ;ksx 50 100
rkfydk la[;k&4 esa xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds fookg ds le; vk;q dks iznf”kZr djrh gSA 48 izfr”kr
efgykvksa dh vk;q fookg ds le; 22&25 o’kZ FkhA 26 izfr”kr efgykvksa dh 18&21 o’kZ] 18 izfr”kr dh 18
o’kZ ls de rFkk 8 izfr”kr dh 25 o’kZ ls vf/kd dh Fkh vk¡dM+ksa ls Li’V gS fd vf/kdrj mÙkjnkrkvksa dk
fookg de mez esa gks x;k FkkA ftlls mudk LokLF; izHkkfor gqvkA
rkfydk la[;k 5% lkekU; ifjfLFkfr esa efgyk LokLF; ds lUnHkZ esa mÙkjnkrkvksa dk izR;qÙkj
Ø0la0 efgyk LokLF; mÙkjnkrkvksa dh la[;k izfr”kr
1- lkekU; Lrj 44 88
2- fuEu Lrj 06 12
dq y ;ksx 50 100
rkfydk la[;k&5 ls Li’V gksrk gS fd lkekU; ifjfLFkfr esa efgyk LokLF; ds lUnHkZ esa gSA 88 izfr”kr
xzkeh.k efgykvksa dk LokLF; lkekU; ifjfLFkfr esa ] lkekU; Lrj dk gSA tcfd 12 izfr”kr efgykvksa dk
LokLF; lkekU; ifjfLFkfr esa fuEu Lrj dk gSA
rkfydk la[;k 6% xk¡o esa ljdkjh LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa dh miyC/krk ds lUnHkZ esa
mÙkjnkrkvksa dk izR;qÙkj
Ø0la0 izR;qÙkj dk Lo:i vko`fÙk izfr”kr
1- gk¡ 28 56
2- ugha 22 44
dqy ;ksx 50 100
rkfydk la[;k& 6] xk¡o esa ljdkjh LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa dh miyC/krk ds lUnHkZ esa gSA 56 izfr”kr xzkeh.k
efgykvksa dk ekuuk gS fd xk¡o esa ljdkjh LokLF; lqfo/kk,sa gSaA tcfd 44 izfr”kr dk ekuuk gS fd xk¡o esa
ljdkjh LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa dh miyC/krk ugha gSaA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- nso/kqjk] izrkiey] 2012] ^^xzkeh.k LoPNrk ,oa LokLF; lqfo/kk,sa**] ^^dq:{ks=**] vxLr 2012] i`’B& 15
2- flag ] vt; dqekj] 2012] ^^xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds LokLF; ds izfr n`f’Vdks.k**] ;kstuk] vDVwcj 2012] i`’B& 23
3- JhokLro] lq[kiky Jh] 2009] ^^xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa efgykvksa dh LokLF; fLFkfr okf’kZd**] if=dk niZ.k] i` ’B& 16
4- pVthZ] lqfe=k oh] 2006] ^^dqiksf’kr L=h LokLF; leL;k** LojkT; efUnj izdk”ku] ;equk fogkj] fnYyh] i`’ B& 7
5- eksnh] ds0,e0] 2012] ^^xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds LokLF; lq/kkj gsrq mBk, x, dne**] ^^dq:{ks=**] vxLr 2012] i`’B& 20
xzkeh.k efgykvkas ds fodkl esa *Lo;a lgk;rk lewg* dh Hkwfedk % tuin

peksyh ds lUnHkZ esa
vfurk *
izLrkouk
Hkkjr xzkeh.k lekt dk ns”k gS ;gka ds vf/kdka”k yksx xkaoksa esa gh fuokl djrs gSa Hkkjrh; lekt esa tc
rd xkao dk fodkl ugha gqvk rc rd ns”k dk fodkl gksuk lEHko ugha gS vr% Hkkjrh; lekt izFke :i ls
xzkeh.k lekt gS blfy, ns”k ds fodkl ds fy, xzkeh.k lekt dk fodkl gksuk vfr vko”;d gS] D;ksafd ns”k
dh lEiw.kZ “kfDr xzkeh.k fodkl esa fufgr gS] vkt ds ;qx esa fodkl dks lcls egRoiw.kZ ekuk x;k gS ftlesa
efgykvksa ds fodkl dks lcls vkxs j[kk x;k gSA gekjs lekt esa igys ls gh efgykvksa dks ,d fuEu ntkZ
fn;k x;k gS oks bl fo”oluh;rk ds lkFk gh gekjk lekt iq:’k izz/kku lekt gS ysfdu vkt ds nkSj esa ;g
ekU;rk;sa [kRe gksrh tk jgh gSa rFkk efgykvksa dk lekt esa tksjks ls fodkl gks jgk gSA iafMr tokgjyky
usg: }kjk dgk x;k e”kgwj okD; **yksxksa dks txkus ds fy;s efgykvksa dks tkx`r gksuk t:jh gSA**
efgykvks a dks vkfFkZd :Ik ls l”kDr cukus ds fy, fodkl izfØ;k vR;Ur vko”;d gSSA jk’Vª dk fuekZ.k
efgykvksa ds fcuk v/kwjk gS lkekftd l”kfDrdj.k efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fcuk lEHko ugha gS ns”k dh vkèkh
vkcknh mHkjrh gqbZ efgykvksa dh gS ysfdu bl tula[;k esa xzkeh.k efgykvksa dh la[;k de gS xzkeh.k lekt
esa efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy, Lo;a lgk;rk lewg dk fo”ks’k ;ksxnku gS lewg }kjk efgykvksa ds fodkl ds
fy, dbZ dk;ZØe pyk;s tk jgs gSaA efgyk Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa dk efgykvksa ds fodkl esa ljkguh; Hkkxhnkjh
gSA Hkkjr eas xzkeh.k efgyk,a ijEijkxr :i ls vkfFkZd mRiknd jgh gSa] fdarq lfØ; Hkkxhnkjh ds ckotwn
mudh igpku ySafxd fopkj/kkjk ds dkj.k ge”skk ls LFkkfir ugha gks ikbZ gSA Lo;a lgk;rk lewg ds ek/;e
ls xzkeh.k efgykvksa eas l”kfDrj.k dks ,d egRoiw.kZ bdkbZ ds :i es viuk;k x;k gSA vjLrw dgrs gSa] **fdlh
Hkh jk’Vª dk fuekZ.k xzk eh.k efgykvks a ds fcuk vdYiuh; gS] tcfd lkekftd l”kfDrdj.k efgykvks a ds
fodkl ds fcuk la Hko ugha gSA** xzkeh.k efgyk;sa fdlh Hkh jk’Vª dk fof”k’V ekuo lalk/ku gS orZeku esa
xzkeh.k efgykvksa dk ns”k ds fodkl esa ;ksxnku vR;Ur egRoiw.kZ gSA fdlh Hkh ns”k esa tu”kfDr lalk/ku jk’Vª
dh egRoiw.kZ iw¡th gksrh gSA ;fn bu lalk/kuksa dk leqfpr mi;ksx u fd;k tk; rks ;g lalk/ku ns”k ds fy,
Hkkj cu tkrh gS vkSj ns”k ds vkfFkZd fodkl esa ck/kk mRiUu gks ldrh gSA
fodkl ,d lefUor izfØ;k gS] ftlesa lEiw.kZ ns”k dh “kfDr fufgr gS] fodkl pkgs dSlk Hkh gks ysfdu
gj fodkl dk vfUre mn~ns”; ekuo dY;k.k gksrk gSA
* “kks/k Nk=k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] jkt0 Luk0 egk0 xksis”oj] peksyhA

efgykvksa ds fodkl esa Lo;a lgk;rk lewg dh Hkwfedk

efgykvksa ds fodkl esa Lo;a lgk;rk lewg vge Hkwfedk fuHkk jgs gSaA ns”k ds yxHkx lHkh jkT;ksa esa Lo;a
lgk;rk lewg lapkfyr gSa] gekjs ns”k esa cgqr lkjs xSj&ljdkjh laxBu ,oa lw{e foÙk laLFkk,a Lo;a o lgk;rk
lewgksa ds xBu o mUgsa _.k nsdj fuHkZjrk fuokj.k ds mn~ns”; ls dk;Z djrh gSA ;s lewg efgykvksa dks vkRefuHkZj
cukus ds vykok muesa lexz tkx:drk ds fodkl esa Hkh Hkwfedk fuHkk jgs gSaA ftlls mudk lkekftd] vkfFkZd
o oS;fDrd l”kfDrdj.k gks jgk gSA ,d vuqeku ds vuqlkj nqfu;k ds xjhc tula[;k dk 70 izfr”kr fgLlk
efgyk,a gSA Li’V gS fd xjhch dh ekj iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa efgykvksa ij vf/kd iM jgh gSA ,sls esa lw{e foÙk
laLFkkvksa }kjk fu/kZurk fuokj.k ds y{; dh izkfIr ds fy, fo”ks’kdj efgyk Lo;a lgk;rk lewg dks izksRlkgu
fn;k tkrk gSA Loa; lgk;rk lewg xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk ds lq–<+hdj.k esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk jgs gaSA ;g
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vkthfodk ,oa jkstxkj izkfIr dk csgrj fodYi gSA xzkeh.k efgyk;sa bu lewgksa ls tq M+dj u
dsoy vkfFkZd :Ik ls l”kDr gks jgh gS cfYd blls muesa Lokoyacu dh izo`fr Hkh c<+h gSA
vr% efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy, mUgsa iq:’kksa ds leku Hkkxhnkjh feyuh pkfg,] rkfd fodkl dh nkSM+
esa efgykvksa dk LFkku gksA ;g ns[kk x;k gS fd vkt ds nkSj esa Hkh efgykvksa dh lkekftd o vkfFkZd fLFkfr
mPp ugha gS] ftl dkj.k efgyk l”kfDrdj.k vlEHko gSA Hkkjr esa Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa ds }kjk efgykvksa
dks l”kDr cukus dk iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gS] Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa }kjk izkFkfed :i ls dk;Z xzkeh.k efgykvksa
ds fy, fd, x;s gSaA efgyk;sa vkt Hkh dgha u dgha iq:’kksa ij fuHkZj gaS] ftls de djus ds fy, Lo;a lgk;rk
lewg }kjk efgykvksa dks l”kDr djus ds fy, iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gSa] tks efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy, egRoiw.kZ
;ksxnku nsxkA
v/;;u dk mís’;
1- mÙkjk[k.M ds xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd] vkfFkZd fLFkfr dk v/;;u djuk]
2- tuin esa dk;Zjr Lo;a lgk;rk lewg dh fLFkfr dk v/;;u djuk]
3- tuin esa efgyk fodkl gsrq Lo;a lgk;rk lewg dh Hkwfedk dk v/;;u djuk]
4- tuin esa efgyk fodkl ds ifjis{; esa lq>ko dk v/;;u djukA
v/;;u {ks=
“kks/k fo’k; ds fy, mÙkjk[k.M jkT; ds peksyh ¼x<+oky½ tuin dks fy;k x;k gS] esa tuin peksyh tks
fd fgeky; dh xksn esa clk gS ftls ioZrh; {ks= dgk tkrk gSA peksyh x<+oky Hkkjr ds 27osa jkT; mÙkjk[k.M
dk ,d egRoiw.kZ ftyk gS] tuin peksyh 300&mÙkjh v{kka”k ls 31 0 mÙkjh rFkk 790 iwohZ ns”kkUrj ls 80 0 iwohZ
ns”kkUrj rd fLFkr gSA tuin peksyh Hkkjr o’kZ ds mÙkjh jkT; mÙkjk[k.M ds mÙkjh Hkkx esa fLFkr gS ;g
tuin fofHkUUk LFkkuksa ij leqnzh lrg ls 600 eh0 ls 7817 eh0 uUnk nsoh ioZr f”k[kj dh Å¡pkbZ rd foLr` r
gSA tuin ds iwoZ esa frCcr ,oa fiFkkSjkx<+] if”pe esa :nzukFk] ikSM+h mÙkj esa phu] mÙkjdk”kh ,oa nf{k.k esa
vYeksM+k ,oa ckxs”oj tuin dh lhek,a Li”kZ djrh gSaA ;gka dk vf/kdre rkieku 27 0C rFkk U;wure rkieku
200C rd jgrk gSA “kks/k esa tuin peksyh ds xzkeh.k lr~r fodkl esa Loa; lgk;rk lewgksa dh Hkwfedk dk
vè;;u fd;k tk;sxkA
tuin peks yh mÙkjk[k.M ds 13 tuinksa esa ls ,d gS A tuin peks yh dh dqy tula[;k 2011 dh
tux.kukuqlkj 3]91]605 gSA ftlesa iq:’k tula[;k 1]93]997 rFkk efgyk tula[;k 1]97]614 gS] rFkk tuin
dk {ks=Qy 7]626 oxZ fdeh0 gSA tuin dh dqy lk{kjrk nj ¼2011 ds vuqlkj½ 82-65 izfr”kr ftleas iq:’k
lk{kjrk nj 93-40 izfr”kr o efgyk lk{kjrk nj 72-32 izfr”kr gSA tula[;k ?kuRo 49 izfroxZ fdeh0 gS
rFkk HkkSxksfyd {ks=Qy 7]520@oxZ fdeh0 gSA
tuin peksyh esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dks lqn`<+ djus vkSj xjhc ifjokjksa ds fy, ifjlEifr;ksa ds l`tu
rFkk Lojkstxkj gsrq xzkeh.k fodkl ea=ky;] Hkkjr ljdkj ds dk;ZØeksa dh o’kZ 1980 esa lesfdr xzk eh.k
fodkl dk;ZØe ls “kq:vkr dh x;h FkhA xjhcksa dks Lojkstxkj] Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa ds :i esa laxfBr djds
Lo&jkstxkj miyC/k djkuk] ubZ j.kuhfr dk eq[; vax FkkA efgykvksa dks l”kDr djus ds fy, ;g ;kstuk
cgqr egRoiw.kZ lkfcr gks jgh gSA tuin peksyh esa lHkh 9 fodkl [k.M+ksa esa ;g lewg ¼Lo;a lgk;rk lewg ½
iw.kZ :i ls dk;Zjr gaS rFkk bl ;kstuk ls xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa dkQh mUufr gqbZ D;ksafd fu/kZuksa dks laLFkkxr :i
ls ,dtqV djus ds fy, ckgjh vuqdwy lgk;rk miyC/k djk;h tkuh vko”;d gS tks fd tuin esa efgykvksa
o xjhc ifjokjksa ds o xzkeh.k fodkl ds fy, egRoiw.kZ lkfcr gks jgh gSaA
“kks/k esa tuin peksyh ds xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds fodkl esa Loa; lgk;rk lewgksa dh Hkwfedk dk v/;;u
fd;k x;k gSA
‘kks/k fof/k
‘kks/k fof/k& ^îzLrqr “kks/k gsrq ^ô.kkZRed losZ{k.k fof/k^^ iz;ksx esa yk;h xbZA
tula[;k& izLrqr “kks/k esa tuin peksyh ds 9 fodkl[k.M+ksa ds dqy 4250 iathd`r laLFkkvksa dks tula[;k
ds :i esa fy;k x;k gSA
vkdM+ksa dk laxzg.k&izLrqr “kks/k esa lwpukvksa dks izkIr djus gsrq f}rh;d vkadM+ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k
x;kA f}rh;d vkadM+ksa gsrq fofHkUu fo”ofo|ky;ksa rFkk vU; “kks/k laLFkkvksa o laxBuksa dh iqLrdky;ks a] lEcfUèkr
ljdkjh o xSj ljdkjh laLFkkvksa ds dk;kZy;ksa ,oa bUVjusV ds oS/k ek/;eksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA
‘kks/k fu”d”kZ ,oa lq>ko
fu”d”kZ
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa dh lkekftd ,oa vkfFkZd fLFkfr dks lqn`<+ djus ds fy, fodkl izfØ;k vfr
vko”;d gSA ftlls ;g vuqeku yxk;k tk ldrk gS fd xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh efgykvksa dh fLFkfr n;uh; ;k
ljkguh; gSA efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dks mtkxj djus Lo;a lgk;rk lewg fo”ks’k ;ksxnku jgs gSaA
fu’d’kZ :i esa ge dg ldrs gSa fd Lo;a lgk;rk lewg efgykvksa ds fodkl esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku dj
jgs gS D;ksafd bu lewgksa esa dk;Z djus ls muds LokfHkeku] xkSjo o vkRefUkHkZjrk esa o`f} gksrh gSA ifj.kke
Lo:i efgykvksa dh {kerkvksa esa c<+ksrjh gksrh gSA vkt Hkkjr nqfu;k Hkj esa loksZifj LFkku j[krk gS fdUrq
gekjs ns”k dh lkekftd] lkaLd`frd] iz”kklfud] jktuhfrd o vkfFkZd ifjfLFkfr;ka efgyk lewgksa dh xfr”khyrk]
o vU; dbZ dk;ksZa esa vusd pqukSfr;k¡ [kM+h gksrh gSaA bu pqukSfr;ksa dks de djus ds fy, Lo;a lgk;rk lewg
}kjk dk;Z fd;s tk jgs gSaA ftlds QyLo:i efgyk lewgksa dh lfØ;rk o lkekftd&vkfFkZd thou esa
Hkkxhnkjh o efgyk l”kfDrdj.k lPps ek;uksa esa gks jgk gSA efgykvksa es a efgykvksa fo”ks’k :i ls xz keh.k
efgykvksa dks ljdkj }kjk efgyk fodkl gsrq pykbZ tk jgh fofHkUu dY;k.kdkjh ;kstukvksa ds ckjs esa cgq r
de tkudkjh gSA vr% Lo;a lgk;rk lewg ds ek/;e ls bu dY;k.kdkjh ;kstukvksa dk leqfpr izpkj&izlkj
fd;k tk jgk gS] tks xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds fodkl esa lokZaxh.k egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk jgs gSaA
lq>ko
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgykvksa ds fodkl ,oa vkRe fuHkZjrk ds fy, xzkeh.kksa dk fodkl gksuk vfr vko”;d
gSA xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa lqfo/kkvksa dk vHkko gksrk gS ftl dkj.k xzkeh.k {ks= ds yksx fodkl dh xfr es a /khesa jg
tkrs gS tks fd lEiw.kZ ns”k ds fy, ,d nqHkkZX;iw.kZ ckr gSA vkSj lq[k lqfo/kkvksa ds vHkko ds dkj.k ;k yksx
iyk;u dj tkrs gSa ;k fQj mlh esa th ysrs gSaA ;fn efgykvksa dk fodkl djuk gS rks efgykvksa dks mtkxj
djus ds fy, mUkdh fuj{kjrk ls nwj djuk pkfg,A ljdkj dks muds fy, fo”ks’k :Ik ls ;kstuk;sa cukuh
pkfg, rFkk mudk le;≤ ij fujh{k.k djuk pkfg, fd dk;Z gks jgk fd ugha rHkh efgyk;sa iwjh rjg ls
l”kDr gks ik;saxh rHkh lgh ek;uksa eas efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dk rkRi;Z le> esa vk;sxkA
vr% loZizFke xzkeh.k fodkl djus fy, mudh vko”;drkvksa dh vksj /;ku nsuk iMs+xkA xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa
fodkl dk;Z gsrq fuEu lq>ko fn;s x;s gS %&
• f”k{kk ds Lrj esa lq/kkj]
• Tkkx:drk ,oa dkuwuh lqj{kk izkIr djuk]
• Hkkstu dh xq.kork esa lq/kkj]
• ifjokj fu;kstu ds izfr tkx:d djukA
vr% efgykvksa ds fodl gsrq fo”ks’kr% xzkeh.k efgykvksa ds fodkl ds fy, Lo;a lgk;rk }kjk mDr lHkh
dk;ksZ dks djuss esa iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gS] D;ksafd xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ds fodkl esa gh lEiw.kZ ns”k dk fodkl fufgr
gS
lanHkZ lwph
1- JhokLro] ,u- % Hkkjr “kekZ] jktsUnz dqekj ¼1996½% xzkeh.k lekt”kkL=] ,VykafVd ifCy”klZ] fnYyh] i`- 422-
2- ik.Ms;] ih-,u] ¼2000½- xzkeh.k fodkl ,oa lajpukRed ifjorZu] jkor ifCyds”ku] t;iqj] i`- 15-
3- flUgk] vkj- ds-] QSfenk “ks[ k] euks t lDlsu k] ,u- ds- [kjs ¼2000½ Lo lgk;rk lewg &xBu iz fØ;k ,oa ekxn”kZu
m|ferk fodkl dsUnz e/;izns”k ¼lsMeSi½ Hkksiky] i`’B&1-
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds fofo/k vk;ke
txnh’k ukjk;.k*
Hkkjr ljdkj us o’kZ 2001 dks efgyk l”kfDrdj.k o’kZ ?kksf’kr fd;k x;k FkkA fQj Hkh efgyk vkj{k.k
fo/ks;d vHkh cgqer dh ckV tksg jgk gSA rRdkyhu iz/kkuea=h Jh ,0ch0 oktisbZ us dksVk esa dksVk dgdj
nfyr] fiNM+h&tutkrh; ,oa vYila[;d efgykvksa dk dksVk fu/kkZj.k dh ekax Bqdjk nh FkhA tcfd tehuh
lPpkbZ ;g gS fd & blesa Hkh êykbZnkj ijr* Li’Vr% n`f’Vxkspj gS] ftls utjvankt djuk êfgyk l”kfDrdj.k
,oa lekurk* dh vuns[kh gksxhA
Hkkjrh; laLd`fr ,oa lekt dks vanj ls >k¡ddj ns[kk] ij[kk tk, rks lrgh Lrj ij rks lc efgykvksa
dh fLFkfr ^”kwnz* tSlh fn[krh gSA bls lnk fdlh iq#’k ds laj{k.k esa gh j[kuk pkfg, tSlk fd lkekU;r%
gksrk Hkh ;gh gSA ijUrq ;g Hkh mruk gh lp fd _Xosn ds iq#’k lwDr tfur o.kZ&O;oLFkk] czkã.k ls “kwnz
rd Øe”k% mPpre ls fuEure~ lkekftd izfLFkfr iwjs Hkkjrh; lekt esa] u dsoy fgUnqvksa esa cfYd eqlyeku]
fl[k] bZl kbZ ] ckS) rFkk vU; ¼;gk¡ rd fd dqN gn rd tutkrh;ks a es a Hkh½ izp fyr gSA ;gh lkekftd
vkfFkZd izfLFkfr dks czkã.kokn dgk tkrk gSA lekt esa ukjh dk Hkkx yxHkx vk/kk ¼49 izfr”kr½ gS] muesa Hkh
;gh Lrjhdj.k ifjyf{kr gSA orZeku esa efgykvksa us bl ifjn`“; dks cnyus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh gSA
vkt ukjh thou ds gj {ks= esa fur vkxs c<+ jgh gSA os ikjaifjd ,oa va/kfo”okl ls vksr&izksr izFkkvksa
dh csfM+;ksa dks rksM+ jgh gSaA ysfdu iq#’k ,oa fir`lŸkked lekt mUgsa csfM+;ksa esa tdM+s jgus ,oa ijEijkvksa@vaèkfo”oklksa
dks Hkkjrh;rk ,oa ^fgUnwRo* laLd`fr ds uke ij mls cuk;s j[kus dks etcwj djrk gSA fQj Hkh ukjh f”k{kk]
fpfdRlk] U;k;] iqfyl] iz”kklu] jktuhfr bR;kfn {ks=ks esa vkxs c<+ jgh gSA 2001 esa dsUnzh; ek/;fed cksMZ
fnYyh dh 10$2 dh ijh{kk esa yM+fd;ksa us yxkrkj pkSFkh ckj viuh Vki iksth”ku cjdjkj j[kh FkhA
fdUrq orZeku f”k{kk O;oLFkk esa vk/kkjHkwr ifjorZu dh vko”;drk gS] tks ukjh dks iq#’k opZLo ls eqDr
dj ldsA êsjk ifr esjk ijes”oj gS* tSlh iq#’k opZLo okyh f”k{kk O;oLFkk ukjh lekurk esa ck/kd rFkk
^ls¶VhokYo* dk dke dj jgh gSA vr% f”k{kk esa ukjh dks iq#’k ds leku ntkZ nsuk vko”;d gS] D;ksafd lekt
:ih xkM+h ds iq#’k ,oa ukjh :ih nks ifg, cjkcjh dk LFkku j[krs gSaA vxj blesa ls ,d Hkh ifg;k [kjkc
gS] rks xkM+h dh xfr /kheh gksxh vFkkZr~ lkekftd xR;kRedrk ,oa fodkl dh xfr Hkh ifj.kker% de gh
gksxhA
vUrjkZ’Vªh; Je laxBu dh fjiksVZ ds eqrkfcd efgykvksa ds xfjeke; dke dh deh gSA fiNys nl o’kksZa
esa efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k 20 djksM+ c<+dj fo”o esa 120 djksM+ gks x;h gS] tcfd iq#’k Jfed 180 djksM +
gSA dk;Z{ks=ksa esa HksnHkko tSlh fLFkfr ds lkFk gh voSrfud dke dk 50 izfr”kr efgykvks ds fgLls esa gSA
* “kks /k Nk=] lekt”kkL=] e0xka0dk0fo0ih0] okjk.klh] ¼m-iz-½
csjkstxkjh ds {ks= esa rqyukRed n`f’V ls efgyk,¡ 6-4 izfr”kr ij rFkk iq#’k 5-7 izfr”kr dh nj ij gSaA fo”o
esa izR;sd 100 iq#’k ij 70 efgyk Jfed gSa] ftlesa vlaxfBr {ks=ksa esa ;s lokZf/kd gSA Hkkjrh; ifjn`“ ; esa Je
ea=ky; dh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj 2001 esa efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k 12 djksM+ 72 yk[k Fkh] tks mudh dqy
tula[;k ¼49-60 djksM+ ½ dk yxHkx ,d pkSFkkbZ gSA buesa 87 izfr”kr efgyk,a d`f’k lEcU/kh jkstxkj esa
dk;Zjr gS aA “kgjh {ks= esa yxHkx 80 izfr”kr efgyk Jfed ?kjsyw m|ksxksa] y?kq O;olk; lsok rFkk Hkou
fuekZ.k esa yxh gSA ns”k esa egkjk’Vª] vkU/kz izns”k] rFkk mRrj izns”k esa Øe”k% 11-90] 10-34 rFkk 10-07 izfr”kr
efgyk Jfed gSa] tcfd “ks’k jkT;ksa esa budh la[;k ,d izfr”kr ;k blls de gSA
Je larqyu ds fy, Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk cuh vtZqu lsuxqIrk desVh dh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj] Hkkjr esa dqy
42-3 djksM+ yksx vlaxfBr {ks= esa dk;Zjr gSa] tks dqy Je “kfDr dk 92-4 izfr”kr gS] vFkkZr~ laxfBr {ks= esa
dqy 7-6 izfr”kr yks x gh dk;Zj r gSa A bl fjiksV Z dk ;g [kqyklk fd ^ns”k dh 77 izfr”kr vkcknh ;kfu
83-6 djksM+ yksx jkstkuk chl :i;s ls Hkh de dh dekbZ ij xqtkjk djrs gSaA bl ckr dk iq’V izek.k gS fd
Hkkjr esa Jfedksa dks ¼vlaxfBr {ks=½ ljdkj }kjk fu/kkZfjr etnwjh Hkh ugh nh tkrhA bruh cM+h vkcknh dks
U;wure etnwjh Hkh u eqgS;k djkuk O;oLFkk dh ukdkeh dk mnkgj.k rks gS gh blls LokLF;] chek] f”k{kk ,oa
jkstxkj xkj.Vh tSls dk;ZØe fdrus izHkkodkjh gksaxs] le; gh crk,xkA
efgyk,¡ d`f’k {ks= esa îfjokj lgk;dksa* ds :i esa 75 izfr”kr rFkk xSj d`f’k {ks= esa 38 izfr”kr ^lgk;d* ds
:i ea dke djrh gSaA bu dk;ksZa dks tux.kuk foHkkx vkfFkZd dk;ksZa dh ctk, csjkstxkj ;k ^vukfFkZd dk;ksZ* ds
:i esa ntZ djrk gSA tcfd ;s x`g dk;Z ¼Hkkstu idkuk] pkSdk&crZu] ?kj dh lQkbZ] cPpksa dh i<+kbZ] ykyu
ikyu] diM+ksa dh /kqykbZ bR;kfn½ ;k vukfFkZd dk;Z ¼csjkstxkj½ oSrfud dk;ksZ ls vf/kd egRoiw.kZ gSA
tgk¡ rd Å¡ph tkfr;ksa] e/;oxZ dh tkfr;ksa] O;kikjhoxZ dh efgykvksa dk lEcU/k gS] ;g ik;k x;k gS fd
^tSls&tSls ifjokj dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr etcwr gksrh tkrh gS ifjokj fo”ks’k dh efgykvksa dks jksatxkj ls gVk
fy;k tkrk gSA D;ksafd efgyk etnwjh lekt esa lEeku dh n`f’V ls ugha ns[kk tkrk gSA
izks0 Jhfuokl bl rF; dks ^vkSjrksa dh Å¡ps Lrj dh dSn* ds :i esa izLrqr djrs gSaA xkaoksa esa mPp fLFkfr
vf/kd dkexkj gksus ds ijLij fojks/kh tku iM+rh gS rFkk mPp izfLFkfr@oxZ@tkfr dh efgyk,¡ bl izfLFkfr
:ih ^dSn* dk f”kdkj gS] ;gk¡ ij dk;Z dh laLd`fr u gksdj vdk;Z dh laLd`fr dk lkekftd izpyu gSA
1975 esa laln esa izLrqr ¼1971 esa laln }kjk xfBr desVh½ fjiksVZ ¼varjkZ’Vªh; efgyk o’kZ 1975 esa ?kksf’kr½
us fofHkUu :i esa efgykvksa dh fLFkfr dks mtkxj fd;kA blesa ;g dgk x;k fd ,slk ladsr feyk gS fd
tkfr] oxZ] f”k{kk o vk; Hksn efgykvksa ij T;knk rhoz :i ls izHkko Mkyrs gSaA ,d vNwr vkneh dk fuf”pr
:i ls lekt }kjk “kks’k.k gksrk gSA fdUrq ,d vNwr efgyk dks nksgjs vR;kpkj dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA
igyk Å¡ph tkfr ls vkSj nwljk viuh gh tkfr ds iq#’k leqnk; ls rFkk efgyk gksus ds ukrs mlesa vlqj{kk
dh Hkkouk Hkh jgrh gSA tkfr] oxZ vkSj fyax ds tfVy Lo:Ik ls lacaf/kr vusdksa mnkgj.k fn, tk ldrs gSA
Ekfgykvksa ds vk/kqfudhdj.k] l”kfDrdj.k] mRikndrk] xfr”khyrk vkfn ds fy, f”k{kk ,d egRoiw.kZ
fu/kkZjd rRo ekuk x;k gSA bfUnjk xk¡/kh ds “kCnks esa f”k{kk ekuo dks cU/kuksa ls eqDr djrh gS vkSj vkt ds
;qx esa ;g yksdrU= dh Hkkouk dk vk/kkj Hkh gSA tUe rFkk vU; dkj.kksa ls mRiUu tkfr ,oa oxZxr fo’kerkvksa
dks nwj djrs gq, euq’; dks bu lcls Åij mBkrh gSA f”k{kk dk Lrj LorU=rk iwoZ rks cgqr va/kfo”oklksa ds
dsapqy esa my>k Fkk ¼tSls fd yM+dh i<+h gS rks ;g fo/kok gks tk,xh bR;kfn½ LorU=rk ds 30 o’kksZ ckn Hkh
1981 esa efgyk lk{kjrk nj 24-8 izfr”kr Fkh] tcfd 1991 esa ;g nj 39-03 izfr”kr Fkh tks c<+dj 2001 esa
54-16 iz fr”kr ¼$14-87 iz fr”kr½ gSA blesa xzkeh.k “kgjh ,oa izknsf”kd vlekurk,¡ fo|eku gSaA blesa Hkh
chek: ¼fcgkj] e/; izns”k] jktLFkku ,oa mRrj izns”k½ jkT;ksa es efgyk lk{kjrk nj jk’Vªh; vkSlr esa Hkh de
gSA lk{kjrk nj esa ¼2001 esa½ izFke 90-92 izfr”kr ds lkFk dsjy] fetksje nwljk ¼88-49 izfr”kr½ rFkk fcgkj
¼47-53 izfr”kr½ iwjs Hkkjr esa fuEure LFkku ij gS] tgk¡ efgyk lk{kjrk Hkh fuEure ¼33-57 izfr”kr½ gSA
tgk¡ rd mPp f”k{kk dk loky gS rks blesa {ks=h; fHkUurkvksa ds ckotwn egkfo|ky; f”k{kk dkQh gn
rd “kgjh] mPp ,oa e/;e oxhZ; ifjokjksa rd lhfer gSA fQj Hkh 17&23 o’khZ; vk;q&oxZ esa mPp f”k{kk esa
yM+fd;ks dk izfr”kr cgqr gh de 3 izfr”kr gSA vHkh Hkh dyk ladk; lcls vf/kd vkd’kZ.k dk dsUnz gSA
1981 ds ckn okf.kT;] bathfu;fjax] vkfdZVsD pj] fof/k] fpfdRlk ladk; esa Nk=kvksa dk vkd’kZ.k c<+k gSA
orZeku esa lwpuk foKku ,oa dEI;wVj esa lokZf/kd vkd’kZ.k c<+k gSA fQj Hkh Qhl dh vf/kdrk ds dkj.k bl
{ks= eas izos”k vfHktkR; oxZ dh efgyk,¡ gh ysus esa l{ke gSaA izks0 Jhfuokl ds vuqlkj ^mPp f”k{kk fookg&cktkj
esa Hkh “kknh dh bPNqd yM+fd;ksa ds fy, izrh{k djus dk ,d lEekutud LFkku gSA f”k{kk izkfIr ds ckn Hkh
fir` ,oa iq#’k lŸkkRed lekt esa efgykvksa dh fuHkZjrk iq#’kksa ij ls de ugh gqbZ gS rFkk ,d efgyk ds
LorU= O;fDrRo ds fodkl esa ;g lekt dqN gn rd ck/kd Hkh fl) jgk gSA
jktfufrd {ks= esa Hkkjr esa loZizFke 1994&2000 esa efgykvks dks iapk;r Lrj ¼xzke ,oa uxj½ ij vkj{k.k
¼20 ls 50 izfr”kr rd] jkT;okj½ fn;k x;k] ftlesa efgykvksa us iq=] ifr ;k llqj ds ek/;e ls bl dk;Z
dks fd;kA ysfdu vc fLFkfr cny pqdh gSA vc 86 izf r”kr efgyk iz /kku xzke ia pk;rksa dh lHkkvksa dks
vk;ksftr djus vkSj muesa fodkl ds fofHkUu eqíksa ij cgl ,oa ykxw djus dk dk;Z dj jgh gSA
Hkkjr esa efgyk,¡ oxZ&tkfr&Hksn dh gh rjg vius led{kh iq#’kksa ls fyax Hksn dk Hkh f”kdkj gSaA tcfd
lafo/kku dh /kkjk 15 vuqlkj ^jkT; fdlh ukxfjd ds fo:) dsoy /keZ] oa”k] tkfr] fyax tUe LFkku ;k buesa
ls fdlh ds vk/kkj ij dksbZ foHksn ugha djsxk*A blds vfrfjDr vuqPNsn 16 ^fyax dk [;ky fd, fcuk jkT;
ds v/khu fdlh in ij fu;qfDr* ls lEcfU/kr fo’k;ksa ij leku volj miyC/k djkus dh O;oLFkk gSA bUgh
lkaoS/kkfud izko/kkuksa ds rgr~ jk’Vªh; efgyk vk;ksx dh LFkkiuk 1990 esa dh x;h rFkk mls ,d vf/kfu;e
¼1990½ }kjk v)Z U;kf;d fudk; dk Lrj Hkh fn;k x;kA ysfdu bl vk;ksx }kjk efgykvksa ls lEc) vfèkfu;e
1986] Hkkjrh; mRrjkf/kdkj vf/kfu;e 1925] cky fookg vojks/k vf/kfu;e 1929 rFkk fd”kksj U;k; vfèkfu;e
1986 bR;kfn ds fo’k; esa lq>k, x;s la”kks/kuksa dks ljdkj us B.Bs cLrsa esa Mky j[kk gSA
jk’Vªh; efgyk vk;ksx }kjk lq>k, x;s 800 ifjokj U;k;ky;ksa esa ls yxHkx 72 gh vHkh rd LFkkfir gks
ik;s gSaA nwljh leL;k ;g gS fd efgyk lEcU/kh vijk/kksa dh lwpuk bl vk;ksx dks nsuk iqfyl dh oS/kkfud
dk;Zokgh esa ugha vkrkA rhljh leL;k nq’pfj= gksus ds yk¡Nu ds flok; U;k; dkslksa nwj yxrk gSA vr%
vk;ksx ,d lykgdkj ,oa vk¡dM+k laxzg dk;kZy; cudj jg x;k gSA
ik¡poh leL;k izfrdwy fyax vuqikr dh gS] vFkkZr~ izfr ,d gtkj iq#’kksa ij fL=;ksa dh la[;k ,d gtkj
ls de dh fLFkfr gksuk Hkh lekt esa efgykvksa dh fuEu izfLFkfr dk vU; dkjd gSA vke rkSj ij fyax&vuqikr
tSo&oSKkfud ,oa lkekftd dkj.kksa dk ifj.kke gksrk gSA fdUrq gky gh esa gqbZ [kkstksa ls ;g rF; lkeus vk,
gS fd ^tUe ds le; yM+fd;ksa ds cpus ds volj yM+dksa ls de gksrs gSaA fiNys dqN n”kdksa esa fyaxkuqikr
ij n`f’V Mkyus ls ;g nj ?kVrh gqbZ izo`fŸk n”kkZ jgh gS& tSlk fd 1901 esa 927 gks x;h FkhA larks’ktud
fLFkfr ;g gS fd 2001 esa 933 gks x;h gS] tcfd fyaxkuqikr dk fo”o vkSlr 986 gSa bles a Hkh izknsf”kd
fHkUurk,¡ gSA ns”k ds dsoy dsjy izns”k esa vuqdwy fyaxkuqikr n”kdksa ls dk;e gS tks 1981 esa 1032] 1991
esa 1036 rFkk 2001 esa 1058 gS] tks yxkrkj o`f) nj iznf”kZr djrk gSA lcls vk”p;Ztud fLFkfr vkfFkZd
:i ls le`) izns”kksa dh gS] tgk¡ fyaxkuqikr yxkrkj ?kV jgk gS tSls iatkc ¼2001&874½] gfj;k.kk ¼816½
fnYyh ¼821½ p.Mhx<+ ¼735½ ,oa m0iz0 ¼898½A lkekftd losZ{k.k esa ;g rF; lkeus mHkj dj vk;k gS fd
ftu ns”kksa@izns”kksa esa vuqdwy fyaxkuqikr tSls dsjy&1058] :l 1140] tkiku 1041] vesfjdk 1029] czkthy
1024] ukbthfj;k 1016 bR;kfn gS] ogk¡ lekt esa ukfj;ksa dh fLFkfr etcwr ,oa lekUkrk iznf”kZr djrh gS]
ijUrq ftu izns”kks esa ¼dsjy dks NksM+dj yxHkx leLr Hkkjr½ fyaxkuqikr izfrdwy gS] ogk¡ efgyk,¡ vlkeurk
ij vk/kkfjr lkekftd] vkfFkZd vlqj{kk dk f”kdkj gSaA 2001 ds pkSadkus okys fyaxkuqikr cPPkksa ds ¼6 o’kZ ls
de½ gSa] tks 1991 esa 945 ¼Hkkjr½ Fks rks 2001 esa 927 ¼jk’Vªh; vkSlr 933 ls Hkh de½ gks x;s gSaA ;g ,d
tSo&oSKkfud ?kVuk izr hr u gksdj ^dU;k Hkzw.k gR;k* dh rjQ b”kkjk djrh gS] ;g fpfdRlk foHkkx esa
izkS|ksfxdh tSls& vYVªk lkm.M] vehukslsaVkfll bR;kfn ds }kjk vatke nh tk jgh gSa bu rduhdks ls ek¡ ds
xHkZ esa gh cPps dk fyax ijh{k.k gks ldrk gSA blh rjg rFkkdfFkr fodflr lekt }kjk ckfydkvksa dks tUe
ds igys gh ekSr dks vatke fn;k tk jgk gSA blh ds lkFk&lkFk ngst] mRihM+u ,oa gR;k] lkekftd vlqj{kk]
yM+dk&yM+dh dh vlekurk bR;kfn lEcfU/kr lkekftd cqjkbZ;ksa ds izfr lekt ljdkj ,oa U;k;ky; dM+s
dne mBk, rFkk lHkh /kkfeZd usrkvksa }kjk bu leL;kvksa dks tM+ ls lekIr djus dk iqjtksj vkg~oku djuk
pkfg, tSlk fd mUgksaus dU;k&Hkwz.k gR;k ds fy, ,d eap ls vkg~oku fd;k gSA bl fn”kk eas Lo.kZ efUnj
ve`rlj ds vdkyr[r dh ?kks’k.kk dkfcys xkaSj gSA blh izdkj izfrykse@vuqykse fookg] izse fookg] iqufoZokg]
rykd dh lqxerk ¼efgykvksa gsrq½] fo/kok fookg] NksVk ifjokj&lq[kh ifjokj yM+dk gks ;k yM+dh cPps nks
gh vPNs] cky&fookg ij jksd] eq¶r efgyk f”k{kk] dk;Zdkjh efgyk Nk=kokl] egkfo|ky; Nk=kokl] efgyk
vkj{k.k ¼fo/kkf;dk] U;k; ikfydk ,oa dk;Zikfydk½] efgyk fo”ofo|ky; bR;kfn izk o/kkuksa ,oa lkekftd
lqj{kk rFkk leku voljksa ¼yM+dksa tSls½ iznku dj ds] u dsoy efgykvksa dks gh oju~ ifjokj] xk¡o] “kgj]
izns”kksa rFkk leLr jk’Vª dks Hkh l”kDr cuk;k tk ldrk gSA rHkh esjk Hkkjr egku tSls dFku lkFkZd gksa xsA
tc rd ns”k esa efgykvksa dh lekurk] lEeku ,oa l”kfDrdj.k ds dk;Z v/kwjs gh jgsaxsA vr% bl {ks= esa
lekt ds izR;sd Lrj ¼f”k{kk] ifjokj] LokLF;] chek] jkstxkj] vkj{k.k] vkfFkZd] rduhd] d`f’k] m|ksx] uhfr]
lsok bR;kfn½ ij iqjtksj la?k’kZ djus dh egrh vko”;drk gSA
lUnHkZ
1- tks”kh xksik] ¼2008½ Hkkjr esa L=h vlekurk % ,d foe”kZ] fgUnh ek/;e ls fØ;kUo;u funs”kky;A
2- ,y0 dSuksfot+] ohesu ,.M nh yk vufQfuLM fjoksY ;w”ku] ¼1969½ i`01A
3- yrkfu;k] ,e0,e0] Hkkjrh; efgykvksa dk lekt”kkL=A
4- prqosZnh] txnh”oj] L=h vfLerkA
5- “kekZ] izKk] efgyk fodkl vkSj l”kfDrdj.k] 2007A
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k esa mPp f’k{kk dh Hkwfedk
eqerkt valkjh*
ySfxd lekurk ,oa efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dks vkt oSf”od Lrj ij lexz fodkl gsrq vko”;d “krZ ds :i
esa Lohdkj fd;k tk jgk gSA “krkCnh fodkl y{;ksa ds vkB fcUnqvks esa ySafxd lekurk dks ,d izeq[k y{; ds
:i esa U;w;kdZ esa lu~ 2000 esa lEikfnr “krkCnh lEesyu esa fo”o ds jktusrkvksa }kjk Lohdkj fd;k x;kA 1945
esa gLrk{kfjr la;qDr jk’Vª pkVZj us ySafxd lekurk dks ekSfyd vf/kdkj ds :i esa “kkfey dj bl fo’k; dks
izFke vUrjkZ’Vªh; LohdkjksfDr iznku dh FkhA blds ckn bl fo’k; ij ,d ds ckn dbZ lEesyu gq, ftlesa y{;
,oa dk;ZØe fu/kkZfjr dj bls ekuo vf/kdkj ds :i esa igpku fnyk, tkus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA ;g iz;kl
vusd vo/kkjk.kkvksa ls gksdj xqtjrs gq, vkt êfgyk l”kfDrdj.k* dh vo/kkj.kk rd igqapk gSA
euq’; dh ekufld “kfDr ds fodkl gsrq f”k{kk ,d vfuok;Z izfØ;k gSA L=h gks ;k iq#’k fdlh dks f”k{kk
ls oafpr j[kuk mldh ekufld {kerk fodflr gksus ls jksd nsuk gSA Hkkjr dh yxHkx vk/kh vkcknh efgykvksa
dh gS] tks thou ds izR;sd {ks= esa dkQh fiNM+h gqbZ gSA ;fn ge thou ds fofHkUu {ks=ksa dk lw{e voyks du
djsa rks gesa ;s fofnr gksxk fd efgykvksa dks yxHkx izR;sd {ks= esa HksnHkko] iwokZxzg ,oa vlekurk dk lkeuk
djuk iM+rk gSA f”k{kk] [kkldj mPp f”k{kk ds {ks= esa Hkh os vHkh Hkh cgqr fiNM+h gqbZ gSaA fo”ks’kr% xzkeh.k {ks=ksa
dh efgyk,¡ vHkh Hkh ;k rks vf”kf{kr gSa ;k cgqr de f”kf{kr vkSj ;gk¡ fL=;ksa esa mPp f”k{kk dh n”kk rks cgqr
gh n;uh; gSA
fdlh Hkh l”kDr lekt ds fuekZ.k ds fy, vko”;d gS fd ml lkekftd O;oLFkk ds lekt ds lHkh
lnL;ksa dk ldkjkRed ;ksxnku gksA Hkkjrh; mPp f”k{kk O;oLFkk dk dsUnzh; mís”; ;g jgk gS fd lekt ds
lnL;ksa ds O;fDrRo dk csgrj lkekftd&lkaLd`frd fodkl gks ,oa rd mŸkjnk;h ukxfjd dk fuekZ.k gksA
blds ihNs O;oLFkk esa leku lgHkkfxrk dk fl)kUr dk;Z djrk gSA vxj ge efgykvksa ls muds vuqikr ds
ifjizs{; esa lekt ds fy, ;ksxnku dh vis{kk j[krs gq, rks ;g rc rd lEHko ugha gks ik;sxk tc rd fd
ge O;oLFkk ds vUrxZr mUgsa mudk okLrfod gd u ns ik;saA mUgsa mudk okLrfod gd iznku djuk blfy,
Hkh vko”;d gS fd fo”o dk dksbZ Hkh lekt viuh yxHkx vk/kh vkcknh dks misf {kr djds fodkl :ih
lhf<+;k¡ ugha p<+ ldrk gSA
Hkkjr efgykvksa ds fodkl rFkk l”kfDrdj.k gsrq d`rladYi gSA blds fy, vusd iz;kl Hkh fd;s tk jgs
gSaA ;g vyx ckr gS fd le; ds lkFk bldk Lo:i cnyrk jgk gSA 1970 ds n”kd rd jkT; dh uhfr;k¡
efgyk dY;k.k ij tksj nsrh jghaA 1980 ds n”kd esa efgykvksa ds fodkl ij tksj fn;k tkrk jgk rFkk 1990
ds n”kd esa ^l”kfDrdj.k* ij tksj fn;k x;kA ysfdu lPpkbZ ;g gS fd Hkkjrh; lekt vius bl mís”; dks
* “kks/k Nk=] Hkwxksy] vo/ks”k izrki flag fo”ofo|ky;] jhokW A
izkIr djus esa lQy ugha gks ik jgk gS bldk izeq[k dkj.k efgyk f”k{kk vkSj mudh mPp f”k{kk dk y{; ds
vuq:i fodkl u dj ikuk jgk gSA
mPp f”k{kk ds ek/;e ls efgyk tks Kku] dkS”ky] thou&ewY; vkSj n`f’Vdks.k gkfly djrh gS mlls og
thou esa eupkgh xq.koŸkk yk ldrh gSaA ?kj ls ckgj ds nkf;Roiw.kZ dk;ksZ dk fuokZg vkSj vius cPpks dk
iFk&izn ”kZu izHkko”kkyh <ax ls dj ldrh gSaA lkFk gh mPp f”k{kk izk Ir efgyk,¡ ifjokj vkSj lekt ds
uhfr&fuekZ.k dh izfØ;k esa l”kDr nksrjQk :i ls lekt esa mudh fLFkfr dks etcwr djus esa lgk;d gksxhA
D;ksafd uhfr&fuekZ.k dh izfØ;k esa Hkwfedk vnk djus ds lkFk&lkFk og mu phtksa dks Hkh cnyus esa l{ke gks
ldsxh] tks vc rd muds fy, udjkRed gqvk djrh Fkha vkSj mu ij Fkksi nh tkrh FkhaA ;gh dkj.k gS fd
vkt fofHkUu efgyk laxBu laln esa 33 izfr”kr vkj{k.k dh ekax dks dkQh tksj “kksj ls mBk jgh gS] rkfd
og ns”k ds bl loksZPp uhfr&fuekZ.k dh laLFkk esa lgHkkxh gks ldsA
HkwriwoZ iz/kkuea=h Jherh bfUnjk xk¡/kh us lkrosa vf[ky Hkkjrh; eqfLye f”k{kk lEesyu esa vius mn~?kkVu
Hkk’k.k esa dgk Fkk fd ôrZeku lkekftd <k¡ps esa efgykvksa ij Hkkjh cks> gS] os ?kj pykrh gS vkSj ubZ ih<+h
rS;kj djuk mudh [kkl ftEesnkjh gS] blds lkFk gh os izk;% vU; dkeksa es Hkh gkFk cVk¡rh gSaA vf”kf{kr
efgyk csc”k&lh vius ekrk&firk] ifr vkSj cPpksa ij fuHkZj gks tkrh gS og Lo;a vius thou dks ,d cks>
le>us yxrh gSA mPp f”k{kk efgykvksa esa LokfHkeku dh Hkkouk txkrh gS vkSj muds dk;Z {ks= dh lhek dk
foLrkj djrh gSA mPp f”kf{kr efgyk dke dj ldrh gS] O;olk; esa mYys[kuh; LFkku cuk ldrh gS rFkk
viuh izfrHkk }kjk ifjokj o lekt dk uke jkS”ku dj ldrh gSA ;fn og ?kj ij jguk pqurh gS rks og vius
cPpksa dk izHkko”kkyh <ax ls iFk&izn”kZu dj ldrh gS vkSj vius ifjokj dks fofHkUu izdkj ls lgk;rk djus
esa l{ke gks ldrh gSA*
Hkkjr tSls fodkl”khy ns”k esa tgk¡ xjhch vkSj vf”k{kk ,d Hk;adj leL;k gS] ogk¡ fL=;ksa dh mPp f”k{kk
dk egRo vkSj vf/kd c<+ tkrk gSA fo”ks’kdj xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa fL=;k¡ vkt Hkh vius vf/kdkjksa vkSj drZO;ksa ds
izfr tkx:d ugha gSA gekjs lafo/kku esa L=h vkSj iq#’k nksuksa dks lekurk dk ntkZ fn;k x;k gSA dksbZ Hkh
O;fDr pkgs og fdlh oxZ] fyax ;k lEiznk; dk gks mls f”k{kk izkIr djus dk iwjk vf/kdkj gSA Hkkjr ds f”k{kk
dks vk/kqfudhdj.k] egRokdka{kh izkS|ksfxdh] mrikndrk vkSj xfr”khyrk ds fy, ,d egRoiw.kZ fu/kkZjd ekuk
x;k gSA okLro esa f”k{kk dks lkekftd cnyko dh Lohd`fr ;k vLohd`fr dk egRoiw.kZ ?kVd ekuk x;k gSA
mPp f”k{kk lekt esa yEcor~ lkekftd xfr”khyrk ykus esa l{ke gSaA f”k{kk ikuk izR;sd O;fDr dh u flQZ
U;wure vko”;drk gS] cfYd vf/kdkj Hkh gSA ;g ns”k ds vkfFkZd fodkl rFkk yksdrkaf=d <k¡ps ds fodkl
dh xfr esa moZjd dk dke djrh gSA Hkkjr dh Lora=rk ds ckn gekjs uhfr fu/kkZjdksa dh lgh tkap vkSj
;kstukvksa dh otg ls f”k{kk vkSj fo”ks’k :i ls L=h f”k{kk dh rjQ ns”k dks vktknh feyus ls igys ds o’kksZ
ds eqdkcys cgqr /;ku fn;k x;kA vkt vko”;drk bl ckr dh gS fd efgyk ds mPp f”k{kk ds izfr fo”ks’k
/;ku fn;k tk; vkSj ftl rjg gky ds o’kksZ esa izkFkfed f”k{kk ds fy, fo”ks’k vfHk;ku pyk;k x;k gS mlh
izdkj efgykvksa esa mPp f”k{kk dks c<+kok fn;s tkus gsrq Hkh fo”ks’k vfHk;ku pykus dh t:jr gSA
lanHkZ xzUFk
1- vk”kk dkSf”kd% ukjh l”kfDrdj.k] foe”kZ ,oa ;FkkFkZ] cqd buDyso] t;iqjAA
2- jke vkgwtk% Ôgk;ysUl vxsULV vksesu*] jkor ifCyds”ku] t;iqjA
3- MkW - lqjsUnz flag ,oa MkW 0 lq’kek eYgks=k% ledkyhu Hkkjrh; lekt] Hkkjrh; fo|k laLFkku] okjk.klhA
xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa ySfxd HksnHkko dh fLFkfr rFkk bldk [kk| vkSj iks”k.kh;
lqj{kk ls lEca/k
ljkst dqekj ;kno *
fo”o dh tula[;k o’kZ 2050 rd YkxHkx 9 fcfy;u gks tk,xhA bl tula[;k dks de gksrs izfr O;fDr
Ñf’k Hkwfe] izkÑfrd lalk/kuks dk gkL; rFkk foijhr tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko ds lkFk ¼bl tu la[;k dks½
lHkh yksxks dks gj le; [kk| vkSj iks”k.kh; lqj{kk( FNS -Food & Nutritional Security fujUrj leku :Ik
esa dSls lqfuf”pr dh tk; vkSj blds lkFk gh iq:’kksa] efgykvksa] yM+dksa rFkk yM+fd;ksa ds e/; ySafxd vlekurk
[kk| vlqj{kk] Hkw[k rFkk dqiks’k.k dks lekIr djus ds fy, ,d eqf”dy pqukSrh izLrqr djrs gSaA ;fn iq:’kksa
vkSj efgykvksa ds ikl lalk/kuksa rFkk lsokvksa rd leku igq¡p gksrh rks Ñf’k mRikndrk esa egRoiw.kZ o`f)
gksxh ftlds dkj.k lHkh yksxksa dh [kk| lqj{kk rFkk iks’k.k esa lq/kkj gksrkA ysfdu FAO ds vkdM+ksa ds vuqlkj
fodkl”khy ns”kksa esa Ñf’k Je “kfDr dk 43 izfr”kr efgyk,¡ gSa tks ySfVu vesfjdk esa 20 izfr”kr ls ys dj
vÝhdk rFkk ,f”k;k ds fgLlksa esa 50 izfr”kr rd gS ;s vius le; dk vkSlru 45 ls 50 izfr”kr d`f’k dk;ks Za
esa fuos”k djrh gS fQj Hkh ;s efgyk,¡ fdlku iq:’kksa dh vis{kk de mRiknu djrh gSaA ;g lkekU;r% mRikndh;
lalk/kuksa rFkk voljksa rd iq:’kksa dh vis{kk efgykvksa dh de igq¡p ds dkj.k gS tks mldh mRikndrk izR;{k
:Ik ls izHkkfor djrh gSA
;g fLFkfr ySfxad vUrjky dks O;Dr djrh gSA tks vusd ifjlaEifRr;ksa tSls Hkwfe] ty] eosf”k;ksa Je]
f”k{kk rFkk foRrh; lsokvksa ds lEca/k esa fo|eku gS tks lekU;r% lakLd`frd rFkk ijEikjkxr O;ogkj o ekun.Mkas
ds dkj.k gSaA
bl v/;;u dk gekjk mnn~s”; iq:’kksa vkSj efgykvksa ds e/; fofHkUu ySafxd vlekurk dks ns[kuk rFkk
xzkeh.k Hkkjr dk ,d ySafxd vlekurk lwpdkad ds ek/;e ls xzkeh.k Hkkjr ds jkT;ksa dks (Arc-View GIS)
lk¶Vos;j ds Natural Break ds ek/;e ls GII ds fofHkUUk oxksZ esa oxhZÑr dj ;g ns[kuk fd xzkeh.k Hkkjr
esa ySafxd vlekurk lkisf{kd :Ik ls fdu jkT;ks esa T;knk gSa rFkk fdu jkT;ks esa de gSa vkSj bldks ,d
ekufp= ds ek/;e ls O;Dr djuk gSaA blds lkFk gh [kk| lqj{kk ds fofHkUu vk;keksa esa ySfxad vlekurk dk
v/;;u djuk gSA tks ifjlEifRr;ks ] lsokvksa] fu.kZ;&fu/kkZj.k esa leku igq¡p dks izksRlkfgr djus ds fy,
uhfr;ksa vkSj dk;ZØeksa ds fØ;kUo;u rFkk fMtkbu djus esa gekjh lgk;rk rFkk dqiks’k.k vkSj Hkw[k (Hunger)
dks lekIr djus ds voljksa dks c<+krk gSA
* “kks/k Nk=] vFkZ” kkL= foHkkx] bykgkckn fo”ofo|ky;] bykgkckn] m-iz-A
tasMj ds fofHkUu vk;ke%& ge vius v/;;u dh “kq:vkr Sex vkSj Gender esa vUrj ds lkFk djrs gSaA
WHO ds vuqlkj ‘Sex’ iq:’kksa vkSj efgykvksa dks ifjHkkf’kr djus ds tSfodh rFkk “kkjhfjd (Biological and
Physiological) fo”ks’ krk dks O;Dr djrk gS tcfd ‘Gender’ iq:’kksa vkSj efgykvksa ds fy, lkekftd :Ik ls
fufEkZr mfpr Hkwfedk (Roles)] O;ogkj (Behaviours) rFkk fØ;kvksa dks O;Dr djrk gSA blds lkFk gh Gender
,d ifjoZru”khy fopkj (Flexible Concept) gS tks vk;q] oxZ tkfr] /keZ] lEiznk;] HkkSxksfyd] vkfFkZd vkSj
jktuhfrd Ik;kZoj.k ds vuqlkj izHkkfor gksrk gS rFkk vkfFkZd] jktuhfrd] izkÑfrd rFkk fodkl ds lkFk
cnyrh jgrh gSA Gender dks dqN fo”ks’krk,¡ fuEu gSa&
i. vf/kdka”k ns”kksa ;k jkT;ksa esa leku dk;Z ds fy, iq:’kksa dh vis{kk efgykvksa dks de vk; izkIr gksr h
gS A
ii. vf/kdka”k ns”kksa esa iq:’kksa dh vis{kk vkSjrsa cPpksa dh ns[k&js[k (Child Care) rFkk ?kj dk dk;Z (Housework)
vf/kd djrh gSaA
tsaMj dh Hkwfedk ;k drZO; (Gender Role) esa vlekurk %& tsaMj ds drZO; os O;ogkj] dk;Z rFkk
ftEesnkjh (Responsibilities) gS tks ,d lekt iq:’kksa] vkSjrksa] yM+dksa vkSj yM+fd;ksa ds fy, mfpr ekurk
gSaA budk yksxks ds thou ij cgqr T;knk izHkko gS rFkk iq:’kksa vkSj vkSjrksa ds chp leku volj] lalk/kuksa
rFkk tokcnsgh ds forj.k fu/kkZfjr djrk gSaA ySfxad drZO; (Gender Role) Je foHkktu dk izkFkfed dkj.k
gSA ftlesa iq:’k vkSj vkSjrs izk;% fofHkUu izdkj ds dk;Z djrs gSA tSls ge ,d xzkeh.k fdlku ifjokj dk
mnkgj.k ysrs gS ftldk ySafxd drZO; rFkk Je foHkktu ,d ,slh fLFkfr dks O;Dr djrk gS tks vf/kdka’k
xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa lekU; gS tks fuEu gS&
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgyk, jksikbZ] fujkbZ] Qly dVkbZ rFkk fiVkbZ ds fy, Je iznku djrh gS vkSj ;g
dk;Z eq[;r% Hkqxrku jfgr (Unpaid) gksrk gSA blds vfrfjDr og NksVs tkuojks dh ns[kjs[k djrh gS rFkk
?kj ij cqtZxksZa ;k o;kso`)ks dh ns[kHkky] [kkuk cukuk] ty rFkk bZ/ku ds fy, ydfM+;ksa dk izca/ku Hkh djrh
gS tcfd xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa iq:’k lekU;r% Hkwfe dks rS;kj djus] Qlyks dh flpkbZ vkSj dVkbZ] mRiknksa dks
ctkj rd igq¡pkuk rFkk vk; dk izca/ku djuk gksrk gSA
2- ySafxd HksnHkko (Gender Discrimination) %& ySafxd HksnHkko YkSafxd lEca/kks rFkk drZO;ks (Gender
Relation & Role) ds v/kkj ij fd;k x;k ,d izfrca/k gS tks ,d O;fDr dks vius iw.kZ ekuo vf/kdkjksa (Full
Human Right) dk mi;ksx djus ls jksdrs gSA ySafxd foHksn u dsoy Loae efgykvksa ds Åij cfYd lEiw.kZ
:Ik ls vFkZO;oLFkk] lekt rFkk Ñf’k {ks= ij Hkh ykxr vkjksfir djrk gSaA okLro esa xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa efgyk,
lekftd vkS j vkfFkZd fodkLk ds fy, vo”;d lalk/kuks vkSj lsokvks dh igq¡p esa Øec) ;k lqfu;ksftr
foHksn ls xzflr gSA bl ySafxd vUrj dks Hkwfe] ty] eosf”k;ksa] f”k{kk] jkstxkj rFkk foRrh; lsokvksa ds :Ik essa
ns[kk tk ldrk gSA
3- Xkzkeh.k Hkkjr esa YkSafxd vlekurk (Gender Inequality in Rural India) %& xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa
jkT; Lrj ij ySafxd vlekurk ds fo”ys’k.k ds fy, ,d ySafxd vlekurk lwpdkad ftlds cukus fof/k ;k
izfØ;k UNDP }kjk l`ftr ySafxd vlekurk lwpdkad (GII - Gender Inequality Index) ds leku gS ;|fi
blds ladsr dks esa dqN vUrj gSA vr% geus xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa GII ds l`tu ds fy, rhu vk;keks “kfDrdj.k
(Empowerment) , iztuu LokLFk (Reproductive Health) rFkk Je ctkj (Labour Market) ds fy, ik¡p
ladsrdks dk iz;ksx dj ySafxd vlekurk ds v/kkj jkT;ks dks jSd iznku fd;k gS ftles ,d jSd lcls de
ySafxd vlekurkvks dks rFkk 17 jSd cls vf/kd ySafxd vlekurk dks O;Dr djrk gSA bl lwpdkad esa lHkh
ladsrdks dk Hkkj leku gS rFkk bl lwpdkad dk ewY; 0 ls 1 ds e/; gSA vr% bl ladsrdks ds fy, p;fur
ladsrd fuEu gS
i. l”kfDrdj.k dks O;Dr djus ds fy, nks ladsrdks & xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa lk{kjrk dh nj rFkk jkT;
foèkkulHkk esa iq:’kksa vkSj efgykvksa dh orZeku lnL;rk dk izfr”krdks fy;k x;k gSaA
ii. Je cktkj dks O;DRk djus ds fy, xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa 15 o’kZ ls vf/kd vk;q oxZ }kjk Je “kfDr
Hkkxhnkjh dh nj (Labour Force Participation Rate) dk izfr”kr dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k gSA
iii. iztuu LokLFk (Reproductive Health) dks O;Dr djus ds fy, ekr`Ro e`R;q vuqikr tks izfr ,d
yk[k thfor tUeks ij tUe lEca/kh dkj.kks ls ejus okyh ekrkvks dh la[;k dks O;Dr djrk gS rFkk
xzkeh.k {ks=ks esa 15 ls 19 o’kZ dh vk;q fo”ks’k oxZ dh iztuu dh nj dks fy;k x;k gSA
4- [kk| vkSj iks’k.kh; lqj{kk rFkk ySafxd lekurk ds e/; lEca/k (Relationship between Gender
equality and FNS): - [kk| lqj{kk dk vfHkizk; gSa fd oS;fDrd] ifjokfjd] {ks=h;] jk’Vªh; rFkk oSf”od Lrj
ij [kk| lqj{kk dk vfLrRo rHkh gS tc lØh; vkSj LokLFk thou O;rhr djus ds fy, vgkj lEca/kh t:jrks
vkSj [kk| vf/keku dks iwjk djus ds fy, Ik;kZIr] lqjf{kr ,oa ikSf’Vd [kk| rd lHkh yksxks dh HkkSfrd ,oa
vfFkZd igq¡p lnSo gksA
GII - Dimension Empowerment Labour Market Reproductive Health
State-wise Literacy Percentage Share of seats State-wise PercentageLabour Maternal Age Specific Fertility ( , ) GII Rank
Rate in Rural India Held by in State Assembly Force Participation Rate by Mortality Ratio Rates (ASFRs - 15 to = −
(As per 2011 Age group 15 Years and Above in India (U +R ) 19 Year) in Rural
Census) in Rural India (2009-2010) ( 2010-12) India ( Year 2013 )
State 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Male Female Female Male Male Female
India 77.15 57.93 11.74 88.26 75.9 24.50 178 31.7 0.5414
Andhra Pradesh 69.38 51.54 11.43 88.57 77.6 43.30 110 31.1 0.4609 2
Assam 75.4 63.03 6.35 93.65 76.7 13.30 328 51.5 0.6811 16
Bihar 69.67 49 11.52 88.48 73.1 10.10 219 36.9 0.6459 15
Chhattisgarh 76.98 55.06 11.11 88.89 80 48.50 230 41.9 0.5273 7
Gujarat 81.61 61.36 7.69 92.31 83.2 35.30 122 25.7 0.5018 5
Haryana 81.55 60.02 14.44 85.56 69.7 8.90 146 15.5 0.5716 10
Jharkhand 72.86 48.91 7.41 92.59 78.9 30.10 219 46.6 0.5917 13
Karnataka 77.61 59.71 3.56 96.44 78.2 37.30 144 34.7 0.5635 9
Kerala 95.35 90.81 5.71 94.29 67.2 19.80 66 19.0 0.4819 4
Madhya Pradesh 74.74 52.43 7.83 92.17 77.1 27.30 230 35.7 0.5804 12
Maharashtra 85.15 68.54 5.56 94.44 76.6 49.00 87 34.7 0.4801 3
Orissa 79.65 60.74 7.48 92.52 77.4 13.80 235 32.4 0.6357 14
Punjab 76.62 65.74 11.97 88.03 69.1 6.40 155 4.1 0.5373 8
Rajasthan 76.16 45.8 14.00 86.00 75 35.40 255 23.4 0.5117 6
Tamil Nadu 82.04 65.05 8.94 91.06 79.9 40.80 90 22.0 0.4417 1
Uttar Pradesh 76.33 53.65 8.68 91.32 74.6 7.00 292 22.0 0.6816 17
West Bengal 78.44 65.51 14.14 85.86 79.5 18.80 117 61.8 0.5720 11
Source: Col. 1, 2, 8, www.censusindia.gov.in Col. 3, 4, Data Taken from State wise Legislative Assembly website
Col. 5, 6, Ministry of Labour and Employment, Govt. of India. (12442)
Col. 7, Special Bulletin on Maternal Mortality in India 2010-12, SRS office of Registrar General of India
Mapping Index Mapping Typology State

0.442-0.482 Mild Inequality MH,APTN,KL
0.482-0.537 Moderate Inequality PJ,RJ,GJ,CH
0.537-0.592 High Inequality HY,MP,KA,JH,WB
0.592-0.682 Extreme Inequality UP,BI,OR,AS
fu’d’kZ
bl izdkj Li’V gS fd efgyk, [kk| rFkk iks’k.kh; lqj{kk ds lHkh vk;keks esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk
ldrh gS ;fn efgykvksa vkSj iq:’kksa ds chp lHkh izdkj ds ySa fxd foHksn (Gender Discrimination) rFkk
ySafxd varjky lekIr fd;k tk,A blds fy, ges uhfr;ks vkSj dk;ZØeks esa lalk/kuks vkSj lsokvks es aiq:’kkas
vkSj efgykvksa ds fy, leku igq¡p dks lqfu”pr djuk gksxk vFkkZr ges YkSafxd lekurk (Gender Equality)
dh vksj c<+kuk gksxkA ySafxd lerk dkrkRi;Z iq:’kksa] efgykvksa] yM+dksa rFkk yM+fd;ksa ds fy, leku vfèkdkj]
voljksa rFkk tokc nsgh (Rights, Opportunities and Responsibilities) dks O;Dr djrk gSa ftl ls efgyk,¡
fu.kZ; fu/kkZj.k esa] lalk/kuks ds vf/kdkL;k LokehRo rFkk fodkl ds ykHk esa leku igq¡p vkSj fu;=a.k] jkstxkj
vkSj thfodk ds lHkh vk;keks esa leku volj dh miyC/krk ds }kjk fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g iz;kl lcls
igys vkSj rqjar xzkeh.k Hkkjr eas lcls T;knk ySfxd vlekurk okys jkT;ks mRrj izns”k] vle] fcgkj vkSj
mM+hlk jkT;ks esa djus dh vo”;drk gSaA
References
1. FAO- 1996 Rome Declaration on world food security and world Food summit plan of action. World Food Summit
13-17 Nov. 1996. Rome.
2. Balakrishnan, Revathi (1993). Intra-household Dynamics: Implications for Programme and Project Formulation.
Consultancy paper for “A Conceptual Framework for Social and Gender Analysis in Project and Programme
Formulation”.FAO, Rom.
3. FAO/UNDP/World Bank (1993), Towards a Common Conceptual Perspective on Socio-economic and Gender Analysis
(SEAGA). Synthesis of Papers produced for the FAO/UNDP/World Bank (EDI) Project Meeting on “A Conceptual
Framework for Social and Gender Analysis in Project and Programme Formulation”, Rome.
Ekfgyk fodkl gsrq viukbZ x;h ;kstukvksa dh Hkwfedk dk fo’ys”k.kkRed vè;;u
;ksxsUnz dqekj*
Hkwfedk
ukjh Hk;eqDr gksdj lEeku [kks, cxSj ftl y{; dks pkgrh gS mldk iz;kl dj ldrh gS vkSj vius
earO; rd igqWap ldrh gSA mls lapkj dk gd] lqj{kk dk gd rFkk vkRefuHkZjrk dk gd feysA ;gh lcyrk
vkSj lq;ksX;rk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k@fodkl dh igpku gSA efgyk fodkl ij Hkkjr ljdkj dh uhfr esa
LorU=rk ds ckn ls vusd ifjorZu gq, gSaA lcls mYys[kuh; ifjorZu ikapoh iapo’khZ; ;kst uk ds nkSjku
vk;k tc efgykvksa ds dY;k.k ls gVdj efgykvks ds fodkl ij tksj nsus dh uhfr viukbZ x;hA vkBoha
;kstuk es a iq u% fodkl iz fØ;k es a efgykvks a dks leku Hkkxhnkj cukus ij tks j fn;k x;k] vkt lekos” kh
fodkl ij /;ku dsfUnzr gSA ,sls esa efgykvksa ds l”kDrhdj.k ds izfr gekjh tkx:drk esa vkSj o`f) gq;h gSA
Li’V gS mldh leL;k,a vlekurk ds bnZ&fxnZ ?kwerh gSA blfy, efgykvksa ds lkFk O;ogkj esa lekurk vkSj
ns”k ds fodkl esa mudh iwjh lgHkkfxrk ds fy;s dne mBkuk vko”;d gSA tsMj bDofyVh vFkkZr~ L=h&iq:’k
lekurk dk fl}kar gekjs lafo/kku esa gh fn;k gqvk gS] ftlesa efgykvks dh lekurk dh xkjaVh fufgr gSA
blls o’kksZa ls lkekftd] vkfFkZd] “kSf{kd HksnHkko ls ihfM+r efgykvksa dh leL;kvksa dks nwj dj muds i{k esa
lkFkZd okrkoj.k rS;kj djus dk volj gesa feyrk gSA yksdrkfU=d] jktuhfrd O;oLFkk ds varxZr gekjs
dkuwu] fodkl lEcU/kh uhfr;ksa] ;kstukvksa rFkk dk;ZØeksa esa efgykvks dh mUufr gekjk izeq[k y{; jgk gSA
Lkjdkj ds ,sls vusd dk;ZØe gSa ftuesa efgyk laosnh dY;k.k dk;ZØe] lgk;d lsok,a vkSj tkx:drk
QSykus ij tksj fn;k x;k gSA ;s dk;ZØe LokLF;] f”k{kk] d`f’k vkSj xzkeh.k fodkl {ks=ksa ds dk;ZØeksa ds iwjd
ds rkSj ij dke djrs gSaA bu lHkh dk;Z Øeksa dk mn~ ns”; efgykvksa dks vkfFkZd vkSj lkekftd n`f’V ls
l”kDr cukuk gS rkfd os jk’Vªh; fodkl ds iz;klks esa iq:’kks ds leku vkSj lfØ; Hkwfedk vnk dj ldsaA
1- efgyk fodkl dk;ZØeksa ij izdk”k MkyukA
2- dk;ZØeksa ds izHkkoksa dk ewY;kadu djukA
3- dk;ZØeksa ds lQy u gksus ds dkj.kksa dk v/;;uA
4- ;g irk yxkuk gS fd l”kfDrdj.k dk Lrj D;k gSA
5- efgyk fodkl gsrq dk;Z ;kstuk fodflr djus dk lq>ko nsukA
* vflLVs UV izksQslj] vFkZ”kkL=] jktdh; LukRdksRrj egkfo|ky;] gehjiqjA
‘kks/k ifjdYiuk
1- efgyk Hkkjrh; lekt dk misf{kr oxZ gSA ftldk fujkdj.k ljdkj dh uhfr;ksa dks lgh <ax ls
ykxw djus ij fuHkZj gSA
2- efgykvks dh fLFkfr esa lq/kkj fcuk dk;ZØe ds ugha gks ldrkA
3- fodkl dk;ZØeksa ls gh budh leL;kvksa dk fujkdj.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA
4- f”k{k.k ,oa izf”k{k.k nsdj budh leL;kvksa esa lq/kkj fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Ekfgyk rFkk cPpksa ds fodkl gsrq Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk dbZ ;kstukvksa dh “kq: dh x;h gS budh ;kstuk,a
uhfrxr igy dh gSA ftlesa efgykvksa ds vkfFkZd rFkk lkekftd l”kfDrdj.k] vkfFkZd ,oa jktuhfrd thou
esa muds igyqvks esa cjkcjh gkfly djus ds fy;s dne Hkh “kkfey gSA ljdkj dh eq[; ;kstukvksa dk fo”ys’ k.k
fuEuor~ gSA
1- ,dhd`r cky fodkl lsok,a ¼vkbZ0lh0Mh0,l0½
;g ;kstuk 6 o’kZ lsok,a vk;q okys cPpksa ds lEiw.kZ fodkl rFkk xHkZorh o Lruiku djkus okyh efgykvksa
ds leqfpr iks’k.k o LokLF; f”k{kk dh 33 ifj;kstukvksa rFkk 4891 vkaxuckM+h dsUnzksa ds lkFk 1975 esa “kq:
dh x;h FkhA ljdkj }kjk lap;h :Ik ls 7076 ifj;kstukvksa rFkk 20]000 ^vku fMekaM^^ vkaxuckfM+;ksa lfgr
14 yk[k vkaxuckfM+;ksa ds vuqeksnu ls vc ;g loZO;kih gks x;h gSA
2- fd’kksfj;ksa dh vf/kdkfjrk gsrq jktho xka/kh ;kstuk ¼vkj0th0,l0bZ0,th0½
bu ;kstukUrxZr 4&18 o’kZ dh vk;q oxZ dh fd”kksfj;ksa dks mudh iks’kkgkj rFkk LokLF; fLFkfr esa lq/kkj
ykdj fofHkUu dkS”kyksa tSls& xzg dkS”ky] thou dkS”ky rFkk O;olkf;d dkS”ky esa mUur dj mUgsa vfèkdkfjrk
fnykuk gSA
3- dkedkth ekrkvksa ds cPpksa ds fy;s jktho xka/kh jk’Vªh; f’k’kq xzg ;kstuk
;g ;kstuk dkedkth ekrkvksa 0&6 o’kZ dh vk;q ds cPpksa dks f”k”kq xzg rFkk fodkl lsok,a ;Fkkiwjd]
iks’k.k LokLF; ns[kHkky dh lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djkuk gSA
4- Ekfgykvksa ds fy;s izf’k{k.k rFkk jkstxkj dk;ZØe lgk;rk ¼,l0Vh0bZ0ih0½ ;kstuk
;g ;kstuk xjhc efgykvksa dks d`f’k] Ik”kq ikyu Ms;jh] eRL; ikyu] gFkdj?kk] nLrdkjh] [kknh rFkk
xzkeh.k m|ksxksa] js”ke mRiknu] lkekft;ksa rFkk catj Hkwfe fodkl tSls 10 ikjEifjd {ks=ks esa ikjaxr djuk gSA
5- Lok/kkj xzg ;kstuk@jk’Vªh; efgyk dks”k
mDr ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls efgykvksa dks vkRefuHkZj cukuk gSA
6- tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk

7- efgyk vf/kdkfjrk gsrq jk’Vªh; fe’ku
mDr ;kstukvks a ds ek/;e ls Hkkjrh; efgykvks ds thou Lrj esa lq/kkj vk;k gS ijUrq efgykvks ds
fodkl ds fygkt ls Hkkjr ds lHkh jkT;ksa us ;g ,d leku ugha gSA efgyk l”kDrhdj.k ds {ks= esa dsjy us
igyk LFkku izkIr fd;k gS ogh mRrj izns”k] fcgkj tSls fiNM+s jkT;ksa esa efgyk fodkl ds iz;klks esa dksbZ
[kkl o`f) ugha gqbZ gSA
vr% blls Li’V gS fd brus o`gn Lrj ij pyk;s tk jgs dk;ZØeksa ls efgykvksa ds Lrj esa T;knk o`f)
ugha gqbZ gSA Hkys gh vkt efgyk,a lHkh {ks=ksa esa dk;Z djus yxh gSA ijUrq iq:’k ekufldrk esa vHkh Hkh U;wu
cnyko vk;k gSA t:jr gSA iq:’k ekufldrk esa cnykoA tc rd ekufldrk esa cnyko ugha vk;sxk rc
rd efgykvks dks lekt esa Hkkxhnkjh feyuk lqfuf”pr ugha gks ldsxkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- ;kstuk] vad la0&2012
2- dq:{ks=] vDVwcj vad
3- Hkkjrh; vFkZO ;oLFkk] fo”ks’kkad
4- ;w0ih0;w0bZ0,0 bdksukfed tuZy] i`’B & 25
5- ;w0ih0;w 0bZ0,0 bdksuksfed tuZy Nov-7, April-14
efgykvksa ds fodkl esa ySafxd ctV dh vko’;drk ¼,d leh{kkRed vè;;u½
eerk vf/kdkjh *
gekjs ns”k Hkkjro’kZ esa Je “kfDr esa dsoy 27 Qhlnh efgykvksa dh Hkkxhnkjh gSA ikfdLrku ds ckn nf{k.k
,f”k;k esa efgyk Je”kfDr dh Hkkxhnkjh dh ;g nwljh lcls de nj gSA izfr 1000 iq:’kksa dh rqyuk esa 1403
efgyk,a dHkh fdlh f”k{k.k laLFkku ugha xbZ gSaA 10 esa ls 8 vf”kf{kr cPps ftudh 10 o’kZ dh vk;q ls igys
fookg gqbZ os Hkh yM+fd;k gh gS Xykscy tsaMj xSi baMsDl 2016 esa Hkkrj 87 osa LFkku ij FkkA efgykvksa ds LokLF;
ds ekeys esa Hkkjr 142 osa LFkku ij gSa ;kfu uhps ls rhls LFkku ij gSA ,sls fUkjk”kktud ekgkSy vlsZ ls eglwl
dh tk jgh FkhA dsUnz ljdkj ds vykok 17 jkT;ksa us Hkh tSaMj ctfVax dks viuk;k gSA
tSaMj ctfVax ;kfu fyax ij vk/kkfjr ctV o’kZ 2005 & 2006 esa “kq: fd;k x;kA
mn~ns’;
izLrqr “kks/k & i= ds fuEu mn~ns”; fu/kkZfjr fd;s x;s gSA
1- ySafxd ctV dh vo/kkj.kk dk Li’Vhdj.k djukA
2- ySafxd ctV dk efgykvksa ds folk ij iM+ jgs ldkjkRed izHkko dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
3- efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh ;kstukvksa esa yxk;s x;s /ku dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
ifjdYiuk
1- efgyk;kS ds lEiw.k fodkl ds fy, rFkk leku vf/kdkj fnykus ds fy, ‘kq: dh x;h ;kstuk ySafxd
ctV ds ldkjkRed ifj.kke ugh vk jgs gSA
2- dqN gh efgykvsa dks ySafxd ctV dh ;kstukvksa dk ykHk feyk gSA
3- lqfu;ksftr rjhds ls ySafxd ctV dk mi;ksx djus ls efgykvksa ds thou Lrj dks ÅWpk mBk;k tk
ldrk gSA
* lgk;d izk sQslj] bdksukW feDl] lk”kdh; fMxzh dkW yst] csrky?kkV] uSuhrkyA
ySafxd ctV
orZeku ctV esa mu reke ;kstukvksa vkSj dk;ZØeksa ij ftudk lEcU/k efgyk vkSj f’k’kq dY;k.k ls gS
ftlesa fdruk /ku vkoafVr fd;k x;k bldk mYys[k gh ySfxad ctV dgk tkrk gSA ySafxd ctV ds ek/;e
ls ljdkj efgykvks a ds fodkl dY;k.k vkSj l”kfDrdj.k ls lEcfU/kr ;kstukvksa vkSj dk;Z Øeks a ds fy,
izfro’kZ ,d fu/kkZfjr jkf’k dh O;oLFkk lqfuf”pr djus dk izko/kku djrh gSA
Hkkjr esa tsaMj ctV vk;kstuk dh vko’;drk
Hkkjr esa ekuo fodkl lacU/kh miyfC/k;ka Hkkjr dh 586 fefy;u efgykvksa vkSj yM+fd;ksa ds fodkl vkSj
l”kfDrdj.k ij cgqr vf/kd fuHkZj djrh gS tks o’kZ 2011 dh x.kuk ds vuqlkj Hkkjr dh dqy tula[;k dk
48-9 izfr”kr gS ;s efgyk,a vkSj yM+fd;k u dsoy ns”k ds cgqewY; ekuo lalk/kuksa dk ,d cM+k fgLlk gS
cfYd os vius vki esa ,d vyx O;fDrRo gS vkSj mudk lkekftd vkfFkZd fodkl gh vFkZO;oLFkk vkSj laiw.kZ
lekt ds lr~r fodkl dk vk/kkj gSA blds vfrfjDr Hkkjr lafo/kku ds ek/;e ls ns”k ds izR;sd ukxfjd
dks lekurk dk ewyHkwr vf/kdkj iznku fd;k x;k gSA okLrfodrk ;g gS fd Hkkjr esa vHkh Hkh efgykvksa dks
lalk/kuksa rd igqWp vkSj mu ij fu;a=.k ds lEcU/k esa vlekurkvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA ;s vlekurk;sa
LokLF;] iks’k.k lk{kjrk] “kSf{kdk miyfC/k;ksa] dkS”ky Lrjksa jkstxkj ds Lrjksa ds lkFk & lkFk vU; cgqr ls
{ks=ksa esa Hkh fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA efgykvksa dh n;uh; fLFkfr o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj fu/kkZfjr iq:’kksa
dh rqyuk esa efgykvksa ds vuqikr esa Hkh ifjyf{kr gksrh gS tks izfr ,d gtkj iq:’kksa ij 940 efgyk, gSA
tsaMj ctV ij cy fuEu dj.kksa ls
1- efgyk,a ns”k dh dqy tula[;k dk yxHkx 49 izfr”kr gSA
2- efgykvksa dks lsokvksa vkSj lalk/kuksa rd igqWp vkSj fu;U=.k esa vlekurkvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gSA
3- efgykvksa dh fof’k”V t:jrksa gSa ftUgsa fo”ks’k :i ls iwjk fd;s tkus dh vko”;drk gSA
4- vf/kdka’k lkoZtfud O;; vkSj uhfrxr ljksdkj L=h iq:’k fujis{k {ks=ksa esa gksrs gSA
5- efgyk& iq:’k lekurk vkSj efgykvksa ds l”kfDrj.k ds fy,A
ySfxad ctV ds ek/;e ls efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds fy, ljdkj dh j.kuhfr
1- thou ds lHkh {ks=ks esa efgykvksa dh izxfr fodkl vkSj l”kfDrdj.k dks iwjk djus ds mn~ns”; ls
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k jk’Vªh; uhfr rS;kj dj yh xbZ gSA
2- ,slh efgyk,a vkSj laLFkkuksa ftUgksus lkekftd {ks= esa mRd`“V dk;Z fd;k gS ds ;ksxnku vkSj miyfC/
k;ksa dks lEeku rFkk igpku fnykus ds fy, “kfDr iq:Ldkjksa dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA
3- efgykvksa ds izfr fgalk ds fy, ftyk Lrjh; lfefr;ksa ds lapkyu ds fy, ekxZn”khZ fl}kUr vkSj
eqlhcr esa iM+h efgykvksa ds fy, gSYi ykbu tkjh dh xbZ gSA
4- dk;ZLFky ij efgykvksa ds ;kSu mRihM+u dks jksdus ls lEcfU/kr mPpre U;k;ky; ds fn”kk funs”kksa
ij fuxjkuh j[kus ds fy, jk’Vªh; Lrj dh lfefr xfBr dh xbZ gSA
5- efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa dh mYya?ku dh fjiksVZ vku& ykbu djus ds fy, efgykvksa ds lwpukFkZ ,oa
mUgs l”kDr cukus ds fy, jk’Vªh; efgyk lalk/ku cksMZ dh LFkkiuk dh xbZ gSA
6- efgykvksa ds fy, vkoafVr /kujkf’k ds mi;ksx dk ewY;kadu djus ds fy, fofHkUu ea=ky;ksa }kjk [kpZ
dh xbZ /kujkf’k dk fyax ctV fo”ys’k.k fd;k x;k gSA
ifj.kker% Kkr gS fd ts.Vj ctfVax dh ckrsa o’kksZ ls py jgh gS ysfdu ns”k esa iw.kZ :is.k viuk;k ugha
tk ldk gSA ts.Mj tcfVax ds ek/;e ls efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, ljdkj ls vis{kk dh tkrh gS fd ctV
efgykvksa ds izfr T;knk laosnu’khu gksA efgyk l”kfDrdj.k dh ;kstukvksa ,oa uhfr;ksa ij tks iSlk [kpZ
djrh gS mldk fuf”pr fgLlk iwjh rjg mu rd igqWp ldsA ljdkj us dqN ;kstukvksa esa ts.Mj ctfVax
vkjaHk Hkh dj fn;k gS aysfdu ;g ns[kuk vko”;d gS fd izR;sx efgyk dks ykHk feyk gS ;k ughA detksj o
xjhc rcds dh efgykvksa dh /;ku esa j[krs gq, ljdkj dks dY;k.kdkjh ;kstukvksa esa ts. Vj ctfVax ij
fo”ks’k /;ku nsuk gksxkA
tsaMj ctfVax ds le{k pqukSfr;ka
;kstukvksa ds nkSjku tsaMj ctfVax Ldhe }kjk izkIr miyfC/k;ksa dk lesdu vkSj mUgs cuk;s j[kus esa ize q{k
pqukSfr;ka gS &
fu;fer fuxjkuh] lhjfer izorZu vkSj tokcnsgh] QhYM Lrj ij vk;kstu vkSj dk;kZUo;u esa efgykvksa
dh lhfer izHkkoh Hkkxhnkjh {kerk fodkl dh eh] lkekftd vkfFkZd ck/kkvksa dk izpyu] fo”ks’k :i ls efgykvksa
ds fy, ;kstukvksa ij fuHkZjrk ¼ gkykafd iks’k.k] f”k{kk] O;kolkf;d izf”k{k.k bR;kfn ds fy, fo”ks’k :i ls
efgykvksa ds fy, dbZ Ldhesa rS;kj vkSj dk;kZfUor dh xbZ gS fQj Hkh ,d fof’k”V vk;ke ij cy nsus okyh
;s ;ksatuk;s] loksZxh.k l”kfDrdj.k ds fy, ,d lk/ku ds :i esa izHkkoh :i ls dk;Z ugh djrh gSA½
fu”d”kZ
OkkLro esa efgykvksa ds h orZe ku fLFkfr dks lq/kkjus ds fy, vkSj efgykvksa ds lEi.kZ fodkl ds fy,
ljdkj dks iwjh bZekunkjh ls tsaMj ctfVax dh izfØ;k ij /;ku nsus dh vko”;drk gksxh bldk vFkZ gksxk
fd tsaVj ctfVax dks lHkh ea=ky;ks@ foHkkxksa esa izHkkoh :i ls eq[;/kkjk esa ykuk lqfuf”pr djus ds fy,
iw.kZ ra= dh laLFkkxr :I nsus ds lkFk nh Ik;kZIr fuf/k;ksa dk vkcaVu dukA laxr {kekr fodkl dk;ZØeksa dks
leqfpr vkSj O;kid vk/kkj dk;ZUo;u lqlk/; cukus ds fy, vila jpukRed vko”;drkvksa dks lqfuf”pr
fd;s tkus dh vko”;drk gS vPNh rjg ls fMtkbu fd;k x;kA lqfu;ksftr vkSj leqfpr lexz tsaMj ctfVax
dks izkIr djus dh vksj ,d dne gSA
lanHkZ
1. http://india.gov.in
2. www.prabhatkhabar.com
3. https://books.google.co.in
4. upsc.gov.in
5. www.bbc.com
Ekfgyk l’kfDrdj.k % vko’;drk miyfC/k;k¡ ,oa pqukSfr;k¡
lq”kek ‘kekZ*
izLrkouk
HkkjrOk’kZ ,d ,slh lH;rk o laLd`fr dk lk{kh jgk gS tgka oSfnd ;qx ls gh ukfj;ksa dks iq#’kksa ds leku
vf/kdkj o lEeku izkIr Fkk fdUrq ckgjh vkØkUrkvksa ds ns”k es izos ”k djus ds lkFk gh ukjh dh fLFkfr
mRrjksRrj cn ls cnrj gksrh x;h vkt efgykvksa ds izfr c<rs vijk/kksa us gekjh vkfFkZd o lkekftd lejlrk
ds rkus ckus dks fNUu fHkUu dj fn;k gS uSfrd ewY; dgh [kks ls x;s gS bl ?kVukØe ds ifjis{; es gekjs
uhfr fu;arkvksa lekt lq/kkjd ,oa ljdkjsa ukjh l”kfDrdj.k ds fo’k; esa xaHkhjrk ls fopkj djus o uhfr
fuekZ.k o muds fØ;kUo;u gsrq lrr iz;kl”khy gSA
Ekfgyk l”kfDrdj.k ls rkRi;Z efgykvksa dks bruk l”kDr o lkeF;Zoku cukus ls gS] ftlls og thou
ls tqM+s lHkh fu.kZ; LorU= #i ls ys lds vkSj lEekuiw.kZ thou th ldsA
fdlh Hkh ns”k dks iw.kZr;k fodflr ,oa l”kDr cukus gsrq lHkh ukxfjdksa dh lfØ; lgHkkfxrk vR;ko”;d
gS vkSj efgyk l”kfDrdj.k ds fcuk ;g dk;Z vlEHko gS Lokeh foosdkuUn dk dFku gS] fd &**fL=;ksa dh
fLFkfr esa lq/kkj yk;s fcuk Hkkjr fuekZ.k o dY;k.k mruk gh vlaHko gS tSls ,d ia[k ls mM+ku Hkjuk ^^ D;ksfd
tc efgyk f”kf{kr ,oa l”kDr gksxh rks og vius cPpksa dks mfpr ekxZn”kZu mRre f”k{kk ,oa mPp lkekftd
o uSfrd ewY; iznku dj ns”k dk mTtoy Hkfo’; lqfuf”pr djrh gS ukjh l”kfDrdj.k gsrq le;≤ ij
vusd Hkkjrh; lekt lq/kkjdksa tSls jktk jke eksgu jk; bZ”oj panz fo|k lkxj vkpk;Z fouksck Hkkos] Lokeh
foosdkuan bR;kfn us vkokt cqyan dh gSA
le;kuq lkj ljdkj }kjk efgykvks a ds fgrks a ds la j{k.k gsrq vusdks a laoS /kkfud mik; fd;s x;s gS] o
dk;ZØe “kq# fd;s x;s gSaA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds dkuwu o dk;ZØe
efgyk l”kfDrdj.k gsrq laln }kjk efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa ds laj{k.k ds fy, le;kuqlkj dkuwuh izkoèkku
fd;s x;s gSa ftuesa leku ikfjJfed vf/kfu;e 1976] ckyfookg fu’ks/k vf/kfu;e 1976] izl wfr izl qfo/kk
vfèkfu;e 1961] oS”;ko`fRr fuokj.k vf/kfu;e 1986] lrh izFkk fujks/kd vf/kfu;e 1987] izloiw oZ funku
* izoDrk vFkZ”kkL=] egf’kZ fo|k efUnj cnk;wW A

vfèkfu;e 1994] xHkZ dk fpfdRldh; lekiu vf/kfu;e 1971] vuSfrd O;kikj fujks/kd vf/kfu;e 1959]
1986 esa la”kks/ku] ?kjsyw fgalk jksdFkke vf/kfu;e 2005] fgUnw mRrjkf/kdkj la”kks/ku vf/kfu;e 2006] bR;kfn
efgykvksa ds vf/kdkjksa dh j{kk gsrq cuk;sa x;s dsUnz ljdkj }kjk efgyk l”kfDrdj.k gsrq dbZ ;kstuk;sa o
dk;ZØe pyk;s tk jgs gSa] ftuesa lesfdr cky fodkl ;kstuk 1975] LokcyEcu ;kstuk 1982] efgyk leL;k
;kstuk 1989] iquZmRikfnr ,oa cky LokLF; ;kstuk 1997 ckfydk le`f) ;kstuk 1997] efgykvksa ,oa ckfydkvksa
gsrq foJke x`g ;kstuk 1999] thou Hkkjrh efgyk lqj{kk ;kstuk 2003] dLrwjck xkW/kh fo”ks’k ckfydk fo|ky;
;kstuk 2004] mTtoyk ;kstuk 2005] fd”kksjh “kfDr ;kstuk 2000] Jh “kfDr iqjLdkj ;kstuk 2000] Lok/kkj
;kstuk 2001] loZf”k{kk vfHk;ku ;kstuk 2001] jk’Vªh; xzkeh.k LokLF; fe”ku ;kstuk 2005] ckfydk izksRlkgu
;kstuk 2006] tuuh lqj{kk ;kstuk 2006] bfUnjk xka/kh bdYkkSrh dU;k Nk=o`fRr ;kstuk] bfUnjk xka/kh jk’Vªh;
fu”kDRkrk isa”ku ;kstuk 2007] fiz;nf”kZuh ifj;kstuk 2008] jk’Vªh; LokLF; chek ;kstuk 2008] lesfdr cky
laj{k.k ;kstuk 2009] bfUnjk xka/kh ekr`Ro lg;ksx ;kstuk 2010] lcyk ;kstuk 2012] dk;Zjr efgyk gkLVy
;kstuk 2013] Loa;fl)k ;kstuk 2013 bR;kfn gS] bu ;kstukvksa ds vfrfjDr vU; vusd ;kstuk;s dsUnz o
jkT; ljdkjksa }kjk pykbZ tk jgh gSaA
efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds iz;klksa ls izkIr miYkfO/k;ka
1- Hkkjr dh lkoZtfud o cgqjk’Vªh; {ks= dh 11 % dEifu;ksa esa mPp inksa ij efgyk;sa vklhu gSa
2- xzke iWpk;rksa esa ,d frgkbZ efgyk ipka;r izfrfuf/k gSaA
3- xzkeh.k {ks= ds fo|ky;ksa esa ckfydkvksa ds ukekadu esa fujarj o`f) gks jgh gSA
4- uflZx {ks= esa efgykvksa dk ,dkf/kdkj gSA
5- vuqla/kku ,oa izks|ksfxdh {ks= esa fujarj efgyk lgHkkfxrk esa o`f) ntZ dh tk jgh gSA
6- j{kk vuqla/kku ,oa fodkl laxBu (DRDO) esa 20% efgyk oSKkfud dk;Zjr gSaA
7- jk’Vªh; ,oa vUrjkZ’Vªh; Lrj dh [ksy Li/kkZvksa esa efgyk;sa fur u;s dhfrZeku cuk jgh gSaA
8- ukckMZ dh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj ns”k Hkj esa lapkfyr djhc 75 yk[k Lo;a lgk;rk lewgksa esa yxHkx
85% efgykvksa ds gS ftUgs cSdksa ls lh/ks J`.k ysus dh lqfo/kk izkIr gSA
9- efgyk;sa viuh dk;Z dq”kyrk] dke ds izfr leiZ.k] ,e/kqj O;ogkj] lh[kus dh mRlqdrk] uohu o
ldkjkRed lksp tSls xq.kksa ls fujarj cSfdax] dsUnzh; o jkT; ds iz”kklfud inksa] dkiksZjsV txr ,oa
rduhdh {ks= es fur u;s dhfrZeku LFkkfir dj jgh gSA
10- m0iz0 foxr pqukoksa esa xzke iz/kkuksa ds 40 % inksa ij efgyk;sa fot;h gqbZ gSaA
fdUrq mijksDr dkuwuh izko/kku o ;kstuk;sa fØ;kUo;u dlkSVh ij [kjs ugha mrjrs gdhdr esa vf/kdrj
;kstuk;sa o dkuwuh izko/kku dsoy “kgjksa rd gh fleV dj jg x;sa gS xzkeh.k {ks= esa jgus okyh efgykvksa dks
budh tkudkjh o buds ykHk ugh feys gSa vkSj os vius lkFk gks jgs “kks’k.k o nqO;Zogkj dks viuh fu;fr eku
oSBh gS fuEukfdar rF; bl gdhdr dks c[kwoh O;Dr dj jgs gSa &
1- jk’Vªh; ifjokj LokLF; losZ{k.k ds vuqlkj 22 % efgyk;sa 18 o’kZ ls de mez es gh viuh igyh
larku dks tUe ns pqdh FkhA
2- tux.kuk ds vkadM+kas ds vuqlkj efgyk lk{kjrk nj 1951 esa ek= 8-88 % Fkh og 2011 esa c<+dj
74-04% gks x;h gS fdUrq ,d frgkbZ efgyk;sa vkt Hkh vf”kf{kr gSaA
3- Hkkjr esa ;kS u “kks’k.k ds vkadM+s fujraj c<+ jgs gSa fnYyh esa gh xr rhu o’kksZ ds nkSjku gq, dqy
cykRdkj esa 46% ihfM+rk vO;Ld Fkh ,u0 lh0 vkj0 ch0 dh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj cYkkRdkj] NsM+[kkuh
vkSj tykus lEca/kh lokZf/kd ekeys i0 caxky o e0iz0 esa lkeus vk;s gSaA
4- dU;kHkzw.k gR;k vc Hkh tkjh gS tgkW gfj;k.kk esa csVk&csVh vuqikr 1000 % 834 gS ogh ns”k esa Hkh
fyaxkuqikr fujraj fcxM+ jgk gSA 1991 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj tgka 1000 ckydkssa dh rqyuk es
945 ckfydk;sa Fkh 2011 esa ;g la[;k ?kVdj 918 gh jg x;hA
5- iq:’k lk{kjrk dh rqyuk esa efgyk lk{kjrk nj 16 % de gS( iq:’k lk{kjrk 82-14 % efgyk lk{kjrk
65-46%
6- fyax Hksn dh fLFkfr bruh Hkh’k.k gS fd ;w0,u0Mh0ih0 }kjk tkjh ekuo fodkl lwpdkad 2014 esa
Hkkjr 188 ns”kksa esa 130osa LFkku ij FkkA
7- lka f[;dh; ,oa dk;ZØe dk;kZU o;u eU=ky; (MOSPL) dh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj 63-5 % ckfydk;sa
viuh Ldwyh f”k{kk chp esa gh NksM+ nsrh gSaA
8- cYMZ cSad dh ,DliVZ ehjk pVthZ dh fjiksVZ *Lik;fjxa ykbUl^ ds vuqlkj Hkkjr esa 15&18 o’kZ dh
mez dh 51-4% efgyk;sa jDrkYirk] dqiks’k.k] laØe.k tSlh leL;kvksa ls xzLr gSA
9- ;wuhlsQ dh fjiksVZ *LVsVl vkWQ oYMZ fpYMªu ^fjiksVZ 2012 ds vuqlkj ckyfookg esa Hkkjr dh Hkkxhnkjh
40% gS aA
lq>ko
1- jk/kkd`’.k vk;ksx ds lq>koksa ds vuq#i mPp f”k{kk esa thou ewY;ksa ij vk/kkfjr f”k{kk dk ikB;Øe
esa lekos”k fd;k tk;sA
2- lqnwj xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa ckfydk fo|ky; [kksys tk;saA
3- efgykvksa dks O;ogkfjd o jkstxkjksUeq[kh dk;Z izf”k{k.k fn;k tk;saA
4- ckfydkvksa o efgykvksa gsrq iks’kd o larqfyr Hkkstu dh miyfC/k lqfuf”pr dh tk;s D;ksfd efgykvksa
es dqiks’k.k dk Lrj vis{kkd`r vf/kd gSA
5- dqiks’k.k dh leL;k ds lek/kku gsrq ckfydkvksa o xHkZorh efgykvksa dks ikSf’Vd vkgkj fo’ks”kr;k
ykSg QkWfyd ,flM] dSfY”k;e ,oa foVkfeu;qDr Hkkstu miyC/k djk;k tk;sA
6- ekSt wnk dkuwuh izk o/kkuks a esa cnyrh ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds ifjiz s{; esa la”kks /ku dj mUgsa l[rh ls ykxw
fd;k tk;sA
7- “kkld o iz”kklfud rU= dks efgykvksa ds fy, lgkuqHkwfriw.kZ o lg;ksxh #[k viukus dk izf”k{k.k
o funsZ”k fn;s tk;sA
8- O;kid Lrj ij lkekftd tutkxj.k vfHk;ku pyk;k tk;s ftlls efgykvkas ds fo#) gks jgs
vijk/kksa esa deh vk;sA
9- Ckfydkvksa o efgykvksa gsrq dkS”ky fodkl dk;ZØe “kq# fd;s tk;sa ftllsa jkstxkj izkIr dj vkRefuHkZj
cu ldsaA
10- yksxks ds vUreZu ls efgykvksa ds fy, iwoZ fufeZr ladh.kZ /kkj.kkvksa ,oa #f<+okfnrk dh lekfIr gsrq
lsfeukj] uqDdM+ ukVd ys[k] bR;kfn ds ek/;e ls tu&lgHkkfxrk c<+kus ds iz;kl fd;s tk;sA
bl izdkj ge dg ldrs gS fd efgyk l”kfDrdj.k gsrq ifjokj] lekt] vketu lgHkkfxrk rFkk ljdkj
ds lesfdr iz;klksa dh vko”;drk gSA bl {ks= esa lkekftd tkx#drk ds lkFk&lkFk #f<+oknh ekufldrk
dk ifjR;kx dj u;h igy dh tkuh pkfg,A
lUnHkZ lwph
1- txUukFk d”;i] **lexz iz;kl ls gh lq/kjsxh csfV;ksa dh n”kk^^ i`- la[;k 5-9] dq#{ks= 2016 tuojh
2- tux.kuk 2011
3- ghjsUnz jkor] **lEeku]lekurk vkSj f”k{kk ls gksxk ukjh l”kfDrdj.k^^] i`- la[;k 4]5 ;kstuk vDVwcj 2016
4- MkW - jktdqekj&efgyk ,oa cky fodkl
5- lekpkj i=&nS fud tkxj.k ,oa vej mtkyk] fgUnqLrku
6- www.wcd.nic.in
foeqæhdj.k dk efgyk Jfedksa ij vkfFkZd çHkko ¼mÙkj çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M

{ks= ds fo'ks"k lUnHkZ esa½
cfcrk flag* ,oa lh-ch- flag**
çLrkouk
Hkkjr tul¡[;k dh –f"V ls fo'o esa nwljs LFkku ij gS tgk¡ dh tul¡[;k 1]266]883]598 gS] 1 ftlesa dqy
tul¡[;k dk 48-5% Hkkx efgykvksa dk gSA xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa 2015-16 esa 26-7 % efgyk,a dke esa yxh gqbZa gSa
tcfd ;g la[;k 1972&73 esa 31-8 % Fkh ftlls ;g irk pyrk gS fd fnuks&fnu xzkeh.k bykdksa esa efgyk
Jfedksa dh la[;k esa deh vk jgh gSA vxj 'kgjh bykdksa dh ckr dh tk, rks 2015&16 esa 16-2 % efgyk,a
dke esa yxh gqbZa gSa tcfd 1972&73 esa dsoy 13-4 % gh efgyk,a dke esa yxh gqbZa FkhA bl çdkj 'kgjh {ks=ksa
esa efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k esa o`f) gqbZ gSA Hkkjrh; efgyk Jfedksa dh dqy la[;k dk T;knkrj Hkkx —
f’kdk;ksaZ esa] dqVhj o y?kq m|ksxksa esa rFkk fuekZ.k dk;ksaZ esa yxk gqvk gS tcfd dsoy 13-5 % Hkkx gh fu;fer
osruHkksxh gSA
cq Unsy[k.M {ks= dh –f"V ls ns[kk tk, rks cqUns y[k.M ,d ,slk {ks= gS tgk¡ Hkkjr dh dqy efgyk
Jfedksa ds vkSlr dh rqyuk esa cqUnsy[k.M esa efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k dgha vf/kd gSA cqUnsy[k.M lkekftd&vkfFkZd
–f"V ls vR;Ur fiNM+k gqvk {ks= gS tgk¡ csjkstxkjh] vf'k{kk o xjhch nwj&nwj rd QSyh gqbZ gS ftlds dkj.k
efgyk,a vius ifjokj dk Hkj.k iks"k.k djus ds fy, fngkM+h etnwjh djrha gSa] [ksrksa o dkj[kkuksa esa dke djrha
gSa rFkk tks efgyk,a f'kf{kr gSa o futh o ljdkjh dk;kZy;ksa] laLFkkvksa o laxBuksa esa dk;Z djrha gS aA
cqUnsy[k.M {ks= esa efgyk Jfed
mÙkj çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= ds >k¡lh ftys esa efgyk vkcknh lcls vf/kd gS] blh rjg e/; çns'k ds
cqUnsy[k.M {ks= ds lkxj ftys esa efgykvksa dh vkcknh vf/kd gSA efgykvksa dh vkcknh dh –f"V ls mÙkj
çns'k dk cqUnsy[k.M {ks= e/; çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= ls vkxs gS ysfdu vxj efgyk Jfedksa dh ckr dh
tk, rks mÙkj çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= dh rqyuk esa e/; çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= esa efgyk Jfedksa dh
la[;k cgqr vf/kd gSA
Hkkjr esa xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa dke dj jgh efgyk Jfedksa dk vuqikr 'kgjh {ks=ksa dh rqyuk esa de gS gkykfd
rkfydk ls Li"V gS fd vkerkSj ij cqUnsy[k.M esa 50 % ls de efgyk Jfed ‘eq[; Jfed’ gS tks o"kZ esa 6
1 'kks/ k Nk=k] cqUnsy[k.M fo'ofo|ky;] >k¡ lhA

2 çksQslj] cSafdax] vFkZ'kkL= ,oa foÙk foHkkx] cqUnsy[k.M fo'ofo|ky;] >k¡ lhA
eghus ;k mlls vf/kd vkfFkZd xfrfof/k;ksa esa yxh gqbZa gSaA lkxj ftys dks NksM+dj yxHkx 70]000 efgyk
eq[; Jfed gSa tks eq[; :i ls chM+h fofuekZ.k m|ksx esa yxh gqbZa gSaA blh çdkj e/; çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M
ds neksg ftys esa chM+h fofuekZ.k m|ksx esa efgyk eq[; Jfedksa dh mPpre la[;k dke esa yxh gqbZ gSA eè;
çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= esa eq[; Jfedksa ds :i esa dke djus okyh efgyk Jfedksa dk çfr'kr fp=dwV dks
NksM+dj mÙkj çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= ds lHkh ftyksa dh rqyuk esa dkQh vf/kd gSA dqy efgyk Jfedksa esa
vf/kdka'k efgyk Jfed —f"k {ks= esa dk;Zjr gSa tks eq[; :i ls fdlku ds :i esa dk;Z djrh gSaA yfyriqj]
fp=dwV] nfr;k] Vhdex<+ vkSj Nrjiqj esa 60 % ls vf/kd efgyk Jfed gSa tks fdlku gSa tcfd tkykSu]neksg
vkSj lkxj dks NksM+dj cqUnsy[k.M ds lHkh ftyksa esa 15&20 % eq[; efgyk Jfed gSa tks fdlku gSaA vkadM+ksa
ds vuqlkj dsoy lkxj vkSj >k¡lh ftyksa esa gh 15]000 ls vf/kd efgyk eq[; Jfed gSa tks ‘vU; dk;Z’ esa
yxh gq bZa gSa ftlesa ljdkjh o futh {ks = ds dkj[kkus] NksV h vkS|ks fxd bdkb;ka] O;kikj o ls ok {ks= dh
xfrfof/k;ksa dks 'kkfey fd;k x;k gSA lkj.kh ds vuqlkj cqUnsy[k.M esa efgyk Jfedksa dh fLFkfr dks ns[ kk
tk ldrk gS&
v/;;u dk mís';
• mÙkj çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= esa foeqæhdj.k ds efgyk Jfedksa ij vkfFkZd çHkko dk v/;;u djukA
• foeqæhdj.k dk efgykvksa ij ldkjkRed rFkk udkjkRed iM+s gq, çHkko dk v/;;u djukA
'kks/k i)fr
çLrqr 'kks/ki= dk v/;;u djus ds fy, çfrn'kZ ds :i esa mÙkj çns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= dh 100 efgyk
Jfedksa dks çkFkfed lzksr ds fy;s pquk x;k FkkA ftlesa 50 O;olk;h efgyk Jfedksa dks fy;k x;k gS tks
NksVk&eksVk O;olk; djrha gSa tSls ¼lCth o Qyksa dks cspuk] fdjkuk o çlk/ku ds lkeku cspuk] C;wVh ikyZj
pykuk vkfn½ vkSj 50 mu efgyk Jfed dks fy;k x;k gS tks dqVhj m|ksx] —f"k dk;Z] fofuekZ.k dk;Z rFkk
Nk=kokl vkfn esa etnwjh djrha gSaA ;g v/;;u eq[;r% çkFkfed lzksr rFkk f}rh;d lzksr ij vk/kkfjr gSA
foeqæhdj.k dk efgyk Jfedksa ij vkfFkZd çHkko&foeqæhdj.k us efgyk Jfedksa dh vkfFkZd fLFkfr tSls
muds vk;] jkstxkj] miHkksx ,oa cpr dks cqjh rjg çHkkfor fd;kA mÙkjçns'k ds cqUnsy[k.M {ks= esa ,sls O;olk;h
efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k T;knk gS tks vius O;olk; ls 500&1000 :i;s gh ekfld vk; çkIr djrha gSaA
lkj.kh 1% efgyk Jfedksa dh vk; ¼pqus x;s 100 çfrn'kZ ds vk/kkj ij½
ekfld vk; O;olk;h efgyk O;olk;h efgyk Jfedksa etnwj efgyk Jfedksa etnwj efgyk Jfedksa
Jfedksa dh la[;k dk çfr'kr dh la[;k dk çfr'kr
500 lsde 14 28 % 22 44 %
500&1000 16 32 % 15 30 %
1000&2000 11 22 % 7 14 %
2000&3000 6 12 % 5 10 %
3000 ls vf/kd 3 6% 1 2%
dq y 50 50
lzks r% çkFkfed lz ksr
lkj.kh 2% O;olk;h efgyk Jfedksa dh çfrfnu oLrqvksa dh fcØh

¼pqus x;s 50 çfrn'kZ ds vk/kkj ij½
çfrfnu oLrqv ksa dh fcØh deh
foeqæ hdj.k ls igys 80 % &
foeqæ hdj.k ds ckn 50 % 30 %
orZeku le; esa 78 % 2%
lzk sr% çkFkfed lz ksr
lkj.kh 3% foeqæhdj.k ds ckn etnwj efgyk Jfedksa dh vk; o jkstxkj

¼pqus x;s 50 çfrn’kZ ds vk/kkj ij½
etnwjh nh x;h etnwjh ugha jkst xkj ls fudky dqy la[;k
nh x;h fn;k x;k
etnwj efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k 6 29 15 50
çfr'kr 12 % 58 % 30 %
foeqnzhdj.k ds ckn efgyk Jfedksa ds cprksa ij çHkko ¼ftu esa 500 o 1000 ds uksV 'kkfey Fks½
uksVcanh ds mijkUr efgyk Jfedksa ds cprksa ij Hkh çHkko iM+k tks efgyk Jfed vius cprksa dks ¼ftuesa
500 o 1000 ds uksV 'kkfey ugha½ uxn :i esa cpk ds j[kk Fkk rkfd Hkfo"; dh vko';drkvksa dks iwjk dj
lds] uksVcanh ds ckn uxnh dh deh ds dkj.k rFkk etnwjh uk fey ikus dh otg ls mu cprksa dks miHkksx
ij [kpZ djuk iM+k] ,slh efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k 13 % Fkh vkSj lkFk gh 39 % ,slh efgyk Jfed 'kkfey Fkha
ftUgsa vius cprksa dks ¼ftuesa 500 o 1000 ds uksV 'kkfey Fks½ dks u, uksVksa esa cnyuk iM+k ,slh efgyk
Jfedksa ds cprksa ij rks dksbZ çHkko ugha iM+k ysfdu ftu efgyk Jfedksa us fdlh dkj.ko'k vius iqjkus 500
o 1000 ds uksVksa dks cnydj mPpoxZ ds yksxksa ls yxHkx 100&200 :i;s de çkIr fd;k mldh otg ls
mudh cprksa esa deh vk;hA 48 % ,slh efgyk Jfed Fkha ftUgksaus vius cprksa dks cSad esa tek fd;k ftldh
otg ls fuf"Ø; iM+h eqæk cSadksa esa tek gqbZ vkSj cSadksa ds lk[k esa o`f) gqbZA
lkj.kh 4% cprksa ds vk/kkjij efgyk Jfedksa dh la[;k

cprksa dks cSad esa tek cprksa dks u, uksV esa cprksa ¼500 o 1000 ds uksV 'kkfey ugha½ dqyla[;k
djus okyh efgyk cnyus okyh efgyk dks miHkksx ij [kpZ djus okyh efgyk
Jfedksa dhla[;k Jfedksa dh la[;k Jfedksa dh la[;k
48 39 13 100
48 % 39 % 13 % çfr'kr
foeqæhdj.k dk efgyk Jfedksa ij udkjkRed çHkko

• uxnh dh deh gksus dh otg ls Jfedksa dks dke ls fudky fn;k x;k ftlesa 70 % efgyk Jfed
'kkfey FkhaA
• tks efgyk,a dqVhj m|ksx] y?kq m|ksx] dkj[kkuksa] fuekZ.k dk;ksaZ] Nk=koklksa o vU; laLFkk esa dk;Z
djrha Fkha mUgsa mudk le; ij esgurkuk ugha fey ldk D;ksfda muds ekfyd ds ikl i;kZIr uxnh
miyC/k ugha gks ldh FkhA
• ftu efgyk Jfedksa ds ikl iqjkus 500 o 1000 ds uksV Fks rFkk ftuds ikl iqjkus uksVksa dks cnyus
ds fy, i;kZIr le; o lqfo/kk,¡ ugha Fkha og 500 o 1000 ds uksVksa dks mPp oxZ ds yksxksa ls de iSls
esa cnyus dks etcwj gks xbZaA
foeqæhdj.k dk efgyk Jfedksa ij ldkjkRed çHkko
• xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh efgyk Jfedksa dks foeqæhdj.k ds ckn fMftVykbts'ku ds ckjs esa f'kf{kr dj mUgsa
le; ds lkFk pyus dk volj çnku fd;k x;kA
• fuEu o e/;e oxZ ds efgyk Jfed tks ljdkjh o futh laxBuksa esa osruHkksxh gSa mUgsa dj pksjh ls
mRiUu vk; vlekurk ls NqVdkjk feykA
fu"d"kZ
uoEcj 2016 dks gq, foeqæhdj.k us iwjh vFkZO;oLFkk dks çHkkfor fd;k A vFkZO;oLFkk ds rhuksa {ks= çkFkfed
{ks=] f}rh;d {ks= rFkk r`rh;d {ks= çHkkfor gq, gSa tcfd bu rhuksa {ks = esa yxh gq bZ efgyk Jfedksa dh
fLFkfr n;uh; jghA og efgyk tks etnwjh djds viuh lkekftd&vkfFkZd fLFkfr dks etcwr djrh gS] [ksrksa
esa dke djds viuk o vius ifjokj dk isV Hkjrh gS muds le{k uksVcanh us dbZ leL;k,a mRiUu dj nhA
bu efgyk Jfedksa ds lkeus ;gh leL;k Fkh fd jkstejkZ dh t:jrksa dk lkeku dSls fy;k tk;sA foeqæhdj.k
ds ckn O;kolkf;d o etnwj efgyk Jfedksa dh ekfld vk; esa deh vkbZ] mUgsa csjkstxkj gksuk iM+k lkFk gh
muds miHkksx o cpr Hkh çHkkfor gq,A foeqæhdj.k ds ifj.kkeksa dks ns[krs gq, ;g dgk tk ldrk gSa fd Hkys
gh foeqæhdj.k ds QSlys ls dqN Qk;ns utj vkrs gksa ysfdu bldk çHkko rks efgyk Jfedksa ij gh iM+kA
ljdkj dks foeqæhdj.k dk QSlyk ysus ls igys bu efgyk Jfedksa dh fLFkfr dks /;ku esa j[kuk pkfg, Fkk
vkSj ;s efgyk,a de ls de çHkkfor gksa blds fy, igys ls gh vusd foosdiw.kZ ;kstuk,a cukuh pkfg, FkhaA
lanHkZ lwph
1- ehuw ikej ¼2016½] foeqæhdj.k dk tuthou ij çHkko-
2. CIA, “India,” The World Factbook (2017).
3. CIA, “India,” The World Factbook (2017).
Theme 3
Exploratory Study of Factors Influencing Migration in

Uttar Pradesh
David Campbell* & C.B. Singh**
Introduction
Lot of study is done to analyse different factors influencing in-migration and
out-migration. Main focus of research papers and reports remains on migration from
rural to urban. In this paper researcher has proposed one of the initial effort to
analyse migration from one district to another. District could be considered as full
administrative unit. As per oxford Dictionary it means ‘An area of a town or region,
regarded as a unit for administrative purposes or because of a particular feature’. In Uttar
Pradesh, almost all districts have rural and urban population. Therefore a district
represents a complete unit from administrative point of view. Migration happens
due to socio-economic factors like lifestyle and income. Migration is not uncommon
as this practice is there from ages. If this intra district migration is in large number
and urban area can’t cater the demands and expectation like good income of normal
migrant, situation will become critical. This makes migration to other districts or
region. Research has tried to find which factors are instrumental in influencing in-
migration and out-migration at district level of Uttar Pradesh. Many items are taken
for the study mainly from Census 2011 Data, Statistical Diary and Census 2001 Data.
These items are then sub divided into sub groups by author’s description. These sub
groups are Basic Amenities, Assets, Social factors, Civic Amenities, Economic Factors,
Education and Health Facilities.
Objective of Study
The aim of this paper is to find out which items are instrumental in effecting
population of districts through migration. Either items under study in data is affecting
population and also in which direction.
* Research Scholar, Department of Banking, Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University,

Jhansi, U.P.
** Dean of Arts, Department of Banking, Economics & Finance, Bundelkhand University,
Jhansi, U.P.
Literature Review
Sati (2016) studied regions of Uttarakhand for rural to urban migration and
highlighted some reasons of migration like availability of infrastructural facilities
(like airways, rail, road), industrial growth, educational facilities and output from
agriculture.
Research Methodology and Data Analysis
This exploratory research is completely based on secondary data. Variables are
defined through literature and data main sources are Census 2011, Census 2001 and
Statistical Diary Uttar Pradesh 2015. As Data for migration district wise Uttar Pradesh
is not yet disclosed, therefore dependent variable is defined by subtracting 2001
population and total birth between 2001 – 2010 from 2011 populations and adding
death population from 2001-2010 in 2011 population. Correlation is done to find the
association of items collected from census and statistical diary on population change
district wise due to migration. Total 69 districts are included for this study. Some
districts are not taken because either data is incomplete or there is some discrepancy
in data. All items are divided into factors or categories like basic amenities, assets,
social items, civic amenities, economic, health and education for better understanding
by the author. SPSS Software is used and Pearson Correlation is applied.
The Size of data is 69 as the number of districts under study is 69. Districts
which are not included are ‘Mahamaya Nagar’, ‘Kanshiram Nagar’ and ‘Ramabai
Nagar’ because of incomplete data.
For our Dependent Variable percentage change in population due to migration;
district wise working is as follows:
• population change due to fertility = (population 2011 children age 1 to 6)*10/6
• population change due to mortality = ((population 2011 children age 1 to 6)*10/6)*(Crude
Death Rate)/(Crude Birth Rate)
• Change in population due to migration = (population 2011 - population 2001)
- (population change due to fertility) + (population change due to mortality)
• percentage change in population due to migration = (change in population
due to migration)*100/population 2001
Findings and Conclusion
As the data is from all district populations and not from sample, there is no use
for considering and checking significance of result. We check significance when we
have sample data and we want to generalize our result for population under study.
So what so ever values of correlation we are getting is for population.
Table 1: District Wise Correlation of Basic Amenities and Socio-Economic
Dimensions with Percentage Change in Population Due to Migration.
house with ‘Pacca’ roof percentage 0.15
house with ‘Pacca’ floor percentage .378**
having clean and safe drinkable water in percentage 0.11
total power supply in rural areas in Hours 0.05
Basic Amenities no. of households having Latrine .293*
no. of households having bathroom with roof .323**
3 rooms and above dwelling room percentage 0.02
households with permanent house percentage 0.17
no. of households having good condition house 0.22
Television .335**
Computer laptop with internet .490**
Assets Mobile only .398**
Ownership of Scooter, motorcycle .388**
Ownership of car, jeep, van .479**
Gender Ratio 0.04
schedule caste population -0.04
schedule tribe population 0.06
Social factor literacy 0.23
density .427**
house hold average size -.289*
Muslim per district 0.02
households having main light source as electricity .352**
Civic Amenities LPG or electricity or biogas for cooking .435**
Utility centre urban area .371**
per capita income .339**
net area sown from total agricultural land -.325**
total credit societies agri. and non agri. -0.03
Economic Factors
total banks 0.22
total companies private plus public in district .289*
no. of persons usually working 2012 .310**
total no. of pre primary schools 0.14
total no. of primary schools 0.15
total no. of middle school 0.16
Education total no. of secondary school 0.21
total no. of senior secondary school 0.16
total no. of degree colleges .271*
total no professional colleges 0.10
no of hospitals, family welfare ,maternity, etc 0.12
Health Facilities No. of doctors 0.10
No. of paramedical workers 0.16
* 95 percent confidence, ** 99 percent confidence
In basic amenities, the value of ‘Pacca’ roof percentage correlation is very less. It
shows that ‘out migration’ district and ‘in migration’ district people are not concerned
for the availability or ‘Pacca’ roof (Burnt Brick, stone or concrete) or ‘Kaccha’ roof
(plastic, tiles or sheets). Generally people have ‘Kaccha’ roof in rural areas or slums
of urban areas. We can infer that there are people either migrating from rural of one
district to urban slums of another district or from urban slum to rural areas or slums
of different district. Therefore they are not concerned either they would be getting
‘Pacca’ roof or not. ‘Pacca’ floor is characteristic of urban area. The association between
‘Pacca’ floor percentage and change in percentage of population is high. People,
moving from one district where there is less ‘Pacca’ floor to districts where ‘Pacca’
floor is more. When in city, ‘Pacca’ floor is necessity as per dynamics or urban area.
It again shows that people are moving from rural or urban area to urban areas of
another district. People are not moving towards rural areas of another district. People
who are migrating from one district to another are least bothered for clean water
and electric power supply. But they are highly concern for having latrine and bathroom.
The correlations for three dwelling room, permanent house and good condition house
with percentage change in population due to migration are low. People who are
migrating to other districts are least concern for big, permanent or good condition
households.
Gender Ratio, caste and Religion has no role or association with change in population
when mortality and fertility factors are not participating. Literacy is little bit associated
with change in population due to migration. With the rise in literacy, population due
to migration is also increasing. Density of district is also positively associated with
rise in migration. Household average size is negatively associated with rise in migration.
In Districts having bigger families, population due to migration is decreasing. From
this we can make an inference that people from big families are migrating more
towards another districts very specially in those districts which are having large
urban area having more nuclear families.
Civic Amenities items like electricity, LPG and Utility Centre in urban area, are
highly associated with migration. People are migrating in those districts where Civic
amenities are good. Very especially in case or Utility Centres like Sports Stadium,
Central Libraries, etc. people are getting attracted towards these facilities. Education
items are not associated with change in population due to migration except degree
colleges. Overall, because of Education facility, people do not migrate permanently.
Health Facilities are also not associated with population variation due of migration.
From the findings above, we can generalize few things in case of migration from
one district to another. First is income and employment is main reason for migration.
Another reason of migration is better lifestyle that could be achieved with ownership
of more assets, results in requirement of higher income. Migration is happening
because of change in lifestyle which requires having assets like car, scooter, mobile,
etc. This lifestyle has enhanced the cost of living.
References
1. Bahuguna, P. & Belwal, O.K., 2013. Regression Model Approach for Out-Migration on
Demographic Aspects of Rural Areas of Pauri Garhwal. International Journal of Management
and Social Sciences Research, 2(8), pp. 175–182.
2. Chandrasekhar, S. & Sharma, A., 2014. Internal Migration for Education and Employment
among Youth in India. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, (January).
3. Dwivedi, R., 2012. migration/ : an overview and relevant issues. management insight, viii(2),
pp. 25–33.
Perceptions on Return Migration: A View of Migrants and

Returned Migrants of Uttarakhand
Kavita Baliyan* & G.S. Mehta**
Introduction
The phenomenon of migration and its contribution to development has been always
a subject of interest for researchers, policy makers, politicians and civil society as
well. Migration of people takes place from one to other locations for a variety of
reasons and the purposes. For which the people may migrate either alone or shift
their family permanently or semi-permanently at the place of destination depending
upon the nature of migration, as seasonal or permanent. The migration of people is
carried out alone by an individual or a group of individuals in mass. The latter
category of migration would be motivated by push factors like occurrence of natural
calamities, mutual conflicts among the groups of people, war etc However, the former
type of migration of an individual is done for availing various opportunities such as
seeking livelihood opportunities, facilities such as health, education and different
amenities of life which are not available at the place of natives and purposes like
political, religious etc The study of migration pattern of population is an important
issue from the view point of understanding the changes taking place in the people’s
movement within the country and its indirect effects on the population distribution.
It is one of the most volatile component of population growth in urban areas and
most sensitive to economic, political and cultural factors (Singh, 1998).
Migration from Uttrakhand
Uttarakhand is one of the states which is marked by a large number of populations
residing in the rural hill areas. These rural hill areas offer the toughest living conditions
for its inhabitants. These areas do not provide conducive terrains for the development
of industries and other sources of employment generation (Mehta, 1997,1999). The
absence of industries and other sources of income and employment generation in
* Assistant Professor, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Sector ‘O’ Aliganj, Lucknow, U.P.
** Professor (Retired on December 2016), Giri Institute of Development Studies, Sector ‘O’
Aliganj, Lucknow, U.P.
these areas has hooked its inhabitants towards agriculture and allied activities. The
development of the hills is primarily linked to the development of agriculture and
its allied activities. Since the hills are constrained in the development of large-scale
industrialization, and due to infrastructure constraints the development of the service
sector is also constrained, the growth and development of the agriculture sector
remains the prime focus. (Malhotra, 2005, Mehta, 2008). Due to these constraints the
issue of increasing incidence of out-migration from Uttarakhand.
Research Methodology and Data Collection
The study based on Primary & secondary data. Secondary data has been collected
from Census of India, 2001 &2011, and government officials of block level. For primary
data has been collected from, two districts, namely Almora and Pauri Garhwal witnessed
an absolute decline in their population during the decade 2001-2011, along with,
another set of two hilly districts namely, Champawat and Uttarkashi having a high
decadal growth of population. From each district two blocks were selected one having
high growth rate of population and one low growth rate of population. Household
information was collected through a sample of selected villages. Firstly, all villages
in a sample blocks were distributed in four cohorts on the basis of population with
positive & negative growth rate and households with positive and negative growth
rate. From each cohort, we selected four villages randomly for our study. In selection
of sample villages, the villages with less than 25 households were purposively kept
out of the consideration for the sample selection.
The next selection parameter of the villages was the road connectivity. In each
cohort, all villages then were sub-grouped into three strata based on the road
connectivity. From each sub-group at least one village was selected for the sample
survey. From each selected village, samples of 15 households were selected through
stratified random sampling. The basis of stratification would be social group composition
of the village population, such as Scheduled Castes, Brahmins, OBCs and Rajputs.
Thus, the study proposed to cover four districts, 64 sample villages and 960 households
for an in depth study. Besides, 146 returned migrants have also interviewed. The
required information was also collected through key informant interviews and FGDs.
Findings of the Study
Linkages maintained by migrants with the native places: Based on our sample
data, the study found that only around 5 percent migrants those have completely
shifted their entire families were reported never visited and remaining migrants were
making at least some visits to their native , ranged highest from 7 percent in Uttarkashi
to lowest at 4 percent in Champawat. Otherwise, a high proportion of over 50 percent
migrants were making at least one visit during a year in their village. Another second
majority of 32 percent were visiting half yearly. Only 5 percent migrants were visiting
their villages fortnightly or the monthly.
Table 1: Pattern of Individual Migration
Name of the District Champawat Almora Pauri Garhwal Uttarkashi Total
General 1300 1106 623 34 3063

(75.80) (77.72) (67.72) (2.65) (57.36)
SC 385 210 297 243 1135

(22.45) (14.76) (32.28) (18.95) (21.25)
OBC 30 107 0 985 1122

(1.75) (7.52) (0.00) (76.83) (21.01)
Muslims 0 0 0 20 20
(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (1.56) (0.37)
Total Migrants (individual) 1715 1423 920 1282 5340

(15.89) (16.86) (20.87) (15.10) (16.62)
Total population 10795 8438 4409 8491 32133

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)
Note: i.. Source: Village level data, ii. Bracketed figures indicate the caste wise percentages. iii. O.B.C.&
Muslim non-migrant population is merged with General castes population.
Table 2: Status of Migration from Sample Households
Initial Status Current status

Year of Migration Family joined Total
Alone with family later Still Alone
244 4 51 133 248
Before 2000
(98.39) (1.61) (20.56) (53.63) (100.00)
239 7 86 106 246
2001-2005
(97.15) (2.85) (34.96) (43.09) (100.00)
232 6 84 237 238
2005-2010
(97.48) (2.52) (35.29) (99.58) (100.00)
224 4 20 222 228
2010+
(98.25) (1.75) (8.77) (97.37) (100.00)
939 21 241 698 960
Total
(97.81) (2.19) (25.10) (72.71) (100.00)
Source: Based on 960 sample migrant households
Possibilities of return migration: In spite of nearly 5 per cent migrants had

stopped visiting their native places, the proportion of migrants those were not willing
to return back to their native places were many folds higher than them to nearly 29
per cent. This suggest that sizeable numbers of migrants were still maintaining their
linkages through making visits but a large proportion were expected will not return
back to their native places for permanent settlement. Even, a majority of 65 per cent
migrants were willing to return back to their native places only in case of the availability
of employment opportunities and the expansion of higher education facility at their
village level. However, little over 18 per cent migrants had already planned to return
to their respective native places after the settlement of their children at the present
places of migration.
The unwillingness to return back to the places of natives due to lacking adequate
employment opportunities was reported very high by 76 per cent migrants. Lacking
the facilities of health and education for the children were the reasons cited by another
72 per cent and 68 per cent responded respectively behind their unwillingness of
returning in their villages. Equally important reason for not planning for returning
back to native villages for 62 per cent migrants was the inadequately expansion of
various basic infrastructure in their villages.
Background Characteristics of Return Migrants
It may be mentioned here that the present study had covered 146 returned migrants
for the purpose to examine at background characteristics of such migrants on one
hand to get feedback about which factors had motivated them to come back their
native places on the other hand. The analysis in matters of the age profile of returned
migrants it revealed that an overwhelming majority of about 71 percent migrants returned
to their native places after their retirement age group of over 60 years followed by 27
per cent migrant in the age group of 30 to 60 years. It was further indicated that a
majority of over 32 per cent people returned back to their villages after getting retirement
from their previous employment at the place of migration (Table 06). Greater affection
with the native home has been equally important reason of return migration. In fact,
such return migrants followed highest at over 47 per cent in Champawat and lowest
at 27 per cent in Pauri Garhwal. Inability to construct house at the place of migration,
living of a part of family at native places and suffering from illness have been the
other reasons for return migration of population to their native places.
Lastly the study attempted to incorporate the suggestions of retuned migrants
regarding what measures could possibly be important to attract out-migrants for
returning back to their native places in the future. In this context, among various
suggestions, a top most priority was forwarded in favour of expansion of small scale
manufacturing activities by 60 per cent returned migrants, comprising a highest
proportion of 74 per cent migrants of Almora closely followed by 72 per cent migrants
of Uttarakashi. Similarly, the suggestions of 54 per cent and 53 per cent returned
migrants were in favour of initiating expansion of medical and quality educational
facilities at the village level. The perceptions of migrants were also that initiating
measures for providing the facility of loans and subsidy from the part of Government
for expansion of different income generating activities, increasing old age pension
and promotion of horticulture based activities especially fruit conservation would be
the additional approach for attracting migrants for returning their villages.
On the whole, sufficient numbers of migrants were making at least some visits to
their native places after migration on the different occasions The migrants those
were living alone in different places of migration were regularly contributing in
their household’s income through sending a part of their income as remittances.
Only, one fourth of migrants those were living with their family at the destination
places of migration were not sending any part of their income to their living family
members at the native places. Surprisingly, the migrants were remitting nearly one
fourth of their earning to their families as remittances. A majority of migrants were
willing to return back to their native places only in case of the availability of employment
opportunities and the expansion of higher education facility at their village level.
However, sufficient numbers of migrants had already planned to return to their
respective native places after the settlement of their children at the present places of
migration while some migrants had decided for returning their native place after
getting retirement from the present employment.
Lacking future perspectives of employment opportunities for the children, inadequate
facilities of medical and health, education and various required basic infrastructural
facilities were the important reasons for not willing to return back of the migrants to
their native places anytime in the future. The perception of the presently returned
migrants were that the creation of employment opportunities more particularly through
initiating expansion of small scale industries in hilly areas and other means and
brining accessibility to the facilities of better quality education, medical and
transportation could possibly a comprehensive approach for motivating presently
migrated people at different places to return back to their native places. The perceptions
of migrants were also that initiating measures for providing the facility of loans and
subsidy from the part of Government for expansion of different income generating
activities, increasing old age pension and promotion of horticulture based activities
especially fruit conservation would be the additional approach for attracting migrants
for returning their villages.
References
1. Anonymous, (2001): District Census Handbook, Nainital, Uttrakhand, 2001.
2. Anonymous, (2001): Census of India, Migration Tables(D1, D1 (Appendix), D2 and D3 Tables)
of 2001, published by Registrar General, Government of India, New Delhi, India
3. Anonymous, (2009-10): Statisticstical Dairy, Uttrakhand, Dehradun
4. Bora, R.S. (1996): Himalayan Outmigration, Sage Publications, New Delhi
Pattern of Women’s Work in Indian Economy
Vinod Kumar Srivastava*
Introduction
Women workers constituted 59.4 million or 31.5 per cent of the total workers in the
country in 1961, according to the census data. During the last 55 years, their proportion to
the total working force has fluctuated between 23.30 per cent and 30.70 per cent. But, it
should be noted here that-these fluctuations, in the main, are due to differences in the concept
of “worker” from census to census rather than to actual change in the extent of participation
of women in economic activity. The bulk of women workers have all along been engaged in
agriculture and allied activities. An Attempt has been made in this paper to present an
overview about “Pattern of women’s work in Indian Economy”. The paper is divided
into three Sections. Section First Covers a brief Introduction about the theme. Section
second has been devoted to discuss about Scenario of Woman Workers in Indian
Economy. The Paper concludes with section third which gives some suggestions
about policy recommendations for removing women worker’s problems.
The 1961 census also reveals that in. the non-agricultural sector women are employed
in what is broadly called the services group, which includes public services education,
medical and health and the miscellaneous service categories. Besides, household and
small scale industries employed a larger number of women than factories. It may be
said now that the sectors of economy in which women are employed in large number
are:
• Agricultural
• Plantation
• Mines
• Factories
• Small-scale industries
• Social services and white collar jobs.
* Associate Professor & Head, Department of Economics & Rural Development, Dr. Ram
Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Faizabad.U.P.
The National Commission on Labour pointed out that the majority of women
have been employed on unskilled jobs or on such work where simpler and traditional
skills are required. Vocational guidance and training of girls have in fact long being
neglected in the country.
Scenario of Woman Workers in Indian Economy
The Commission is of the view that the problems of the women workers in
general and in the unorganised sector in particular deserve special emphasis and
focus in view of their marginalized position within the class of workers. Even when
women are not employed in the sense of contributing to the national output, a
considerable share of their time is consumed by socially productive and reproductive
labour. This is what is called the ‘double burden of work’ that distinguishes women
from men. For women workers in the informal economy the double burden of combining
the tasks of production and reproduction is even more arduous because they are
already engaged in activities that require long hours to obtain a subsistence wage.
Table 1: Planning of Woman Workers in Organized Sector

(As on 31st March 2010)
Sl.No. Industry Public Sector Private Sector Total

1 Agriculture and Allied Services 48.1 461.9 510.0
2 Mining 57.6 8.9 66.5
3 Industry 99.1 933.9 1033.0
4 Elect, Gas & Water 43.6 0.9 44.5
5 Construction 64.1 4.0 68.1
6 Wholesale & Hotel 16.6 29.4 46.0
7 Transportation & Communication 170.1 6.8 176.9
8 Insurance & Trade 181.1 53.9 235.0
9 Community & Social Services 2176.7 566.1 2742.8
Total 2857.0 2065.8 4922.8
Source: India-2011 Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India.
Having said that, the problem of women workers should not be reduced to this
general and somewhat simplified formulation. The differentiation within women in general
and women workers in particular is also a fact of life. This behavioral differentiation is
influenced by their basic social and economic characteristics. This is evident in Table 2
and Table 3, which present the difference between women workers and the status of
women from rural areas (as a proxy for economic background since the rural economy
is dominated by agriculture) and rural women belonging to the bottom layer of the
Indian society i.e. SCs and STs.
Table 2: Selected Characteristics of Women Workers 2009-10

Rural Rural
Indicator Female
Female Female SCs/STs
Total Workers (UPSS in millions) 148.0 124.0 44.9
Labour Force Participation Rate 29.0 33.3 37.9
Work Force Participation Rate 28.3 32.7 37.5
Percentage of Regular Workers in Total Workers 8.9 3.7 3.1
Percentage of Self-employed in Total Workforce 61.1 63.7 51.1
Percentage of Casual Labour in Total Workforce 30.0 32.6 45.8
Percentage of Unorganised Workers in Total Workforce 95.9 98.0 98.6
Percentage of Unorganised Sector Workers in Total Workforce 91.3 94.5 95.0
Percentage of Workers in Agriculture & Allied Activities 72.8 83.34 86.2
Percentage of out of School Children in Relevant Age (5-14 years) 20.7 23.5 28.5
Mean Years of Schooling (all workers) 2.5 1.9 1.2
Mean Years of Schooling (Unorganised Non Agr. Workers) 3.7 2.9 2.0
Mean Years of Schooling (Rural Unorganised Agr. Workers) NA 1.6 1.1
Percentage of All Workers up to Primary Education (including
80.7 85.0 90.7
illiterates)
Percentage of Unorganised Non-Agr. Workers Up to Primary
70.8 77.1 84.7
Education (including illiterates)
Percentage of Unorganised Agricultural Workers up to Primary
87.8 88.0 92.2
Education (including illiterates)
Percentage of Home workers in Self employed (unorganised non
30.1 32.0 -
agriculture)
Percentage of Workers w ith only Subsidiary Work 24.9 26.1 23.5
Wage Rate of Rural Agricultural Labourers (Rs. Per man-day) NA 33.1 33.1
Wage Rate of Rural Non-Agricultural Labourers (Rs. Per man-day) NA 44.0 45.8
Percentage of Casual Laboruers (Rural) not getting Notional
NA 95.6 95.4
Minimum Wage of Rs. 66
Percentage of Casual Labrouers (Rural) not getting NCRL Minimum
NA 80.9 80.7
Wage Rs. 49
Note:-Data pertain to 1999-2000, UPSS: Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status.

Source: NSS 65th Round and 60th Round, Employment-Unemployment Survey, Computed.
Table 3: Rural-Urban Differences of Women Workers 2009-10 (In Percentage)

Indicator Urban Women Rural Women Rural Women Cs/STs
Regular Workers in Total Workforce 35.6 3.7 3.7
Workers with Education Secondary & Above 29.8 14.3 6.3
Wages of Casual Workers (Rs. Per man day) 43.6 44.0 34.7
Workers with only Subsidiary Work 18.8 16.2 26.1
Source: NSS 65th Round and 60th Round, Employment-Unemployment Survey, Computed.
Therefore the Commission is of the view that while women workers constitute a
marginalized category within the class of workers in general, there are layers of
subordination determined by structural factors such as the initial conditions of social
status and economic sector to which they belong. This is quite evident in the case of
women workers in the unorganized sector. We discuss the problems of women workers
in the following order: (a) the larger issue of double burden of work, (b) women
workers and their invisibility, and (c) conditions of work as well as discrimination.
We begin by an examination of the double burden of work that more often than not
determines their availability for and location of work. Then we go on to characterizing
the nature of women’s work taking into consideration, two of their distinct
characteristics, the socio-cultural norms that restrict their workspaces and the double
burden of production and reproduction activities. These characteristics as well as
limited opportunities ensure that their participation in the conventionally defined
productive work is low. A woman, therefore, engages as a subsidiary worker, in
part-time work and with considerable domestic duties, and yet is available for additional
work. In the next section we discuss gender discrimination that women face in terms
of the sexual division of labour and the low valuation of her skills. In the final
section specific issues of conditions of work related to women in the three categories
of workers, i.e. wage workers, self-employed and mineworkers, are brought out. The
conditions of women workers-are discussed taking into account these distinguishing
characteristics of their work highlighted earlier. Women self-employed worker operated
proprietary enterprises are compared to male operated proprietary enterprises in
terms of the scale of operation and the nature and problems faced. Among the
homeworkers we note a number of unaccounted for hidden costs that affect the
earnings and reduce the wages actually paid. We also discuss the work undertaken
by girl children as. a special category-since the roots of gender discrimination are
sown at a young age.
Conclusion
The reproductive role of women is less visible and less recognized by the society.
She engages in multiple livelihood activities to fulfill her productive and reproductive
role. The Central Statistical Organisation of the Government of India provided official
visibility to this double burden of work. Similarly, the institutions of social sciences
and humanities will provide employment openings. Besides educated women are
suitable for rendering assistance in collection and processing of information. Labour
policy regarding women in India has evolved in response to specific needs of the
situation to suit requirements of planned economic development and social justice
and has a two-fold objective, i.e. maintaining industrial peace and promoting the
welfare of women workers in Indian economy.
References
• Jose, A.V. (2013) “Changes in Wages and Earnings O f Rural Labours”, Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol. 48 Nos. 26-27, pp.107-14.
• Raphael, Steven (2013), “International Migration Sex Ratios and the Socio-economic Outcomes
of Non-migrant Mexican Women”, Demography, Vol.50, No. 3, pp. 971-91.
Urbanization and Rural Migration in India: An Overview
Tarun Kumar Dwivedi*
India is undergoing radical changes in demographic patterns as streams of people

migrate to regions which offer better opportunities than their homes. Much of this
movement is from rural areas to the urban, with large cities and megacities acting as
strong lodestones, attracting people with the promise of better lives. India, that lived
largely in its villages, is undergoing rapid urbanization.
During the 1099s, that is between 1901 to 2001, our urban population rose by
1000 per cent, as compared to a 330 percent rise in our total population. As on date,
Tamil Nadu is the most urbanized state in India, with 43.86 percent of its population
living in urban areas. Maharashtra, with 42.4 per cent of its population living in
urban areas comes a close second. It is estimated that by 2026 more than half the
population of the states of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Punjab would be
living in urban areas.
While migration is almost a life-saving solution for many, it is not without its
attendant problems. The capacity of our cities, even our metros, in terms of the civic
amenities and services they can provide, is limited. The ever-increasing pressures
imposed by growing populations in most urban centres, has stretched their capacities
to near bursting point. The result is haphazard urbanization with abysmal living
conditions, poor sanitation, choked transport systems, inadequate health, education
and other social infrastructure, and attendant law and order problems.
In times of the present economic crisis, when resources are limited and employment
channels have come down to a trickle, the problems of migration is likely to become
more acute. Another phenomenon that will aggravate this problem is climate change.
According to a study there could be as many as 200 million people displaced by
disruptions of monsoon systems and other rainfall regimes, by droughts of
unprecedented severity and duration, and by sea-level rise and coastal flooding.It
would mean that by 2050 one in every 45 people in the world would have been
displaced by climate change. For a country like India, this would mean further pressure
on the already stressed-out cities.
* Head of Department, Economics Department, Kooba P.G. College, Dariyapur Newada,

Azamgarh, U.P.
Urbanization is the most significant phenomenon of the 20"‘ century which has
affected all aspect of national life in India. Being the second most populous country
in the world after China, lndia’s fast growing urbanization has a regional as well as
world wide impact. India’s urban population constitutes a sizeable proportion of the
world’s urban population. India has a long tradition of urbanization which has continued
since the days of the Indus Valley.
Distribution of Urban Population by Size Classes
An analysis of the distribution of urban population reveals that the process of
urbanization in India has been largely city-oriented. This is manifested in a high
percentage of urban population being concentrated in class one cities, which has
gone up systematically over the decades in the last century. The massive increase in
the percentage share of class one cities from 51.42 in1961 to 68.7 in 2001, has often
been attributed to faster growth of large cities, without taking in to consideration
the increase in the number of these cities. The basic reason for the increasing dominance
of these cities is graduation of lower order towns into class one category.
The increasing concentration of population in cities, that too in large cities has been
the striking features of lndia’s urbanization during the last century. (Bhagat, 2015)
Urbanization Patterns
The regional variations in the distribution of urban population are significant. A
large proportion is concentration in six most developed states, namely. Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab and West Bengal, accounting for about half
of the country’s urban population. In 2011 census, these cities reported a percentage
of urban population much above the national average of 27.78, whereas the less
developed states report significantly low figures. Thus, the level of urbanization in
the states with high per capita income is high and the level of urbanization in the
states with low per capita income is low. These states attracted population in urban
areas due to industrialization and infrastructure investment. The urbanization process
in Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala and M.P. has registered more or less equal to
national average. In contrast the states like Bihar, Orissa, Flajasthan, Tripura, Utttar
Pradesh, and Manipur have registered below the national average. Tamil Nadu is
the most urbanized state amongst the major states in India with 43.86 percent of its
population living in urban areas though the number is only 27 million against a
staggering 41 million in Maharashtra with 42.4 percent population living in urban
areas.
The urban growth at all-India level declined during the decade 1971-2001 and
this trend continued for most of the states of India for the decade 2001-2015.The
states like UP., MP, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan have shown very high growth rate during
the decade 1971-81 which registered decline in urban growth rate by almost 50 percent
for the decade 1991-2011.
The inter-district movement comprises largest share of migration i.e. 61.6 percent
and 23,7 percent respectively. While inter-state migration and international migration
comprises less share of migration i.e. 13.1 percent and 5.1 percent respectively. The
factors responsible for long distance migration are language, family attraction
government policies etc.
Causes of Rural-Urban Migration
Traditional rural-urban migration exists in India as villagers seek to improve
opportunities and lifestyles. In 1991, over 39 million people migrated in rural-urban
patterns of which 54 percent were female. Caste and tribe systems complicate these
population movements. Seasonal urban migration is also evident throughout India
in cities where many migrants move into the city during periods of hardship and
return to their native villages for events such as the harvest.
Large groups of landless, unskilled, illiterate laborers and petty farmers leave
their villages and go to distant large towns or cities like Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai.
They do not go to their neighboring smaller town centers or districts because these
regions have already reached their saturation point and fail to provide even the
minimum services to the migrants.
Social Conflicts and social tension, Gap in civilization/ culture , Law and order
situation , Inequalities in the available social and economic opportunities and other
amenities of life between groups of people and or sectors., Income maximization,
Inequitable distribution of benefits of economic development, Social mobility and
social status aspiration., Residential Satisfaction., Friend and family influences, Desire
for attaining lifestyle, performance and enjoyment., Development of some sort of
complex.
Regional Imbalances and Migration
Variation in economic development across regions is a primary motive for migration
to greener pastures. This trend of rising unemployment is compounded by the existence
of regional imbalances in development within the country, which have collectively
accelerated the phenomenon of migration. All theories of migration concede that this
occurs when the region of origin lacks the opportunities which the destination promises.
It is inherently a combination of pull and push factors.
Jobless Growth and Migration
Jobless growth and regional imbalances have collectively spurred migration, and
this is the larger malaise behind recent large scale violence in Maharashtra on ethnic
lines. The call from locals for protection of employment opportunities for the sons of
the soil is a longstanding ideology.
Rural-Urban Migration
Traditional Rural Urban migration exists in India as villagers seek to improve
opportunities and lifestyles. In 1991, 39 m. people migrated in rural urban patterns
of which 54% were female. Seasonal urban migration is also evident throughout
India, many migrants move into the city during periods of hardship and return to
their native villages for events such as the harvest. The growing of this phenomenon
has important implications for future generation who suffer from the same debilitating
lack of opportunities and low productivity. For example, whole families migrate for
six to eight months to work in the factories, resulting in their children being unable
to enroll in schools.
Rural-to-rural Migration
There is evidence especially from the drought- prone to the agro-climatically better-
endowed districts, seems to have created overcrowding in destination. Some of the
most drought-prone districts have relatively higher labour productivity vis-a-vis the
agriculturally prosperous districts. Invariably, migrant labors are paid lower wages
compared to locals.
Solutions
Over the past four decades, the Government of India has adopted many explicit
population distribution policies and programs to decongest urban areas and facilitate
a more balanced spatial development. The closed city programs were aimed at reducing
migration to metropolitan regions through such instruments as tax incentives, limitations
on investments and demolition of squatter settlements. The Government also promoted
intermediate-size cities and regions by extending support services to them, improving
their Infrastructure, and strengthening linkages between intermediate-size and large
cities.
Moreover, land colonization programs were introduced by the Government to re-
settle residents from overpopulated rural areas to frontier regions or underutilized
areas. The policy instruments commonly employed for this purpose were the transfer
of land titles and the provision of credit and other facilities to increase the productivity
and income of settlers. Finally, the Government should take effective steps to implement
the following Rural development Programmes to reduce the rural-urban migrants.
• Small Farmers Development Agency.
• Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers projects.
• Hill Area Development programme
References
1. Adams. D.W. (2006) - ‘Rural Migration and Agricultural Development in Colombia’. Economic
Development and Cultural Change, 17(4).
2. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance (2016) – Planning Commission and NSSO 61 st round,
Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry
of agriculture, GOI, New Delhi.
3. Bagchi, K.K. (2011) – Regional Disparities in India’s Socio-Economic Development, New
century Publication, January.
4. Bandyopadhyay, S. and D. Chakraborty (2008) - Migration to the North-Eastern region and
the problem of security, in Sanjukta Banerji Bhattacharya and Rochana Das eds., Perspectives
on India’s North East. BIBHASA, Calcutta, pp. 94-116.
Women Labourers in India: An Evaluation
Qaiser Alam*
Introduction
The importance of women labourers are significantly realized during the last two
decade. The women comprise 48.2 percent of the population and their contribution
in the economy is important for promotion of economic development. In the era of
globalization, liberalization and privatization, women role in the main stream of the
economy has increased. The women presence in the agriculture sector is 59.7 percent,
industry 20.9 percent and in service sector 19.4 percent in 2011. In the organized
sector employment of women increased from 40.2 lakh in 1993 to 59.5 lakh in 2011.
The women workers as a percentage of total work force is 24.3 percent and women
work participation rate is 25.5 in 2011. The women workers with 23.6 percent primary
and 9 percent are having secondary education. The women workers are also suffering
from the high unemployment rate of 3.9 percent in 2011.
The women entrepreneur comprises 13.7 percent in micro and medium enterprises
which are considered as an engine of growth. Women workers are doing well in the
areas of data processing, management, designing and multimedia services, information
technology and health services. The women’s participation in different sectors such
as micro sectors 14.2 percent, small enterprises 5.1 percent and 4.2 percent in the
medium enterprises. Thus, women contributing significantly in increasing employment
opportunity, boosting rural economy and boosting financial development.
In this concern, this papers aims to find the relevance of women labourers, their
contribution in the economy, the lacuna behind the active contribution of women
labourers and their possible role in economic development of the country. For this
purpose, this paper has been divided into four sections. First section, presents the
introduction. Second section provides the literature review. Third section provides
the significance of women workers in India. Fourth section presents the conclusions
and valuable suggestions.
Literature Review
There are a growing number of literatures available on issue of women work
force and their possible role in women empowerment and economic development.
* Associate Professor, Department of Economics, D.S College, Aligarh, U.P.
Global Gender Gap Report (2016), observed that women earn half of what a man
earn but work for longer hours. The report further observed that there exists a wage
gap, employment gap, education gap, political and legal representation gap between
male and female workers. Woytek et.al (2013), observed that increasing female work
participation can increase economic growth by mitigating the negative effect of a
shortage of labour force. Stosky (2006), observed that a reduction in economic inequality
will improve the status of women and resulted in increasing economic growth and
macroeconomic stability.
Women Workers in India
The women economic activity and women employment is important for promotion
of economic development. They traditionally dominated in the lower section of the
informal economy. They are usually involved in the work on farms, construction
activities, manufacturing garments and electronic assembly units. Women workers
are suffering from the problem of gender biasness, low literacy rate, high unemployment
and lower health standards, lower participation rate and lower entrepreneurial ability,
low skill and so on are directly or indirectly impeding the economic development of
the country. However, number of female workers in India increased from 40 million
in 1951 to 150 million in 2011.
Figure 1, depicts the women workers as a percentage of total work force which
increased from 27.6 percent in 1990 to 29.5 percent in 2005 and further declined to
24.3 percent in 2016.
Figure 2, depicts the women employment to population ratio in the country which
decreased from 33.5 percent in 1990 to 25.6 percent in 2015.
Figure 3, depicts the percentage of women employment in total employment in

the country which increased from 10.6 percent in 1961 to 18.6 percent in 2005 and
furthe decreased to 15.7 percent in 2010.
The table 1, depicts the employment of women in different economic activity as

a percentage of total women employment.
Table 1: Employment of Women in Different Economic Activity as a Percentage

of Total Women Employment
Year Agriculture Industry Services
1994 72.4 12.4 12.5
2000 74.8 11.5 13.7
2005 70.9 14.4 14.7
2010 65.3 17.8 17.0
2012 59.7 20.9 19.4
Source: World Development Indicators 2017, World Bank
Table 2: Women Employment by Industrial Activity in the Organized Public and

Private Sector in census 2011
Figure in Thousands
Industrial Activity Public Sector Private Sector
Agricultural, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting 59.6 430.8
Mining and Quarrying 82.8 7.2
Manufacturing 77.4 966.7
Electricity, Gas and Water services 56.4 3.2
Construction 65.4 7.1
Wholesale and Retail Trade & Restaurants &Hotels 13.9 70.0
Transport and Communication 190 27.3
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate & Business Services 222.4 417.1
Community, Social and Personal Services. 2363.5 850.6
Total 3131.5 2779.9
Source: Statistical Profile on Women Labour, 2012-13, Ministry of Labour, Gov of India.
In the private sector, 27.8 lakh women were employed in which maximum
employment in wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels accounted for
70.0 percent, manufacturing sector 34.8 percent, community, social and personal services
to 30.6 percent and agriculture sector to 15.5 percent.
Table 3: Work Participation Rate in India During Census 1971-2011
Year Work Participation Rate Male Female
1971 33.08 52.61 12.11
1981 36.70 52.62 19.67
1991 37.50 51.61 22.27
2001 39.10 51.68 25.63
2011 39.80 53.30 25.51
Source: Statistical Profile on Women Labour, 2012-13, Ministry of Labour, Government of India.

The participation of women in different economic activities is important for
promotion of economic development. The participation of women in formal sectors
are low whereas in informal sectors are high. They are doing well in the promotion
of information technology, health services, data processing, management and multimedia
services. They own 13.7 percent of small scale enterprises. In micro sector, women
share is 14.2 percent, small sector 5.1 percent and in medium enterprises is 4.2 percent.
In rural areas, women are comparatively doing better as compared to the urban
areas. This reveals their significantly role in increasing employment opportunity and
in promoting financial development which is a step towards women economic
empowerment and economic development. Women though comprise almost half of
the population but women share in total work force and work participation rate is
very poor. The women worker varies from 59.7 percent in agriculture to 20.9 percent
in industries and only 19.4 percent in the services sector. This requires the need on
the part of the government to make the inclusive growth for women for realizing
their full potentials. There is a need to increase the women workers professional
skill, health standards, employment opportunity and overall there is an urgent need
to provide safe and secure environment for women in the country.
References
1. Bhalla, S. and R. Kaur (2011), Labour Force Participation of Women in India: Some Facts,
Some Queries”, Working Paper No. 40. Census of India, 2011, , India, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Government of India
2. Duflo, E (2012), Women Empowerment and Economic Development,” Journal of Economic
Literature, Vol. 50, pp. 1051–1079.
3. Ghani, E., W. Kerr, and S. O’Connell (2013), Promoting Women’s Economic Participation in
India,” Economic Premise No. 107, World Bank: Washington.
Socio-economic Condition of Migration Among Tribes of West

Champaran District of Bihar State in India
Dharmnath Uraon*, Anup Kumar** & Ajay Kumar Pandey***
Introduction
The meaning of migration is driven by perceived differences in the utility of
living or working in two geographical locations. In the aftermath of transition, migration
was stimulated not only by economic motivations but also by the desire to escape
conflict and relocate to ethnic homelands in many instances. Despite the great variation
in the migration patterns across the region and extremely complex combination of
microeconomic and social motivations for migration, similar motivations seem to
underpin the decisions to migrate throughout the region.
The Migration of Male population is a continuous social phenomenon since history
of human life in India. The heavy flow of outward migration from Bihar is led by
under-development and poverty. The violent reaction of the political class and host
community o Bihar migrants has further accelerated the debate on different issues
related to outward migration from the state. Bihari migrants are facing increasing
hostility from political class but eh ongoing policy of urban planning, which is flipped
towards the richer section of urban residents and is also increasing difficulty to
survival of poor migrants. In this scenario, it is important to understand the actual
factors and reasons of outward migration of tribal community from their respective
original or residential place. In this study, researcher has focused on socio-economic
factors and reason of migration among tribal communities of West Champaran district
of Bihar state in India.
 To study the socio-economic factors of the migrant respondents in the study area.
 To identify the reasons for outward migration of the respondents in the study area.

** Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.
*** HOD Hundia PG College Allahabad, U.P.
Hypothesis
• H0 = There is no significant socio-economic factors for the migration of
respondents in study area.
• H1 = There is significant socio-economic factors for the migration of respondents
in study area.
• H0 = There is no significant reasons for outward migration of the respondents
in the study area.
• H1 = There is significant reasons for outward migration of the respondents in
the study area.
Methodology
Data sources and study area: This study is basically concern with the primary
data sources which is supplemented by secondary data. The West Champaran district
of Bihar state is a study area and the migrants of tribal people from home to outward
are the respondents of the our study. The field survey has been done from May 20,
2017 to Jun 10, 2017 (20 days) of those 140 households in which migrant peoples
were found. The researcher has been also gone through many secondary sources of
data like regional and national economic journals, National Sample Survey (NSS)
reports, Census of India, Economic Survey and Statistical Abstracts published by the
State Governments and other published sources and published and unpublished sources,
various past studies and so on.
Tools and Methods of Data Analysis: Data were analysed by using some statistical
tools like: frequencies, percentages, and chi-squire test for nominal variables, cross
tabulation (bi-variate analysis) were also generated and ?2 (Chi-Square) test was used
as a test of significance at 5% level of significance, for analyzing these. In order to
analyse the responses which were given by the respondents, the researcher used
simple percentage, ?2 (Chi-square)-test, comparison of mean and standard deviation,
F-test and ANOVA test. Different types of graphs also have been used wherever
necessary in this study.
Data Analysis and Hypothesis Testing
For the solution of above framed hypothesis we have used required tools to
getting appropriate results are given below:
The data represents the distribution of respondents according to their age in the
selected blocks. In Bagaha-2, the highest percentage of out-migrants is in the age
group of (25-32) years, i.e. 29 (34.5%), whereas lowest is in the age group of (16-24)
years i.e. 12 (14.3%). In case of Ramnagar block, out of 30 respondents, 6 (20.0%) of
(33-40) years age group. In Mainatand block the highest No. is of more than 40 year
age group is 11 (42.3%). The result of significant test shows that the differences were
found between respondents age groups are statistically significant at ?2 = 24.02,(6, N
= 140), that means there is out-migration from all the block taken into consideration
among age group of (16-24) years, (25-32) yrs, (33-40) yrs, more than 40 years.
The data reveals the distribution of respondents according to their caste. Out of
140 respondents, 107 (76.4%) comprises Oraon Community whereas 33 (23.6%)
respondents of Tharu community of the scheduled tribe population. The result of
the significant test shows that the community wise distribution is statistically significant
at ?2 (2, N = 140) = 6.798 and the p-Value is 0.033 i.e. the out-migration is taking
place in the both the community of ST (Oraon & Tharu).
The data high lights the distribution of respondents on the basis of their educational
status. Almost 50% respondents in Ramnagar 13 (43.3%) and 13 (50%) respondents
of Mainatand blocks are illiterate in the study area. 10 (11.9%) respondents in Bagaha-
2, 2 (6.7%) in Ramnagar and 3(11.5%) in Mainatand are graduate and rest are either
high school pass or below that. The result is statistically significant at ?2 (6, N =140)
= 12.994 and the p-value is 0.043, i.e. he majority of the respondents are either illiterate
or high school pass in the all the selected blocks.
The data shows the distribution of respondents by their caste and poverty status.
It is revealed that majority of the respondents in both the community are BPL (Below
Poverty Line) having (yellow) and red card. Almost 96 (86.0%) respondents of Oraon
and 20 (60.6%) respondents of Tharu community are under BPL category. Only 15
(14.0%) Oraon and 13 (39.4%) Tharu respondents are with APL (Above Poverty Line)
with (Green Card) or not registered. The result is statistically significant at ?2 (1, N =
140) = 10.150, and p-value =0.001 i.e. the most of the respondents are poor and that
can be one of the main reason for their out-migration.
Distribution of respondents according to their land holdings have been shown in
table 1.5. Almost 80 (95.2%) respondents in Bagaha-2, 14 (46.7%) in Ramnagar and 15
(57.7%) in Mainatand having land holdings whereas 16 (53.3%) in Ramnagar, 11 (42.3%)
in Mainatand are without land holdings and only 4 (4.8%) respondents in Bagaha-2
are without any land holdings. The result is statistically significant at ?2 (2, N = 140)
= 37.781 and p-value is 0.000.
The data gives an account of distribution of respondents by size of their land
holding 24 (28.6%) respondents in Bagaha-2, 3 (10.0%) in Ramnagar and 3 (11.5%) in
Mainatand having 4 Acre and more land holdings. Whereas 33 (39.3%) respondents
in Bagaha-2, 10 (38.5%) in Mainatand and 5 (16.7%) in Ramnagar have (1-3) Acre of
land holdings. The result is statistically significant at ?2 (6, N = 140) = 39.453, i.e.
majority of the respondents are marginal farmer with less than 4 acres of land holdings.
The result is statistically significant at ?2 (4, N = 140) = 22.631 with p = 0.000 and
F= 7.926, p = 0.001, i.e. the income level of respondents in Mainatand is comparatively
lower than rest of two blocks in the study area.
It is clear from the above study that our first alternative hypothesis is accepted
and null hypothesis rejected because age, caste, educational status, poverty, Land
holding with land size and MPCI are responsible for outmigration of the respondents
in the study area.
The data reveals the distribution of respondents among household in which more
than 50.0% households have at least one person out-migrant, which is maximum in
Mainatand block 22 (84.6%) and lowest in least two individuals/person as out-migrants
and 13 (43.3%) in Ramnagar where as Mainatand is 4 (15.4%) only. the result is
statistically significant at ?2 (2, N = 140) = 9.779 and p-value is 0.008. In other word
we can say that number of migrants’ persons among selected blocks is unequal.
Table 1: Distribution of Respondents by Place of Migration

Block Migration Place
Punjab/ Haryana/ Andhra Pradesh or
Delhi Gujarat Bangalore Any other Place Total
Bagaha-2 8 (9.5) 21 (25.0) 16 (19.0) 39 (46.4) 84 (100.0)
Ramnagar 13 (43.3) 9 (30.0) 1 (3.3) 7 (23.3) 30 (100.0)
Mainatand 5 (19.2) 7 (26.9) 6 (23.1) 8 (30.8) 26 (100.0)
Total 26 (18.6) 37 (26.4) 23 (16.4) 54 (38.6) 140 (100.0)
Statistical Test χ2 = 21.568, df = 6, p = 0.001
Source: Field Survey.

Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages to the total in the respective Row
The heavy flow of out-migrants from Bihar has always been a part of scholar’s
interest, as it became a metaphor of out-migration led by under-development and
poverty. The violent reaction of the political class and host community to Bihari
migrants has further accelerated the debate on different issues related to outmigration
from the state. Bihari migrants are facing increasing hostility from political class but
the ongoing policy of urban planning, which is flipped towards the richer section of
urban residents and is also increasing difficulty to survival of poor migrants. In this
scenario, it is important to understand the actual pattern of out-migration and its
importance for the community of origin.
By discussion it is evidently clear that null hypothesis (H0) is rejected and alternate
hypothesis (H1) accepted i.e. there is significant reasons for outward migration of
the respondents in the study area.
Major Findings/Conclusions of the study
• Low level of education.
• Poverty is major cause of migration among tribal community.
• Smaller land holdings.
• Low Monthly per capita income of the tribal people.
Policy Recommendations (Suggestions)
From the perspective of policies to obtain better outcomes, a simple Picture emerges.
 There is need of focus/targeted poverty eradication programmes e.g. JAM

(Jandhan, Adhar and Mobile) can be used as instrument for above purpose.
 Modern techniques of agriculture to be introduce, e.g. Production of Cash
crops, fruits, Vegetables and floriculture etc.
References
1. Bhagat, R.B. (2010), “Internal Migration in India: Are the underprivileged Migrating More”,
Asia Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 25, No. 1, PP. 31-50.
2. Chakravarti, A. (2001), “Caste and Agrarian Class: A View from Bihar ’’, Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol. 36, No. 17 pp, 1449-1462 (Apr. 28 May 4).
Social and Economic Determinants of Migration and Economic

Development of Uttarakhand: With Special Reference to
Kumaun Region
Mukesh Singh Negi* & Padam S. Bisht**
Introduction
Migration is the movement of people between regions/countries. it the process
of changing one’s place of residence to another place and permanently living in a
region/country. As migration has its impact on various aspects of rural areas of
Kumaun region, this paper makes an attempt to draw attention on migration from
rural areas of Kumaun region. The reasons of the migration from hill areas to cities
is closely related to regional backwardness small landholding size, unemployment,
under-employment and high natural growth of rural population. People have always
moved in search of work, in response to environmental shocks and stress etc. In
Uttarakhand, rural to rural migration was highest in 2001, accounting for 54.7% of
total domestic migration. But the share declines over last decade, while rural to
urban migration has gradually increased from 21.1% to 32% in 2011. As per census
2011 of Uttarakhand, 1053 villages have no in habitants and another 405 villages
have a population less than 10. Out of this, 60% villages are from Kumaun region.
The number of such villages risen particularly after earthquake and flash floods due
to heavy rainfall in last 4 years. Migration is not new to Kumaun region, but the
data of census 2011 and some other recent reports show that the rate of migration
from hilly areas of Kumaun region has increased after, it was formed in 2000. Kumaun
region has witnessed a spurt in migration from hills to plains over last 5 years. Due
to heavy migration the population of plains of Kumaun region has increased by
30%. The fact is that, migration leads negative growth rate of population in Almora
district. Almora district has been worst hit by the migration as educated persons are
migrating from these districts in search of better jobs and education for their children.
Migration leads to abandonment of villages which cause degradation of land and
makes villages unlivable. The problem of ever increasing migration from the hill
* Research Scholar, Economics Department, D.S.B. Campus Kumaun University Nainital

** Prof. Economics Department, D.S.B. Campus Kumaun University Nainital
rural areas has always posed a serious concern for the economy of these districts.
The major cause of migration is lack of government initiatives to provide self-
employment opportunities, failure to promote tourism and agriculture in hills area
of kumaun region. Migration to cities has recorded to highest in Kumaun region to
benefit from greater economic opportunities. The main factors which influence migration
is categorized into two broad categories; Push factors and Pull factors. Push factors
are those forces which compel an individual to migrate, while pull factors are those
foreign forces which compel an individual to migrate. Typically, push factors induce
migration in Kumaun region due to lack of livelihood opportunities locally, whereas
pull factors induce migration due to greater availability of livelihood opportunities
elsewhere.
• To study the pattern of economic growth and development of uttarakhand
with special reference to kumaun division.
• To study the causes and impact of migration in kumaun division.
Data Sources and Methodology
To answer the above research question methodologically, the study is done in
following stages. First it starts with a brief introduction of Migration, second it analysis
the economy of uttarakhand and study area, third it analysis the various social and
economic determinants of migration The study uses secondary data from a variety
of sources.
Study Area
Kumaun region faces the significant challenges of the combining its rapid economic
growth with special equity and environmental sustainability. Kumaun region has an
agricultural substance economic on its mountain region and dynamic industrial
development in the plains. Agricultural has to be among the top contributors of
revenue in Kumaun region. 60% of the village population of Kumaun region depends
on agriculture. The occupational distribution of workers is the most important
determinant of social, economic, as well as environmental development of Kumaun
region. The larger part of the Kumaun region is characterized by a difficult terrain,s
undoubting topography, remote and inaccessible villages, spare population, tiny land
holders, agriculture based economy and weak infrastructure in hill areas. Though,
the region is rich in beauty and natural resources, improper use of these resources
and rapidly growing population has thwarted its development and consequently the
Kumaun region is technically backwards and economically poor.
Why People Migrate to Urban Areas from Rural Areas
To make strong economy of uttarakhand we need to arrest migration at least for
times for that protest marches should be held. Public seminars should be organized
and bill drafted to stop the hills of uttarakhand from losing their inhabitants and
government should make some policies to develop the hilly districts of uttarakhand,
so that people will stop to migrate from there to plain districts of uttarakhand.
Table 1: The District Wise Male Female Ratio of Kumaun Region

Districts Female Male ratio
2001 2011
 Almora  1147  1142
 Bageshwar  1110  1093
 Champawat  1024  981

 Nainital  906  933
 Pithoragarh  1031  1021
 U.S Nagar  902  919
Source: India census 2001 & 2011, office of the registrar & census commissioner, India.
Uttarakhand has witnessed a high rate of economic growth since its formation
but this growth rate is only lopsided growth. The economic prosperity has largely
been limited to three districts in the plains, the hills are contributing the most to the
migrant labor force, so develop uttarakhand we should remove the problem of regional
imbalances
Economic Factors
The poor economic conditions and lack of employment opportunities in villages
of Kumaun region are the main push factors that drift the rural population to the
plains of Kumaun. The hill areas of Kumaun region are less developed, have poor
agriculture conditions and grater population pressure on land, push the population
to plains. Income in agriculture is lower than other sectors. Migration in kumaun
region is largely due to poverty and lack of economic opportunities in villages is
more significant than others. The migration to plains towards is not due to economic
opportunities but also because of many other factors i.e. educational and health
services, higher wages and better standard of living available in cities pull the rural
population from kumaun region to plains.
Demographic Factors
It is also a major factor of migration from rural Kumaun to plains. Generally,
there is higher fertility rate and natural population growth in rural areas as compare
to plains of Kumaun.
Major Causes of Migration in Kumaun Region
Migration is caused by a variety of factors in Kumaun region. Some of the factors
are briefly described below:
Barren Landholdings
Depleting Water Table
Employment
Education

Long awaited development in the hill districts of Kumaun region has pushed
backward the development of these districts relatively to the other plain districts of
Kumaun region. This has resulted in the persistent migrations of the major workforce
from these districts which largely constitutes the male youths of these regions. This
has put pressure on the economy of these districts. We see that the Kumaun is
primarily depends upon agriculture, but there are many industries, which contribute
in the economy, we know that the all these industries were established in plain areas
or we can say in plains areas in the Kumaun region. We see in this paper that as
86% of the state consists of hills region in Kumaun area and only some of agriculture
products like wheat, rice and potato are the key products of Uttarakhand. We know
that agriculture has to be among the top contributors of revenue in Kumaun region
from tabulation in this paper, but only some of the products are involve in agriculture.
This means villages that have witnessed migration in the recent past now have to
deal with several plots of untended land interspersed with active farmland.
Migration in India as well as Uttarakhand, especially in Kumaun region is a
historical and present phenomenon. The main or we can say the major cause of
migration is lack of government initiative to provide self-employment opportunities,
failure to promote tourism and agriculture in hills areas of Kumaun region. Migration
to cities has recorded to highest in Kumaun regions to benefit from greater economic
opportunities.
It is suggested that:
• The govt. should develop the higher education institutions, health care facilities
etc. in the hill districts of Kumaun division.
To make strong economy of uttarakhand we need to arrest migration at least for
times, for that protest marches should be held. Public seminars should be organized
and bill drafted to stop the hills of uttarakhand from losing their inhabitants and
government should make some policies to develop the hilly districts of uttarakhand,
so that people will stop to migrate from there to plain districts of uttarakhand.
References
1. Deshigkar, P (2009), Human Development Research Paper, Uttarakhand. 22-23
2. Mehta, M (2008), gender assessment of kumaun region live hoods. pp. 71-78.
3. Shobhan singh, (2009), industrial development of backward areas of kumaun region, Himalyan
Pubilishing House, pp. 131-132.
The Impact of the Work on the Physical and Mental Health

of the Women Workers Engaged in the Chikan Industry of
Lucknow District (with Special Reference to Home Based
Women Workers)
Darshan Kaur Kinot* & Padam S. Bisht**
Introduction
Widely portrayed as a leisure-time activity, chikan embroidery production employs
poor, women workers on piece rates. While women are heavily involved in handicraft
production, their contribution is often masked by discourses that tend either to ignore
or marginalise them, or portray their work as use-value production. Overall, there is
very little critical analysis of women’s handicrafts. While development projects involving
handicrafts have been favoured by the state and non-governmental organisations as
low-cost, low-risk interventions, their value is compromised by the persistence of
exploitative forms of production.( Contemporary South Asia 13(3), (September 2004)
287–306. If we look at the history of human development, women have been as vital
in the history making as men have been. In fact higher status for women vis-à-vis
employment and work performed by them in a society is a significant indicator of a
nation’s overall progress. Undoubtedly, without the active participation of women in
national activities, the social, economic or political progress of a country will deteriorate
and become stagnant. But ironically and tragically, women employees in general, are
not taken very seriously by their superiors, colleagues, or society at large. Traditionally
Indian women had been home makers but in the recent decades, proper education
and better awareness, in addition to the ever increasing cost of living has made
them to go out and choose careers. In a patriarchal society like India it is still believed
that a man is the primary bread winner of his family. Although Indian women have
started working outside their homes but still they have a long way to go both culturally,
socially and economically, to bring in positive attitudinal changes in the mind-set of
people.
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital.

** Professor, Department of Economics, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital.
A diagnostic study of the chikan embroidery cluster at Lucknow,was taken up by
Pankaj Arya and Shilp Sadhana (Textile Block Printers Association) developed under
the cluster development agent training programme of UNIDO CDP, New Delhi &
the Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India (EDII), Ahmedabad and sponsored
by SIDBI, gives an overview of embroidery clusters in India, the history and tradition
of chikankari, the uniqueness of chikan-craft and the whole process of chikankari.
Embroidering Lives: Women’s Work and Skill in the Lucknow Embroidery Industry
by Clare M. Wilkinson-Weber, investigates the lives and work of women in the chikan
embroidery industry of Lucknow. The study was conducted in the year 1999. Since
then the chikan industry of Lucknow has seen a lot of changes which need to be
investigated afresh in order to understand the problems faced by the women workers
engaged in the chikan industry in the current scenario.
Patriarchal Society
The women engaged in the chikan industry suffer oppression and domination by
the patriarchal society in India because of which they face many problems and
challenges. All the rules and regulations seem to be made only for women which
they are bound to follow including their ‘initiation rites.’ They are neither considered
as individuals with a personality of their own, nor do they have any personal life.
The inferior positions of women have been reinforced by a number of traditional
practices such as polygamy, early marriage, and illiteracy and by years of subjugation.
Control Over the Work Environment
A study of civil servants in the U.K. showed that men and women with low job
control were nearly twice as likely to report coronary heart disease than other workers.
Though the women chikan workers under study are home based and it seems that they
have a better control over their work environment, but the truth is that the benefit of
this control is negated with the pressure of dual responsibility of work as well as household.
It was observed that home based workers could not enjoy the leisure time that the
workers working in chikan centres and boutiques enjoyed due to the never ending work
at home. After being free from the chikan work they had other household works lined
up to be finished. This, in turn, adds to their physical and mental stress.
Intimidation
Different forms of intimidation in the workplace such as suppression and exploitation
can cause psychological stress and may have an impact on mental and physical
health. Most of the chikan embroidery workers are not directly related to the
manufacturers for work though some workers have started working in centres or
boutiques manufacturing chikan garments. One contractor of the area procures the
work from the manufacturers and distributes it to the workers. Thus they are dependent
on the contractors who usually exploit them but do not provide them regular work
and payment.
Lack of Family Support
It is possible to accept that as more and more women have entered the workforce,
there is no longer a solid family-support at home (Schwarts, 1992). “Women have
increased their participation in paid employment considerably during the past 30
years, but men have not increased their participation in housework to the same
extent” (Evertsson and Nermo, 2004). Women still perform majority of the care giving
role and juggling of work in the family. (Delgado and Canabal, 2006). Although
husbands have taken on more domestic work than they did in earlier generations,
this gain for women has been offset by “escalating pressures for intensive parenting
and the increasing time demands of most high-SSlevel careers” (Eagly and Carli,
2007). Added to this is the phenomenon of guilt experienced by women containing a
general feeling of responsibility especially towards their own children. It gives rise
to a sense of failure of responsibility that arises when they lack control over the
demands made on them from different spheres of life.
Work/Life Balance for Older Women Chikan Worker
With deteriorating eyesight the older women chikan workers are left with very
little work in hand. At the same time these older chikan workers need time to attend
to their health needs, such as taking medication, preparing nutritious meals or
performing regular exercise. Common ailments such as diabetes require a strong
commitment to lifestyle changes. Ongoing or increased work commitments can reduce
the time older people have to care both for themselves and for dependents.
Inaccessibility of Medical/Healthcare Facilities
Most women chikan workers do not have any economic and social security or
access to health care benefits. As a result, the work-related illnesses, like mental
pressure and other health problems, remain hidden. As per available research, a
large number of women workers complain of frequent headaches, back pain, circulatory
disorders, fatigue, and emotional and mental disorders resulting from the work which
remain uncured due to inaccessibility of healthcare facilities.
Conclusion
This paper has shown that stressful working conditions, exploitation by the
middlemen and low pay are all detrimental to health. The disruption of work or life
balance through long or irregular working hours and stressful physical positions
required in chikankari are also unhealthy.
It also shows the variety of ways in which work of the chikan workers can affect
health and shows that a holistic and comprehensive approach is required by decision
makers who are committed to promoting the health of the workforce. Thus it is
suggested that there is a need to improve health both through government policy
and through action in the workplace by. A healthier workforce will also pay economic
dividends in terms of reduced stress and increased productivity.
While this research paper concentrates on the impacts of the work on the health
of the women chikan workers, a further study can be conducted to understand the
impacts of the health of these workers on their work. A healthy workforce is a
prerequisite for economic success and improvements in health will help to increase
efficiency and productivity.
References
1. Arya, Pankaj and Sadhana, Shilp. 2002. Diagnostic Study, Artisan: The chikan Embroidery
Cluster, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. New Delhi: UNIDO CDP. Sponsored by SIDBI (Small
Industries Development Bank of India).
2. Census of India 2011. ‘Instruction Manual for House listing and Housing Census. New
Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Available at: http://censusindia.gov.in/
2011-Documents/Houselisting%20English.pdf, accessed on 11 May, 2013.
3. Delgado, E. A. and Canabal, M. E. (2006) Factors Associated with Negative Spillover from
Job to Home Among Latinos in the United States. Journal of Family and Economic Issues,
27(1), 92- 112.
4. Eagly, A. H. and Carli, L. L. (2007) Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership. Harvard
Business Review, 63- 71.
5. Evertsson, M. and Nermo, M. (2004) Dependence within families and the division of labour:
Comparing Sweden and the United States. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(5), 1272-
1286.
6. Gulati, B. 1999.Chikan Workers of Lucknow: Socio-economic Conditions and their Implications
for Health (Unpublished M.Phil. Dissertation). New Delhi. Centre of Social Medicine and
Community Health, Jawaharlal Nehru University.
7. Gulati, Bhavana and Nayar, K.R. 2004. Health and Well Being of Women Embroidery Workers
in the Chikan Industry of Lucknow. Unpublished PhD Thesis. New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru
University Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/2009/3588, accessed on 23rd January, 2013.http:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan [accessed on 17 July, 2017]
8. Kabeer, N. 2000. ‘Social Exclusion, Poverty and Discrimination’. IDS Bulletin. Vol. 31, No. 4.
9. Kantor, Paula. 2009. ‘Women’s Exclusion and Unfavourable Inclusion in Informal Employment
in Lucknow, India: Barriers to Voice and Livelihood Security’. World Development Vol. 37,
No. 1, pp. 194–207.
10. Wentling, R.M. (2003). The career development and aspirations of women in middle
management – Revisited. Women in Management Review, 18(6), 311–324.
11. Wilkinson-Weber, Clare M. 1999. Embroidering Lives: Women’s Work and Skill in the Lucknow
Embroidery Industry. Albany. State Universit.
Trends and Determinants of Migration in Uttarakhand:

An Overview
Prashant Agarwal*
‘Migration’ is a crucial feature of Uttarakhand due to its demographic and socio-

economic relevance. Every decennial census shows higher number of migrants than
earlier. Census 2011 of the state has also shown the raised trend of migration with
some variations at different dimensions of migration streams. Migration is too obvious
in hill region of the state that abbreviations as ‘Ghost villages’ and ‘Money Order
Economy’ have become an identity of the state. Population figures for 2011 census
shows significant lower rates of population growth rate in hill districts which was
nearly 5 percent (excepting two Hill Districts, Almora and Pauri Districts showing a
negative population growth of -1.73 percent and -1.51 percent respectively) against
the national average of 17 percent. Addition to this, 1053 out of Uttarakhand’s 16,793
villages have no inhabitants. These figures illustrate only a glimpse of several socio
–economic and demographic consequences in hilly areas of the region whereas migration
plays more important and versatile role in the life of migrants. It also emphasizes
those specific features of the native and destination places for which a person takes
decision to migrate. In the present paper, an attempt has been made to illustrate the
trends of migration with reference to concerned characteristics of the state’s economy.
This study is based on the ‘Census of India’ D series data for 2001 and 2011 census
and the National Sample Survey Organisation reports on Migration.
Macro Determinants of Migration in Uttarakhand
In Uttarakhand, 14.9 percent population counted as below poverty line (Rs. 719.50
PCPM) with the number of 1.03 million persons. It is lower than all India levels of
poverty estimates though it’s an important cause for out migration from the hill
areas. In rural areas, migration due to poverty is closely related with limited occupational
opportunities in primary sector and skewed agricultural land. The tough production
* Associate Professor in Economics, S.R.K. (P.G.) College, Firozabad, U.P.

conditions and increased cost have made agriculture a survival activity in hilly region.
A larger share of agricultural land in situated in foothills and plain areas of the
states while in hilly region the land is scattered and skewed. Only 9.4 percent of the
agricultural land is covered under irrigation. The cultivable land area is also shrinking
due to lack of irrigation facilities, empty villages and natural disasters in hilly areas;
while in plains rapid industrialization and urbanization are the main cause of reduced
agricultural land area. As par records, in 2001 – 2002 the agriculture land area was
343608 hectare which reduced to 339397 hectares in 2011 – 12. While there were
3,43,608 hectares under agriculture in 2001-02, it has reduced to 3,39, 397 hectares in
2011-12. In a span of 12 years, 4,211 hectares of land were lost to agriculture While
there were 3,43,608 hectares under agriculture in 2001-02, it has reduced to 3,39, 397
hectares in 2011-12. In a span of 12 years, 4,211 hectares of land were lost to agriculture
While there were 3,43,608 hectares under agriculture in 2001-02, it has reduced to
3,39, 397 hectares in 2011-12. In a span of 12 years, 4,211 hectares of land were lost to
agriculture Addition to this, the demand of skilled or specialized labour has also
shrunk the economic opportunities for traditional workforce. The share of primary
sector in Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) has reduced from 30.1 percent in
year 2000 to 14.97 percent in the year 2012 due economic transformation of the state.
In continuation of above, the economic transformation has restructured the sector-
wise contribution to GSDP. In the year 2000, the share of secondary sector in GSDP
was 18.80 percent which increased to 32.24 percent in 2012 and the contribution of
tertiary sector was only 51.1 percent in year 2000 which increased to 52.79 percent in
the year 2011-12. It is a fact that, higher growth rates initiate intersectoral transformation
from primary sector to secondary and tertiary sectors and this transformation accelerate
voluntary migration from one region to another according to economic characteristics
of the natives and destinations. National Sample Survey Organization Study on
migration 2007-08 shows that the Labor force participation has increased in both
rural and urban areas (from 400 to 474 and 402 to 444 respectively), with male and
female participation both registering a rise over 2009-10. This shows the restructuring
of labour composition according to economic requirements though migration. Moreover,
the economic growth along with migration also transforms the composition of employed
and unemployed population. The mobility of labour (according to skills) plays a
significant role not only in getting employment but also makes changes in the
composition of ‘employed or unemployed status’ of the population. The ‘capability
to move’ and ‘skillfulness’ provide better options to males of the state in getting
employment. The NSSO findings show that the unemployment rate for male has
decreased in both rural and urban areas when compared to 2009-10 while in case of
females the rate of unemployment has increased across rural and urban areas (from
34 to 108 and 83 to 142 respectively).
Migration Trends in Uttarakhand
Table 1: Percentage Distribution of Migrants in Different Streams

Rural - Rural Migration
Year Male Female
Economic Education Other Economic Education Other
Year 2001 49.22 5.94 44.84 2.54 1.04 96.42
Year 2011 39.91 7.02 53.06 3.01 2.47 94.53
Urban - Rural Migration
Year Male Female
Year 2001 48.68 10.03 41.29 3.84 3.84 92.31
Year 2011 45.51 9.47 45.01 4.24 5.44 90.32
Rural - Urban Migration
Year Male Female
Year 2001 40.1 7.92 51.98 6.43 3.65 89.91

Year 2011 33.84 7.28 58.88 5.24 5.29 89.47
Urban - Urban Migration
Year Male Female
Year 2001 41.12 9.66 49.23 4.25 3.48 92.27
Year 2011 36.82 9.38 53.81 4.48 4.73 90.79
Compiled from D-series, Census of India, 2001 & 2011.
Suggestions to Regulate Migration in Uttarakhand

Due to newer dimensions of economic growth agriculture has become a subsistence
activity where incomes are low and uncertainty is high. But, agriculture is still a
main economic activity in rural areas, so by promoting progressive and modern
agriculture by using of high-yielding varieties of seed, fertilizer application, irrigation
facilities etc. the productivity may rise. Next, important have to do in agriculture is
to choose the profitable crops to cultivate. The government in Uttarakhand is promoting
herbal and medicinal industry and by proper training and investment facilities the
agrarian sector may revive its significance in profit making and employment by
growing raw material for these industries. The development of the network of roads
and communications, trade and banking activities, existence of small industrial units
and institutional facilities, e.g., cooperative societies in migration affected areas will
develop the ‘growth poles’ near to their own natives and it will help in reducing
migration to longer distances for minimal incentives.
Summing Up
In Uttarakhand, it is found that agricultural land scarcity and population pressure
on land, wage and income differentials, unemployment and employment opportunity
differentials, unequal distribution of resources, technological improvements and
mechanization, land reform, and general economic conditions are the most important
economic factors that motivate migration from hill region of the state. All of these
factors can’t be completely normalized due to geographical and functional limitations
but by developing of ‘growth poles’ in different part of the region new ‘preferred
destinations’ can be evolved. These new ‘growth poles’ will help in developing local
economies and generate more employment opportunities nearby to natives which
will further affect migration in favour.
References
1. Bora, R.S. (ed.) (2000) Out-Migration: Some Policy Implications for Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand
Statehood: Dimensions of Development, Ed. by M.C.Sati and S.P. Sati, Indus Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
2. Census of India (2001), Volume on Migration, D series, RGI, New Delhi,
3. Census of India (2011), Volume on Migration, D series, RGI, New Delhi,
4. Government of India (2010), Migration in India 2007-2008, Report No. 533, National Sample
Economics of Migration: With Special Reference to Uttrakhand

Economy
Yamini Pandey*
Introduction
Migration is a worldwide phenomenon .It is considered a form of social economic
behavior. U.N system -wide Task team report post 2015 Agenda: Realizing the future
we want for all as an important tool “to ensure that globalization becomes a positive
force for the entire world’s people of present and future generations. Migration can
be an enabler of human development by enhancing people’s income, health and
education. During the communist regime there were very restrictive exit policies
applied by the government. So migration diminished .After fall of the communist
regime market economy arises and migration becomes panacea for all problems. For
adaption of new situation people use to migrate.
Migration is a form of geographical or spatial mobility between ones geographical
unit and another generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin
to the place of destination.
MABOGUNJE 1970 defines that it is a set of places linked by flows and counter
flows of people, goods, services and information which tend to facilitate further
exchange, including migration between the places.
SKELDON (1997) analyzes that although migration evidently emanates from the
desire to improve one’s livelihoods, it is rarely the poorest that migrate. Some economist
believes that motivation of migration is economic consideration while other are explain
the other factors important for the migration.
Rural to urban migration has historically been an important part of the urbanization
processes and continues to be significant in scale in developing countries.
India is also facing the problem of migration .All the states have different angle
of migration.
* Associate Professor, Economics Govt. Girls Degree College–Behat Saharanpur, U.P.


The specific objectives of the proposed study are as-
1. To assess the role of migration in development of Uttrakhand.
2. To assess the various determinants and implications of migration.
3. To find out some measures to meet out the challenges occurs due to migration.
Research Methodolgy
Data collected for the work through various secondary sources.
Determinents of Migration
There are various determinants of migration as social, economic, demographic,
political and environmental. They may be pull factors and push factors.
Social Determinants
Social determinants includes the effect on society due to migration .whether is
in-migration or out migration The main determinants are hardship of village life,
lack of health care facilities, lack of water, poor transport connectivity, marriage,
education facilities, discrimination, overpopulation, violence, crime, personal freedom,
social mobility, law and order and religious persecution responsible for migration.
Growing tension in north east states of India, KAIRANA in U.P, KASHMIR and
JAMMU leads the migration due to social cause and crime.
Economic Determinants
Lack of infrastructural facilities, inaccessible market, Poverty, unemployment,
economic freedom, property rights, high taxes, livelihood opportunities are, main
determinants. Besides that JAMES DUSSENBERRY’S Relative income hypothesis applied
on the migrants .As consumption pattern of a consumer is not only depends upon
his income but also depends upon others income and consumption pattern. Some
people migrate because they don’t have sufficient income as their neighbor.
Demonstration effects tell that people needs are not confined for their survival only
but also for showoff they need the luxuries goods and amenities. RATCHET EFFECT
influences the consumer behavior, which tend the consumer to maintain the present
consumption.
Demographic and Environmental Determinants

Abandonment of land, increase number of wildlife, low production of crop, unused
natural resources are main determinants. Climate in Himalaya leads to seasonal
migrations. During summer people migrate to the valley regions in search of
employment. As the pilgrims comes during summer seasons.
Political Determinants
Sometimes government policies leads the migration. As in the case of Tehri district
all 114 villages has to migrate to another places.
Implications of Migrations
Migration is considered as positive agents of innovations with human rights.
Migration leads lots of changes in the life of migrants .The places affected from the
in migration and out migration emergence with some changes. These are the implications
of migration.
 In social reference it pollutes the social fabric of place. Values acquired by
migrants, crime, public welfare burden, social security measures distribution,
disorganization of family, over-burden of women, sanitation problem ,occurrence
of slum area, unplanned sprawl of town, are the main implication in the area.
Alcoholism among males’ youth is widespread as a social evil.
 Environment degradation is another implication of out migration and in
migration. In U.K some villages become ghost villages and land become barren.
 Demographic implication includes a change in demographic profile, increases
in population, skewed sex ratio, and other variants in affected area.
Uttrakhand and Migration
District Population Population Change in % change

2001 2011 population
Rudraprayag 227439 242285 14846 6.5

Champawat 224542 259648 35106 15.6
Bageshwar 249462 259898 10436 4.2
Uttarkashi 295013 330086 35073 11.9
Chamoli 370359 391605 21246 5.7
Pithoragarh 462289 483439 21150 4.6
Tehri 604747 618931 14184 2.3
Almora 630567 622506 -8061 -1.3
Pauri 697078 687271 -9807 -1.4
Nainital 762909 954605 191696 25.1

Udham singh nagar 1235614 1648902 413288 33.4
Dehradun 1282143 1696694 414551 32.3

Haridwar 1,447,187 1,890,422 443235 30.6
Total 8489349 10086292 1596943

Source – Source:
censusCensus
of India 2001-2011
of India 2001-2011.
A Probability Model for the Total Number of Migrants from

a Household
Rakesh Singh*, V.D. Upadhyay** & V.S. Singh***
Introduction
During past few decades an increasing attention has been given on the nature
and pattern of migration in both developed and developing countries.
A number of attempts have been made during the past few decades to build
migration models (Raiman, 1962; Friendlander and Roshier, 1966; Herbele, 1966; Lansing
and Mueller, 1967; Bose, 1967; Greenwood, 1969, 1968b, 1971; Speares, 1970, 1971a;
Zelinsky, 1971; Amyot and George, 1973; Kshirsagar, 1973; Zaki and Zaki, 1984a,
1984b and others). Incidentally, most of these previous researches have focused on
aggregate variations in movement in relation to various social, demographic and
spatial characteristics. These authors have used mostly macro-approach by operating
on highly aggregated data such as blocks, districts, states and nation as a whole.
Actually, the findings from such studies could not provide adequate explanation for
the tremendous regional and local heterogeneity that prevails in the spatial economy
and movement patterns and largely ignored the decision making process of migrating
individuals. In fact the choice of the scale of investigation plays an important role in
migration study.
In most of the migration studies, scholars have shown that the probability of an
individual migrating from one place to another is functionally governed by the
characteristics of both the places of origin and destination. The intervening factors
between these two places and some random effects (Hangerstrand, 1957; Isbell, 1944;
Lee, 1966; Mukherji, 1975; Stouffer, 1940, 1960; Thomas, 1930, 1937; Zipf, 1946 and
* Department of Statistics, H.N.B. Garhwal University, (A Central University), S.R.T. Campus

Badshahithaul, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand.
** Department of Statistics, H.N.B. Garhwal University, (A Central University), S.R.T. Campus
*** Department of Statistics, H.N.B. Garhwal University, (A Central University), S.R.T. Campus
others). Accordingly, the models proposed by those scholars involve in large number
of variables and hence a large number of parameters, estimation of which is not an
easy task.
In the area under study, there are mainly two types of migrants. First, an adult
male aged fifteen and over migrates alone to the place of destination leaving his
wife and children in the village. Such a person maintains close links with his household
in the village, sends remittances and visits the household at regular intervals of
time. Secondly, the individual migrates with his wife and children. The characteristics
of the two types of migrants are usually different which in turn may lead to a rise in
the level of socio-cultural activities of the household. In the former case, there is
only male migration, while the later type consists of the female migration also.
Obviously, migrated females are more likely to affect the socio-cultural characteristics
of the households in comparison to other females of the household. Thus, it is more
important to investigate the nature and pattern of number of migrants from the
household.
The objectives of this paper is to propose a probability model to study the pattern
of total number of migrants from a house hold level. The data is presented in Section
2 and the model is presented in Section 3 while estimation procedure of the parameters
involved in the model is given in Section 4.
Section 2 : Data
A Survey of Demographic Study of Rural People in Grahwal Himalaya – 2006
was conducted during June-December 2006 taking 15 August 2006 as the reference
date. The main aim of the survey was to study the existing levels of fertility, mortality
and migration in three blocks representing different levels of social and economic
developments. The three blocks are Pratapnagar, Bhilangana and Chamba of Tehri
Garhwal district. A random selection of 1, 2 and 2 villages was done from above
mentioned blocks respectively. The survey included all the households, numbering
473 from these 05 villages. The data from the selected households were collected by
personal interview method. The information on households was collected by personal
interview method. The information on household structure, household facilities
migration, fertility, mortality, morbidity and status of a female was obtained from
each household. The information on migration could successfully be included by
adopting a ‘modified definition’ of a household. A household was defined as a group
of persons who usually stay together and take food from a common kitchen. Married
daughters and their children were treated as visitors. The migration record included
questions on the present age and age at migration, sex, education, occupation, place
of migration, push pull factors, etc., for each migrated person of the household.
Naturally, ‘complete household migration’ is not included (migration consisting of
all the members of a household are termed as complete household migration). Thus,
the present study is based on migrants only.
Table 1: Distribution of the Observed and Expected Number of Households

According to Total Number of Migrants in Different Blocks
Name of Block
No. of Pratapnagar Bhilangana Chamba Total
Migrants
Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe- Obser- ved Expe- Obser- Expe-
cted cted cted ved cted
0 58 60 76 78 77 62 211 217
1 73 68 33 32 41 40 147 128
2 34 38 7 6 17 25 58 61
3 15 14 1 1 7 16 23 31
4 0 4 0 0 6 10 9 13
5 0 0 0 0 7 7 7 10
6 0 0 0 0 17 12 18 13
Total 184 184 117 117 172 172 473 473
N Bino-mial 104 Bino-mial 9 Geometric Geometric
P 0.0107 0.0437 0.3611 0.4588
2 0.927 0.225 14.96 9.252
Df 4 2 6 6

According to Total Number of Migrants in Different Castes
Caste
No. of Brahmin Rajput SC Total
Migrants
Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe-
cted cted cted cted
0 32 25 123 142 56 56 211 217
1 16 16 111 78 20 20 147 128
2 7 10 43 43 8 7 58 61
3 2 7 19 24 2 2 23 31
4 2 4 7 13 0 1 9 13
5 3 3 3 7 1 1 7 10
6 8 5 10 9 0 0 18 13
Total 70 70 316 316 87 87 473 473
N Geometric Geometric Geometric Geometric
P 0.3571 0.4508 0.6493 0.4588
2 8.439 38.377 0.393 9.252
Df 4 5 3 6
According to Total Number of Migrants in Different Educational Status Groups
Educational Status
No. of Low Middle High Total
Migrants
Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe- Obser-ved Expe-
cted cted cted cted
0 50 51 112 132 49 46 211 217
1 19 17 91 65 37 30 147 128
2 6 6 35 32 17 20 58 61
3 0 2 12 16 11 13 23 31
4 2 1 3 8 4 9 9 13
5 0 0 3 4 4 6 7 10
6 0 0 4 3 14 12 18 13
Total 77 77 260 260 136 136 473 473
N Geometric Geometric Geometric Geometric
P 0.6638 0.5058 0.3392 0.4588
2 0.366 17.84 6.364 9.252
Df 2 5 6 6

According to Total Number of Migrants in Different Economic Status Groups
Economic Status
No.of Low Lower Middle Middle High Very High Total
Mig-
rants Obser- Expe- Obser- Expe- Obser- Expe- Obser- Expe- Obser- Expe- Obser- Expe-
ved cted ved cted ved cted ved cted ved cted ved cted
0 94 85 60 70 37 38 18 29 2 0 211 217
1 36 36 49 34 28 22 29 19 5 3 147 128
2 6 15 18 17 14 13 19 12 1 2 58 61
3 2 7 4 8 5 8 11 8 1 1 23 31
4 6 3 0 4 0 5 2 5 1 1 9 13
5 1 1 2 2 3 3 0 3 1 1 7 10
6 3 1 4 2 5 3 4 7 2 5 18 13
Total 148 148 137 137 92 92 83 83 13 13 473 473
N Geometric Geometric Geometric Geometric Geometric Geometric
P 0.5714 0.507 0.4126 0.354 0.2889 0.4588
2 8.753 10.35 4.198 20.04 2.93 9.252
Df 4 3 4 4 2 6
References
1. Amyote, M. and George, M.V. (1973): Interprovincial migration stream in Quebec and Ontaric
1956-1961. Analytical and Technical Memorandum, paper No. 8.
2. Bose, A. (ed.) (1967): Pattern of population change in India, 1951-61, pp.1-7.
3. Dejong, G.F. and Gardner, R.W. (1981): Migration decision making, New York, Pergamon Press.
Internal Migration in Uttar Pradesh: Trends and Reasons
Raju Kumar Gupta*
Introduction
Migration is often adopted strategy by rural poor to diversify income and risks
in less developed economies. In LDCs, migration plays very important role in influencing
social and economic development. It plays very significant role both for sending and
receiving destinations. Increased mobility is an indicator of growth and development.
Individuals try to seek out job and locations that are best suited to their talents and
abilities. Migration decisions are not taken only by individual rather is a family
decision and family as whole takes decision in migration process. Migration occurs
for various reasons. Women in India, for example, often migrate to their husband’s
place of residence due to marriage. Men on the other hand, usually migrate for
reasons related to work. Migration in India is associated with two sets of factors :
one is that migration of people is motivated by a desire to access better employment
opportunities, higher wages, good quality education and health conditions and better
life style at the migrant’s place of destination. Another argument is that migration
occurs due to push or distress factors at home (place of origin) such as the lack of
employment, low wage rates, agricultural failure, debt, drought and natural calamities.
But besides it, migration has some negative effects on the areas from where people
migrate. The loss of persons from rural areas impacts on the level of output and
development of these areas. It also impacts negatively on the level of commodities
available for export from these regions. Moreover, the influx of workers in urban
areas increases competition for jobs, houses, health facilities, schools etc. Uttar Pradesh
is one of the largest states of India and unfortunately it is also among few backward
states in India in terms of lack of employment opportunities, underdevelopment and
poverty. Uttar Pradesh has witnessed enormous increase in migration in recent era
as a result of above-mentioned factors. Thus, the main objective of the paper is to
investigate the trends and reasons of migration in Uttar Pradesh so that appropriate
policies should be framed out to remove the negative effects of migration.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Govt. Raza P.G. College, Rampur, U.P.
Thus, in the light of above facts, this paper has analyzed into 5 sections. Section
(I) is related to theoretical background of the migration, Section (II) is related to
Methodology, Section (III) reveals the trends of internal migration in Uttar Pradesh,
Section (IV) gives reasons for internal migration in Uttar Pradesh and Section (V)
concludes the study with important suggestions.
Section I: Theoretical Background of Internal Migration
Migration is an integral part and an important factor in redistributing the population
over time and space. Migration is defined as the movement of people from one
place to another across the political boundaries. Migration is a sign of wide range of
disparities in economic and social conditions between different regions. In countries
like India, Migration takes place mostly due to unemployment, natural calamities
and under development at the place of origin. Internal migration i.e. migration within
the country is an important factor which effects social and economic development.
The usual direct questions on internal migration in Indian census cover the following
items: place of birth (village or town), place of last residence, duration of residence
(stay) at the place of enumeration, place of residence on a specified date before the
census and reasons for migration. Since, 1981 census, information on reasons for
migration from place of last residence and the duration of residence at the place of
enumeration were included in the schedule of Indian census. In 1981, all reasons
have been grouped into five broad categories, viz, employment, education, family
moved, marriage and others. Besides, these reasons, two new reasons i.e. business
and natural calamities were added in 1991 census. While in 2001 census, another
new reason of moved after birth was introduced and natural calamities as a separate
reason has been dropped which has been included in the category of ’ others’. The
data on place of last residence provides information about the reasons of migration
categorized on the basis of age, sex and duration of residence .The categories of data
on duration of residence of migrants at their destinations are less than one year, one
to four year, five to nine year, more than nine years and all durations. Moreover,
migration streams are categorized on the basis of two types- direction wise and
distance of migration wise. Direction wise migration streams in India can be of following
four types- rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural and urban to urban. Based
on distance of migration, the migration streams can also be classified as intra-district,
intra-state and inter-state. Within these different streams rural to rural and rural to
urban migration has been the principal patterns of migration.
Section II: Methodology
The present study is mainly based on secondary sources of data collected from
census of India. In the study, the data is collected on the basis of place of last
residence. In the present study, the data regarding those migrants have been taken
into account whose duration of residence was one to four years, considering that
among the migrants whose duration of residence was less than one year, some of
them may only be seasonal /casual migrants and those whose duration of residence
was more than four year may have somewhat different causes , problems and patterns
of migration , as compared to the migrants of one to four years. Moreover, only four
causes viz, employment, education, family moved and marriage were used for the
present study because these are the main reasons of the migration. Finally , the data
have been converted into percentage and processed in tabular form.
Section III: Trends of Migration in Uttar Pradesh
Table 1: Trends of Migration in Uttar Pradesh (1981-2011).

Migration Streams
Years Rural to Rural Rural to Urban Urban to Rural Urban to Urban
M F T M F T M F T M F T
1981 38.51 72.27 63.07 31.06 12.01 17.20 6.94 4.96 5.50 23.48 10.75 14.20
1991 34.21 73.34 64.89 33.66 11.89 16.60 6.40 4.74 5.10 25.70 10.00 13.40
2001 33.38 76.17 67.76 35.20 10.75 15.61 5.39 4.19 4.43 25.53 8.89 12.20
2011* 27.00 67.00 58.00 31.00 13.00 17.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 38.00 16.00 21.00
Source: Census of India (1981, 1991, 2001 & 2011) Migration Table D 02, D 03 and D 05
* Provisional data
M = Male, F = Female, T= Total
Section IV: Reasons for Internal Migration in Uttar Pradesh

People migrate due to various reasons. As it is observed that the majority of
internal migration in Uttar Pradesh is from rural to urban areas, the reasons for this
are scarcity of cultivated land, low agricultural productivity, concentration of rural
economy mostly on agriculture, etc., Every summer in Uttar Pradesh we see reports
about people driven out of their homes by drought. Nearly all the villages in the dry
areas across Uttar Pradesh witness migration. The other reasons related to the above
are the need of money for repaying debts, covering deficits created by losses in
agriculture. Some of the other reasons for migration of people are unavailability of
enough job opportunities, lack of better educational opportunities, poor medical care,
loss of wealth, pollution, poor housing, natural disasters like famine/drought, etc.,
All these factors are called Push factors- i.e. the reasons which make people leave
the place. Because of the above difficulties people migrate to areas where they can
overcome their problems. People move to regions where they can have better job
opportunities, better living conditions, proper educational facilities, better medical
care, etc., These factors which attract people to a place are called Pull factors.
Table 2: Percentage Distribution of Causes of Migration Based on Sex
Composition of Migrant Population in Uttar Pradesh (2011).
Reasons for Internal Migration
Migration
Employment Education Family Moved Marriage
Streams
M F T M F T M F T M F T
Rural to Rural 14.98 0.94 2.45 3.94 0.35 0.73 27.14 4.13 6.60 11.6 87.5 79.4
Rural to Urban 38.89 3.12 18.3 8.05 2.28 4.73 36.4 36.14 36.25 1.28 49.8 29.2
Urban to Rural 25.02 1.64 6.73 5.72 0.97 2.00 35.91 13.19 18.14 4.71 76.00 60.5
Urban to Urban 25.84 3.06 12.7 4.38 1.76 2.87 38.62 36.03 37.12 1.17 40.6 24.00
Source: Census of India (2011) Migration Table D 05
M = Male, F = Female, T= Total
Section V: Conclusion and Suggestions

From the above study it is very clear that the people in Uttar Pradesh mostly
migrated from rural areas and mainly because of lack of employment opportunities.
So, in order to avoid its harmful effects there is a need to design pragmatic development
of all rural areas. The first step is to develop rural economy or agriculture, this can
be achieved by making agriculture more attractive through the provision of incentives
such as farm inputs, seeds and free extension services together with the financial
aid. Other than this, the government should also introduce various technical courses
or vocational training centers for providing technical skills to the rural youth. So, in
slack season or when there is no work at the farm they can earn their living by
doing some other work at the same place instead of going to some other place in
search of work. However, there is a need for a review of poverty alleviating programmes
through the allocation of funds to help the youth start some productive ventures at
home to prevent them from leaving. Further adequate urban development policy
should be framed in order to make provision of water and sanitation, housing, solid
waste management, transportation services etc. Hence, efforts should be made at
each and every level to get the good results.
References
1. Kothari, U. (2002), “Migration and Chronic Poverty”, Working Paper; No, 16 Manchester,
Chronic Poverty Research Centre Institute for Development Policy and Management, University
of Manchester.
2. Razi, S. (2014), “Rural Distress and Rural Migration”, Kurukshetra, Ministry of Rural
Development, Vol. 62, No. 11, pp. 3-6.
3. Sarkar, P. and Tigga, N.S.(2014), “A Comparative Study of Sustainability of Reason Specific
Inter-State Migration in India : Empirical evidence from two states with severe poverty rates”,
American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Vol. 6,
No. 3, p. 228.
Labour Migration from Uttar Pradesh
Nripendra Pratap Singh*
‘Migrants make significant and essential contribution to the economic, social and cultural
development of their host countries and their communities back home. But too often these
contributions go unrecognized.’….. Guy Ryder, ILO, Director -General.
Labour migration refers to migration for the main purpose of employment. Labour
migrant often work in the informal sector and are usually exposed to abuses resulting
from xenophobia and racism. They lack legal protection and insufficient information
about their rights which make them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse from recruiters,
employers and authorities. Labour migration is generally defined as a cross-border
movement for purpose of employment.It has continuing and increasing trend due to
the following reasons.
a) differences in employment opportunities and living standards between regions
as well as countries.
b) increased education and broader access to information on living conditions
and employment opportunities abroad, and
c) established inter-country networks based on family, culture and history.
Internal migration in India spurred basically by employment and marriage. About
two out of ten Indians are internal migrants who have moved across districts or
states lines .Marriage is a common driver of internal migration in India, especially in
case of women. A long distance and male dominated labour migration has a significant
share of internal movement of the labour. This flow can be permanent, semi-permanent
or seasonal. According to the Census 2011, more than two –thirds (69%) of Indian
live in rural areas, but the country is rapidly urbanizing. The cities of Mumbai,
Delhi, Kolkata are all among the World’s top ten most populous urban areas. India
has 25 of the100 world wide fastest growing cities. Increasing number of people
does not find sufficient economic opportunities in rural areas and move towards
towns and cities. Census 2011,shows that, for the first time, India’s urban population
has growth faster than its rural population since the last census. Thirty-one (31%) of
India’s population is now living in urban areas while 28% of population was living
in urban areas according to census 2001.
* Centre for the Study of Nepal, Faculty of Social Sciences, BHU, Varanasi, U.P.
Methodology
This paper is based on qualitative analysis. Literature review and secondary
information are used to analyze this issue. Secondary data was collected from various
sources such as issues of National sample Survey (NSS) reports, Indian Census,
Economic Survey and Statistical Abstracts published by the State government and
other publish sources.
There are limited numbers of studies regarding the migration from Uttar Pradesh.
A Few Economists are studied on this issue. The Study of Majumder (2015),reveals
that brick kilns have very often adopted choice of migrants labours as survival strategy
and also forces and to end up vicious circle of debt. Raman and Pandey (20012) in
their study they conclude the size of non-farm sector is neither similar in States of
the country nor different districts of the Uttar Pradesh. They also focus that the role
of rural non- farm employment is very significant to reduce the rural poverty in
Uttar Pradesh.
Remittances in Uttar Pradesh
India has been the biggest recipient of remittances globally, it received $69 billion
remittances where as China received $64 billion in 2015. The economy of Uttar Pradesh
is the fourth largest economy in India after Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Uttar Pradesh’sGSDP was 12.37 lakh crore in 2016-17. Census report 2011 says that
Uttar Pradesh has 22.3 % urban population. As per Uttar Pradesh Budget Analysis
(2017-18), the contribution of Agriculture to GDP in Uttar Pradesh is 23%, industry
is 28% and services sector is 49% in 2016-17. In 2012, the state was of the highest
receiver of overall remittances to India which stood at $ 0.1 billion (Rs.3,42,884.05
crore). Recent survey (Sept. 2015) made by several agencies like Western Union,
Nielson, Muthoot Finance and Xpress Money have shown thatUP. is now among the
top five states that lead in receiving remittances. This is a far cry from the situation
hardly five years ago, when UP. was not even in top ten states in the remittances
list. Migration is still a recent phenomenon whereas it began from Kerla a long time
ago. According to K.R.Bijimon, Chief General Manager of Muthood Finance Ltd,
until two years ago the share of south India in remittances was 80-90%. However,
the north especially UP. is clocking 40% share in remittances now and this figure
was hardly 20% for a long period. Same type of statement was given by Kiran
Shetty, Western Union, “UP.received virtually nothing from 1993-2003 in terms of
remittances, but now it is among the top five recipient states of the country”. There
are 13000 branches of Western Union in Uttar Pradesh now3.This number has more
than doubled since 2010. The jump in remittance inflow has naturally resulted in an
overall economic growth in Uttar Pradesh.K.A.Babu, Federal Bank, aid that Uttar
Pradesh stood fourth after Kerla, Tamil Nadu and Pujabin remittance inflow for the
period 2014-15, a remarkable change from the past decade where it was not even in
top ten.
Eastern Uttar Pradesh has seen the fastest growth in remittances from the Persian
Gulf due to rising manpower migration. The bulk of remittances coming to Uttar
Pradesh originate from the UEA, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Oman followed by
US and Canada. With growing manpower migration from Uttar Pradesh to the Gulf
countries, Uttar Pradesh emerged as the fastest growing remittances receiving state
in India.The major remittances pockets in Uttar Pradesh include Gorakhpur, Azamgarh,
Deoria, Kushinagar, Mahrajganj, Mau and Allahabad.
Factors Leading to Migration: There are a number of factors which lead to the
migration. We explain them under push and pull factors.
Push Factors- Push factors are those which push people to move from one place
to another place. They are: - (i) Lack of employment at the place of residence and
moving out in search of better employment opportunities (ii) Low income (iii) Poor
quality, shortage and unequal distribution of land (iv) Lack of modern facilities (v)
Lack of educational and training facilities (vi) Natural calamities (vii)Deteriorating
law and order conditions leading to insecurity of life and property (viii) Discriminationon
grounds of race and religion (ix) Political victimization (x) Break- upof the joint
family system.
Pull Factors
Pull factorsare those which attract or pull people from other areas or region.
They include: -(i) Large employment opportunities (ii) Health facilities (iii) Education
facilities (iv) Favorable climate (v) Commercialization of agriculture and development
of trade and industry (vi) Security of life and property (vii) Healthy business
environment (viii) Absence of discrimination on the basis of race, caste, religion and
politics (ix) Starting river valley projects and building, dams and power houses etc.
to attract people to work on them for a number of years.
Structure of Migration in Uttar Pradesh
There are Few Specific Reasons for the Migration in the State, which are Given
Below in the Table
Total Migrants Work/Employment Business

P M F P M F P M F
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5,91,35,168 121,15,478 470,19,690 37,42,219 30,57,816 6,84,403 3,83,154 2,02,805 1,80,349
Education Marriage Moved after birth

P M F P M F P M F
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
6,33,957 3,95,071 2,38,886 391,33,087 7,38,580 3,83,94,507 17,17,837 10,41,172 6,76,665
Moved with household Others

P M F P M F
19 20 21 22 23 24
64,92,707 30,36,564 34,56,143 70,32,207 36,43,470 33,88,737
Source: Census 2011

Note:-P for Total Population, M for Male Population & F for Female Population
Impact of Migration
On Migrants and their Families
On Living Conditions
Health and Education
Economic Impact of Migration
Impact on Society
Demographic Impacts
Suggestion
1. A pro-poor and more vigorous policy needs to be formulated for backward
areas to strength the inter relationship between rich and poor. To maximize
the positive impact of remittances and reduce its negative impacts through
formulation of suitable development policies.
2. The main problem is that poor migrants lack bargaining strength. Hence they
should be organized to improve their negotiating strength and level of awareness.
Migration can not be only solution to solve the unemployment and under-
employment scenario of Uttar Pradesh, rather government policies should be introduced
offering employment opportunities and also need to reinforce the existing employment
schemes. Both internal and external migration have potentially growth producing
and poverty reducing impact, which can be increased through suitable policies and
supportive interventions by the governments and civil societies.
References
1. Ali M. (2013), “Socio-Economic Analysis of Rickshaw Pullers in Urban Centres: A Case
Study of Uttar Pradesh, India” International Journal of Advanced Research in Management
and Social Sciences, 2 (1) 98-109.
2. Bhagat, R.B. (2011), “Internal Migration in India : Are the Underclass More Mobile? Asia
Pacific Population Journal,25 (1): 27-46.
Problems and Prospects of Industrial Sector in India: A Case

Study of Kanpur District
Deepshikha Sonker*
Introduction
Industrialization is treated as a process in which the economic gains of industrial
progress, mainly increasing, are continuously created and wholly or partially realized.
Besides, industrialization lifts the margin of diminishing returns. But a new technological
innovation will prolong the scale, or enlarge the range, or create a new scale or
range. Thus industrialization is a process in which scales and ranges of increasing
returns are continuously created, and frequently prolonged and enlarged.
India provides an interesting case for the study of the impact of industrial policies
and institutional arrangements upon industrial growth and patterns of industrial
transformation because the two periods viz. 1951–91 and post 1991 represent policy
regimes, institutional frameworks, an industrial development patterns, making possible
systematic analysis and the generation of hypothesis concerning causal relationships.
Since 1991, Indian policy makers have tried to learn from the East Asian experiences
and they have been under pressure from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
World Bank and other global actors to liberalize and open up the Indian economy to
the world market.
With the advent of globalization and liberalization in the year 1991, the shape
and structure of economic policies have undergone a sea change. The plan process
does not play a direct role in the industrial growth. But its role is so tangible in
improving the investment environment, by providing indirect and maximum facilities
and introducing revolutionary reforms in infrastructure. The Govt. of U.P. has formulated
several policies for the creation of ideal situations for investment, which prominently
include industrial and service sector investment policy, high tech township development
policy, information technology policy, bio-technology policy, food processing policy,
energy policy, sugar industry promotion policy etc. All these policies are aiming at
the promotion of the partnership with the private sector. The State Govt. has made

admissible special policies to attract private sector in the eastern region and Bundelkhand
region, which are industrially backward.
Kanpur is one of the major Industrial towns in the country. It was very famous
in the world for manufacturing of clothes and known as Manchester of Asia. Currently,
Kanpur is very famous for Leather Industry in the world. Kanpur hosts nearly 3,000
industrial units of all sizes producing leather and leather products, plastic materials,
tractor, trolley, utensils, detergents and soaps, edible oils, hosiery, cloth medicines
and chemicals. These units aggregate an annual turnover of over Rs.50, 000 cores
and give employment to more than a lakh people. The city has traditionally been a
centre of leather products. Despite official apathy, Kanpur has earned a name for
itself even abroad in this area. The city is especially known for the saddlery it produces.
1. To study the status of basic infrastructure of the industries in the study area.
2. To study the major challenges and problems before the entrepreneur’s in the
study area.
3. To study the Prospects of industrial development in the study area.
Hypotheses of the Study
To meet the objectives of the study, the following hypotheses are formulated for
empirical testing:
2. H0 – There is no significant impact of turnover on the size of firm in the
study area.
Ha – There is significant impact of turnover on the size of firm in the study
area.
3. H0 – There is no significant impact of credit policy and demonetization on the
Methodology
The present study is Empirical in nature and quantitative as well as qualitative
in approach. In order to achieve the objectives, our present study requires both primary
and secondary data. For the purpose of study a comprehensive field survey has
been performed in the selected industrial units of the Kanpur District to obtain the
primary data.
The selection of units in the study area has been done by adopting a sampling
design of “two stage purposive sampling” with the selection of industries at the first
stage and industrial units at the second stage with a view to include traditional and
modern industries in the sample. Primary data have been collected through the pre-
tested interview schedule divided into five parts to deal with the various aspects of
industrial problems and their development. For the purpose of data collection, samples
of 250 units are selected. The data are analyzed with the help of tables, charts and
graphs. Mathematical and Statistical tools viz; Regression is used in the process.
Empirical Analysis of the Study
ToF = a+b1 (Nm) +b2 (Cm) + ut
ToF = Turnover of the firms in terms of net profits, Nm= Numbers of machines
used by the firms & Cm = Cost of machines used by the firms.
The data shows the impact of cost of machines on turnover and no. of machines.
The result shows that there is positive relationship between no. of machines used by the
firms and turnover of the firms but negative relationship between costs of machines and
turnover of the firms. The result is insignificant as the p values are -.037 and. 014 which
indicates that there are some other important factors i.e. infrastructural facilities, marketing
facilities and govt. policies which are affecting the turnover of the firms. The interesting
result is that turnover increases with the uses of more no. of machines but due to the
increasing cost of machines entrepreneur employ more labour in the units.
2. H0 – There is no significant impact of turnover on the sizes of firms in the
study area.
H a – There is significant impact of turnover on the sizes of firms in the study
area.
ToF = a+b1 (Sf) +ut
ToF = Turnover of the firms in terms of net profits & Sf = Size of the firms in
terms of labour employed in the industrial units.
The data explains the impact of turnover of the firms on the sizes of the firms. The
result shows that there is negative relationship between sizes of the firm and turnover of
the firms (ToF). The result is insignificant as the p value is. 021 which indicates that there
are some other important factors which are responsible such as infrastructural facilities,
credit policies, marketing strategies, human resources, technological advancement, supporting
government policies, labour laws, etc. which affects the turnover of the firms. These problems
could be better solve by both the sides i.e. the government and the entrepreneurs.
3. H0 – There is no significant impact of credit policy and demonetization on the
ToF = a+b1 (CP )+b2 (Dmn) +ut
ToF = Turnover of the firms in terms of net profits, CP = Credit Policies of
the Government & Dmn = Demonetization Policy of the Government.
From the analysis of data it is clear that the impact of credit policy and
demonetization on the performances of the turnover of the firms (ToF). The result is
not significant as the p values are -.031 and. 113 but the interesting finding is that
there is negative value of coefficients which indicates that the credit policies of the
government are against the performances of the turnover of the units.
Suggestions
The first and foremost solution is to be taken for solving the problem 0lack of
infrastructural facilities in the Kanpur District as no industry could able to grow
under this situation. One more thing that what the government may do or considered
is that they could run all these initiatives by establishing a Special Economic Zone
(SEZ) to overcome the bottlenecks of infrastructure.
Conclusion
The study concludes that there is a significant impact on the growth and
development of number of industrial units and on their income and production but
does have an insignificant impact on the growth of employment and technological
advancement.
The heart of working in the above mode is how the three elements-purposes
process and people- link together. It is important to understand these links for better
execution of things, which had been sorely lacking in the Kanpur District. Hence, it
is of vital importance to master three individual processes – the strategy process, the
operations process, and the people process – and also the way they work together as
a whole. They are the foundation for effective execution, and are at the centre of
conceiving and executing any strategy. It is these that differentiate between a leading
growth and a laggard growth. Managing this interplay becomes crucial for growth,
including industrial growth, and therefore needs attention at the highest level in the
Kanpur District, on a continuous and ongoing basis to preserve its earlier status
(Manchester of East).
References
1. Government of India, Planning Commission, First Five Year Plan, 1951-52, New Delhi, Volume
I, Pg. 165.
2. Shetty, S.L., Structural Retrogression in the Indian Economy since the Mid-Sixties, Economic
and Political Weekly, Special Supplement, 1978, Pg. 8.
3. Rangarajan, C., Industrial Growth Economy, Closer Report, Economic and Political Weekly,
April 1982, Pg. 41
Legislative Measures and Welfare of Women Workers in

Indian Economy: A Study
Alka Srivastava*
Introduction
Participation of women in economic activity is common in all countries, developed
and developing both. But in developing countries, the income of, women labour by
and large are low. Moreover, if women have to work, they need more protection
than men in their working environment. In our country the right of women to public
employment is recognised under the Constitution Articles 16(1) and (16) (2) of the
Indian Constitution, grant the right of equal opportunities in regard to employment
for women without any distinction. The National Commission on labour pointed out
that the spread of education, particularly in urban areas, has opened up more
employment opportunities for women in‘non-manual, clerical, administrative and
professional work. The largest expansion of opportunities has been in Government
service. Besides, increase in the scope of activities in this sector during the last two
decades, the entry and prospects of promotion for women have no. impediments.
Employment for women is open in business firm, secretariat and in professions of
teaching and nursing. Wages are of vital importance to workers. In India, women
take up employment to add to the family income which is often very meager. Unattached
women and widows go into employment to support themselves and their children.
The wages of women workers are usually fixed at rates lower for any occupation. In
this context the ILO observed that, “one of the specific and permanent factors which
influences the level of their (women) remuneration is that the vocational training of
women is in many cases inferior to that of others, because women are less eager
than men to improve their vocational skill. This lessens the demand for female labour
when demand and supply, have a free play in the employment market and consequently
makes for a lower level of remuneration among women. An Attempt has been made
in this paper to present an overview about “Legislative Measures and Welfare of
Women Workers in Indian Economy: A Study”. The paper is divided into three Sections.
Section First Covers a brief Introduction about the theme. Section second deals with
* Department of Economics & Rural Development, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University,
Faizabad. U.P.
Women Workers and Labour Reforms in Indian Economy. The Paper concludes with
section third which gives some suggestions about policy recommendations for removing
women worker’s problems.
The ILO report further pointed out that, the level of remuneration in industries
and occupations in which women are traditionally employed is undoubtedly lower
than in other fields of employment the existence of these groups of relatively lower
paid women workers have favored the payment of lower rates to men in mixed
industries and occupations. It should also be recognised that prevailing social customs
and pre-conceived notions about women employment tend to favour the establishment
of different rates for woman workers.” It is obvious from observations of ILO that
why the wages of women workers are lower. The legislative provisions for protection
and welfare of women workers are largely inspired by the ILO convention. The ILO
made its, conventions on: (i) Maternity Protection, 1919, revised in 1922; (ii) Night
work, 1919 revise in 1934 and 1948, (iii) Underground work, 1935; (iv) Equal
Remuneration, 1951 (v) Discrimination (employment and occupation), 1958. The ILO
also gave its recommendations for women workers on lead poisoning (women and
children) 1919, and Equal Remuneration, 1951. However, India ratified all the
conventions, except on Maternity protection, but it has influenced the passing of
Maternity Benefit Act in the States and Centre. Maternity benefits are provided under
the Employees State Insurance Act, 1948 and the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961. Most
of the States on Industrial importance have adopted maternity benefit legislation.
Maternity benefit for women employed in mines is regulated by the Mines Maternity
Benefit Act, 1941. In plantation, the Plantation Labour Act, 1951, entitles women to
receive maternity allowance from their employers. Employment of women during
the night is prohibited under Factories Act, 1948, the Mines Act, 1952 _and Plantations
Labour Act, 1951: The State Governments are authorized to exempt women employed
in fish curing or fish canning factories from this restriction if they consider it necessary.
The hours of work in factories, mines and plantations are the same for adults, namely
9 hours per day and 48 hours per week in factories and mines and, 54 hours per
week in plantations. However, the Plantations Labour Act does not prescribe any
limit for the daily hours or work except that the spread-over should not be more
than 12 hours. The other legislative measures for women relate to certain restrictions
on lifting of weight. The appropriate governments are empowered under the Factories
Act and Mines Act to fix maximum loads that may be lifted by women. This has
been done to safeguard the women. labour against the dangers arising from lifting
heavy weights. Generally, the appropriate Governments have fixed at 65 lbs as maximum
weight for adults and 45 to 50 lbs for adolescents.
Women workers did not by and large; join trade unions in the early years. It was
because of the reason that several factors were disfavoring women working outside.
It greatly restricted their freedom to mix with fellow workmen. Their families except
them to-return home after the day’s work and keep aloof from such activities. But,
with social awakening and the newly acquired freedom, taste for economic
independence, women workers are becoming more alive to their interests and joining
unions. Now it can very well be said that class consciousness among women workers
is increasing day by day. While in 1927-28, women trade unionist formed only 1.2
percent of the total membership of trade unions, in 1964-65, they formed about 7.1
percent membership. It should also be mentioned that the percentage of women
workers is also making progress in employments under the industrial categories;
food, beverages, tobacco, textiles, mining and quarrying. It has been found that the
unionisation of women labour is positively co-related with the quantity of employment
of women. Thus, where women are employed in large numbers. They have naturally
found it less inconvenient to join unions. Therefore, it is expected that unionisation
among women will increase as more and more of them come out to take paid work.
Women Workers and Labour Reforms in Indian Economy
Labour Reforms essentially means taking steps to increase production, productivity
and employment opportunities in the economy while protecting overall interest of
labour. Essentially it means skill development, retraining, redeployment, updating
knowledge base of workers-teachers, promotion of leadership qualities etc. Labour
Reforms also includes labour law reforms. Changes in the labour laws are also done
protecting the interests of workers. Brief notes on different labour laws are given in
subsequent paragraphs. Women comprise 48.3% of the population but have only
26.1% share in the persons employed. This is presently because their share is in the
labour force is only 26.4%. The female labour force participation rates (LFPR) across
all age groups are 25 to 30%. Along with lower participation rates, women face a
higher incidence of unemployment. This is especially so for higher levels of education.
In the urban areas, unemployment among young women in the 15-29 years age
group is much higher, and is highest among young urban women in the 20-24 years
age group where one among every four girls seeking work cannot find it. They are
in an especially vulnerable position when they seek entry into the regular wage jobs
in the unorganized or even in the private organized sector, in urban areas. This has
many implications for our labour policy, particularly the gender sensitive regulations,
the social policies and programmes that are designed to promote equality at work.
Why Women Seek Employment? It should, however, be mentioned that with a
few exceptions in the higher strata of society, the majority of women take to work
for economic reasons. In this context, a survey conducted under the auspices of the
National Council of Women’s Education in Delhi and Bombay in 1962 revealed that
women work, if they are required to do so, because of economic compulsion of the
family. About 70 per cent of the women who responded to the enquiry considered it
necessary to work in order to supplement family earnings, this was the common
consideration with all unmarried women who in some cases were reported to be
supporting an old father or widow, mother or an unmarried brother or sister. It has
also been noted that the attitude of the guardians of these women is not passive.
Moreover, they encourage their wards to seek employment. In higher income groups,
the motivating force behind seeking work was utilization of leisure, acquirement of
vocational training and the desire to have one’s own money. It has also been pointed
not by some that a working women enhances family prestige and get better prepared
against unforeseen contingencies. It is, thus, obvious that social values in respect of
women employment are changing. There are still important difficulties in the way of
women employment such as their restricted mobility, inadequate training and housing
facilities. The guardian of women considers it unsafe, to send their women wards
away from their homes to take up work. Thus, women workers continue to prefer
an employment which is locally available. Non-availability of Housing facilities for a
single women acts as major deterrent for many women who aspire for employment.
Besides transfer of location after marriage comes in the way of stability of employment
-among married women.
Conclusion
In order to promote gender equity, steps have to be taken to increase women’s
participation in the labour force. This has to be pursued through skill development,
labour policies and also the social security framework: Significant outcomes can be
expected only if the gender issue is addressed through the planning initiatives across
all the heads of development’ in the Plan, with requisite lead from the ‘Women and
Child Development’ head. Gender-budgeting has not, so far, received due attention.
The Eleventh Plan must seek to reduce the gender differentials by pursuing (i) target
shares for women beneficiaries in the programmes for Skill Development initiatives;
New initiatives at Social Security; implementation of regulations such as the Apprentices
Act, 1961, the Factories Act, the Building and Construction Workers (Conditions of
Service) Act, and better implementation of The Maternity Benefit Act, 1976 and The
Equal Remuneration Act, 2000, and for guarding against sexual harassment at the
work place. It should also be noted that, those who suffer more, even among women
as a group, are ignorant, unskilled and semi-skilled workers coming from communities
which belongs to the lower social status. Therefore, it is suggested that they need
protection because they are the weaker section, and because of the comparatively
unfortunate communities to which they belong. But, in practice the protection is
least found here.
References
1. Bardhan, P.K. (1979a) “ Wages and an Unemployment in a poor Agrarian Economy: A
Theoretical and Empirical Analysis,” Journal of Political Economy, 87, June, 479-500.
2. Papola. T.S. (2013), Role of Labour Regulation and Reforms in India: Country Case Study
on Labour Market Segmentation, Employment Working Paper No. 147, Employment Sector,
International Labour Office, Geneva.
3. Srivastava, RS. (2006), Trends in Rural Employment in India with Special Reference to
Agricultural Employment’, forthcoming in the World Bank’s India Employment Report.
Migration: Its Effects on Mental Health
Vijay Kumar Singh*
Introduction
Migration is the process of moving from the use of one operating environment
to another operating environment that is, in most cases, thought to be a better one.
Human migration, being the movement by people from one place to another
with the intention of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location, typically
involves movements over long distances and from one country or region to another.
Migration can be voluntary or involuntary. People migrate for many different reasons.
These reasons can be classified as economic, social, political or environmental: economic
migration - moving to find work or follow a particular career path. social migration-
moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or friends.
Forms of Migration
The various kinds of migration depend on the flow and number of people often
involved, the reasons for their movement, the time they spend in migration, and the
nature of that migration. Here are a few forms:
• Intercontinental Migration • Forced or involuntary Migration
• Rural-Urban Migration • Seasonal Migration
• Return Migration • Long and short-term migration
• Impelled Migration (also called reluctant or imposed migration)
Industrialization and the Rise of Imperialism
While the pace of migration had accelerated since the 18th century already (including
the involuntary slave trade), it would increase further in the 19th century. Manning
distinguishes three major types of migration: labor migration, refugee migrations,
and urbanization.
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, TD (PG) College Jaunpur, U.P.

Reasons for Migration of Migrants by Last Residence
with Duration (0-9 Years) India 2001
Reason for migrations Number of Migrants Percentage to Migrants
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
Total migrants 98,301,342 32,896,986 65,404,356 100.0 100.0 100.0
Reason for migration : Work / Employment 14,446,224 12,373,333 2,072,891 14.7 37.6 3.2
Business 1,136,372 950,245 186,127 1.2 2.9 0.3
Education 2,915,189 2,038,675 876,514 3.0 6.2 1.3
Marriage 43,100,911 679,852 42,421,059 43.8 2.1 64.9
Moved after birth 6,577,380 3,428,673 3,148,707 6.7 10.4 4.8
Moved with households 20,608,105 8,262,143 12,345,962 21.0 25.1 18.9
Other 9,517,161 5,164,065 4,353,096 9.7 15.7 6.7
Source: Table D3, Census of India 2001
Table shows that large number of males migrated for employment purpose that
the important reason for migration in India.
Migration: Its Effects on Mental Health
It is definitely not easy moving to a new country. Many people do it, and many
countries have been built on the back of migrants, but that doesn’t mean that changing
countries is a walk in the park. The stress of the move and adjustment to the new
country, as well as the loss of so much from the old, can lead to anxiety and depression
and other psychological problems amongst migrants .
The Big Move
One of the first stressful steps in the experience is packing and selling up. Deciding
what to take, send, sell, give away, or throw out can be a slow and painful task.
Shipping is expensive, so many people choose to leave things behind and repurchase
in the new country. However, budgets can restrict purchases at the other end, meaning
that new migrants often have far fewer possessions than they had at home. And
leaving beloved items behind can be a sad experience for adults and children alike.
Grief
Often the hardest thing for new migrants to cope with is the loss of family and
friends. This can cause an empty longing that is hard to relieve and that can lead to
depression. In families, it is often those who were the least enthusiastic about the
move that feel the most pain, and the sense of powerless over their life can exacerbate
their grief. Telephone and internet calls can lessen the pain, but they cannot replicate
the touch and smell of loved ones.
Sharing Space
Those migrants who are lucky enough to have family or friends in the new
country often move in with them until they can arrange their own accommodation.
It can be difficult to rent a property without a job, credit rating, and a local rental
reference, and new immigrants from poorer countries often cannot afford rent, bonds,
and furnishing;, so cramming the family into a relative’s spare bedroom, or sleeping
everyone on the floor or sofa in the living room, is a common practice. Although
living with experienced settlers in many ways helps migrants adjust to a new country,
sharing small spaces, living out of suitcases, and feeling as if they are imposing on
others, can add to stress and affect self esteem.
Work
One of the most difficult aspects of immigration is finding work. Qualifications
are too often not transferable, so people with high level qualifications and years of
experience at management and professional levels, can find themselves being forced
to clean toilets or drive taxis to feed their families. Heartbreaking stuff.
Income
Along with the loss of prestige can come a loss of income in real terms. When
people are deciding to immigrate to country with a high GDP, they are often swayed
by rumors of the salaries of even the lowest paid workers. But people sometimes fail
to realize that the cost of living could be disproportionately high, so they might find
themselves struggling to feed, clothe and house their families.
Recycling and Things
New countries take a lot of getting used to. Everyday things that we need to
know, such as mobile phone contracts, road rules, tax laws, electricity connections,
bank accounts, public transport routes, and rubbish recycling procedures, can baffle
even long term locals. These things are especially challenging for newcomers, particularly
when language barriers are added.
Methodology
I have applied secondary data of different sources to explain my article that how
migration is effected our mental condition, there are 0.90 % of negative co-relation
between the migration & adjustment. More person including females, children, old
are admitted that they are negatively adjusted with the environment where they are
migrated. the language of the paper is very easy to understand the massage given
by the paper.
How Can Migrants Reduce the Risk of Mental Health Problems?
Here are a few ideas for helping yourself or a loved one reduce risk factors:
• Learn the language as quickly as possible and, scary as it might seem, get out
and practise it with the locals.
• Immerse yourself in the new culture: walk about, explore, go to free events,
join clubs and activities, do courses, have fun outside with the children, and
make new friends through them.
• Exercise: it’s good for the body, mind and stress levels.
• Try to relax and enjoy each moment doing simple things.
Refrences
1. Nigel Smith, Pakistan: History, Culture, and Government,
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration
3. Paul H.Landis (The state college of Washington, Amrican Sociology Series, Kimbal Young
Amrican book company New York.
4. Bossard James H.S., Social Change and Social Problems, rev.ed., Harper & Brothers, New
York,1938, chaps. 5 and 6.
5. Sociology and social research, May-June, 1937,21:403-410.
Migration a Crisis in Uttarakhand
Ajit Singh*
Introduction
The migration of population in particular manpower migration has become a
socio-economic problem for the government of Uttarakhand. The problem continued
with the creation of new state and remained a challenge for policy makers while
drafting welfare and development activities for the people of hills. It is more than a
decade and the trend of migration is changing its pattern, manpower is more interested
in moving to industrially developed regions of Uttarakhand and that is in plains
only. The plains are over flooded with the manpower and facing sudden increase in
the population. Availability of employment opportunities, better infrastructure,
transportation, medical facilities, education and the hope of better living conditions
is drawing people from hills towards plains and these factors are becoming a challenge
for government to check for the migration from hills to plains.
Agriculture remained the major mainstay of the people of hills. Tough terrain,
limited means of transportation, lack of communication facilities, lack of employment
opportunities, limited access to education, absence of healthcare facilities, small size
of land holdings, fragmented land holdings, low income has increased the burden
on hill people and also fuelled the problems of the people of the hill, it seems that
they are not much benefitted with the long sought bifurcation. Not much difference
is seen in the lives of people of hills from being money order economy to a fast
developing state. The above studies clearly show the importance of women in the
economy of the hill areas and regions. The able male population and youth moving
to urban areas for education and employment leaving behind the females, it only
fuels the day to day problems of the households. Women look after young children
and old and also work in fields to run their families and maintaining their culture.
They are overburdened with the household chores and working on fields, it also has
bad affects on their health.
In Uttarakhand’s hilly interiors, far removed from the development taking place
elsewhere, rural settlements are fast turning to ghost villages with people migrating
to the plains in search of employment and for education. A study conducted by the
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, MMH College, Ghaziabad, UP.

directorate of economics and statistics in 2011-12 revealed that nearly 1,100 villages
do not have a single person left. Officials said that in the past three years, the number
of such ‘ghost villages’ is bound to have gone up. Nine of the state’s 13 districts are
completely in the hills while two are partially hilly. According to official data, around
35 lakh out of the 1.1-crore population live in the hills.
Upto eighties of twenty century the hills of Uttrakhand was first choice of rural
community due to their traditional infrastructure settlements, resources availability
for routine livelihood etc. The social structure of community was quite strong and
associated with Zazmani system (exchange material/service) (Joshi, 2006, and Joshi
and Prasad 2007).
Keeping in perspective the crisis of migration of manpower from the hills to the
urban areas with the root cause including obscure agricultural condition, the study
aims to do an in-depth analysis of the following aspects related to the issue:
• Study of Agricultural profile of Uttarakhand.
• Reasons for the migration and their effects.
• Solutions and recommendations to effectively deal with the problem of migration.
The study is based on the secondary data.. The secondary data was collected
from published and unpublished records and reports of the central Government and
Government of Uttarakhand.
Profile of Uttarakhand in Agriculture
• About 90 per cent of the population of Uttarakhand depends on agriculture.
The total cultivated area in the State is 7,84,117 hectares.
• Uttaranchal is an agrarian state. About 80% of the population of the state is
dependent on agriculture for its livelihood. 12% of the available land is irrigated
and 64% are fed by natural springs. The topography of Uttaranchal is
characterized by sandy soils which do not retain water for long time. Due to
unavailability of moisture in the soil the crop productivity is not very good
in the region. Also, due to variation in altitude the rainfall also differs from
place to place affecting the crop production.
• The major crops produced in the state include Rice, Wheat, Barley, Corn,
Mandua, Hangora etc. The state is a major supplier of fruits like Apple, Leachy,
Pulam, Naashpati, and Maalta etc. There are various organizations which are
involved in the state to help in improving the productivity as well as to
promote the cultivation of medicinal plants in the state. One such project is
functioning near Pinder Valley in Chamoli district of the state which aims to
produce fruits and vegetables by utilizing poly houses.
• Uttaranchal’s distinct agro-climatic condition is favourable for the development
of Horticulture. The soil conditions are good for the production of fruits and
vegetables. The climatic and soil conditions allow growing sub-tropical and
temperate fruits, vegetables and ornamentals. The various fruits grown in the
state include mango, citrus, litchi, guava and jackf ruit etc.
(www.efreshglobal.com)
Causes Leading to the Migration in Uttarakhand
Agricultural problems: Agriculture is one of the main sources of income and subsistence
in Uttarakhand. The interest of people in farming is continuously decreasing due to
various factors
(i) Scattered landholdings: In the hilly areas, the agricultural land is scattered,
which means it becomes very difficult for the peasant/farmer to execute and
manage any agriculture or any other process over it.
(ii) Scarcity of water: One factor is the lack of water. What usually happens is
that an uphill family diverts most of the water from the local guhl (small
stream) in order to begin rice cultivation for transplantation, and downhill
families suffer the consequence of significantly less water.
(iii) Antediluvian Technological Methods: Use of primitive methods affects the
yield to a considerable extent thereby making the problems even worse for
the farmers. The women of the state work throughout the year and are able
to get food for only 2-3 months.
Lack of Basic Amenities in Villages

(i) Lack of proper healthcare facilities: The healthcare centers that have opened
are blighted by severe lack of medical professionals and serve, more often
than not, as referral centers to hospitals in cities, such as Dehradun and Nainital.
(ii) Lack of proper educational institutions: Access to primary education has also
improved significantly, with all hill districts having at least one primary school
for every two villages. But, similar growth is not visible in the number of
high schools in hilly areas.
(iii) Lack of basic infrastructure: The attraction to urban areas arising due to hardships
of village life in hills such as poor transport, lack of water, networking and
inaccessible markets accelerated the process of migration of youth. Many areas
are remote leading to reduced access to quality and modern life.
Solutions to Effectively Tackle Migration in Uttarakhand
1. Consolidation of land and land holdings: Efforts and steps as undertaken by
Project Chakbandi should be implemented for better and more profitable
utilization of the land. Ganesh Gareeb was the pioneer for this project who
realized the importance of land consolidation and through his continuous
efforts, when Uttarakhand became a state, a Land Consolidation Advisory
Committee was formed by the initiative of Minister Harish Singh Rawat in
2003.(www.ghughuti.org)
2. Cost-effective water schemes: Implementation of such schemes for the betterment
of the occupation which will further help in considering other developmental
aspects of agriculture. Judicious use of water also involves growing crops
which require limited supply of water. Crops like rice should be grown in the
rainy season as they require less water. For this, awareness is needed.
Conclusion
The root cause for hill migration into plains or urban areas dependence on
agriculture, developed infrastructure, quality education, employment opportunities,
etc. it makes them leave their native places. The migrants also look to access the
maximum high-tech facilities and daily needs assets in the plain area. Retired persons
especially ex-army person seek re-appointment throughout sourcing agencies for better
livelihood. The Government has need to develop maximum infrastructures and jobs
to keep people residing in hill villages and make cogitative plan with immigrants to
resources consolidation in their native villages for forestry and agro forestry and
other resources generating.
References
1. Joshi, B.K. Common property Resources synergy and perspectives of management in Indian
Central Himalayas, Journal of Human Ecology 2006, 20(1).69-75.
2. Joshi, B.K. and Prasad, R.C. “Resources Dynamics & EcoChemistry-Sustainable Management
approach for Kumaon Hiamalya”, Mallika Books, Delhi. (2007)
3. Joshi B.K. and Tulera C.S. “Community Constraints and Outreach of Some Flagship Programs:
A Case Study from Uttrakhand Hill” Arthshastra: Indian Journal of Economics & Research,
2013, 2(1) 36-43.
Invisible Migration in India: A Case Study of Lucknow City

in Uttar Pradesh
Amrita Bajpai*
Migration form rural India is a complex process characterised by a variety of drives

outcomes. The movement of workers follows different streams covering a wide range of
occupations. Daily commuting to nearby villages and urban locations is on the risk and
this has emerged as an important stream of mobility. The range of activities pursed at
the destination is also steadily expanding. The type of work ranges from highly skilled
white collar jobs to black collar (unskilled manual work).
Thus, Census data and NSSO data are not useful in this regard (because these agencies
collects data of permanent and semi-permanent migrants), primary studies are required to
explore the different dimension of problems, including causes of migration, working conditions,
mode of work, nature of work, pattern of migration, mode of wage payment system, role of
contractor and nature of exploitation. The paper dealt with primary data, the primary data
has collected form labour Chaurahas (squarer’s) workers of the Lucknow city in Uttar Pradesh.
Labour Chaurahas is a local name given to particular place in the city, where labourers,
most of them migrated form rural regions and gathered in early morning to sell their labour
power to contractor, direct employers, who came looking for casual, daily –wage labour for
their worksite. The data has collected four selected labour Chaurahas (squares) in Lucknow
city out of 32 (a proximity) (Box1). We have selected four labour Chaurahas of the basis on
geographic location of the city (north, south, east and west). Moreover, the selection of the
workers (respondent) is based on purposive sampling. Further, we collected 10 respondents
from each selected labour Chaurahas. Thus, the total sample size is 40 respondents.
Box 1: Selected Labour Chaurahas (squears) in the City of Lucknow.

Total Labour Chaurahas Selected Labour Chaurahas
Trivani Nagar, Goyal Chaurahas, Devpur Railway Crossing, Rajajipuram, Telibagh, Engineering College,
Sahadatganj, Nakkhas, Thakur Ganj, Balaganj, Hydel Chaurahas, Rakab Uday Ganj, Nisaht Ganj.
Ganj, Sarvodya Nagar, Daliganj, Telibagh, Aminabadm, Udayganj,
Mulaya Nager, Chinhat, Lekhraj, Nishatganj, Unity City, Engineering
College, Khurram Nagar, Alambagh, Bherdhapur,C-block, Barabirava-
1,Barabirva-2, Patrakarpurm, Badi pakadiya, O-Sector LDA, Sadar
Source: As per reported by local settled peoples, workers and Garmin Development Services (NGO
working on internal migration in Lucknow city); 2011
* Assistant Professor, Pt. Ramshwar Tripathi College, Raibareli, U.P.

About the City
Lucknow is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh in India and more rapidly growing
city. Consequently, increasing demand for workers in both sectors, formal and informal.
Here, we dealt with informal sector workers, especially construction sector in the
city. The labour chaurahs workers are among the most visible category of workers in
the informal sector. Majority of the workers who engaged in construction sector are
migrats nature. These workers are comprising, un-skilled and semi-skilled nature,
such as, Beldar, loader/unloader, earth digging workers, Mason, Painter Carpenter,
etc. in case of assembling of migrant workers in the city of Lucknow they migrated
from neighbouring states and district of Uttar Pradesh. The city is confined in northern
region by Sitapur and Hardoi districts, on eastern side by Barabanki district and
western boundary by Unnao district and southern border by Raibareli district.
Socio Characteristics of the Workers
Data shows the socio profile of the migrant Labour Chaurahas workers of the city
by sex, root states, martial status, and types of family and education level. Sex wise data
revealed that Out of total 20 per cent are females, rest 80 per cent are male workers.
Within the female workers all are from OBC community. In case of male, about 56 per
cent from OBC, followed by 31 per cent from General and remain are from SC category.
It is needed to mention here, during the survey female workers reported that, they
migrated because have lost their breadwinner in her family, as a result they are forced
to move-out form livelihood. In same cases female workers move with their spouse
along with children’s. Data reveled that out of total about two-third (78 per cent) are
from nuclear family and 22 per cent are from joint family. With reference to educational
level of labour Chaurahas workers, about 40 per cent are illiterate, followed by 33 per
cent upper primary educated,12 per cent are primary educated, 3 per cent are high
school and only 2 per cent are graduate and above.
Landholding
Several studies have concluded that poor and landless have a greater propensity
to migration than richer and big landowner. Further, person from the landless household
were found mainly migrated for their survival, because a work/job may not be available
in all the seasons in the rural areas and they may not be capable to fulfill their minimum
cost of livelihood during off agricultural season. Moreover, statistical analysis has also
proved that between land-man ratio and migration has very significant relationship.
Landholding size with caste categories shows that about one-forth ( 25 per cent) workers
are landless, among total landless workers half (50 per cent) are from General category
, 30 per cent from OBC and rest ( 20 per cent) from SC category. Whereas, 27.5 per
cent workers are belonged from Up to 1 acre category and nearly 82 per cent are from
OBC category. Only 18 per cent workers have 1 to 2 acre land, 25 per cent have 2 to 4
acre land, 3 per cent have 4 to 6 acre land and merely 2 per cent workers have above
6 acre land. In sum, the survey data concluded that greater part of labour Chaurahas
workers are landless (landless plus Up to 1 acre).
Reasons for Migration

Reasons for migration of labour are varied and complex. It may be the need for
additional income or a desire for employment of consumer goods and consumer
durables or to invest in business and/or education. Table 3 shows the reasons for
migration, Livelihood is one of the main push factor that compel labour to move-out
form their roots as reported by 50.0 per cent workers. About 15 per cent of the
respondent stated repayment of loan, followed by 15 per cent non- availability of
work at root, whereas 10.0 per cent Attraction of the city and 10 per cent family
problems. Thus, the higher proportion of the workers has migrated for livelihood.
Occupations of the workers at destination
Seasonal/ Circular migrants labourers are those who go to work during the slack
season, i.e., (December to June every year when there is no possibility growing any
crops in the agricultural lands). Predominantly, the natures of work performed by
workers are construction work, hotel work, and household work. Thus, they are
engaged in low paid jobs and occupations. The construction industry generates
substantial employment and provides a growth impetus to other sectors through
backward and forward linkages. The workers community accounted for 93 per cent
of the total employment in the construction sector in 2005, with predominance of
migrant labour force (Eleventh Five Year Plan Document, 2008).
Table 1: Reasons for Migration
Reasons for Migration No. %

For Livelihood 20 50.0
Repayment of loan 6 15.0
Non-availability of work at root 6 15.0
Attraction of the city life 4 10.0
Family Problems 4 10.0
Total 40 100.0
Source: field Survey, 2011.
Concluson
Workers of the labour Chaurahas (squares) are hired on a daily cum causal work
basis, experiencing unstable employment and earnings frequent shifting of workplace
is a basis characteristics. These workers are faced many type of vulnerabilities at
destination. For convince we have divided in two categories, work related risks and
status related risks. In work related risks, one of the main problem of insecurity of
employment, these workers do not obtain regular employment as usually remain
with work, largely for one or two weeks on average in a month. On the other hand,
causality happing in workplace and irregular payment. In health hazards, neither
employer nor contractor takes care of causality happing at workplace. There is no
provision of first-aid box facilities on behalf of the contractor/employer or compensation
for health hazards during working hours.
Status related risks; these workers did not have any identities and entitlement
destination. Workers are excluded by society at destination, they often called by
their region such as Bihari labour, Chattisgarhi labour and often exploited by local
“ruffians”.These workers are entirely unorgaised sector and lack of identities, they
always exclude from social security programme provided by state. In the case of
causality, and workers spend money from their own pocket as well as debar from
work. Labour Chaurahas workers work mostly in construction of buildings which
involve hard work (loading and unloading), risk and long hours of work which
obviously needs physical strength, reflecting by age-group. Lack of social-security,
such as old-age pension scheme, health insurance or life insurance, workers led a
miserable life in back in the village. These migrants are predominately forced to
migrate because they cannot survive in there root`s, and this become more difficult
after monsoon season due to inadequate yield of food grains from cultivation and
lack of employment for rest of the period. Other major reasons are debt burden,
earning for children education. Most of the workers have own or hold land and
other resources, but still they migrate because in off agriculture season, there is no
work or other alternative available locally. In fact out-migration seemed to be on
such means of survival among the poor rural household, though migration itself
also much insecurity.
References
1. Dandekar,V.M. and N.Rath (1971). Poverty in India . Indian School of Political Economy, Poona.
2. Deshingakar Priya and Farringaton Jhon (ed) (2009) “ Circual Migration and Multilocational
Livelihhod Strategies in Rural India”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
3. Deshingkar. Priya, a. D. (August,2003). Seasonal Migration for Livelihoods in India: Coping,
Accumultion and Exclusion. Working Paper.London: Overseas Development Institute.
4. GOI (2008)” Elenventh Five year Plan Document (2007-2012. Planning Commission of India,
New Delhi,Oxford University Press.
Migration in India: Issues and Impacts
Vikas Pradhan*
Introduction
Migration is not a new phenomenon. Migratory movements such as people crossing
state borders in search of a better quality of life or livelihood have been documented
well. Migration is population’s mobility within and outside given geographical
boundaries. It has always occurred in the past and continues even in the present.
Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature
of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to
support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging
opportunities.
I. To study the causes and factors that is responsible for internal migration.
II. To find out the impacts of migration.
Since the study is macro specific in nature, it is based on the analysis of secondary
data. The reports of various organizations along with census data 2011 and compiled
works of researchers in the field of economics , sociology , labour organizations ,
women and children welfare societies etc have been consulted . The data has been
analyzed on the basis of statistical tools like correlation methods .
Area of Study
The area of study is internal migration in India with special reference to migration
in Uttar Pradesh .
Push and Pull Factors of Migration in India
According to Census 2001, the male out migration from the rural area due to
work/employment/business has been higher in Uttar Pradesh as compared with the
* Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Government P.G. College, Bisalpur (Pilibhit) U.P.
rest of India. Seventy per cent migration in the country is from rural area and thirty
per cent from urban area. However, in Uttar Pradesh, the corresponding shares are
eighty per cent and twenty per cent from rural and urban areas respectively. The
above pattern of male outmigration is much more pronouncing. Thus, state-wise
distribution hints at Uttar Pradesh being both the state of origin and destination. It
could be inferred that U.P plays the role of a transit state, wherein, people had
migrated to U.P before locating to other states such as Maharashtra.
Emerging Trends of Rural-Urban Migration
The National Sample Survey Office in its 64th round survey which was carried
out during July 2007 to June 2008, covering a random sample of 5,72,254 persons,
covering 79,091 rural and 46,487 urban households spread over 7921 villages and
4688 urban blocks of the country, explored some significant trends of rural migration
in India - which has been reflected through the following points:
• The migration rate in the urban areas (35%) was far higher than the migration
rate in the rural areas (26%). Magnitude of male migration rate was far lower
than female migration rate, in both rural and urban areas.
• In urban areas, migration rate was lowest among other backward class (OBC)
nearly 33%, and it was highest among those classified in the social group
‘others’, nearly 38%. For rural male, migration rate was lowest (nearly 4%)
among the ‘not literates’, and it was nearly 14% among those with educational
level ‘graduate and above’.
• A higher percentage of the persons were found to be engaged in economic
activities after migration : for males the percentage of workers increased from
51% before migration to 63% after migration in rural areas and from 46%-70%
in urban areas, while for females it increased from 20%-33% in rural areas
and from 8%-14% in urban areas.
Impacts of Migration
If well managed, migration can ensure a better living for the rural poor. In terms
of the impacts of migration – it can be concluded that migration generally seems to
have a positive impact on the household involved and; migration has the potential
to contribute to poverty reduction, with widespread and generally beneficial impacts..
Some impacts are listed below:
Economic Imapacts
Individual and collective remittances contribute to the subsistence and well-being
of rural families. Investment of migrant’s income in farm and nonfarm activities and
even increased consumption may also create employment opportunities directly and
indirectly. The NSSO 64th report also states that nearly 10 per cent of the households
in the rural areas had used remittances for ‘debt repayment and nearly 13 per cent
of the households in the urban areas had used remittances for ‘saving investment’.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has reported that Indians living abroad transferred
$24.6 billion to India in the fiscal year 2005-2006.
Demographic Impacts
Migration has effects on both population of the places that people leave & on the
populations of those in which they settle. Age and skill selective out migration from
the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. However,
high out migration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern
Maharashtra have brought serious imbalances in age and sex.
Environmental Impacts
People migrate in large number from rural to urban areas in search of employment.
The urban areas provide vast scope for employment in industries, trade, transport
and services. About 8.8 per cent of migrants migrated for employment in 1991. Rural
areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher education
and rural people have to migrate to the urban centers for this purpose.
Social Impacts
Migrants act as agents of social change.Migration may have important on the
cultures & societies migration also has effects on the cultures of both the places that
migrants leave and those in which they re-settle.. It has positive contribution such as
evolution of composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and
widens up the mental horizon of the people at large. Migration also results in a
breakdown of social life: This is true both in the case of men migrating alone and
when entire families migrate.
Political Impacts
Migration can have an impact on politics in both the places which people leave
and those to which they move Governments will have to make policies to attract
migrants, to persuade migrants to return, or to limit migration to ensure that they
have access to skills that they need. These are political effects very with different
types of migration.
City Management
Cities have become unmanageable because of uncontrolled migration of rural
population to urban areas. Large cities of India have now ceased to be congenial
places for living. Rural populations coming to urban areas earn their livelihoods by
rickshaw pulling, vendors, road side mobile shops. Such activities lead to problem
of traffic, congestion and sometimes add to the crime rates. Overcrowding of people
due to rural urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical
infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban
settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies. Apart from this, due to over
exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of
ground water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.
Conclusion
It can be concluded from the above discussion that the population mobility in
the country which was decreasing up to 1991, increased often the adaptation of new
economic policy. The economy of the country is based on agriculture; as a result
rural to rural stream dominates in the migration process. As far as reasons of migration
are concerned employment among males and „marriage among female is the main
reasons of migration in the country. Despite the problems, migration has helped in
equalizing social status, income of rural urban settlements, helped in checking
fragmentation of land holdings and promote concept of division of labour and
specialization. Migration also helps in cultural diffusion and cultural assimilation as
peoples from diverse cultures share and exchange their cultural values and ethos
thus helping in cultural diffusion. Income sent home in the form of monetary assistance
can help in paying the debt, increase food security and help diversify livelihoods
and reduce vulnerability associated with shocks.Migration is a positive phenomenon
and if required and managed properly can reap benefits for both the sending and
receiving regions It is possible to distinguish two contrasting views concerning the
assumed benefits and shortcomings of migration. One view considers that the overall
impact of rural out migration on migrant-sending areas is negative and recommends
designing policies to promote rural employment and development in order to limit
population movements from rural areas. Supporters of this view insist on the negative
impact of labour loss in the sending areas and its disruptive effect on the local
economy. A second view considers that migration can have a positive impact on
development at local, regional and national levels. Supporters of this view consider
migration to be a household strategy in which economic and social links between
the migrant and his/her household are maintained. This view emphasizes the benefits
arising from the transfer of resources to rural areas, such as financial or in-kind
remittances, as well as the generation and transmission of new skills and innovative
ideas.
References
1. De Hann A. & Rogaly, B. (2002). Migrants workers and their role in rural change. Journal of
Development Studies, 38(5), 1-14.
2. De Haan, A. (1997). Rural-urban migration and poverty: the case of India. IDS Bulletin
28(2), 35-47.
3. Census of India. (1971-2011). Series 1, India Part-II-D(i), Migration Tables. Registrar General
and Census Commissioner, India.
4. Agresa, R. (2001). Migration and urban to rural earnings difference: a sample selection
approach. Journal of Development Studies, 49(4), 847-65.
Impact of Migration on the Education of Young Children
Mukesh Kumar Sharma* & Shubhika**
Global migration is at an all-time high. The number of international migrants in

industrialized countries more than doubled between 1985 and 2005, affecting both
sending and receiving nations around the world. Cities with more than a million
foreign-born residents include Sydney, Moscow, London, Hong Kong, Dubai and
Chicago. In addition to the migration across national borders, rural to urban migration
flows have also become a part of the globalisation process. Internal migration rates
in recent decades are considered the largest flow of labour out of agriculture in
world history. The new arrivals, regardless of their point of origin or destination,
may place unprecedented demands on healthcare, social services and education systems.
This brief focuses on issues related to the effects of global migration on the education
of the young migrants, apart from the circumstances of their migration and proposes
specific policy development and implementation.
Children as migrants The precise number of young children who migrate worldwide
is unknown. The varied means by which migration takes place makes accurate record
keeping impossible and most available statistics group together all children aged 0-
17. Children of immigrants represent 20% of all children under 18 in the United
States. Foreign-born children make up 10% of school enrolment in Greece and the
number of migrant children of preschool age in Beijing may be over 300,000. The UN
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that children under age 5 make
up approximately 11% and children aged 6-17 make up about 32% of those in forced
migration and asylum seekers, whether they are with their families or unaccompanied.
Migration affects young children from many angles. Some children move with their
family, some are left behind in the care of others when one or both parents migrate,
some are sent to another nation along with a parent, while one parent remains employed
in the home nation. Children’s lives are impacted by migration whether the move is
out of desperation or whether the parents are well educated and financially stable.
Even if children are born in the new home nation, their lives are affected by their
parents’ status as immigrants. Although young children may be seriously affected
by migration, adult and youth problems are often more urgent or visible. Finding
* Assistant Professor in Economics, CH. C.S.S.D.S. P.G. College, IGLAS, Aligarh, U.P.
** Lecturer in Economics, G.G.I.C. (KALAI), Aligarh, U.P.
housing, employment, health care and getting youth enrolled in school limits the
attention given to the emotional trauma of the younger children. Need for policies
addressing young immigrants Firstly, there is increasing global awareness of the
value of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) and many nations are stepping
up efforts to provide programmes for children under six. Specific policies are needed
to ensure that young migrants are included in those efforts as immigrant.
Children are often at increased risk of poor developmental outcomes. Three- and
four-year-old children in immigrant families are less likely than children in native-
born families to participate in preschool programmes that could compensate for some
of the risk factors. Immigrant parents may choose to have family members caring for
their children, but other reasons for lack of participation are: limited awareness of
ECCE options, language and cultural barriers and lack of space for immigrant children
in existing programmes. Parents with uncertain immigrant status may be reluctant
to interact with those in authority, further complicating the process of locating the
children and offering them ECCE.
Migrant children’s rights to education and identity Secondly, the UN Convention
on the Rights of the Child (CRC) makes it clear that all children have the right to
education (Article 28), including respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural
identity and the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society. CRC
addresses the right of the child to have a positive identity. The right to an education
and the right to a positive personal identity are only the beginning for migrant
children.
The importance of the education of the world’s children in migratory circumstances
will be reflected in the global workforce of the near future. Policies that only ensure
enrolment in ECCE are not sufficient. They should include explicit provisions for
practical issues such as assistance with learning the language of the host nation,
appropriate assessment of the children’s needs, as well as protection from discrimination.
Apart from their level of education, many migrant families, especially those who are
ethnically different from the dominant group, encounter varying degrees of bias,
racism, rejection, or indifference. Even when children have migrated within a country
or are not ethnically different from the majority peers, they often experience segregation,
prejudice and marginalisation based on their accents and dialects, making it difficult
for children to develop or maintain a positive personal identity. Young children are
at a stage where the formation of peer relationships is highly important. Peer interactions
also have a great impact on children’s sense of who they are as they negotiate their
identities between home and community cultures. The staff in ECCE programmes
must be committed to helping newly arrived children develop strategies that allow
them to preserve their religious, cultural and linguistic identities while at the same
time fully participate in the new environment. Implementing change The many
programmes in place around the globe are only a beginning and efforts to offer
opportunity for quality education and support to children in migratory circumstances
must be dramatically expanded. Examples of actions that benefit newly arrived children
include the programmes in the US and New Zealand for children to learn the language
of the school while retaining their native language; and systematic efforts of Greece
to offer in-service training to teachers in schools with a high percentage of repatriated
or foreign-born students.
Policies that incorporate the inclusion of immigrant children in quality education
programmes must be accompanied by broad-based support. A UNESCO project aimed
at helping Haitian children in the Dominican Republic worked in depth with schools
that included services to Haitian children up to age 6. It was concluded that achieving
equality and quality of education must include teacher cooperation and eventual
changes in attitude toward all children with special needs. A Beijing Normal School
project coordinated university and community efforts to create a successful community-
based playgroup for young children in a market area with many recent peasant
migrants by including extensive participation by parents. Studies in Hong Kong and
Greece of newly arrived young children conclude that they can adjust to preschool
attend 30.
References
1. Kapil Sibal India’s minister for human resource development (Jun 2010).
2. Mobile Based Primary healthcare system for Rural India, M.V. Ramana Murthy, CDAC.
3. NGO Partnership System, Planning Commission, Govt. of India (Sept. 2011)
4. “Structural Change in the World Economy”, United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (2010).
5. The Economic Times (March 17, 2008)
Dynamics of Migration and Improvement of Livelihood Base

from Animal Husbandry in Uttarpradesh
Neelu Mishra*
Introduction
Uttar Pradesh is highest populated state of India, and migration is also high in
search of better living conditions. Occupation related to agriculture not yielded the
maximum output Livestock and climate change is inter hooked by each other, the
complex mechanism where adversity of one affects another. The impacts of climate
change are likely to affect population distribution and mobility. Human population
is expected to increase from 7.2 to 9.6billion by 2050 This represents a population
increase of 33%, but as the global standard of living increases, demand for agricultural
products will increase by about 70% in the same period Meanwhile, total global
cultivated land area has not changed since 1991 reflecting increased productivity and
intensification efforts.Animal husbandry , despite of their significant contribution
towards enhancing food and nutritional security and reducing poverty are often
criticized for their contribution on negative externalities through emission of green
house gases mainly methane, also by overgrazing, deforestation, and also by creating
some level of pollution on water and air. Methane is colorless Odorless gas with a
chemical compound formula (CH4). The worldwide livestock is the integral component
of agriculture and support livelihood of billions by fulfilling 13% energy and 28%
protein requirement, due to the rapid change of food habits the global demand of
food and milk around the year 2050 with reference to 1990 will expected to increase
by 30,60 and 80 percent respectively, this may multiply the livestock demand
Impact on Rural Migration on Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
Since rural migration (to urban or rural areas, permanent or temporary, internal
or international) constitutes a key component of human population movement, and
rural areas contain most of the world’s natural resources, such as land and forests,
rural migration and its relationship to the rural environment have attracted increasing
interest in recent research on population-environment linkages. Quantity and quality
* Research Scholar, Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad U.P

of feed will be affected mainly due to an increase in atmospheric CO 2levels and

temperature. The effects of climate change on quantity and quality of feeds are
dependent on location, livestock system, and species. Global agriculture uses 70% of
fresh water resources, making it the world’s largest consumer The effects of climate
change on livestock diseases depend on the geographical region, land use type, disease
characteristics, and animal. Animal health can be affected directly or indirectly by
climate change, especially rising temperatures. The direct effects are related to the
increase of temperature, which increases the potential for morbidity and death. The
indirect effects are related to the impacts of climate change on microbial communities
(pathogens or parasites), spreading of vector-borne diseases, food-borne diseases,
host resistance, and feed and water scarcity.They further play a significant role in
generating gainful employment in the rural sector, particularly among the landless,
small and marginal farmers and women, besides providing cheap and nutritious
food to the millions of people.
Livestock Contribution and Climate Change
Livestock sector is an importa nt sub-sector of the agriculture of Indian economy.
It forms an important livelihood activity for most of the farmers, supporting agriculture
in the form of critical inputs, contributing to the health and nutrition of the household,
supplementing incomes, offering employment opportunities, and finally being
dependable “bank on hooves” in times of need. it acts as a supplementary and
complementary enterprise. Livestock production and agriculture are intrinsically linked,
each being dependent on the other, and both crucial for overall food security.
The major greenhouse gases emitted by livestock are methane and nitrous oxide.
Livestock mainly emit methane due to anaerobic fermentation in their digestive system
while nitrous oxide is released from its manure. These emissions became widely
talked about when in 2006 the United Nations concluded that the livestock industry
was a big contributor to climate change. The Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger,
in its report titled ‘Livestock’s Long Shadow’ quantified the emissions from livestock
as 18% of the total anthropogenic emissions of the world.. However, if the trends in
global GHGs emissions are considered by sector, it is the electricity/heat that contributes
to 37 percent and manufacturing,construction, and industries that contributes to 19
percent of the global GHG emissionUnited It is emissions from elsewhere in the
livestock supply chain, such as transport and feed production that boosts this figure
to 18%.Due to large variations in the emissions figures given by different UN agencies
and scientists, neither validity nor reliability of the data could be established.
Consequently, in the absence of reliable data it is highly undesirable to hold the
developing economies accountable for their survival emissions and push them for
emission reduction targets equal to the developed countries.
Methods and Data
The present paper is based on extensive perusal of secondary data from various
published research articles, proceedings of conferences, annual reports and data
published by Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying & Fisheries (DAHDF) from
time to time. Report of the Working Group on Animal Husbandry and Dairying for
the Eleventh Five Year Plan(2007–2012) and Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017) by
Planning Commission., National dairy development board data (NDDBs) served as a
major source of information. Report of National Accounts Division published by
Ministry of Statistics and Programmed Implementation and Annual Report (2015-16)
of Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India were reviewed for the present compilation.
Linking Livestock Production Systems to Rural Poverty
One of the overarching objectives of understanding livestock production systems
is to explore the impacts of these systems, and changes thereof, on people’s livelihoods.
For those whose livelihoods are highly dependent on farming, the types of production
systems in which they are engaged or could become so has a significant bearing on
their incomes, welfare and food security. The case study of Uttar Pradesh shows the
increase in live stock production can improve in rural and urban poverty through
providing livelihood to large no. of people (literate and illiterate both) and generate
income and more employment opportunities mainly women’s to rural India and
Uttar Pradesh. As per the 19th Livestock Census, bovine population in Uttar Pradesh
stood at 50 million, which is 16% of the total bovine population of India. Contrary to
the national trend, the total livestock population has increased in UP. However, half
of the bovine in the State are low yielders. According to the latest Livestock Census
2012, milch animal population has increased by about 30% - from 17 million in 2007
to 22 million in 2012
Conclusion
Migration of both human and Livestock put greatest menace on environment.The
impacts of rural out-migration on the rural environment are mediated by the intervening
household livelihood factors including agricultural production, agricultural technology
use, income and consumption, and resource use and managementare the major source
for anthropogenic GHG emissions as they tend to emit methane from enteric
fermentation and manure management and nitrous oxide from manure management.
These GHGs as compared to carbon dioxide have very high global warming potential.
Apart from accelerating the global warming, enteric methane emission from livestock
also carry of substantial fraction of the energy which is supposed to be used by the
host animal. A country like India cannot aûord this energy loss, as it demands additional
feed resources tocompensate the loss. The adoption of mitigation options for enteric
methane amelioration should be based on the feasibility of intervention(s) in a specific
region. Our focus should be on those approaches which may persist in a long run
and lead to 20–25% reduction in enteric methane emission. Methane and nitrous
oxide emissions from manure management demands different storage conditions.
Due to storage conditions (mainly aerobic), the methane emission from manure in
the developing countries is not very alarming and hence, our focus should be on
reducing nitrous oxide emission from manure management by developing the
interventions which at least ensure that nitrous oxide emission has not gone up
while trying to mitigate methane emission from manure management.
References
1. Annual Report (Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries) Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi, 2016-2017.
2. Basic Animal Husbandry and Fisheries Statistics, (Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying
and Fisheries) Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New
Delhi, 2015.
3. Dairying in Uttar Pradesh (A Statistical Profile), National Dairy Development Board, 2017.
4. Kumar, Shantanu; Krishan, Radha and Nigam S.; (Contribution of Livestock in India Scenario),
2008.
5. National Wildlife Federation.USaheed Ismail, O. and Umukoro, G. Ezaina; (Global Impact
of Gas Flaring), Ibadan, Nigeria, 2012.
6. Labor and migration report, (Government of India).
Migration of Labour from Bihar: A Study of Araria District
Sarwdaman Kashyap*
Introduction
After introduction of LPG in India, Globalisation is increasingly breaking the
economic barriers to trade and investment in the direction of making the national
production systems a part of the global economy. Capital can move to any country
and commodities can be produced anywhere seems to be the guiding principle. Natural
resources can also be transported over long distances for being processed without
prohibitive cost. Indeed, several multinational companies and individual entrepreneurs
are producing commodities in the less developed countries at a low cost using their
cheap labour and other natural resources. The process, it is hoped, would, through
its multiplier effects usher in industrial development in these countries. However,
for the process to work, the governments are expected to provide transparent and
stable administration, maintain law and order and create a congenial and competitive
economic environment. The state, it is argued, should thus facilitate entrepreneurs in
taking their own decisions regarding output and employment mix, location, export,
import, appropriation of profits, etc. Of course, some of the small entrepreneurs
expect governments to provide certain infrastructural facilities and basic amenities.
The big companies are, however, often willing to undertake this responsibility
themselves, in exchange of long-term agreements or for certain special fiscal and
administrative concessions.
The migration process has dualistic effect on the areas to which migrants have
moved in and upon the areas from which they have moved out. The streams may
begin in societies different from those from which it is looked-for to draw migrants,
or the streams may consist of persons with skills varied from those needed at the
given place at a given time and hence a comprehensive analysis of migration events
can reveal the redistributive nature of manpower to bring social change as a complex
issue.
Migration of people to other state is not new in Bihar. The pattern and implication
vary from time to time. Over the past one hundred years, or a little more there have
been a few major waves of emigration. Migration from Bihar on a significant scale
began within the colonial era and continued after independence. In retrospect, it is
possible to discern two waves of international labour migration within each of these
* Ph.D. Schloar, D.E.S.P, SBS, Central University of Karnataka

periods. Bihar is second largest state in migration of labour in India. Migration depends
on several factors but broadly we divided into two factors: push and pull factors.
Migrant labour in the construction activity, as opposed in agriculture, is less
problematic at the moment. Since the period of study — the month of June - was a
relatively slack period for agriculture. The locus was on construction labour. However,
though some of this labour is recruited (in Bihar) specifically for construction activity,
the migrant labour pool is common for agriculture and construction: both sectors
draw manpower from the ‘surplus’ labour force in rural Bihar. The factor prompting
the potential migrant to move are better illustrated by the pull of employment prospects
in the commercial agricultural sector.
Keeping in view of theoretical and empirical overview, the general objective of
the study is to have a better understanding of impact of migration on women
employment in the Araria district of Bihar. In order to meet this broad objective, the
study will attempt to:
i. To analyse the Migration factors in Araria district Bihar
ii. To analyse the occupational structure of migrants in Araria district Bihar.
The Following Review of Literature Reveals the Importance of Migration
Nandan Kumar, R. B. Bhagat (2017), The study indicates an arrangement within
the household, in which young and dynamic workforce is out-migrating from the
household for cash earning, agriculture and animal husbandry are being taken care
by the elders and women.
Study Area
Araria became district on 10th January, 1990, which was a part of Purnia district.
It has a rich heritage and close linkage with the district of Purnia. It consists of 9
community development blocks. Araria is 19th largest district in term of population
and 15th largest district in terms of area (2830 Square kilometres). the Araira district
has Nine Community Development blocks. Total number of Gram Panchayats is 218
which consist of 742 villages of which 716 villages are inhabited and 26 villages are
uninhabited.
According to census 2011 the district have population of 2811569 of which
2642792persons are living in rural areas while only 168777(6%) belongs to urban
areas of the district. This shows that majority of the population of this district lives
in rural areas. Population density of the district is 993 persons /Sq. Km. Total literacy
rate of 53.53 percent which consist of 62.30 % Male and 43.93 % Females are literate.
Sex ratio of the district is 921. Total workers are 38.05% which consists of 24.77% of
main workers and 13.28 % of marginal workers. Category of workers (Main and
Marginal Workers) in Araria district are cultivators (20.84%), Agricultural labours
(64.67%) other workers (14.49%).
Data Collection Technique
The Primary data is collected from eight vilages (Duba, Chaukta, Rampur, Sohandar
Hat, Baghmara, Rampuradi, Khaira, and Taruna) of Araria district of Bihar. the metod
of sampling is Proportionate Stratified sampling method and Random Numbers will
be utilized for selecting the sample from population. I.e. Sampling Method used by
NSSO and data was collected through questionnaire based interview sechdule.the
smaplize size is 96 households (migrants households). Secondary data is collected
through census, various reports, magzines etc.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Migration Factors
Migration from one area to antother area is common phenomenan of human
beingbecaue all of us want luxrious life. for that persons move from one area to
another area but factors of persons played an important role why person is migrating.
Data Reveals that the Main Factor of Migration is Pull Factor
Main Occupation of Households According to Migration Status

Occupation plays very crucial role for the deciding of standard of living. the
rerspondents of rural areas of araria district have very poor standard of living dye to
highest involvment in daily wage or causal wage sectors.
Educational Status
Educational status of rural population plays an important role in employment
opportunities because those who are illiterate have less oppurtutinty to get good
jobs.
Table 1: Educational Status of Households
Educational status Respondents
Illiterate
Literate

Income Level
Money plays an important role in any economy as well as living standard of
human being . as we knows that Araria district is known as “pre-capitalist economy”.
Table 2: Income Level of Households
Source: field survey
From the above table 2 it is clear that. most of the households have income
between 50001-10000 and only 10 % of households have 20000 & above monthly
income.
Income Level
Money plays an important role in any economy as well as living standard of
human being as we knows that Araria district is known as “pre-capitalist economy”.
Conclusion
The study indicates that migrants’ main occupation is shifting from farm employment
towards non-farm employment because of jobs availability in non-farm sector. Livelihood
resources in rural areas in Araria district of Bihar are more vulnerable to income
insecurity than in other parts of the country. Risk element is high in local land-based
income generating activities owing to larger frequency of floods, drought, backwardness
and non-availability of protective measures. Maintenance costs of livelihood resources,
particularly land is exceptionally high. Access to markets is again affected by high
incidence of risks. Also, the risk of cut back in remittances from out migrants can
further add to the vulnerability of livelihoods of rural households in Bihar.
References
1. Bebbington, A. (1999). Capitals and capabilities: A framework for analyzing peasant viability,
rural livelihoods and poverty.
2. World Development, 27(12), 2021–2044. Bryceson, D. (2002). The scramble in Africa: Reorienting
rural livelihoods. World Development, 30(5), 725–739.
3. Castles, S. (2010). Understanding global migration: A social transformation perspective. Journal
of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(10), 1565–1586.
Plan Fund Utilization of Social Services with Special Reference

to Uttar Pradesh
Sonam Gupta*
Investment on Energy and Physical assets contributing to growth, but handout

on the social services is basically an investment on human resources in order to
ensure greater efficiency in the use of resources for development. With the any economic
and social activity of the Government, People should be benefited firstly and then it
aims for the economic and political profits. According to World Social Forum (5 th
convention), we have to focus upon “People before Profits”. In order to ensure basic
amenities for the people funds have been made available to State by the central
Government of India.
Social services includes Education, Medical and Public Health, Water Supply &
Sanitation, Housing, Urban Development, Information and Publicity, Development
of SCs, STs & OBCs, Labour & Employment, Social Security & Social Welfare,
Empowerment of women & development of Children. In this paper we are focus on
Expenditure on Social Services, Education and Medical & Public Health in particular.
With the limited resources and some other constraint, Government of India always
tries to do social and economic upliftment of the people. According to Robbins,
“Economics is a science which studies human behavior as a relationship between
ends and scare means which have alternative uses.” As we have limited resources,
and it has alternate uses, so it is important that we do optimum utilization of resources
provided by Government of India.
To examine the growth of flow of funds and utilisation for social services, health
& education in particular in India as well as in Uttar Pradesh and achievements
towards Millenniums Development Goals.
Methodology
In the present study secondary data has been used. The data has been collected
from the official website of Planning Commission, Census and Sample Registration System
Bulletin. Data analysis refers not to provide any cause-effect relationship, but is
considered to be an effective way of understanding the intensity of government
actions.
We find that the proportion of approved plan fund for social services in the
context of total approved plan fund, is increasing continuously in Uttar Pradesh as
well as in India (we can see in chart-1a and b), except 2011-12 in India, but the rate
of increasing proportion of fund for social services is decreasing in India as well as
in Uttar Pradesh during 2007-2011, except for the year 2009-10 where in India the
rate of increase is more than to previous year. In 2011-12 Uttar Pradesh, shows a
hike in the rate of flow of funds for social services with 4.04 percentage point as
compare to India where the rate of proportion declined with -0.48 percentage point.
The increase in rate of proportion of funds for social services in Uttar Pradesh is
significantly greater (4.32 percentage point) than to India on the basis of total annual
plans.
We can see the growth of approved outlay on social services in Uttar Pradesh as
well as in India and their distribution in education and health. We find that the plan
outlay on education and health have failed to keep pace with the increase in social
services outlay. The percentage share of education outlay in the context of social
services outlay not showing any clear trend in Uttar Pradesh, it decreases in 2008-09
and then it increases in 2009-10 and 2010-11 and it again decreases. Same trend
found for India, except in 2011-12.
We Can See the Yearwise Allocation, Expenditure and the Extent of Utilisation
Since FY 2007-08, allocation for social services have incresed over more than 2-
fold in India as well as in Uttar Pradesh and about expenditure performance, it have
failed to keep pace with the increase in allocation, for both in India as well as in
Uttar Pradseh. In the context of education, Since FY 2007-08, allocation have incresed
over more than 2-fold in India as compare to Uttar Pradesh, where allocation have
increased less than two fold and about expenditure performance, it have incresead
almost 3-fold in india and 2- fold for Uttar Pradseh, it shows that as compare to
allocation, expenditure much incresed in India as well as in Uttar Pradseh. About
health outlay, Since FY 2007-08, allocation have incresed over more than 2-fold in
India as compare to less than 1.5- fold in Uttar Pradesh and about expenditure
performance, it have failed to keep pace with the increase in allocation, for both in
India as well as in Uttar Pradseh.
Government allocate resources through plans, progarammes and policy initiatives
to achieve some target. In this study we discussed about allocation and utilisation of
resources for education and health, so it is important to take a close look at the some
indicators related to education and health, in India as well as in Uttar Pradesh. We
have taken indicators related to education and health from the project of Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), because the set time for achieving these goals is near
about.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): MDGs adopted by the United Nations
in the year 2000. According to this project we have to achieve the MDGs goals by
the year 2015. Due to limitation of the study we are focusing on only 3 goals of
MDGs, which is related to health and education. These are given below:
a). Achive Universal Basic Education: ensure that by 2015 children everywhere
boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full cource of primary schooling.
b). Reduce Child Mortality: reduce by two thirds (2/3), between 1990 and 2015,
the under five mortality rate per thousand live births and infant mortality
rate per thousand live births.
c). Improve Maternal Health: reduce by three quarters (3/4), between 1990 and
2015, the maternal mortality ratio per lakhs live births.
The better performance of GER in Uttar Pradesh than India may be attributed to
SSA and MDMs programmes. The other factor such as eliminating school fees, providing
free lunches and providing free school uniform and increasing number of primary
schools near the habitation are also responsible for higher GER. According to DISE
2010, Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) has also improved at the primary level. For the
country as a whole, NER increased from 84% in 2005-06 to 96% in 2007-08. Therefore,
as per the NER, the Government of India’s target of ensuring that all children in the
age group 6-11 years complete a full course in primary education by the year 2015
seems achievable. India is on track or even ahead of targets on nearly indicators
related to universalisation of primary education the report revealed, MDGs Report
2011. However, going forward, India will need to focus more on quality.
The recent changes in the IMR provide several lessons as well. They show that even
a modest increase in public spending is able to provide considerable dividends in terms
of enhancing infant survival. Therefore it appears that there is no substitute to enhanced
public funding for achieving the desired goals of IMR and MDG (James, K.S., 2014).
According to Census 2011, Uttar Pradesh is the worst perfoming state in terms of
maternal mortality rate with having a highest maternal mortality, yet the improvement
in the MMR is more than the national average during the decade. Uttar Pradesh has
improved by 225 as compare to India by 123. Hence the progress toward reaching
the estimated goal appears to be seemingly slow in India as well as in Uttar Pradesh.
We can see that India performed well in the period 2011-15, because they stand
with IMR 42 /1000 live births and CMR 55/1000 live births in 2012. According to
projection table India is not proficient to meet the MDGs targets by 2021-2025. Since
India performing well in 2011-15, so we can project that India will achieve the MDGs
target before 2021-25.
For Uttar Pradesh, they stand with IMR 53 /1000 live births and CMR 91/1000
live births in 2012. According to projection table Uttar Pradesh is not proficient to
meet the MDGs targets by 2021-2025 because Uttar Pradesh performing deplorable
in 2011-15.
So we can see if they will perform deplorable then corresponding MDGs targets
would not be achieved both at the national level as well as for Uttar Pradesh, by
2015.
Conclusion
Plan funding of social services has increases with the increase in total plan funding.
But the rate of increasing proportion of fund for social services is decreasing in India
as well as in Uttar Pradesh during 2007-2011.
With the increase of plan funding on social services, proportion of health and
education is not increases.
Health outlay always being neglected in the context of education outlay.
Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) has improved in India as well as in Uttar Pradesh
at all levels of education and India’s target of ensuring that all children in the age
group 6-11 years complete a full course in primary education by the year 2015 seems
achievable.
Improvement in Infant Mortality Rate, Child Mortality Rate and Maternal mortality
rate has been accelerated but overall progress is still short of meeting the Millennium
Development Goals.
Considering the indicators it can be said that no doubt, adequate funding is
necessary for social services, but also not a sufficient condition to guarantee desired
outcomes. It is not so much the size of the Government budget, but how it is spent
that determines the efficacy of the system.
Suggestions
There should be transparency in the flow of funds and its utilization.
Take a close look on health outlay and its utilization, it is an essential area of
concern because many of maternal, infant and child survival depends upon public
health system.
It should be audited that whether the fund is being used, for what purposes, it
should be questioned.
References
1. Census of India (2001). Population Projections for India and States 2001-2026 (revised December
2006). New Delhi: Office of the registrar general & census commissioners.
2. Economic Survey. (Various Issues). New Delhi: Ministry of Finance GOI.
3. James, K.S. (January 18, 2014). Recent Shifts in Infant Mortality in India An Exploration. Economic
& Political Weekly. Vol. XLIX No. 3. pp.1 4-17.
Impact of Migration on Indian Agriculture in Uttar Pradesh
Priyanka Arya*
Introduction
Migration from one region to anther in search of batter employment opportunities

is a general phenomenon. People migrate from the backward region to the developed
regions as the get more income earning opportunities there .The slow growth in
agriculture and fast growth of industry and services widen the gap between rural
and urban areas and workforce towards the centres of industrial.
Rural migration has positive and negative impacts on rural economy and agricultural
operations. It is occurring because of globalization, liberalization and privatization
of local economy and local population under the process of international migration.
It is a socioeconomic process which changes the population and economic structures
of a region, both in the place of migrant’s origin and destination in both internal
migration and external migration.
Traditional views on labour mobility in India have held it to be low and stagnant
over the years. According to Census 2001, 33 million people or 8.1% of the Indian
workforce were migrants for economic reasons. Over 80% of these further analyze
recent trends in labour mobility. Estimating the Size of the Migrant Workforce in
India Traditional views on labour mobility in India have held it to be low and stagnant
over the years. According to Census 2001, 33 million people or 8.1% of the Indian
workforce were migrants for economic reasons. Over 80% of these e or 8.1% of the
Indian workforce were migrants for economic reasons. Over 80% of these migrants
were male. Labour mobility also appears to be low because urbanization rates have
not picked up sharply over the years, changing by roughly three percentage points
per decade, irrespective of the urban definition used.

Migration of the different Sector of the Rural People in Uttar Pradesh (in percent)
(2013-14)
Table 1
Division of Work Rural male Rural female Rural person
Agriculture, etc 20.1 45.3 23.6
Non-Agriculture (Mining, Manufacturing, Construction, etc) 79.9 54.7 76.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: NSS 71 st
Round (January- June 2014)
Migration patterns in Uttar Pradesh -There are three agriculture migration streams:
rural-rural, rural-urban and urban-urban. Further the stream can be intra-district,
intra-state.
Proportion of Migration in Uttar Pradesh (in Percent) (2013-14)
Table 2
State Rural to Rural Rural to Urban Urban to Urban Urban to Rural
Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person
Uttar 26.0 76.5 71.1 37.2 10.8 13.6 26.4 8.6 10.5 10.4 4.1 4.7
Pradesh
Source: NSSO 71 st Round (January- June 2014)
Objective
1. The primary objective of the study was assessing the impact of migration on
agriculture workers in U.P.
2. To improve the security of the worker’s livelihood in U.P.
3. To study the socio-economic conditions of the labourer before and after the
migration.
This paper is based on qualitative research and collection of material from different
website, news paper article, different journals, and different subjective books etc.
Review of Litrature
Majumder (2015) highlights that brick kilns is most often adopted choice of migrants’
labors as survival strategy. The study found that this kind of migration are generally
forced and often end up vicious circle of debt.
Cause of the Agriculture Crisis
The basic cause of agricultural crisis in India that Indian agriculture has been
become non-viable. The profitability of this sector is very low and in majority of the
cases, it is either zero or negative. When this sector is compared to other sectors of
the economy, this sector seems nowhere from the angle of profitability and
competitiveness. The incomes derived from agricultural activities are not sufficient
enough to meet the expenditure of the farmers. Presently the cultivators are living
their lives between the wheel of high cost input and low returns. The viability of
this sector varies from crop to crop and area to area. But fact is the opportunity cost
of the land is very high and it is due to this fact that a number of farmers are
shifting their farming to the other enterprises or services as land is the scare factor
of production.
Climate Reason for Migration in Uttar Pradesh
Climate change is expected to bring about significant changes in migration patterns
throughout the Uttar Pradesh. Increases in the frequency and severity of chronic
environmental hazards and sudden onset disasters are projected to alter the typical
migration patterns of communities and entire state. Among the many impacts of
climate change, large scale displacement of people from slow onset and rapid onset
disasters both at state and national scale have received increasing attention in the
rubric of climate refugee discourse. Uttar Pradesh is no exception to the increasing
impacts of climate change as one of the highly vulnerable state in the India. However,
increasing number of climate related disasters are changing the usual scenario of
internal migration in India. India is a country with various socio climatic conditions
with a large number of people depending on agriculture.
Drought caused by physical and climates changes is a significant cause of livelihood
insecurity. Declines in the ability of households to be self-sustaining are related to
climatic vagaries, long term declines in production (i.e. degradation), increasing
population growth and land shortages. Yet the exposure and risk of households and
communities differ significantly as a function of marginalization, land tenure
arrangements, coping strategies, opportunities and market infrastructure and availability
of government assistance.
Migration of the Rural People Temporary or Permanent in Uttar Pradesh (in percent)
(2013-14)
Table 3
Category of migrants Temporary with duration of stay Permanent All
Less than 12 months 12 months or more
Rural Male 1.7 25.3 72.8 100
Rural Female 0.1 2.7 97.2 100
Rural Person 0.3 5.1 94.6 100
Source: NSS 71 st
Round (January- June 2014)
Social Impact of Migration in Uttar Pradesh

A significant component of any assessment is to look at how immigration has
affected social relationships within society. At one level the impacts that have been
felt in Jobs, public services and so on tend indirectly to color the way in which
individuals sense the impacts on the communities in which they live and work. This
may be felt by some more than others, depending on whether immigrants are perceived
to have brought competition or choice to local communities. Greater pressures in
objectively measured employment markets are likely to flow through into subjective
felt anxieties about local communities. The same is also true when looking at how
local community relations are viewed and affected by national political debates about
immigration. Migration is one of the common trends in these days. In the same way
agriculture labour migration is also common in these days. Labourer face so many
problems in his living condition and these problems pull him from his native place
and migrate to other places where he get good employment and income opportunity.
Migration has continues to have a major impact on human societies. The effects of
migration are seen in both the societies that people leave called sending societies
and those in which they settle called receiving societies. These societies are not always
state or nation. People may for instance, move from a rural society, such as a village,
to an urban one, such as a city, within the same country. The impacts of these internal
moves may be as serious for the villages as international movements are for notion.
There is growing evidence in India to suggest that the country is moving fast in the
overall development. Structural transformation in the 2011 has propelled the growth
of the economy further.
Conclusion
Uttar Pradesh is primarily agricultural State with majority of its population living
in rural areas and having huge dependence on agriculture directly or indirectly. But
weak agrarian status of Uttar Pradesh is forcing people to out-migrate from rural
areas. Poor economic and physical infrastructure further amplifies the poor state of
rural Uttar Pradesh leading more outmigration. Lack of private and public investment
further adds to prevailing problem of unemployment and underdevelopment. Poor
functioning of institutions and bad governance unfavourably hampers economic growth
and development of Uttar Pradesh. Huge mass labor migrants in cities like Delhi,
Mumbai etc. put pressure on local and public amenities and subsequently lead to
prevalence of slums thereby. Thus migration cannot be seen from origin perspective
only rather destination associated pros and cons should also be taken into consideration
while dealing with migration and related aspects. Thus migration cannot be only
solution from running away from prevailing unemployment and underdevelopment
scenario in Uttar Pradesh, rather more government policies should be introduced
offering employment opportunities to huge youth population at Uttar Pradesh and
there is also severe need to reinforce the existing employment schemes and their
execution in Uttar P radish followed by skill development programmes.
References
1. Ali M. (2013) Socio-Economic Analysis of Rickshaw Pullers in Urban Centers: A Case study
of Uttar Pradesh, India. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and
Social Sciences. 2(1):98-109.
2. Bhagat, R B. (2011) Internal Migration in India: Are the Underclass More Mobile? Asia
Pacific Population Journal, 25(1):27–46.
Impact of Political Turmoil on Migration: A Case Study of

Kashmiri Pandits
Muddasir Ali Mir*, Samta Jain** & Rather Tajamul Islam***
Introduction
Migration is generally a movement of people from their origin of place to another
place for the purpose of setting down permanent or temporary. The nature of migration
is broadly classified in terms voluntary or involuntary or forced type of migration.
The forced type of migration is caused due to a variety of reasons related to poverty,
manmade or environmental disasters that pose a severe threat to life and do not
allow the individual to remain at his destination any more but keep only option that
is to leave.
The forced migration of mass population within their own countries has become
a serious problem worldwide because it affects the people, their livelihood and also
results in cultural alienation and identity crisis. It is one of the vital issues faced by
human civilization now-a-days. For an indication of magnitude, most scholars, policy-
makers, and activists rely on the World Bank Environment Department’s (WBED)
estimate that roughly 10 million people are displaced each year due to violence,
natural disasters, internal conflicts and communal violence poverty, political instabilities,
dam construction, etc.Forced migration as the term implies involves migration out of
necessity or even forcible evacuation. This happens in name ofdevelopment- building
of dams, factories etc; religious or ethnicturbulence- leading to what is referred to as
ethnic cleansing.
Few Examples of the Forced Migration in the World
The conflict between Tibet and the Republic of China over the questions of political
autonomy and cultural self-determination has been going onsince 1959. This has
resulted in the migration of about 130,000 Tibetans.
* Ph.D. research scholar, Department of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Economics
RDVV Jabalpur (M.P.).
** Prof. Economics Mata Gujri(Auto.)College Jabalpur (M.P.).
*** Ph.D. research scholar, Department of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Economics
RDVV Jabalpur (M.P.).
These are the Karenni people who have forced to migrate from Karenni (Kayah)
state in Eastern Burma and have settled in camps in Thailand. The number of refugees
has been on the increase since 1997 and this has affected the living conditions of the
refugees.
The southern Sudanese are victims of a long drawn civil war and have shifted to
northern Sudan in search of a new life. Nearly 2 million have died due to famine, 2
million have been killed by the civil war and thousands have had to leave their
towns and villages.
Objectives
To find out the impact of political turmoil of 1989-90 on different communities in
Kashmir.
Methodology
The secondary sources of data have been approached in the present study. Data
has been availed from the reliable sources such as research papers, journals, news
papers, periodicals, and governmental websites. It has made use of the simple statistical
tools such as tables and percentage method to properly analyze and interpret the
data.
Number of Families Migrated From Kashmir - Religion-wise During 1989-1991
Table 1: No. of Migrated Families from Kashmir Religion-wise in (1989-1991)

Total population Pundits Muslims Sikhs Total
7622000 34,202 2168 1749 38119
Diagrammatic Representation of Number of Migrated Families from Kashmir

Religion-Wise In (1989-1991)
124381
150000
100000
10930 7113
50000
0
Pandiths Muslims Sikhs
No. of Migrated Persons From Kashmir Religion wise
Series1
From the analysis of the Table-1 it is evident that total number of Families Migrated
from Kashmir Religion-wise during 1989-1991 were 38119 families out of which 34,202
were pundit families, 2168 were Muslims families and 1749 were families Sikhs.
Therefore, it becomes obvious that it is the pundits who were the major chunk of
people became victim of political turmoil and forced them to migrate from their
home land to other parts of their county India while as Muslims were possessing the
second rank in terms of migration.
Percentage of Migrated Families Religion-Wise From Kashmir During 1989-1991
Table 2: Percentage of Migrated Families Religion-wise From Kashmir during

1989-1991
Pundits Muslims Sikhs
84.00 8.00 8.00
Thousands of Kashmiri Pandits left the Kashmir valley within a month. Even
after two decades, the question of pundits migration is very much vibrant in the
discussion on contemporary self-determination (Khalid Wasim Hassan). In the early
1990s migration took place from the valley of Kashmir–murder inhuman, loot and
practices like branding with hot iron, lynching, burning alive, etc. by terrorists compelled
Kashmiri Pandits families to move out of their motherland, within the short span
time of one week to fornight stated by migration was the only way out for them to
save their kith & kin which changed their life style (Zutshi, 2003). These developments
have led to forced migration for Kashmir.
Table 3: % age share of Hindu Population in total population over the years in
Kashmir
S.NO. YEAR %AGE
1. 1981 5%
2. 1991 0.1 %
3. 2001 0.99 %
4. 2011 2.45 %
Source: Statistics from the decadal Census India: Population by religious community
Forced migration has been a feature of history across the world. Individuals and
sometimes whole section of population has moved because of militancy conflict,
civil war and natural disasters. The rise of insurgency in the Kashmir valley and its
adjoining areas since 1988 led to on ethno-religious divide between the two major
communities inhabiting the valley and its immediate and a major consequence has
been the migration of 55, 304family, which mostly comprised of minority Kashmiri
pandits (Hindu) families to Jammu and other parts of the country. Out of these
migrant families, 38 percent have been living outside the state while about 62 percent
have sought shelter in the Jammu division as per the government records. Though
the migrants mainly comprised of minority Kashmiri pandits (Hindu), some Sikh
families and a few Muslims families who were perceived to be pro-Indian were also
a part of this exodus. These families moved to Jammu, Delhi, and other parts of the
country to seek shelter.

Findings
The Pandits have been the victims of political and religious discrimination. The
Kashmiri Pandit presence in the valley has gone down from 1989-90, because of
political turmoil in Kashmir
Among all the communities of Kashmir Valley, the Kashmiri Pandits is an important
section which has suffered because of violence.
Majority of the migrants happened to be Hindu about 84 % while as Muslims
and Sikhs were also 8 % each among those who were displaced by conflict.
The % age of Hindu population in total population was 5 % in 1981 which declined
to 0.1 % in 1991 was mainly due to the political turmoil of 1989-90.
During 2001 the % increased to 0.99 %, and further the % age increased to 2.45 %
during 2011 due to the various govt. initiatives.
It has been Twenty seven years hence and there is no solution in sight.
References
1. Agozino (2000).”Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Migration Research.”London: Ashgate
Publishing.
2. BalrajPuri, Jammu and Kashmir ; Regional Autonomy ( a report) (Jammu ; Jay Kay Bookhouse,
1999) P-48.
3. Cohen, R. & Deng, M. (1998). Masses in plight: the Global Crisis of Internal Displacement.
Washington D.C: Brookings institution Press.
Perceptions on Return Migration: A View of Migrants and

Returned Migrants of Uttarakhand1
Kavita Baliyan* & G.S. Mehta**
Introduction
The phenomenon of migration and its contribution to development has been always
a subject of interest for researchers, policy makers, politicians and civil society as
well. Migration of people takes place from one to other locations for a variety of
reasons and the purposes. For which the people may migrate either alone or shift
their family permanently or semi-permanently at the place of destination depending
upon the nature of migration, as seasonal or permanent. The migration of people is
carried out alone by an individual or a group of individuals in mass. The latter
category of migration would be motivated by push factors like occurrence of natural
calamities, mutual conflicts among the groups of people, war etc However, the former
type of migration of an individual is done for availing various opportunities such as
seeking livelihood opportunities, facilities such as health, education and different
amenities of life which are not available at the place of natives and purposes like
political, religious etc The study of migration pattern of population is an important
issue from the view point of understanding the changes taking place in the people’s
movement within the country and its indirect effects on the population distribution.
It is one of the most volatile component of population growth in urban areas and
most sensitive to economic, political and cultural factors (Singh, 1998).
Research Methodology and Data Collection
The study based on Primary & secondary data. Secondary data has been collected
from Census of India, 2001 &2011, and government officials of block level. For primary
data has been collected from, two districts, namely Almora and Pauri Garhwal witnessed
an absolute decline in their population during the decade 2001-2011, along with,
another set of two hilly districts namely, Champawat and Uttarkashi having a high
decadal growth of population. From each district two blocks were selected one having
* Assistant Professor, Giri Institute of Development Studies, Sector ‘O’ Aliganj, Lucknow
** Professor (Retired on December 2016), Giri Institute of Development Studies, Sector ‘O’
Aliganj, Lucknow
high growth rate of population and one low growth rate of population. Household
information was collected through a sample of selected villages. Firstly, all villages
in a sample blocks were distributed in four cohorts on the basis of population with
positive & negative growth rate and households with positive and negative growth
rate. From each cohort, we selected four villages randomly for our study. In selection
of sample villages, the villages with less than 25 households were purposively kept
out of the consideration for the sample selection.
Background Characteristics of Migration: (I) Mode of Migration
The migration initiatives were generally carried out individually alone from his
origin to different destinations for purposes like seeking employment, education etc.
In fewer cases the nature of migration of people was also with family, for availing
education, transfer of employment and shifting the place of residences after getting
retirement. The impact of both the categories of migration initiatives has been remarkable
in changing demographic conditions at the place of origins of migration but, more in
case of former category of migration than the later one.
Based on data collected among a sample of 64 villages, the study found that the
proportionate share of migrant households in sample villages was nearly 14 percent
(table 1) The tendency of migration with family was apparently highest among general
castes followed by OBC and SC communities. Among the total migrant families in
respective districts, the share of general caste population was higher at 78 percent in
Champawat followed by 74 percent in Pauri Garhwal and 73 percent in Almora.
Table 1: Pattern of Individual Migration
Name of the District Champawat Almora PauriGarhwal Uttarkashi Total
General 1300 1106 623 34 3063

(75.80) (77.72) (67.72) (2.65) (57.36)
SC 385 210 297 243 1135

(22.45) (14.76) (32.28) (18.95) (21.25)
OBC 30 107 0 985 1122

(1.75) (7.52) (0.00) (76.83) (21.01)
Muslims 0 0 0 20 20
(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (1.56) (0.37)
Total Migrants (individual) 1715 1423 920 1282 5340

(15.89) (16.86) (20.87) (15.10) (16.62)
Total population 10795 8438 4409 8491 32133

(100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00) (100.00)
Note: i. Source: Village level data, ii. Bracketed figures indicate the caste wise percentages.
iii. O.B.C.& Muslim non-migrant population is merged with General castes population.
Current Status of Migrants
Table 3 shows the current situation of migrated population from the samples
households. Initially a remarkable number of nearly 98 percent migrants reported to
have initiation migration alone leaving their family at the places of their origins and
remaining only a marginal proportion of migrants had moved with their families.
However, after getting settlement at the destination or getting married, little over 25
percent migrants (among those have initially migrated alone) shifted their families
from the places of their origins to the places of the destinations. And, remaining 73
percent migrants remained alone at the places of their destinations. Thus, altogether
a total of 28 percent migrants from sample villages were presently living with their
family at different places of migration.
Table 2: Status of Migration From Sample Households
Initial Status Current Status

Year of Migration Total
Alone with family Family joined later Still Alone
Before2000 244 4 51 133 248
(98.39) (1.61) (20.56) (53.63) (100.00)
2001-2005 239 7 86 106 246
(97.15) (2.85) (34.96) (43.09) (100.00)
2005-2010 232 6 84 237 238
(97.48) (2.52) (35.29) (99.58) (100.00)
2010+ 224 4 20 222 228
(98.25) (1.75) (8.77) (97.37) (100.00)
Total 939 21 241 698 960

(97.81) (2.19) (25.10) (72.71) (100.00)
Table 3: Frequency of Visits of Migrants to their Native Places

Districts Monthly Fortnightly Half yearly Yearly Occasionally Never Total
Champawat 8 1 66 149 15 9 248
(3.23) (0.40) (26.61) (60.08) (6.05) (3.63) (100.00)
Almora 2 1 82 124 26 11 246
(0.81) (0.41) (33.33) (50.41) (10.57) (4.47) (100.00)
PauriGarhwal 9 1 74 120 24 10 238
(3.78) (0.42) (31.09) (50.42) (10.08) (4.20) (100.00)
Uttarkashi 15 0 88 90 18 17 228
(6.58) (0.00) (38.60) (39.47) (7.89) (7.46) (100.00)
Total 34 3 310 483 83 47 960
(3.54) (0.31) (32.29) (50.31) (8.65) (4.90) (100.00)
Source: Based on Primary Household Data.

Table 4: Purpose of Visits at Native Place

To meet Festival or Marriage/Social Incidental Cropping Others(Vote/ Total HH
Districts Family religious ceremony Demise season Exam/ill)
Champawat 75 83 42 14 16 9 239
(31.38) (34.73) (17.57) (5.86) (6.69) (3.77) (100.00)
Almora 84 86 40 4 11 10 235
(35.74) (36.60) (17.02) (1.70) (4.68) (4.26) (100.00)
PauriGarhwal 73 94 39 2 7 13 228
(32.02) (41.23) (17.11) (0.88) (3.07) (5.70) (100.00)
Uttarkashi 77 89 33 3 4 5 211
(36.49) (42.18) (15.64) (1.42) (1.90) (2.37) (100.00)
Total 309 352 154 23 38 37 913

(33.84) (38.55) (16.87) (2.52) (4.16) (4.05) (100.00)
Source: Based on Primary Household Data.

It has further been pointed out that a majority of 82 percent migrants were visiting
their native places alone due to larger proportion of migrants were still living alone
at the places of migration. At the same time, over 18 percent migrants have still well
maintained their relationship with the other family members living at their native
villages. Such migrants were highest (25 percent) from Pauri Garwal followed by 22
percent from Almora and lowest at 11 percent from Champawat.
Conclusions and Policy Suggestions
On the whole, sufficient numbers of migrants were making at least some visits to
their native places after migration on the different occasions the migrants those were
living alone in different places of migration were regularly contributing in their
household’s income through sending a part of their income as remittances. Only, one
fourth of migrants those were living with their family at the destination places of
migration were not sending any part of their income to their living family members
at the native places. Surprisingly, the migrants were remitting nearly one fourth of
their earning to their families as remittances.
Endnotes
1. This paper is based on a Project “Out-Migration From Uttrakhnad: Issues & Policy Options
Sponsored by ICSSR.
2. Assistant Professor & Professor (Retired on December 2016), Giri Institute of Development
Studies, Sector ‘O’ Aliganj, Lucknow.
References
1. Bora, R.S. (1996): Himalayan Outmigration, Sage Publications, New Delhi
2. Bose, A. (2003): Population Research: Deteriorating Scholarship”, Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol 38, No. 44 (November 1, 2003), pp. 4637-4639.
mRrj izns’k ds xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ls Je iyk;u dh leL;k % ,d vkfFkZd fo’ys”k.k
vaxn flag *
izLrkouk
o’kZ 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj gekjs ns”k dh dqy tula[;k 121-02 djksM+ gS ftlesa 68-84 izfr”kr
tula[;k xkaoksa esa fuokl djrh gS vkSj 31-16 izfr”kr tula[;k “kgjksa esa fuokl djrh gSA LorU= Hkkjr dh
izFke tux.kuk 1951 esa xzkeh.k ,oa “kgjh tula[;k dk vuqikr 83 izfr”kr ,oa 17 izfr”kr FkkA 50 o’kZ ckn
2001 dh tux.kuk esa xzkeh.k ,oa “kgjh tula[;k dk izfr”kr 74 ,oa 26 izfr”kr gks x;kA bu vkadM+ksa dks
ns[kus ij Li’V ifjyf{kr gksrk gS fd Hkkjrh; xzkeh.k yksxksa dk “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u rsth ls c<+ jgk gSA
,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku ij tkdj jguk vkSj viuh ewyHkwr vko”;drkvksa dh iwfrZ djus dk iz;kl djuk
iyk;u dgykrk gSA ysfdu ;g iyk;u dh izo`fRr dbZ :iksa esa ns[kh tk ldrh gS tSls ,d xkao ls nwljs
xkao esa] xkao ls uxj] uxj ls uxj] uxj ls xkao vkSj xkao&uxj ls fons”kA ijUrq mRrj izns”k esa xkao ls
“kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dh izo`fRr dqN T;knk gSA ,d rjQ tgka “kgjh pdkpkSa/k] Hkkxe&Hkkx dh ftUnxh]
m|ksxksa] dk;kZy;ksa rFkk fofHkUu izfr’Bkuksa esa jkstxkj ds volj ifjyf{kr gksrs gSaA “kgjksa esa vPNs ifjogu ds
lk/ku] f”k{kk dsUnz] LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa rFkk vU; lsokvksa us Hkh xkao ds ;qodksa] efgykvksa dks vkdf’kZr fd;k gSA
ogha xkao esa ikbZ tkus okyh jkstxkj dh vfuf”prrk] izkd`frd vkink] LokLF; lqfo/kkvksa ds vHkko us yksxksa
dks iyk;u ds fy, izsfjr fd;k gSA
xkaoksa ls ‘kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u
chrs dqN o’kksZa esa xkao NksM+dj “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u djus okys xzkeh.ktuksa dh la[;k esa fujUrj c<+ksRrjh
ns[kh tk jgh gSA blls dbZ izdkj ds vlarqyu Hkh mRiUu gks jgs gSaA “kgjksa ij tula[;k dk ncko cqjh rjg
c<+ jgk gS] ogha xkaoksa esa dkexkjksa dh deh dk vuqHko fd;k tkus yxk gSA njvly] jkstxkj vkSj csgrj
voljksa dh ryk”k gh bl iyk;u ds izeq[k dkj.k gS vkSj blh ds pyrs ,d cgqr cM+h la[;k ,sls yksxksa dh
Hkh gS] ftUgsa vLFkk;h ;k ekSleh iyk;u djus okyksa dh Js.kh esa j[kk tk ldrk gSA bl ekSleh iyk;u ds
pyrs viuk okl LFky NksM+dj iykf;r gksus okyksa dk lgh vkadM+k j[k ikuk dfBu dke gksrk gSA ljdkjh
vkadM+ksa ds vuqlkj o’kZ 1991 ls 2001 ds chp ds nl o’kksZ esa lkr djksM+ rhl yk[k xzkeh.kksa us iyk;u fd;kA
buesa ls ikWp djksM+ rhl yk[k yksx ,d xkao NksM+dj nwljs xkaoksa esa clus ds fy, pys x;s vkSj djhc nks
* ,lksfl,V izksQslj ,oa v/;{k] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] lrh”k pUnz dkyst] cfy;k ¼m0iz0½A
djksM+ yksxksa us “kgjksa dh vksj :[k fd;kA buesa T;knk la[;k ,sls gh yksxksa dh Fkh ftUgsa dke dh ryk”k FkhA
,d xkao ls nwljs xkao dks iyk;u djus okyksa dh la[;k dqy iyk;u dk 54-7 izfr”kr gSA ljdkjh vkadM+s
;g Hkh crkrs gSa fd 1991 ls 2001 ds chp 30 djksM+ 90 gtkj yksxksa us viuk fuokl LFkku NksM+kA tks ns ”k
dh dqy tula[;k dk 30 izfr”kr cSBrk gSA
fiNys ,d n”kd esa fdlh izkar ds Hkhrj vkSj ,d izkar ls nwljs izkar esa iyk;u djus okyksa dh la[;k ukS
djksM+ 80 yk[k cryk;h xbZ gSA blesa ls 6 djksM+ 10 yk[k yksxksa us xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa gh txg cnyh tcfd
rhu djksM+ 60 yk[k yksx xkao NksM+dj “kgjksa dh vksj pys x;sA ;g ns[kuk fnypLi gksxk fd 1991 ls 2001
ds n”kd esa fdlh ,d izkar dks NksM+dj nwljs izkar esa tkus okyksa vkSj ckgj ls vkdj izkar esa jgus vkus okyksa
ds vkadM+s D;k dgrs gSaA fygktk bl ekeys esa egkjk’Vª izFke LFkku ij Bgjrk gSA egkjk’Vª ls ckgj tkus
okyksa dh vis{kk egkjk’Vª vkus okyksa dh la[;k 20 yk[k 30 gtkj ls vf/kd gSA blds ckn fnYyh ¼10 yk[k
70 gtkj½] xqtjkr ¼6-8 yk[k½ vkSj gfj;k.kk ¼6-7 yk[k½ dk uEcj vkrk gSA mRrj izns”k esa ftrus yksx ckgj
ls vk;s mlls 20 yk[k 60 gtkj yksx T;knk ckgj x;sA blh rjg fcgkj ls tkus okyksa dh la[;k fcgkj vkus
okyksa dh la[;k ls 10 yk[k 70 gtkj T;knk gSA tkfgj gS bl rknkn esa yksx iyk;u dj jgs gksa rks mudh
fxurh ;k fglkc j[k ikuk cM+k dfBu gks tkrk gSA gkyr ;s gS fd Hkkjr ljdkj ds tux.kuk ls lEcfU/kr
vkadM+s Hkh iyk;u dh Bhd&Bhd rLohj izdV ugha dj ikrsA
xkaoksa ls iyk;u ds izeq[k dkj.k
iyk;u ,d tfVy izfØ;k gSA vr% bl izfØ;k esa ;ksx nsus okys dkjdksa dh O;k[;k djuk vR;Ur dfBu
dk;Z gSA ;g izfØ;k LFkku fo”ks’k rFkk O;fDr fo”ks’k ds lkFk vf/kd vkSj lkekU; fu;e ds lkFk de tqM+h
gksrh gS D;ksafd] tula[;k lapj.k dks izHkkfor djus okys dkjdksa esa vkd’kZ.k ,oa vid’kZ.k nksuksa dkjd gksrs
gSa] tks lkFk&lkFk dk;Z djrs gSaA blfy, buesa foHksn djuk cgqr gh eqf”dy dk;Z gksrk gSA xkaoksa ls iyk;u
ds eq[; dkj.k fuEu gSa%&
1- d`f’k dh ekSleh izd`fr iyk;u ds fy, mRrjnk;h gSA
2- mRrj izns”k ds izkd`frd lzksrksa dk lgh nksgu u gks ikuk Jfedksa ds iyk;u ds fy, mRrjnk;h gSA
;s lzksr d`f’k ds vfrfjDr jkstxkj ds volj miyC/k djk ldrs gSaA
3- ewy fuokl esa izpfyr etnwjh dh nj dk vfr U;wu gksuk rFkk fujUrj jkstxkj dk vHkko gksuk gh
iyk;u dh nj esa o`f) djrk gSA
4- d`f’k etnwjksa dk iyk;u mu {ks=ksa esa vf/kd ns[kus dks feyrk gS] tgk¡ ij flapkbZ ds lk/kuksa dk
vHkko gksrk gSA
5- thfodk ds ijEijkxr lzksrksa ij ladV vkus ds dkj.k iyk;u dks c<+kok fey jgk gSA
6- ijEijkxr tkfr O;oLFkk ds f”kdats ls eqDr gksus ds fy, yksx xkao ls iyk;u djrs gSaA
7- vktknh ds ckn Hkkjr esa ns”k ds vkfFkZd fodkl dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, NksVs&cM+s m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk
dh x;hA ;s lHkh m|ksx “kgjksa esa yxk, x, ftlds dkj.k xzkeh.k yksxksa dk jkstxkj dh ryk”k ,oa
vkthfodk ds fy, “kgjksa esa iyk;u djuk vko”;d gks x;kA
8- xkaoksa esa u rks vPNs Ldwy gSa vkSj u gh ogk¡ ij xzkeh.k cPpksa dks vkxs c<+us ds volj fey ikrs gSa A
bl dkj.k gj xzkeh.k ekrk&firk vius cPpksa dks vPNh f”k{kk iznku djus ds fy, “kgjh okrkoj.k
dh vksj iyk;u djrs gSaA
9- xkao esa fo|eku xjhch] csjkstxkjh] de etnwjh] ekSleh csjkstxkjh] tkfr vkSj ijEijk ij vk/kkfjr
lkekftd :f<+;ka] vuqi;ksxh gksrh Hkwfe] o’kkZ dk vHkko ,oa izkd`frd izdksi bR;kfn dkj.kksa ls u flQZ
yksxksa dks ckgj Hkstus dh izsj.kk nh ogha “kgjksa us viuh pdkpkSa/k lqfo/kk,a] ;qokvksa ds lius] jkstxkj ds
volj] vkfFkZd fo’kerk] fuf”pr vkSj vuojr voljksa esa vkdf’kZr djus esa dksbZ dlj ugha NksM+hA bl
izdkj iq:’k vkSj efgykvksa ds ,d cM+s lewg us xkao ls “kgj dh vksj iyk;u fd;k gSA
10- xkaoksa esa ekSfyd vko”;drkvksa dh deh Hkh iyk;u dk ,d cM+k dkj.k gSA
xkaoksa ls iyk;u jksdus ds izeq[k lq>ko
iyk;u ,d leL;k gSA vr% jk’Vªh; Lrj ij iyk;udŸkkZvksa gsrq ,d LFkkbZ uhfr cuk;h tkuh pkfg,
ftlds vUrxZr muds vkokl] f”k{kk] LokLF;] okrkoj.k vkfn dks “kkfey fd;k tk,A iyk;u varjkZT;h;
Lrj dh leL;k gksus ds dkj.k lEcfU/kr jkT;ksa dks iyk;udŸkkZvksa ds laj{k.k gsrq O;oLFkk,a dh tkuh pkfg,A
ewy fuokl esa d`f’k Jfedksa dh fLFkfr dks csgrj cukus ds lkFk&lkFk iyk;u LFky ij Hkh mUgsa lqj{kk iz nku
djus gsrq dqN lq>ko fuEukuqlkj gSa&
1- ljdkj }kjk n`<+ bPNk “kfDr ds lkFk U;wure etnwjh vf/kfu;e dks fØ;kfUor djuk ftlls d`f’k
etnwjksa dks ewy fuokl esa vf/klwfpr U;wure etnwjh izkIr gks ldsA
2- “kklu }kjk d`’kdksa ls Ø; fd, tkus okys d`f’k mRiknksa ds U;wure leFkZu ewY; esa mfpr o`f) dh
tk; ftlls lhekar vkSj y?kq d`’kd d`f’k djds viuk thou ;kiu djus esa l{ke gks ldsA
3- 1 vizSy 2008 ls lEiw.kZ ns”k esa ykxw gksus okyh jk’Vªh; xzkeh.k jkstxkj xkjaVh ;kstuk dk fØ;kUo;u
iz”kklu }kjk iw.kZr% bZekunkjh ,oa n`<+ bPNk”kfDr ds lkFk fd;k tk;A ;kstuk ykxw djus dh vkSipkfjdrk
ek= gh iw.kZ dj ysus ls csjkstxkjh dks fu;af=r djuk laHko ugha gks ldsxk] lkFk gh fofHkUu jkgr
,oa jkstxkj ;kstukvksa dk lqpk: ,oa lkFkZd :i ls fu;fer fØ;kUo;u fd;k tk, rkfd t:jrean
d`f’k etnwjksa dks ewy fuokl ij d`f’k dk;Z u gksus okys “ks’k 6 ekg rd jkstxkj miyC/k gks ldsA
4- flapkbZ lqfo/kkvksa ds vHkko esa d`’kdksa dks foo”krko”k ,dQlyh; d`f’k djuk iM+rk gSA
5- iapk;r Lrj ij ,d lfefr xfBr dh tkuh pkfg, tks jkgr ;kstukvksa esa gksus okyh vfu;ferrkvksa
dks jksds ,oa jkgr ;kstukvksa esa etnwjh dk Hkqxrku le; ij fd;k tkuk lqfuf”pr djsaA
6- iyk;udŸkkZvksa dks iyk;u LFky ij “kks’k.k ,oa vekuoh; O;ogkj ls cpkus gsrq iyk;udŸkkZvksa ds
iath;u dh O;oLFkk dh tk;A iath;u gsrq iapk;r Lrj ij fuxjkuh dsUnzksa }kjk iath;u “kqYd yh
tkuh pkfg,A ftlesa iyk;u LFky] ogka fd, tkus okys dk;Z ,oa fu;ksDrk dk Li’V o.kZu gksuk
pkfg,A ftlls foijhr fLFkfr esa lgk;rk djuk lEHko gks ldsA
7- fofHkUu LoSfPNd laXkBu tks vU; {ks=ksa esa dk;Z djrs gSa mUgsa iyk;udŸkkZvksa ds lg;ksx gsrq vkxs
vkdj O;oLFkk,¡ djuh pkfg,A bl gsrq iyk;udŸkkZ fuxjkuh dsUnz LFkkfir dj buesa LoSfPNd laxBuksa
dh lgHkkfxrk lqfuf”pr dh tkuh pkfg,A
8- xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa dqVhj m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk dh tkuh pkfg, ftlds vUrxZr dk’B vk/kkfjr gLrf”kYi
lkexzh dk fuekZ.k] cM+h ,oa ikiM+ dk mRiknu ,oa oukS’kf/k;ksa dks mRikfnr djus gsrq “kklu }kjk
i;kZIr foRrh; lgk;rk xzkeh.kksa dks nh tkuh pkfg,A
9- xzke iapk;r Lrj ij xzkeh.k foi.ku dsUnzksa dh LFkkiuk dh tkuh pkfg, tgk¡ xzkeh.k vius }kjk
mRikfnr mRiknksa dks mfpr ewY; ij foØ; dj ldsaA
10- xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa “kgjksa tSlh lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djkbZ tk, ftlesa ifjogu lqfo/kk] lM+d] fpfdRlky;]
f”k{k.k laLFkk,a] fo|qr vkiwfrZ] is;ty lqfo/kk] jkstxkj rFkk mfpr U;k; O;oLFkk vkfn “kkfey gSaA
11- xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa lkoZtfud forj.k iz.kkyh dks lqlaxfBr ,oa ikjn”khZ cuk;k tk, ftlls yksxksa dks
mfpr nkeksa ij [kk| lqj{kk o vukt miyC/k gks lds vkSj xzkeh.k iyk;u jksdk tk ldsA
fu”d”kZ
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ls iyk;u jksdus gsrq flQZ jkgr ;kstuk,W gh i;kZIr ugha gSa] vfirq tc rd iyk;u fd;s
tkus okys {ks=ksa esa vk/kkjHkwr ;kstuk,W ugha cuk;h tk,axh rc rd Jfed iyk;u dks jksd ikuk laHko ugha gSA
bl dk;Z gsrq flapkbZ lk/kuksa dk foLrkj] xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa jkstxkj dh miyC/krk okys lzksrksa dh igpku djus
ds lkFk gh d`f’k {ks= esa izpfyr etnwjh dh nj esa o`f) gsrq jkT; ljdkj dks xaHkhj iz;kl djus gksaxs ,oa
iyk;u dh leL;k dks utjvankt dj mlds fy, ldkjkRed igy djuh gksxh] rHkh lgh ek;us esa iyk;u
:d ldsxkA iwoZ jk’Vªifr ,oa felkby eSu MkW- ,0ih0ts0 vCnqy dyke dgk djrs Fks fd ^^”kgjksa dks xk¡oks a
esa ys tkdj gh xzkeh.k iyk;u ij jksd yxkbZ tk ldrh gSA** muds bl dFku ds ihNs ;g dVq lR; fNik
gS fd xkaoksa esa “kgjksa dh rqyuk esa 5 izfr”kr vk/kkjHkwr lqfo/kk,a Hkh miyC/k ugha gSA bl izdkj ls xkaoksa esa
“kgjksa tSlh vk/kkjHkwr lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djokdj iyk;u dh izo`fr dks jksdk tk ldrk gSA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- tula[;k lanHkZ C;wjks] 2011
2- Saxena, D.P. (1977), “Rural Migration in India: Causes and consequences”, Bombay Popular Prakashan,
Bombay.
3- nSfud tkxj.k] fgUnh lekpkj i=] okjk.klh la Ldj.kA
4- flag ] v0iz0 ¼2001½] ^^xjhch vkSj izokl**] jkor ifCyds”ku] t;iqjA
5- Banerjee, B., (1986), “Rural to Urban Migration and the Urban Labour Market”, Himalaya Publishing,
Delhi.
6- Goshal, G.S., “Internal Migration in India: A Regional Analysis”, The Indian Geographical Journal, 36 (3),
106-121, July-September 1961.
7- lDlsuk] ,-lh- ¼1996½] ^^Je leL;k,a ,oa lkekftd lqj{kk**] jLrksxh ifCyds”kUl] esjBA
8- dq:{ks=] xz keh.k fodkl ea=ky;] ubZ fnYyhA
9- ;kstuk] iazdk”ku foHkkx] ubZ fnYyhA
10- mRrj izns”k ¼2016½] lwpuk ,oa tulEidZ foHkkx] m0iz0 y[kuÅA
Ñf”k ,oa i’kqikyu dk gks lEiw.kZ fodkl] rks #d ldrk gS xzkeh.k izokl
lqjsUnz dqekj* ,oa nhiekyk jkSrsys**
izLrkouk
egkRek xka/kh dgrs Fks fd vlyh Hkkjr xkaoksa esa clrk gSA muds le; lpeqp Hkkjr dh vf/kdrj vkcknh
xkaoksa esa gh jgrh FkhA Hkkjr ,d izkphu ,oa tula[;k dh n`f’V ls fo”o dk nwljk lcls cM+k jk’Vªª gSA la;qDr
jk’Vªª la?k ds vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd ekeyksa ds foHkkx }kjk tkjh Þfn oYMZ ikWiqys”ku izkWLisDV~l % fn fjohtu
fjiksVZß&2017 ds vuqlkj] phu dh orZeku tula[;k 1-41 vjc gS tcfd Hkkjr dh vkcknh 1-34 vjc gSA
mDr fjiksVZ ds eqrkfcd] Hkkjr dh tula[;k o’kZ 2024 rd phu dh vkcknh dks ikj dj tk,xh ,oa ;gh o`f)
nj jgh rks o’kZ 2030 rd ns”k dh vkcknh 1-5 vjc gks tk;sxhA iyk;u ;k izokl dk flyflyk fdlh Hkh
xkao ;k “kgj ds fy, u;k elyk ugha gS fofHkUu dkj.kksa ls yksx ,d xkao ls nwljs xkao esa] xkao ls “kgj esa]
,d “kgj ls nwljs “kgj esa] nwljs “kgj ,oa ,d ns”k ls nwljs ns”k esa iyk;u dj tkrs gSaA ijUrq Hkkjr esa xkao
ls “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dh izo`fÙk T;knk gSA
Hkkjr ds xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ls iyk;u
izokl ;k iyk;u ;k ekbxzs”ku bu rhuksa “kCnksa dk ,d feyk&tqyk vFkZ gS] yksxksa dk xkaoksa ls fudydj
fdlh vU; txg cl tkukA dkj.k tula[;k o`f)] csjktxkjh ,oa cqfu;knh lqfo/kkvksa esa deh] pkgs tks Hkh
gksA vkt gekjs xkaoksa ls “kgjksa dh vksj fujarj iyk;u gks jgk gS ftlls xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh tula[;k ?kV jgh
gS vkSj ogha “kgjh {ks=ksa dh vkcknh yxkrkj c<+rh tk jgh gSA Lora=rk ds i”pkr~ gqbZ izFke tux.kukuql kj]
o’kZ 1941&1951 ds n”kd esa xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ls “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dh nj dqy tula[;k dk 3-4 izfr”kr
jgh tks o’kZ 2001&2011 ds n”kd esa c<+dj 4-5 izfr”kr gks xbZ gSA blls Hkh T;knk cqjh gkyr Hkkjr esa
lokZfèkd vkcknh ¼199]581]477½ okys mÙkj izns”k dh gSA mÙkj izns”k ls lcls T;knk yksx jkstxkj ds fy,
iyk;u djrs gSaA gky gh esa ,d tkjh fjiksVZ esa Hkkjr ljdkj us ekuk gS fd mÙkj izns”k esa csjkstxkjh nj
jk’Vªªh; vkSlr nj ls T;knk gSA ,lkspSe vkSj Vkjh] ftlus mÙkj izns”k ds iyk;u ds vkadM+s O;ofLFkr fd;s
* vflLVsaV izksQslj] ,IykbM lkbal ,.M â;qfefuVht ¼vFkZ”kkL=½ foHkkx] ,Q-bZ-Vh- vkxjk dkW yst] vkxjk ,oa ,l-vkj-
ts-Mh-fMxzh dkW yst] vkxjk
** vflLVsaV iz ksQslj] vFkZ”kkL= foHkkx] ,Q-bZ-Vh- vkxjk dkW yst] vkxjk ,oa ,l-vkj-ts-Mh-fMxkh dkW yst] vkxjk
gSa] mldh fjiksVZ ds vuqlkj] o’kZ 2001&2011 ds n”kd esa izns”k ls 20&29 lky vk;q oxZ ds 58 yk[k 34
gtkj ;qok yksxksa us jkstxkj ds fy, xqtjkr] iatkc] gfj;k.kk ,oa fnYyh dh vksj iyk;u fd;k gSA
iyk;u fdlh ,d dkj.k ls gksus okys ?kVd dk ifj.kke ugha gSA “kknh&fookg] jkstxkj dh vko”;drk
o volj] f”k{kk dh miyC/krk rFkk ekuo fodkl ds fy, fofHkUu izdkj dh vkfFkZd] lkekftd] jktuhfrd
lqj{kk vkfn izokl ;k iyk;u ds eq[; dkjd gSaA
iyk;u ds izeq[k dkjd
iwoZ jk’Vªªifr ,ihts vCnqy dyke dgrs gSa fd Þiwjkß fe”ku ¼izksokbfMax vcZu ,esfufVt bu :jy ,fj;kt½
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa “kgjh lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djkus dh t:jr gSA Þiwjkß DyLVlZ cukdj xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dk mRFkku
djuk fodkl dk izkFkfed y{; gksuk pkfg,A blds vykok Ñf’k ,oa i”kqikyu] fuekZ.k] lsok {ks= vkSj “kgjh
mé;u esa fodkl dh xfrfof/k;ka Hkh “kq: gksuh pkfg,A rHkh xzkeh.k {ks=ksa ls “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u #dsxk
vkSj yksx “kgj ls xkaoksa dh vksj mYVs ykSVsaxsA xzkeh.k tula[;k ds “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u djus ds iz eq[k
dkjd bl izdkj gSaA
O;kid csjkstxkjh ,oa jkstxkj esa vfuf’prrk
Hkkjr izkjaHk ls gh Ñf’k iz/kku ns”k jgk gS vkSj ;gka dh Ñf’k O;oLFkk eq[; :i ls izÑfr ij ij fuHkZj gSA
;gka dh [ksrh&ckM+h iw.kZr% o’kkZ ij fuHkZj gSA ekulwu dh vfu;ferrk ds dkj.k] ;fn mfpr o’kkZ gks xbZ rks
[ksrhckM+h dk dke gksrk gS vU;Fkk lHkh fdlku o [ksrh ls tqM+s etnwj ,oa muds ifjokj okys csjkstxkj gks
tkrs gSaA nwljh vksj] vk/kqfud fodkl dh nkSM+ esa gtkjksa ,dM+ [ksrh ;ksX; mitkÅ tehu dk mi;ksx lM+d sa]
Hkou ,oa dkj[kkus cukus esa iz;qDr gks tkus ls mitkÅ Hkwfe fujarj de gksrh tk jgh gSA ns”k dh fofHkUu
HkkSxksfyd ifjfLFkfr;ksa ds vykok c<+rh vkcknh us Hkh [ksrksa dks cjckn djus esa dlj ugha NksM+h gSA ns”k esa
vusd vkS|ksfxd bdkbZ;ka izk;% “kgjksa ds utnhd ,oa ty lzksrksa ds ikl LFkkfir gksrh gSaA vkSj bu m|ksxksa
es a Hkkjh la[ ;k esa e”khuksa ,oa dEI;wV jksa dk mi;ksx gksu s ls xkao ds dqVhj o y?kq m|ksx lekIr gksu s ds
lkFk&lkFk xkao ds fdlku o dkjhxj csjkstxkj gks x;s vkSj dke o jkstxkj dh ryk”k esa “kgjksa dh vksj nkSM+
iM+sA vf”k{kk ,oa xjhch us mUgsa “kgj&”kgj Bksdjsa [kkus dks etcwj dj fn;kA
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa cqfu;knh lqfo/kkvksa dk vHkko
xkaoksa ,oa “kgjksa ds yksxksa ds fy, vko”;d lqfo/kk,a tSls&”kq) is;ty] Hkkstu] f”k{kk] fpfdRlk] jks txkj]
ifjogu] fctyh] bZa/ku] lM+d&lapkj vkfn ewyHkwr vko”;drkvksa dh iwfrZ ,oa fodkl foLrkj esa tehu&vkleku
dk vUrj gSA vkSj ;g vUrj fnu&izfrfnu c<+rk tk jgk gSA iztkra= ds fu;fer vUrjky ds ckn pquko gksus
ij usrkx.k fodkl dk >wBk liuk fn[kkdj ikap o’kksaZ ds fy, varZ/;ku gks tkrs gSaA reke rjg ds f”k{k.k&izf”k{k.k
dsUnzksa] LokLF; dsUnzksa] lM+d ,oa iqy] lapkj ,oa ;krk;kr lk/kuksa o m|ksxksa ds dsUnz uxj ,oa egkuxj gh
curs gSaA xkao ds yksxksa esa NksVs&eksVs vkilh >xM+s gksus ij U;k; ds fy, Hkh “kgj dh vksj :[k djuk iM+rk
gSA ,slh fLFkfr esa vius vkSj viuh ubZ ih<+h ds Hkfo’; dks laokjus ds fy, xzkeh.k yksxksa dks “kgj dh rjQ
iyk;u djuk iM+rk gSA
HksnHkkoiw.kZ lkekftd O;oLFkk

xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh lkekftd O;oLFkk esa ijiajkxr tkfr O;oLFkk cgqr gh nks’kiw.kZ ,oa dBksj cu pqdh gS A
dke ds vk?kkj ij cuh o.kZ O;oLFkk us /khjs&/khjs bruk dBksj :i /kkj.k dj fy;k gS fd mlesa cnyko dj
ikuk dfBu gh ugha vlaHko Hkh gSA xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa lkekU; Lrj ls uhps ds ik;nku ij xqtj&clj djus okys
yksxksa dks vius eu&eqrkfcd dke djus] “kknh&fookg djus] vPNh cfLr;ksa esa edku cukus] jgu&lgu vkfn
dk;ksaZ esa mPp Lrj ds yksxksa dk n[ky jgrk gSA bu lcls NqVdkjk ikus ds fy, os xkao ls fudydj “kgj
dh vksj iyk;u dj tkrs gSaA vktdy f”kf{kr yM+fd;ka xkaoksa esa nqYgu cudj tkus dks Hkh rS;kj ugha gks rh
gSaA lkFk gh vkfFkZd vlekurk] vf”k{kk] “kks’k.k ,oa vU/kfo”okl tSls dkj.k Hkh yksxksa dks “kgjksa es a tkus ds
fy, etcwj dj nsrs gSaA
xzkeh.k&’kgjh tuthou ij iyk;u dk izHkko
Hkkjr esa iyk;u dks udkjkRed n`f’Vdks.k ls ns[kk tkrk gSA vr% bls ;wa dgsa fd xzkeh.k&”kgjh iyk;u
dh rst xfr xkaoksa o “kgjksa nksuksa ds fy, uqdlkunk;d gSA ,d vksj] rks ifjJeh vkSj izfrHkk”kkyh xzk eokfl;ksa
dk “kgjksa esa iyk;u gks tkus ds QyLo:i xkaoksa dh vPNs ls ns[k&Hkky ugha gks ikrh ftlls xzkeh.k {ks =ksa dk
leqfpr fodkl ugha gks ikrkA xzkeh.k iyk;u ls xkaoksa esa lUukVk iljk jgrk gS vkSj xzkeh.k dh lkekftd
lajpuk fNUu&fHkUu gks tkrh gS vkSj xkaokas esa flQZ cqtqxZ ,oa cPps gh fn[kkbZ nsrs gSaA nwljh vksj] ns”k ds cM+s
uxjksa o egkuxjksa dh rjQ xzkeh.k tula[;k ds yxkrkj iyk;u ds dkj.k bu cM+s uxjksa o egkuxjksa esa
leL;kvksa dk vackj yx x;k gSA bu “kgjksa dh vk/kkjHkwr o cqfu;knh lqfo/kkvksa tSls&vkokl] f”k{kk] ;krk;kr]
ifjogu] tykiwfrZ] fctyh vkfn ij cks> mÙkjksÙkj c<+rk tk jgk gSA lkoZtfud LFkyksa ij c<+rh HkhM+] okguksa
o nq?kZVukvksa dh c<+rh la[;k] vfu;af=r ;krk;kr O;oLFkk] pksjh&MdSrh] ywV&ikV tSlh vekuoh; ?kVuk,a
,oa i;kZ;oj.k esa iznw’k.k dk c<+rk dgj tSlh xEHkhj leL;kvksa us “kgjksa dh fLFkfr fujk”kktud o fpUrktud
cuk nh gSA
c<+rs xzkeh.k iyk;u dh jksdFkke
iyk;u dks ,dne jksd ikuk u rks laHko gS vkSj u gh okaNuh;A xkaoksa ls “kgjksa dh vksj iyk;u dh
c<+rh xfr dqN T;knk gh gS] blfy, bl ij yxke dlus gsrq Ñf’k ,oa i”kq/ku O;olk; dks vkSj lEiUu ,oa
ykHkdkjh cukus dh vR;Ur vko”;drk gS D;ksafd vkt Hkh xkaoksa dh lEiUurk ,oa [kq”kgkyh dk eq[; vk/kkj
[ksrh ,oa i”kq/ku gh gSaA
xzkeh.k Hkkjr esa Ñf”k ,oa i’kqikyu O;olk; dk ;ksxnku
Ñf’k vkt Hkh Hkkjr dh yxHkx 48 izfr”kr vkcknh dh vkthfodk dk eq[; lzksr gSA ;g ns”k dh [kk|
lqj{kk dh t:jr iwjh djus ds lkFk vfrfjDr mRiknu djds ns”k ds fy, fu;kZr miyC/k djkrh gSA o’kZ
2015&17 esa [kk|ké mRiknu ds fiNys lkjs fjdkMZ VwV x;s gSaA Ñf’k lgdkfjrk o fdlku dY;k.k foHkkx
ds vuqlkj] ns”k esa o’kZ 2016&17 esa dqy 2]733-8 yk[k Vu [kk|ké mRiknu gqvk gS tks xro’kZ 2015&16 ds
mRiknu ls 218-1 yk[k ¼8-7 izfr”kr½ vf/kd gSA [kk|ké dk ;g mRiknu fiNys 5 o’kksZa ds vkSlr mRiknu
ls Hkh 6-37 izfr”kr vf/kd gSA o’kZ 2016&017 ds nkSjku ns”k esa dqy 1088 yk[k Vu pkoy] 966 yk[k Vu
xsgw¡] 224 yk[k Vu nygu] 336 yk[k Vu frygu ,oa 443 yk[k Vu eksVs vukt dk mRiknu gksus dk vuqeku
gS tks vc rd dk fjdkMZ mRiknu gksxkA blh nkS jku dqy /kku dh iSnkokj esa o`f) 5-79 iz fr”kr] xUuk
mRiknu esa 17-5 izfr”kr] eDdk mRiknu esa 7-14 izfr”kr] lks;kchu mRiknu esa 7-4 izfr”kr ,oa rqjyky puk
mRiknu esa 16-88 izfr”kr dh o`f) ntZ dh xbZ gSA [ksrh&fdlkuh vkSj xzkeh.kksa dh csgrjh dks /;ku esa j[krs
gq, dsUnz ljdkj us o’kZ 2016&17 ds fy, ctV izko/kku 44]250 djksM+ #i;s ls c<+kdj o’kZ 2017&18 ds fy,
51]026 djksM+ #i;s dj fn;k gSA lkFk gh iz/kkuea=h Jh ujsUnz eksnh us lkr lw=h dk;Z;kstuk rS;kj dj ns ”k
ds fdlkuksa dh vk; o’kZ 2022 rd nksxquh djus dk y{; gkfly djus dh izfrc)rk trkrs gq, dgk] fd
vxj Hkkjr dk HkkX; cnyuk gS rks ;s xkao ls cnysxk] fdlku ls cnysxk] ,oa Ñf’k&ØkfUr ls cnysxkA ge
yksx lfn;ksa ls ih<+h&nj&ih<+h [ksrh djrs vk, gSaA vkt Ñf’k {ks= esa <kapkxr cnyko ds lkFk&lkFk rduhdh
n`f’V ls Hkh egRoiw.kZ ifjorZu gks jgs gSaA fu%lansg ;g dgk tk ldrk gS fd Hkkjrh; Ñf’k {ks= fodkl ds nkSj
ls xqtj jgk gSA vkSj vkt Hkh Ñf’k {ks= xzkeh.k iyk;u dks jksdus esa dkQh en~nxkj lkfcr gks jgk gSA
ns”k esa Hkkjr fuekZ.k ,oa eujsxk ;kstuk cukus ,oa ykxw djus esa dkQh O;kid n`f’Vdks.k j[kk x;k gSA
bu ;kstukvksa }kjk lM+d] Hkwfe] fo|qr] lapkj is;ty vkfn lqfo/kkvksa esa foLrkj djus dh iwjh xqatkb”k gSA
xzk eh.k iyk;u jksdus ds fy, lkekftd lekurk ,oa U;k; ij vk/kkfjr lekt dh LFkkiuk fd;k tkuk
vR;Ur vko”;d gSA ns”k esa py jgha fodkl ;kstukvksa esa misf{kr oxksZa dks fo”ks’k fj;k;r nsdj bls Bhd
rjg ls ykxw djuk pkfg,A
xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vkt Hkh izpqj Ñf’k Hkwfe] [kfut] fuekZ.k lkexzh ,oa ouksa tSls izkÑfrd lalk/ku ekStwn
gSaA xkaoksa esa i;ZVu dks vkdf’kZr djus okys vusd ejksje LFkkuksa vkSj ikjEifjd :i ls laiUu laLÑfr dk
ojnku feyk gqvk gSA ;gka ,sls lkglh vkSj n`.k bPNk “kfDr okys yksxksa dh deh ugha gS tks lw[kk] ck<+ ,oa
HkwdEi tSlh Hk;kud vkink dk eqdkcyk djrs jgs gSaA vkt xkaokas esa lHkh lqfo/kk,a miyC/k djkus dh t:jr
gS vkSj xzkeh.kksa ds eu esa fQj ls vius ?kj&}kj ds izfr izse dh vy[k txkus dhA fQj ls viuh xkaoksa dh
feV~Vh ls tksM+us ds fy, xkaoksa ds fdlkuksa] f”kYidkjksa] gLrf”kfYi;ksa dh O;kolkf;d izf”k{k.k rFkk m|ferk
dk;ZØeksa ds tfj, enn dh tk ldrh gSA lkFk gh xkaoksa dks ÅtkZ lEiUu djds cSadksa dh enn ls y?kq&m|ksxksa
dk iqu#RFkku djuk gksxkA rHkh ge viuh xzkeh.k laLÑfr dks iquthZfor dj ldrs gSaA lkFk gh] xzkeh.k {ks =ksa
ls gksus okys iyk;u ij Hkh jksd yxk ldrs gSaA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- ;ks tuk] foHk™k laLdj.kA
2- dq: {ks= ] foHk™k laLdj.kA
3- i”kqx.kuk o’kZ&2003] 2007] 2012
ns’kkUrj.k ,oa i;ZVu dh orZeku fLFkfr % Hkkjr ds fo’ks”k lanHkZ esa
egsUnz flag *
ifjp;
vkfndky ls gh ekuo ?kqeUrw izd`fr dk jgk gSA og Hkwfe ,oa lk/kuksa dh [kkst gsrq] egkekfj;ksa] ;q)]
vR;kpkj] HksnHkko ds dkj.k ,oa mUur thou dh vk”kk esa ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku ij tkdj clrk jgk gSA
FkksM+s le; ds fy, dgha ?kweus tkuk O;kikj] fpfdRlk] LokLF;] f”k{kk vkfn mn~ns”; ls vius lkekU; fuokl
ls ckgj tkuk ns”kkUrj.k ¼Migration½ u dgykdj cfYd i;ZVu dgykrk gSA i;ZVu ij =Sekfld fgUnh
ikf=dk ^^vrqY; Hkkjr^^ izFke laLdj.k ¼uoEcj 2015½] ds izdk”ku ij iz/kkuea=h Jh ujsUnz eknh th us dgk&^^Hkkjr
esa i;ZVu dh fo”kky laHkkouk,¡ gSaA izR;sd jkT; dh viuh dqN&u&dqN fof”k’Vrk gS] ,slh gekjs jkT;ksa dh
fojklr gSA i;ZVu fu/kZuksa esa ls lcls fu/kZu O;fDr ds fy, Hkh volj iznku djrk gSA^^
mn~ns’;
1- Hkkjr esa i;ZVu dh orZeku fLFkfr dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
2- Hkkjr esa ns”kkUrj.k dh orZeku fLFkfr dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
3- Hkkjr esa ns”kkUrj.k ,oa i;ZVu ds chp vUrlZEcU/kksa dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
‘kks/k fof/k
izLrqr “kks/k i= f}rh;d vkdM+ksa ij vk/kkfjr gS] tks la;qDr jk’Vª la?k] fo”o i;ZVu laxBu ¼ UNWTO½
dh fjiksVZ] i;ZVu ea=ky;] Hkkjr ljdkj dh fjiksVZ] Hkkjr dh tux.kuk 2001 ds vkdMs+] “kks/k i=ksa] if=dkvksa
,oa iqLrdksa vkfn lzksrksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA ;g O;k[;kRed “kks/k fof/k ij vk/kkfjr gSA
* “kks/k Nk=] vFkZ” kkL= foHkkx] bykgkckn fo”ofo|ky;] bykgkckn ¼m-iz-½

rkfydk la[;k 1% Hkkjr esa fons’kh i;ZVd vkxeu

o"kZ fons’ kh i;ZV d vkxeu fiNys 5 o"kksZa dh rqy uk esa ¼%½
¼fefy;u esa½ # ifjorZu
2000 2.65
2005 3.92 47.92
2010 5.78 47.44
2015 8.03 38.92
2016 8.89 10.70@
Source: Indian Tourist Statistics at a Glance 2015, Annual Report 2016-# tks Hkkjrh; fons”k esa jg jgs gSa mudks “kkfey
ugha fd;k x;k gSA
ns’kkUrj.k
vkfFkZd ,oa foRrh; eanh ds ckotwn] oSf”od ns ”kkUrj.k yxkrkj c<+ jgk gS ] rFkkfi 2007 ls oSf ”od
ns”kkUrj.k esa deh ns[kh tk jgh gS] rFkkfi 2007 ls oSf”od ns”kkUrj.k esa deh ns[kh tk jgh gSA ¼ United
Nations, 2013½
rkfydk la[;k 2% vUrjkZ”Vªh; izokfl;ksa dh estckuh djus okys 15 izeq[k ns’k ,oa mudh jSadA
Øe ns’k la[;k ¼fe0esa0½ Øe la 0 ns’k la[;k ¼fe0esa0½
la0
1- la; q0 jk0 vesfjdk 35 1- l0jk0 vesfjdk 47
2- :lh la?k 12 2- teZuh 12
3- teZuh 9 3- :lh la?k 12
4- Hkkjr 6 4- lkmnh vjc 10
5- Ýkal 6 5- fczVsu$vk;jyS.M 9
6- ;wØsu 6 6- la; qDr vjc vehjkr 8
7- dukMk 6 7- dukMk 8
8- lkÅnh vjc 5 8- Ýkal 8
9- fczVsu$vk;jyS.M 5 9- vkLVªsfy;k 7
10- vkLVªsfy;k 4 10- Lisu 6
11- ikfdLrku 4 11- bVyh 6
12- dtkfdLrku 3 12- Hkkjr 5
Source: International Migration Report 2015 : Highlights.
mi;qZDr lkj.kh&4 ls Li’V gksrk gS fd o’kZ 2000 esa izokfl;ksa dh estckuh djus ds ekeys esa vesfjdk
¼35 fe0 ds lkFk½ “kh’kZ ij gS] ftlus 2015 esa 47 fefy;u vUrjkZ’Vªh; izokfl;ksa dk Lokxr fd;kA mlds ckn
:lh la?k dk LFkku gS] ftlus o’kZ 2000 rFkk 2015 esa yxHkx 12 fefy;u fons”kh izzokfl;ksa dk Lokxr fd;k
vFkkZr~ ;gk¡ izokfl;ksa dk vkuk yxHkx fLFkj jgk gSA lkmnh vjc esa izokfl;ksa dh la[;k 2000 esa ek= 5
fefy;u Fkh] tks 2015 esa c<+dj 10 fefy;u gks x;hA o’kZ 2000 eas] Hkkjr esas izokfl;ksa dh la[;k yxHkx 6
fefy;u Fkh] tks 2015 esa ?kVdj ek= 5 fefy;u jg x;hA Li’Vr% dgk tk ldrk gS fd tgk¡ vesfjdk tSls
ns”k esa vR;f/kd ohtk vojks/kksa ds ckotwn vUrjkZ’Vªh; izokfl;kas dh la[;k c<+h gS] ogha :lh la?k es a fLFkj ,oa
Hkkjr tSls ns”k esa budh la[;k de gqbZ gSA
Hkkjr esa dqy 1-02 fcfy;u tula[;k esa ls 307 fefy;u ¼;k 30 izfr”kr½ tula[;k dks tUe LFkku ds
vk/kkj ij izoklh ekuk x;k gSA ¼tux.kuk] 2001½
ewY;kadu
• Hkkjr esa fons”kh i;ZVd vkxeu esa yxkrkj o`f) gks jgh gSA
• ,d vksj tgk¡ vesfjdk tSls ns”kksa esa vR;f/kd ohtk izfrca/kksa ds ckotwn vUrjkZ’Vªh; izokfl;ksa dh
la[;k eas yxkrkj o`f) gks jgh gS] ogha Hkkjr tSls ns”k esa o’kZ 2000 dh vis{kk 2015 esa vUrjkZ’Vªh;
izokfl;ksa dh la[;k esa deh Li’V iznf”kZr gksrh gSA
• Hkkjr esa tgk¡ ,d vksj fons”kh i;ZVd vkxeu rhoz xfr ls c<+ jgh gS] ogha vUrjkZ’Vªh; izokfl;ksa dh
estckuh esa deh ds Li’V ladsr gSA
lq>ko
• fons”kh izokfl;ksa fo”ks’k :i ls voS/k izokfl;ksa tSls caXykns”kh vkfn dk jktuhfrd ykHk ysus ls cpk
tk; rFkk bl ij jksd yxk;h tk;A
• gekjs ns”k dh ohtk uhfr ,slh gksuh pkfg, ftlls mPPk dq”kyrk;qDr ;k mPp izf”kf{kr tu”kfDr
Hkkjr dh vksj vkdf’kZr gks ldsA
• Hkkjr esa i;ZVu dh vR;f/kd laHkkouk,¡ fo|eku gS] ftudk ykHk mBkus ds fy, i;ZVdksa ds vuqdwy
ekgkSy rS;kj fd;k tkuk pkfg,A
lUnHkZ lwph
1- Annual Report 2016-17, Ministry of Tourism Govt. of India.
2. Indian Tourist Statistics at a Glance 2003, 2015. Ministry of Tourism, Government of India.
3. International Migration Report 2015 Highlights, Department of Economics and Social Affairs. Population Division
(2016). (ST/ESA/SER.A/375).
4. Census of India 2001. Data Highlights. Govt. of India.
5. World Migration in Figures (2013) – A Joint Contribution by UN-DESA and the OECD to the United Nations High
Level Dialogue on Migration and Development, 3-4 Oct. 2013.
6- Singh. J. (2005), Tourism Geography.
7- Annual Report (2011, 2016), United Nations World Tourism Organization.
8- flag ] ts0 ih0 ¼2013½] lekt”kkL= vo/kkjk.kk,¡ ,oa fl)kUr] r`rh; laLdj.k (Eastern Economy Edition) PHI yfuZax
izkbosV fy0] fjef>e gkml fnYyhA
Hkkjr esa tula[;k o`f) dk ‘kgjhdj.k ij izHkko
eerk flag* ,oa dfork xxZ **
izLrkouk
Hkkjr ,d tula[;k iz/kku ns”k gSA 2011 ds vuqlkj] Hkkjr dh tula[;k 1-21 djksM+ jgh tcfd phu dh
FkksM+h T;knk yxHkx 1-34 djksM+ jghA phu ds ckn fo”o esa Hkkjr dh tula[;k o`f) esa f)rh; LFkku gS rFkk
{ks=Qy dh n`f’V ls Hkkjr dk fo”o esa lkroka LFkku gSA Hkkjr dh vkfFkZd fo’ks”krkvksa dks ns[ks rks Kkr gksrk
gS fd Hkkjr ,d fodkl’khy jk’Vª dh Js.kh esa vkrk gSA
Hkkjrh; vFkZO;oLFkk dks ns[kk tk, rks Hkkjr dh vFkZO;oLFkk vf/kdka”kr% d`f’k ij fuHkZj vFkZO;oLFkk gSA
Hkkjr esa xzkeh.k tula[;k dk ckgqY; gS blfy, Hkkjr xkaoksa dk ns”k dgykrk gSA ;fn ge fo”o dh vFkZO;oLFkk
ij utj Mkysa rks ikrs gSa fd vf/kdka”k fodflr jk’Vªksa dk ekxZ “kgjksa ls gksdj xqtjrk gSA “kgj gh fodflr
jk’Vªksa dh vFkZO;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku nsrs gSa D;ksafd fdlh Hkh ns”k esa vkS|ksfxdhdj.k rFkk “kgjhdj.k
nksuksa dh izfØ;k ,d lkFk lEiUu gksrh gS D;ksafd bu nksuksa esa fudV lEcU/k gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh ns”k esa ml
le; rd “kgjksa dk fodkl ugh gks ldrk tc rd fd ns”k esa vkS|ksfxdj.k ds lkFk O;kikj] ifjogu ds
lkèku] cSafdax chek rFkk vU; fofHkUu izdkj dh lkoZtfud lsokvksa dk fodkl izkjEHk ugh gksrkA bu lHkh ds
fodkl dk izHkko Jfedksa dh la[;k ij fuHkZj djrk gSA Hkkjr ,d Je iz/kku ns”k gS blfy, ;gkW Je dh iwfrZ
dh leL;k ugha gSA ijUrq mfpr rduhd ,oa iwath dk i;kZIr vHkko gSA ns”k dh LorU=rk i”pkr Hkkjr dh
“kgjh tula[;k esa dkQh o`f) gqbZ gS tks bl ckr dk Li’V izek.k gS fd Hkkjr iapo’khZ; ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e
ls vkS|ksxhdj.k dh vksj vxzlj gqvk gSA “kgjhdj.k ds fodkl dk ekxZ fNik gqvk gS vkSj “kgjh fodkl gh
Hkkjr ds mTToy Hkfo’; dk vk/kkj gSA
“kgjhdj.k fodkl izfdz;k dk gh ,d vax gSA xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dh tula[;k dk “kgjh {ks=ksa esa ifjorZu
vkfFkZd fodkl dh n`<+ dlkSVh gSA Hkkjr esa “kgjhdj.k tula[;k esa yxkrkj o`f) gks jgh gSA “kgjh tula[ ;k
tks 1901 esa 2 djksM+ 56 yk[k Fkh] og 1951 esa c<+dj 6 djksM+ 24 yk[k gks x;h gSA bl izdkj 1901 ls 1951
ds chp “kgjh tula[;k esa 3 djksM+ 68 yk[k dh o`f) gqbZA tcfd 1951 ls 1981 ds chp “kgjh tula[;k esa
9 djksM+ 71 yk[k dh o`f) gqbZ gSA blh izdkj 1981&1991 ds chp “kgjh tula[;k esa 5 djksM+ 77 yk[k dh
o`f) gqbZ gSA blls ;g fu’d’kZ fudkyk tk ldrk gS fd vkS|ksfxdhdj.k ds QyLo:i “kgjh tula[;k esa
vko’;d o`f) gqbZ gS] Hkys gh o`f) /kheh D;ksa u gks jgh gksA 2001 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj “kgjh tula[;k
* vflLVsaV izks0] vFkZ”kkL=] vkbZ0,u0 ,e0 ih0th0 dkW fyt] esjBA

** vflLVsaV izks0] vFkZ”kkL=] vkbZ0,u0 ,e0 ih0th0 dkW fyt] esjBA
28 djksM+ 53 yk[k Fkh tks dqy tula[;k dk 27-8 izfr”kr gSA 2011 dh tux.kuk ds vuqlkj Hkkjr dh dqy
“kgjh tula[;k 37 djksM+ 71 yk[k Fkh tks dqy tula[;k dk 31-2 izfr”kr FkhA
v/;;u ds mnns’;
• izLrqr “kks/k v/;;u dk eq[; mnns”; “kgjhdj.k o tula[;k o`f) ds chp lEcU/k Kkr djuk gSA
• tula[;k o`f) dk “kgjhdj.k ij iM+us okys izHkkoksa dk v/;;u djukA
• “kgjhdj.k o vkfFkZd le`f) o fodkl ds chp ik, tkus okys lEcU/kksa dk fo”ys’k.k djukA
• “kks/k ds mnns”;ksa ds vuqlkj fu’d’kZ o lq>ko nsukA
ifjdYiuk,a
• tula[;k o`f) ls “kgjhdj.k dks c<+kok feyk gS ;k ughA
• tula[;k o`f) dk “kgjhdj.k ij ldkjkRed izHkko iM+rk gS ;k udkjkRedA
‘kks/k fof/k
“kks/k dk;Z eq[ ; :i ls f)rh;d leadksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA f)rh;d lead eq[;r;k tux.kuk fjiksVZ]
lekpkj i= ,oa if=dkvksa] egRoiw.kZ iqLrdksa rFkk vU; izdkf”kr ,oa vizdkf”kr ys[kksa vkfn ls fy, x, gSA
blesa eq[;r% rqyukRed] lkaf[;dh; o ,sfrgkfld fof/k;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA
‘kgjhdj.k ds tukafddh igyw
tukafddh dk v/;;u fo’k; “kgjhdj.k ugh gS oju~ “kgjhdj.k dh bl izfØ;k ds dkj.k tks izokl tUe
ysrk gS] og tukafddh dh fo’k; oLrq gSA pawfd “kgj ds fuekZ.k esa izokl dk egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku gksrk gS A
xzkeh.k&”kgjh izokl izR;sd ns”k esa izokl dk ,d cM+k Hkkx gksrk gS vr% “kgjhdj.k dk tukafddh esa fo”ks’k
egRo gSA “kgjhdj.k dk v/;;u Kku dh fHkUu&fHkUu “kk[kkvksa esa fHkUu&fHkUu mÌs”;ksa ds fy, fd;k tkrk
gSA ,d HkwxksyosRrk “kgjhdj.k dk v/;;u lM+d] vkokl] ;krk;kr ds vU; lk/kuksa ds fodkl ,oa tula[;k
ds ?kuRo ls lEcfU/kr djrk gSA ,d lekt”kkL=h “kgjhdj.k dks thou dh ,d “kSyh ekurk gSA og “kgjhdj.k
ds dkj.k lkekftd lEcU/kksa esa vkus okys ifjorZuksa esa :fp j[krk gS] tcfd ,d tukafddh osRrk dh :fp
“kgjksa esa c<+rh tula[;k] xzkeh.k “kgjh izokl] “kgjhdj.k ds dkj.k fyaxkuqikr esa vUrj] vk;q lajpuk esa
vUrj vkfn esa jgrh gSA
Hkkjr esa ‘kgjhdj.k
Hkkjr esa xzkeh.k ‘kgjh tula[;k o`f) dh njsa

o"kZ xzkeh.k tula[;k 'kgjh tula[;k n'kd esa 'kgjh 'kgjh tula[;k
¼izfr'kr½ ¼izfr'kr½ tula[;k esa o`f) njsa esa okf"kZd o`f)
dh nj
1901 89 11 & &
1911 90 10 0-35 0-03
1921 89 11 8-27 0-79
1931 88 12 19-12 1-75
1941 86 14 31-97 2-77
1951 83 17 41-42 3-47
1961 82 18 26-41 2-34
1971 81 20 38-23 3-21
1981 76-37 23-73 46-14 3-83
1991 73-26 26-74 36-19 3-00
2001 71-27 28-72 31-30 2-47
2011 68-84 31-16 31-80 &
tula[;k o`f) ds ‘kgjhdj.k ij ldkjkRed izHkko

Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd fodkl ij “kgjhdj.k ds dbZ ldkjkRed igyw gS ftl dkj.k “kgjhdj.k dk fodkl
rsth ls gks jgk gSA ns”k dh LorU=rk ds i”pkr~ Hkkjr es “kgjh tula[;k esa dkQh o`f) gqbZ gS] tks bldk
Li’V izek.k gS fd Hkkjr fofHkUu iapo”khZ; ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls vkS|ksfxdj.k dh vksj vxzlj gqvk gSA
oSKkfud *flEl* us “kgjhdj.k esa O;kikj ds egRo dks Li’V djrs gq, dgk fd **O;kikj “kgj ds vfLrRo dh
n`f”V ls mruk gh vko’;d gS ftruk fd ,d izk.kh ds ‘kjhj esa jDr dk lapkj vko”;d gSA** tula[;k o`f)
ds “kgjhdj.k ij ldkjkRed izHkko fuEu gS&
• Je dh miyC/krk
• vkS|ksfxd fodkl
tula[;k o`f) ds ‘kgjhdj.k ij udkjkRed izHkko
Hkkjr esa tula[;k ds c<+rs gq, ncko ds QyLo:i “kgjhdj.k ij tula[;k dk ncko c<+rk tk jgk gS
tks fd vusd udkjkRed leL;kvksa dks tUe ns jgk gS tSls &edku miyC/k u gksuk] “kgj dk [kpZ vf/kd
gksuk] ifjokj lkFk u j[kus ls uSfrd ewY;ksa esa fxjkoV vkfnA “kgjksa esa tgkW ,d vksj vkyh”kku okrkuqdwfyr
Hkou gS ogh nwljh vksj VwVh&QwVh >qXxh&>ksiM+h Hkh gSA “kgjksa esa xkWo dh vis{kk rykd Hkh vf/kd ek=k esa
gksrs gSA “kgjhdj.k ds dkj.k vkfFkZd vkRefuHkZjrk esa Hkh deh vk;h gS rFkk /kkfeZd o lkekftd lgu’khyrk
tgkW ldkjkRed izHkko ykrk gS ogh udkjkRed izHkko Hkh mRiUu djrk gSA
fu”d”kZ
fu’d’kZ :i esa dgk tk ldrk gS fd tula[;k o`f) o “kgjhdj.k ,d&nwljs ls ?kfu’B :i ls lEcfUèkr
gSA ;gkW c<+rh gqbZ tula[;k rFkk “kgjhdj.k vYifodflr ns”kksa esa ,d xEHkhj leL;k cu pqdk gSA tula[;k
o` f) ds “kgjhdj.k ij tgkW ,d vksj ldkjkRed izHkko tS ls vkS| ksfxd {ks= ds fy, Je dh miyC/krk]
vkS|ksfxd fodkl] jkstxkj ds volj] f”k{kk dk foLrkj] jk’Vªh; vk; ,oa izfrO;fDr vk; esa o`f) vkfn iM+r s
gS ogh nwljh vksj “kgjhdj.k ij tula[;k ncko vusd udkjkRed izHkko Hkh Mkyrk gS tSls&xUnh cfLr;ka]
csjkstxkjh dh leL;k] fu/kZurk] edku miyC/k u gksuk] “kgj dk [kpZ vf/kd gksuk] ifjokj lkFk u j[kus ls
uSfrd ewY;ksa esa fxjkoV] lkekftdrk dk vHkko] i;kZoj.k iznw’k.k] LokLF; lsokvksa dh deh vkfnA
vr% Li’V gks tkrk gS fd “kgjhdj.k fdlh Hkh fodkl”khy jk’Vª ds fy, vkfFkZd fodkl o izxfr dk
ekxZ iz”kLr djrk gSA okLro esa “kgj gh fdlh ns”k dh vkfFkZd izxfr dk lwpd gksrs gSA ,d vksj tgkW
“kgjhdj.k ds QyLo:i fodkl dk ekxZ iz”kLr gksrk gS ogh nwljh vksj “kgjksa esa c<+rh gqbZ tula[;k bl
izxfr esa ck/kd fl) gks jgh gSA ;fn Hkkjr ns”k dh fodkl :ih bekjr dks [kM+k djuk gS rks mldh uhao dks
etcwr djuk gksxk vkSj ;g uhao “kgjhdj.k gh gSA
lq>ko
• Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd fodkl dh xfr dks c<+kus ds fy, gesa tula[;k o`f) ij fu;a=.k djuk gksxk
D;ksafd tula[;k o`f) ds dkj.k gh “kgjhdj.k dh izfØ;k vo:) gks jgh gSA
• ljdkjh uhfr;ksa esa cnyko djuk gksxkA ljdkj dks pkfg, fd og tula[;k ij fu;a=.k lEcU/kh
uhfr;ksa esa lq/kkj djsa rFkk ifjokj fu;kstu lEcU/kh dk;ZØeksa dks c<+kok Hkh nsA
• “kgjhdj.k esa mRiUu gks jgh vusd leL;kvksa ds fy, mfpr uhfr;ka o dkuwu o fo”ks’k :i ls mudk
mfpr fØ;kUo;u djus dh n”kk esa vge dne mBk,A
;fn bl fn”kk esa lgh dne ugha mBk, x, rks Hkkjr esa tula[;k o`f) o “kgjhdj.k dh leL;kvksa dk
,d ,slk pØO;wg curk pyk tk,xk ftls Hkfo’; esa Hkkjr tSls fodkl”khy jk’Vª ds )kjk rksM+ ikuk vlEHko
gksxkA blfy, ;fn le; jgrs iz;kl ugha fd, x, rks Hkkjr dk fodflr ns”kksa dh Js.kh esa fxus tkus dk
liuk gdhdr esa lkdkj u gksdj liuk gh cu dj jg tk,xkA
lUnHkZ lwph
1- caly] lqjs”k pUnz] **uxjh; Hkwxksy**
2- tSu] Vh0 vkj0] f=gku eqds”k] f=gku jUtq] ]** Hkkjrh; vkfFkZd leL;k,a**] 2012] oh0 ds0 Xykscy ifCyds”ku izk0 fy0A
3- dqekj oh0] **tukafddh**

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(i) ISSN - 0975-2382

UPUEA ECONOMIC JOURNAL

Uttar Pradesh - Uttarakhand Economic Association

From Secretary’s Desk

Uttar Pradesh - Uttarakhand Economic Association, currently with more than

Wishing you all the best

Prof. Shyam Kartik Mishra Prof. M.L. Maurya

UPUEA ECONOMIC JOURNAL

11. Potential Sectors to Remedy Indo-Iran Trade Deficit 43

28. Evolving Nature of Cooperative Federalism in India 105

59- foÙk vk;ksx % Hkwfedk dh leh{kk] vko’;drk 223

11. Socio Economic Status of Unorganized Sector of Women 269

44. Women’s Empowerment in India 400

61. Women’s Development Always Demand: Equality, Sustainability, 465

76. The Schemes of Women Empowerment in India 525

92- la?kh; ctV 2017&18 % efgyk vkfFkZd l’kfDrdj.k dk ,d iz;kl 586

108- 21oha lnh esa efgyk l’kfDrdj.k ds lkekftd&vkfFkZd vk;ke 646

GST and Centre State Financial Relation: A Critical Evaluation

Richa Rastogi* & Jagdish Narayan**

Applicability & Mechanism of GST

GST Rate Levied on

Manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer

Manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer

GST Supply Chain Example (Assuming GST Rate @ 8%)

GST Supply chain example (Assuming GST Rate @ 8%)

Goods/ Goods/ Services

Central Sales Tax CGST rate +

Applicable Rate of GST

Advantages of Implementing GST

A Study of Inter Relationship Between Foreign Direct

Ashok Mittal* & Yateesh Dubey**

* Professor, Department of Economics, A.M.U. Aligarh, U.P.

Table 1: Results of Simple Linear Regression Model

LnGDP 1.045* 0.489 2.14 0.045

LnTO 1.793* 0.851 2.11 0.047

Intercept -12.22 10.578 -1.16 0.261

*significant at 5 percent level

R-squared = 0.907, Adj R-squared= 0.898

Analysis of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Doda District

Amjid Nadeem*, Nisha Parveen**, Padam S Bisht*** & Asheesh Juneza****

Table 1.1: Description of Monthly Income after Implementation of Poverty Alleviation

Source: Based on Primary Survey.

Table 1.2: Average Monthly Income of Block Bhalessa after Implementation of

Source: Based on Primary Survey.

Table 1.4: Average Expenditure in Sample area

Average Expenditure = Sfm.v./N

Table 1.5: Description of Poverty Alleviation Programmes (Beneficiaries) in

Source: Based on Primary Survey

Impact of Water and Sanitation on Women’s

Shilpi Rai* & Prahalad Kumar**

* Research Scholar, Department of Economic, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, U.P.

Table 1: Use of Drinking Water Facilities (%)

Sub-Saharan Africa 1990 83 34 48

Northern Africa 1990 95 80 87

Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water, June 2015

Northern Africa 1990 90 54 71

Source: WHO/UNICF Joint Monitoring Programme for Sanitation, June 2015

Figure 1: Distribution of households by person usually responsible for water

Fiscal Devolution to Local Bodies in India: Role of Central

Ashok Mittal* & Aiman Fatima**

* Professor, Department of Economics, A.M.U. Aligarh, U.P.

Major Recommendationsof the Twelfth Finance Commission (TFC)

Thirteenth Finance Commission(13 th CFC)

Source: Report of the Thirteenth Finance Commission

Amjid Nadeem, Nisha Parveen, Padam S Bisht & Asheesh Juneza****