ÚÚxyÙÓ˚yñ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ çlàîñ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ˆÏܲ §yÓ≈ˆÏ˲ÔÙñ §Ùyçï˛y!sfܲñ ôÙ≈!

lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ñ
àîï˛y!sfܲñ §yôyÓ˚îï˛sfÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ àˆÏí˛¸ ï%˛°ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ §Ü˛° lyà!Ó˚ܲ•z ÎyˆÏï˛ §yÙy!çܲñ
xÌ≈˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ G Ó˚yç˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ñ lƒyÎ˚!Óã˛yÓ˚ñ !ã˛hs˝yñ Ùï˛≤Ãܲy¢ñ !ÓŸªy§ñ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õy§lyÓ˚
fl∫yô#lï˛yñ §yÙy!çܲ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y xç≈l G §%ˆÏÎyˆÏàÓ˚ §Ùï˛y ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §Ü˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
Óƒ!=˛Ó˚ ÙÎ≈yòy ~ÓÇ çyï˛#Î˚ ˙ܲƒ G §Ç•!ï˛ §%!l!Ÿã˛ï˛Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÎyˆÏï˛
ºyï,˛ˆÏcÓ˚ ˲yÓ àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛ ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ §ï˛ƒ!l¤˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ¢˛õÌ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
àî˛õ!Ó˚£ÏˆÏò xyç 1949 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ 26 lˆÏ˲¡∫Ó˚ñ ~ï˛jµyÓ˚y ~•z §Ç!Óôyl @˝Ã•îñ !Ó!ôÓÂô
~ÓÇ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ x˛õ≈î ܲÓ˚!SÈ– ÛÛ
 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).
 Ó˚§yÎ˚ l
˲yàÈ ü 1

~ܲyò¢ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z

≤Ûï˛Ü˛Ó˚î

çyï˛#Î˚ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ïò≈ ñ lï%˛l !ò!Õ‘ –

xl%Óyò G x!˲ˆÏÎyçl
Ó˚yçƒ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ïò≈ ñ !e˛õ%Óy˚ §Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ –
 © ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ Ü˛ï≈,˛Ü §Ó≈fl∫c §ÇÓ˚!«˛ï –

~ܲyò¢ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚l å≤ÃÌÙ Ë˛yàä õyë˛ƒÓ•z

~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ÈüÈÓ˚ Chemistry Vol-I õyë˛ƒ˛õ%hflψÏܲÓ˚
2018 §yˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛˛õ%lÙ≈o% ˆÏîÓ˚ xl)!òï˛ §ÇflÒÓî˚ –

~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ xl%ˆÏÙy!òï˛

≤ÃÌÙ ÓyÇ°y §ÇflÒÓî˚ ÈüÈ
≤ÃÌÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ü Ùyã≈˛ñ 2019
˛õ%lÙ%o≈ îÈü Ùyã≈˛ñ 2020

≤ÃFSÈò ı Ó˚yly Ó!lܲ

x«˛Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ ı Ó˚yly Ó!lܲ

§%ò#˛õ òy§

Ù)°ƒı 180 å~ܲ¢ï˛ xy!¢ ê˛yܲyä Ùye

Ù%oܲ : §ï˛ƒÎ%à ~Ù≤’!Î˚ç ˆÜ˛yÈüÈx˛õyˆÏÓ˚!ê˛Ë˛

•zu˛y!fiê˛∆Î˚y° ˆ§y§y•z!ê˛ !°!ÙˆÏê˛í˛
13 ≤ÃÊ%˛Õ‘ §Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ !fiê˛∆ê˛ñ ܲ°Ü˛yï˛yÈüÈ72–

≤ÃÜ
≤Ãܲ˛ y¢Ü˛
x!ôܲï≈˛y
Ó˚yçƒ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ï≈òñ !e˛õ%Ó˚y–
 Ë)˛!Ùܲy
2006 §y° ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚yçƒ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ï≈ò ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ xT˛Ù ˆ◊!î
˛õÎ≈hs˝ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ G í˛zFã˛≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õyë˛ƒ˛õ%hflψÏܲÓ˚ Ù%oî G ≤ÃܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ òy!Î˚c ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚ xy§ˆÏSÈ–
Ó˚yˆÏçƒÓ˚ !Óòƒy°Î˚hflψÏÓ˚ í˛zß¨ï˛ G §Ù,Âôï˛Ó˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛Ù ã˛y°% ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ °ˆÏ«˛ƒ !e˛õ%Ó˚y Ó˚yçƒ !¢«˛y
òƈÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÈÏã˛T˛yÎ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ xT˛Ùñ lÓÙ G ~ܲyò¢ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ çlƒ 2019 !¢«˛yÓ£Ï≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ
çyï˛#Î˚ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ï≈ˆÏòÓ˚ å~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ä ˛õyë˛ƒ˛õ%hflÏܲ§Ù)• @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
!§Âôyhs˝ ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚–
ÓyÇ°y !Ó£ÏÎ˚ SÈyí˛¸y xlƒylƒ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ çyï˛#Î˚ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ï≈ˆÏòÓ˚
≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ ˛õ%hflÏܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl)!òï˛ G x!˲ˆÏÎy!çï˛ §ÇflÒÓ˚î 2019 §yˆÏ° ≤ÃÌÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
~ÓÇ ~ ÓSÈÓ˚ G•z§Ó ˛õ%hflÏܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ%lÙ%≈oî ܲÓ˚y •°– ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ò¢Ù G myò¢ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ÓyÇ°y
!Ó£ÏÎ˚ SÈyí˛¸y xlƒylƒ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ çyï˛#Î˚ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ï≈ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛
˛õ%hflÏܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl)!òï˛ G x!˲ˆÏÎy!çï˛ §ÇflÒÓ˚î 2020 !¢«˛yӈϣÏ≈ ≤ÃÌÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~áyˆÏl
í˛zˆÏՑრˆÎñ ÓyÇ°y !ӣψÏÎ˚ ˛õyë˛ƒ˛õ%hflÏܲ Ó˚ã˛ly G ≤Ãܲy¢lyÓ˚ òy!Î˚cG Ó˚yçƒ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î
˛õ£Ï≈ò ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚ xy§ˆÏSÈ–
!Ó¢y° ~•z ܲÙ≈ܲyˆÏ[˛ ˆÎ§Ó !¢«˛Ü˛ÈüÈ!¢!«˛Ü˛yñ xôƒy˛õܲÈüÈxôƒy!˛õܲyñ !¢«˛y!Óòñ xl%Óyòܲñ
xl%ˆÏ°áܲñ Ù%oîܲÙ#≈ G !¢“#Ó˚y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˆÌˆÏܲ !lÓ˚°§Ë˛yˆÏÓ xÜœ˛yhs˝ ˛õ!Ó˚◊ˆÏÙ ~•z í˛zˆÏòƒyà
ÓyhflÏÓy!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §Óy•zˆÏܲ §Ü,˛ï˛K˛ ôlƒÓyò çyly!FSÈ–
≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒ˛õ%hflÏܲ!ê˛Ó˚ í˛zÍܲ£Ï≈ G ˆ§Ô®Î≈ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ çlƒ !¢«˛yl%Ó˚yà# G à%î#çˆÏlÓ˚
Ùï˛yÙï˛ G ˛õÓ˚yÙ¢≈ !ÓˆÏÓ!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ–

í˛z_Ù Ü%˛ÙyÓ˚ ã˛yܲÙy

xyàÓ˚ï˛°y x!ôܲï≈˛y
Ùyã≈˛ñ 2020 Ó˚yçƒ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy G ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ£Ï≈ò
!e˛õ%Ó˚y–
í˛z˛õˆÏòT˛y
1– í˛É xî≈Ó ˆ§lñ §• xôƒy˛õܲñ ~l •z xyÓ˚ xy•z •zñ !¢°Çñ ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛–
2– í˛É xÓ˚)˛õ Ü%˛ÙyÓ˚ §y•yñ §• xôƒy˛õܲñ xyÓ˚ xy•z •zñ Ë%˛ÓˆÏlŸªÓ˚ñ ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛–

˛õ%hflÏܲ!ê˛ ÎÑyÓ˚y xl%Óyò ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl

1– §%˲y£Ï ã˛w òy§Ï å!¢«˛Ü˛ä
2– ˜¢Óy° Ó˚yÎ˚ å!¢«˛Ü˛ä
3– !ÓŸª!çÍ ˆã˛Ôô%Ó˚# å!¢«˛Ü˛ä
4– ¢#°y àî ˆã˛Ôô%Ó˚#ñ !¢!«˛Ü˛y
4– ˆàÔï˛Ù Ó˚yÎ˚ ÓÙ≈l å!¢«˛Ü˛ä
5– l®ò%°y° ˆã˛Ôô%Ó˚# å!¢«˛Ü˛ä

˛Ë˛y£Ïy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyç≈lyÎ˚ /
1– •z®%ÙyôÓ ã˛Ü ˛Óï˛#≈ñ xÓ§Ó˚≤ÃyÆ !¢«˛Ü˛
2– ¢%Üœ˛y !§Ç•ñ !¢!«˛Ü˛y

vi
≤Ãy܉˛Ü˛Ìl
çyï˛#Î˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áy å2005äÈüÈ~Ó˚ !lˆÏò≈¢ xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ fl%Ò°ç#Ól G fl%҈ϰÓ˚ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï §¡õÜ≈˛ Ìyܲy á%Ó ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚îñ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ !¢«˛y Î!ò ¢%ô%Ùye
fl%Ò° ~ÓÇ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ à![˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §#!Ùï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˆ§•z§Ó !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ fl%Ò°ñ Óy!í˛¸ ~ÓÇ
§¡±òyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ ~•z !ï˛l çyÎ˚àyÓ˚ !¢«˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓˆÏí˛¸y ÊÑ˛yܲ ÌyܲyÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– Ù)°ï˛ ~•z
¢)lƒfiÌylê˛yˆÏܲ ˛õ)Ó˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ °ˆÏ«˛ƒ•z çyï˛#Î˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ lï%˛l ˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛Ù
G lï%˛l ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ í˛zˆÏòƒyà ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈÉ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ Ù%áfiÌ Ü˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ
!¢«˛yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏܲy¤˛ÓÂô ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛≤ÃÓîï˛y Órô •ˆÏÓ ÓˆÏ° ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏFSÈ– ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢
~ê˛yG xy¢y ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏFSÈ ˆÎñ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l çyï˛#Î˚ !¢«˛yl#!ï˛Ó˚ å1986ä !¢¢%ˆÏܲ!wܲ !¢«˛yÓ˚ °«˛ƒˆÏܲ
í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒË˛yˆÏÓ ~!àˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ–
ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÈÏã˛T˛yÓ˚ §yÊ˛°ƒ xˆÏlܲê˛y•z !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl !¢«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ
!¢«˛Ü˛‡!¢!«˛Ü˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎÑyÓ˚y !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ !¢ál §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyˆÏç !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚
ܲ“ly¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ í˛zͧy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓl– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy á%Ó çÓ˚%!Ó˚ñ !¢¢%Ó˚y Î!ò
§ÙÎ˚ñ fiÌyl ~ÓÇ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §%ˆÏÎyà ˛õyÎ˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ÓˆÏí˛¸yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲySÈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ K˛yl
!lˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚y lï%˛l xˆÏlܲ !ܲS%È §,!T˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– ~ܲÙye ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˛õˆÏí˛¸•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ ˛õy§ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
ÈüÈ Ù)°ï˛ ~•z ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z !¢«˛yÓ˚ xlƒylƒ !òܲà%ˆÏ°y §Ó≈òy í˛zˆÏ˛õ!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Ë%˛ˆÏ°
ˆàˆÏ° ã˛°ˆÏÓ lyñ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §,çl¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ ï˛ál•z §Ω˛Óñ Îál xyÙÓ˚y GˆÏòÓ˚ ~•z ˆàyê˛y
!¢ál ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye @˝Ã•#ï˛y ly ˆË˛ˆÏÓ ~ܲê˛y ˛õ)î≈ xÇ¢#òyÓ˚ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚Ó–
ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z °«˛ƒ˛õ)Ó˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ˜òl!®l ܲyÎ≈§)!ã˛ G ÓƒÓfiÌy˛õlyÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xy¢y x!lÓyÎ≈– fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ˜òl!®l §ÙÎ˚ §)!ã˛ ˆÎÙl lÙl#Î˚ •GÎ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ñ !ë˛Ü˛ ˆï˛Ùl•z Óy!£Ï≈ܲ
ܲyÎ≈§)!ã˛ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •GÎ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ÎyˆÏï˛ !¢«˛yòyˆÏlÓ˚ !òlà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ly xyˆÏ§– ï˛ˆÏÓ ÓyhflψÏÓ ~•z lï%˛l ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ ܲyˆÏç °yàˆÏÓñ GˆÏòÓ˚ fl%Ò°ç#Ól ܲï˛ê˛y
§Ù,  ô ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï Ó !ܲÇÓy GˆÏ ò Ó˚ fl% Ò °ç#ÓlˆÏ Ü ˛ ò% ! Ó≈ £ Ï • ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ï% ˛ °ˆÏ Ó !ܲlyñ §Óê˛y•z !lË≈ ˛ Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï S È
!¢«˛Ü˛‡!¢!«˛Ü˛yÓ˚y ܲ# ˛õÂô!ï˛ xÓ°¡∫l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~•z Ó•z!ê˛ fl%҈ϰ ˛õí˛¸yˆÏÓl ~ÓÇ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ˆ§•z ˛õí˛¸yÓ˚
Ù)°ƒyÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓl– !Óàï˛ !òlà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ ÎyˆÏï˛˛ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÓyV˛y Ó•zˆÏï˛ ly •Î˚ñ ~•z lï%˛l
˛õyë˛ƒÜ ˛Ù ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~•z Óƒy˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï lçÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ !¢«˛yòyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãò_
§ÙÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùyl!§Ü˛ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ܲÌy ÙyÌyÎ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ !¢«˛yÓ˚
!Ó£ÏÎ˚Ó›à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ lï%˛l ò,!T˛Ë˛!Aà !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ%là≈ë˛l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ≤ÈÏã˛T˛yˆÏܲ xyˆÏÓ˚y ~!àˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÓyÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !¢¢%ˆÏòÓ˚ lylyÓ˚Ü˛Ù ≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚yñ lï%˛l !Ó£ÏÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˲yÓlyÈüÈ!ã˛hs˝yñ
ï˛Ü≈˛ÈüÈ!Óï˛Ü≈˛ñ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y @˝Ã%˛õ Óy!lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y ~ÓÇ •yˆÏï˛ÈüÈܲ°ˆÏÙ !¢«˛y ~•z§Ó !ܲS%ÈÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
à%Ó˚%c xyˆÏÓ˚y˛õ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–

vii
 ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z í˛zߨÎ˚l ܲ!Ù!ê˛Ó˚ òy!Î˚c≤ÃyÆ §Ü˛° Óƒ!=˛Óà≈ ÎÑyÓ˚y ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚◊Ù Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~•z Ó•z!ê˛ Ó˚)˛õyÎ˚l
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ ≤âǧy çylyˆÏFSÈ– ~•z ܲ!Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õˆÏܲ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˛õˆÏÌ
ã˛y!°ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ §Ùyç!ÓK˛yl !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏòT˛y ܲ!Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ˆã˛Î˚yÓ˚˛õy§≈l xôƒy˛õܲ •!Ó˚ Óy§%ˆÏòÓl
~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒ Ó•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ù%რí˛z˛õˆÏòT˛y xôƒy˛õܲ xyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ ˆ@˝Ãy˲yÓ˚ åxÓ§Ó˚≤ÃyÆäñ x!ôܲï≈˛y fl%Ò°
ÙƒyˆÏlçˆÏÙrê˛ fiê˛y!í˛§‰ å•zàˆÏlÔäñ lï%˛l!ò!Õ‘ ≤Ã!ï˛ xyhs˝!Ó˚ܲ Ü,˛ï˛K˛ï˛y ~ÓÇ ôlƒÓyò K˛y˛õl ܲÓ˚!SÈ– ~•z
˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˛õ%là≈ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˛õSȈÏl Ó•% !¢«˛Ü˛‡!¢!«˛Ü˛yÓ˚ xÓòyl xlfl∫#ܲyÎ≈–
ÈxyÙÓ˚y ˆ§•z§Ó fl%҈ϰÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl !¢«˛Ü˛ˆÏòÓ˚G !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ ôlƒÓyò çyly!FSÈ– ~•z ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎ§Ó ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yl ~ÓÇ §Çàë˛l ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ó•%Ù)°ƒ §¡õòñ í˛z˛õyòyl ~ÓÇ ˆ°yܲӰ !lˆÏÎ˚ ܲyç ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
xl%Ù!ï˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ í˛zòyÓ˚ ÙˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛Î˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈlñ ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §ÓyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ xyÙÓ˚y !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ Ü,˛ï˛K˛ï˛y fl∫#ܲyÓ˚
ܲÓ˚!SÈ ~ÓÇ ôlƒÓyò çyly!FSÈ– ÙylÓ §¡õò í˛zߨÎ˚l ÙsfˆÏܲÓ˚ å~Ù ~•zã˛ xyÓ˚ !í˛ä ˆã˛Î˚yÓ˚˛õy§≈l
xôƒy˛õܲ Ù,îy° !Ù!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xôƒy˛õܲ !ç !˛õ ˆò¢˛õyˆÏu˛Ó˚ ï˛_¥ÓôyˆÏl Ùyôƒ!Ùܲ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ !¢«˛y
!Ó˲yà myÓ˚y !lÎ%=˛ çyï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î §!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ §ò§ƒˆÏòÓ˚ Ó•%Ù)°ƒ §ÙÎ˚ G xÓòyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õ£Ï≈ˆÏòÓ˚
˛õ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ïÑ˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï ôlƒÓyò K˛y˛õl ܲÓ˚!SÈ– !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ly ~ÓÇ ÓƒÓfiÌy˛õlyÓ˚ à%îàï˛ Ùyl
§ÇflÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲyˆÏç !lÓ˚hs˝Ó˚ !lˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ Ìyܲy ~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ Ü˛ï,≈˛˛õ«˛ §Ó≈òy ˛õyë˛Ü˛ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùï˛yÙï˛ ~ÓÇ
˛õÓ˚yÙ¢≈ˆÏܲ fl∫yàï˛ çylyÎ˚ñ ÎyˆÏï˛ Ë˛!ӣσˆÏï˛ ˛õyë˛ƒÓ•z §ÇˆÏ¢yôl# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y §Ê˛°Ë˛yˆÏÓ §¡õߨ •ˆÏï˛
õyˆÏÓ˚–

!lí˛z !ò!Õ‘ x!ôܲï˛≈ y

20 !í˛ˆÏ§¡∫Ó˚ 2005 Ó˚yT˛…#Î˚ !¢«˛y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!¢«˛î ˛õ!Ó˚£Ïò
å~l !§ •z xyÓ˚ !ê˛ä

viii
 Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee, Inter University Centre
for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshbhind, Pune University, Pune

CHIEF ADVISOR
B.L. Khandelwal, Professor (Retd.), Emeritus Scientist, CSIR; Emeritus Fellow, AICTE and
formerly Chairman, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology,
New Delhi

MEMBERS
A. S. Brar, Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
Anjni Koul, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
H.O. Gupta, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
I.P. Aggarwal, Professor, Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal
Jaishree Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
M. Chandra, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Poonam Sawhney, PGT (Chemistry), Kendriya Vidyalaya, Vikas Puri, New Delhi
R.K. Parashar, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
S.K. Dogra, Professor, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Centre for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi,
Delhi
S.K. Gupta, Reader, School of Studies in Chemistry, Jiwaji University, Gwalior
Sadhna Bhargava, PGT (Chemistry), Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi
Shubha Keshwan, Headmistress, Demonstration School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysuru
Sukhvir Singh, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Sunita Malhotra, Professor, School of Sciences, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
V.K. Verma, Professor (Retd.), Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
V.P. Gupta, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Alka Mehrotra, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the valuable
contributions of the individuals and organisations involved in the development of Chemistry
textbook for Class XI. It also acknowledges that some useful material from the reprint editions
(2005) of Chemistry textbooks has been utilised in the development of the present textbook.
The following academics contributed effectively in editing, reviewing, refining and finalisation
of the manuscript of this book: G.T. Bhandage, Professor, RIE, Mysuru; N. Ram, Professor,
IIT, New Delhi; Sanjeev Kumar, Associate Professor, School of Science, IGNOU, Maidan
Garhi, New Delhi; Shampa Bhattacharya, Associate Professor, Hans Raj College, Delhi;
Vijay Sarda, Associate Professor (Retd.), Zakir Husain College, New Delhi; K.K. Arora,
Associate Professor, Zakir Husain College, New Delhi; Shashi Saxena, Associate Professor,
Hans Raj College, Delhi; Anuradha Sen, Apeejay School, Sheikh Sarai, New Delhi; C. Shrinivas,
PGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi; D.L. Bharti, PGT, Ramjas School, Sector
IV, R.K. Puram, New Delhi; Ila Sharma, PGT, Delhi Public School, Dwarka, Sector-B, New
Delhi; Raj Lakshmi Karthikeyan, Head (Science), Mother’s International School, Sri Aurobindo
Marg, New Delhi; Sushma Kiran Setia, Principal, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Hari Nagar
(CT), New Delhi; Nidhi Chaudray, PGT, CRPF Public School, Rohini, Delhi; and Veena
Suri, PGT, Bluebells School, Kailash Colony, New Delhi. We are thankful to them.
We express our gratitude to R.S. Sindhu, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi,
for editing and refining the content of the textbook right from the initial stage.
We are also grateful to Ruchi Verma, Associate Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi;
Pramila Tanwar, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi; R.B. Pareek, Associate
Professor, RIE, Ajmer; and A.K. Arya, Associate Professor, RIE, Ajmer, for refining the
content of the textbook.
Special thanks are due to M. Chandra, Professor and Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
for her support.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Surendra Kumar, Narender
Verma and Ramesh Kumar, DTP Operators; Subhash Saluja, Ramendra Kumar Sharma and
Abhimanyu Mohanty, Proofreaders; Bhavna Saxena, Copy Editor; and Deepak Kapoor,
In-charge, Computer Station, in shaping this book. The contributions of the Publication
Department, NCERT, New Delhi, in bringing out this book are also duly acknowledged.

x
 §)!ã˛˛õe
≤ÃÌÙ xôƒyÎ˚ ı Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 1
1.1 Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ à%Ó%̊c 4
1.2 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ 4
1.3 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ 6
1.4 àîlyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y 10
1.5 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏÎyà 14
1.6 í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ï˛_¥ 16
1.7 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ 16
1.8 ˆÙy° ôyÓ˚îy ~ÓÇ xyîÓ Óy ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 18
1.9 ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!ï˛ 18
1.10 fiê˛Î˚!§G!Ù!ï˛ ~ÓÇ fiê˛Î˚!§G!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ àîly 20

!mï˛#Î˚ xôƒyÎ˚ ı ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 29

2.1 xÓÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîy§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ 30
2.2 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡∫rô#Î˚ ÙˆÏí˛° 32
2.3 ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛° àë˛ˆÏl §y•yÎƒÜ˛yÓ˚# í˛zß¨ï˛ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy 37
2.4 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛° 46
2.5 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓK˛yl ~Ó˚ xÓï˛yÓ˚îy 49
2.6 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓK˛yl ÙˆÏí˛° 53

ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ xôƒyÎ˚ ı ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 74

3.1 ˆÜ˛l ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl⁄ 74
3.2 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yˆÏàÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ 75
3.3 xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚)˛õ 79
3.4 100 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î 79
3.5 ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î 82

xi
 3.6 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò ı 83
s-, p-, d-, f- ÓœÜ˛
3.7 çµy°y!l ˆÜ˛y¢ 86

ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ xôƒyÎ˚ ı Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 100

4.1 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§°ÈüÈ°%•z§ ˛õrÌy 101
4.2 xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óy ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎyç# Órôl 106
4.3 Órôl !fiÌ!ï˛Ùy˛õ§Ù)• 107
4.4 ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ï˛_¥ 112
4.5 ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ 117
4.6 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î 120
4.7 xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥ 125
4.8 !ܲS%È !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ fl∫çy!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ Órôl 129
4.9 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl 131

˛õM˛Ù xôƒyÎ˚ ı ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 136

5.1 xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó° §Ù)• 137

5.2 ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ 139

5.3 xyhs˝Ó˚yî Ó° ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y 139

5.4 àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy 139

5.5 àƒy§#Î˚ §)eyÓ!° 140

5.6 xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 145

5.7 à!ï˛¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ ˆÓà 147

5.8 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ï˛_¥ 149

5.9 ÓyhflÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ı xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ 150

5.10 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚°#ܲÓ˚î 152

5.11 ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌy 154

£Ï¤˛ xôƒyÎ˚ ı ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 160

6.1 ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy 161

6.2 ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à 164

6.3 ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ∆U ~ÓÇ ∆H ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈Î˚ 169

xii
 6.4 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lÈüÈ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y l¡∫Ó˚ 170
6.5 !˲ߨ !˲ߨ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÈüÈ~l̃y°!˛õ 176

6.6 fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y 180

6.7 !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy 185

§ÆÙ xôƒyÎ˚ ı §yÙƒÓfiÌy 192
7.1 ˆË˛Ôï˛ ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy 193

7.2 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÈüüüÈàï˛#Î˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy 196

7.3 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ §)e å!lÎ˚Ùä ~ÓÇ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ 198

7.4 §Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy 201

7.5 x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy˛ 203

7.6 §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà§Ù)• 205

7.7 §yÙƒô %Óܲñ K !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Q ~ÓÇ !àÓ§‰ ¢!=˛ G ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ 209

7.8 §yÙƒÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl ¢ï≈˛§Ù)•˛ 208

7.9 oÓˆÏî xyÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy 212

7.10 xƒy!§í˛ñ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ °Óî 213

7.11 xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól 216

7.12 ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî 226

7.13 fl∫“ oyÓƒ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y §yÙƒ 228
í˛z˛õyAà 268
!ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ §Ù§ƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚§Ù)• 281
Index 285

xiii

Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy
(SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY)
í˛zˆj
Ï ¢ƒ åObjectives)
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ ï%˛!Ù Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ §«˛Ù
•ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
• Ó˚§yÎ˚l !ÓòƒyÓ˚ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ xÓòyl
í˛z˛õ°!kô ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛!Ùܲy Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y Óî≈ly
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ ˆÙÔ°ñ ˆÎÔà ~ÓÇ !Ù◊ˆÏî
ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ xAܲ˛õyï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ
í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒyl !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• flõT˛ï˛y ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛SI õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ÙyeyˆÏܲ ~ܲ
˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲˆÏܲ
Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
• !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)eyÓ°# Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ñ àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ñ
xyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛
ï˛yͲõÎ≈ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˆÙÔ° G ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ¢∑à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛–
• ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚
àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°∑ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ fiÌ)°
§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ xyl!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
~ÓÇ fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ àîly §¡õyòl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
≤ÃÌÙ xôƒyÎ˚
(UNIT 1)
Chemistry is the science of molecules and their transformations. It is the
science not so much of the one hundred elements but of the infinite variety of
molecules that may be built from them.
Roald Hoffmann
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ çylˆÏï˛ñ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ~ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ K˛ylˆÏܲ ¢,C°yÓÂô ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚
!lÓ˚hs˝Ó˚ ≤ÃÎy˚ §ˆÏܲ !ÓK˛yl ӈϰ– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛˛õ)ÓÓ≈ ï≈˛# ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ ˆçˆÏlSÈ ˆÎñ xyÙÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛!òl
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó› ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z– ò%ô ˆÌˆÏܲ ò•z ˜ï˛!Ó˚ñ
xyˆÏáÓ˚ Ó˚§ˆÏܲ ò#â≈§ÙÎ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá !˲!làyÓ˚ ≤Û!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ°y•yÎ˚ Ù!Ó˚ã˛y˛õí˛¸y ~Ó˚)˛õ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ §%!ÓôyÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y !ÓK˛ylˆÏܲ Ó˚§yÎ˚lñ ˛õòyÌ≈!Óòƒy
ç#Ó!Óòƒyñ Ë)˛ÈüÈ!Óòƒy •zï˛ƒy!ò !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ ¢yáyÎ˚
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤Û!ï˛ñ ôÙ≈yÓ°#ñ àë˛l ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Ù)• xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ӈϰ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l !ÓòƒyÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ (DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY) Ó˚§yÎ˚l
Ó°ˆÏï˛ xyç xyÙÓ˚y Îy Ó%!V˛ñ ~!ê˛ á%Ó ˛õ%Ó˚ˆÏly ôyÓ˚îy lÎ˚– Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ¢%ô%Ùye
!Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ çylyÓ˚ çlƒ lÎ˚ñ ÓÓ˚Ç ò%!ê˛ ˆÜ˛Ôï)˛•ˆÏ°yj#˛õܲ âê˛lyˆÏܲ xl%§rôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛°◊%!ï˛ÈüüüÈ
i) òy¢≈!lˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õyÌÓ˚ å˛õÓ˚¢ ˛õyÌÓ˚ä ÈüüüˆÎ!ê˛ x!ï˛ §yôyÓ˚î ôyï%˛ ˆÎÙl ˆ°y•y ~ÓÇ
ï˛yÙyˆÏܲ G ˆ§ylyÎ˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ii) xÙ,ï˛ÈüüüÈ ˆÎ!ê˛ xÙÓ˚c ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyô%!lܲ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ xy!ÓË≈˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z ≤Ãyã˛#l ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ˆÏòÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ
âê˛lyÓ°# §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy !SÈ°– ï˛yÓ˚y ~•z K˛ylˆÏܲ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà
ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛l– Ó˚§yÎ˚l !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ Ù%áƒï˛/ 1300 ˆÌˆÏܲ 1600 á #T˛yˆÏ∑ x˛õÓ˚§yÎ˚l
(Alchemy) ~ÓÇ Å£Ï!ô Ó˚§yÎ˚l (Iatrochemistry) Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ âˆÏê˛!SÈ°– ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ¢ï˛Ü˛
ôˆÏÓ˚ x˛õÓ˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˙!ï˛ˆÏ•ƒÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ xyë˛yÓ˚¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õ Ó˚§yÎ˚l xyô%!lܲ Ó˚)˛õ
ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎ!ê˛ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õ xyÓ˚ÓˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!S°–
2 Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xlƒylƒ §Çfl,Ò!ï˛ !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛#ly ~ÓÇ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫
x˛õÓ˚§yÎ˚l ˙!ï˛•ƒ !SÈ°– ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛Ô¢°
!ӣψÏÎ˚ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ K˛yl !SÈ°–
≤Ãyã˛#l ˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚lˆÏܲ Ó˚§yÎ˚l ¢yflfñ Ó˚§ï˛sfñ Ó˚§!Ü ˛Î˚y xÌÓy
Ó˚§!ÓòƒyÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyáƒy!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏï˛y– ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ôyï%˛!Óòƒyñ Å£Ïôñ
ÜÑ˛yã˛ñ Ó˚. G ≤çyôl §yÙ@˝Ã# ≤Û!ï˛ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ !SÈ°– !§rô%≤ÈÏòˆÏ¢Ó˚
وϕˆÏOyòyˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ ˛õyOyˆÏÓÓ˚ •Ó˚ØyÎ˚ ¢,C°yÓÂô állܲyÎ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ
≤ÃÙy!lï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎñ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ xˆÏlܲ ≤Ãyã˛#l âê˛ly–
≤Ãbï˛y!cܲ !lò¢≈l ˆÌˆÏܲ çyly ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ xRy!°Ü˛y ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õyí˛¸y
•zˆÏê˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ •ˆÏï˛y– ~•z Óƒy˛õܲ Ù,Í!¢ˆÏ“Ó˚ !lò¢≈lˆÏܲ ≤Ãyã˛#lï˛Ù
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ôÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl˛ ܲy!A«˛ï˛ à%îÙyl
≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !Ù!¢ˆÏÎ˚ñ ì˛y°y•z ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ x!@¿§ÇˆÏÎyà ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏï˛y– وϕˆÏOyòyˆÏÓy˚ ˆÏï˛ ã˛Ü‰˛ã˛ˆÏܲ Ù,ͲõyˆÏeÓ˚ xӈϢ£ÏG ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ–
!lÙ≈yîܲyˆÏÎ≈ !ç˛õ§yÙ !§ˆÏÙˆÏrê˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ •ˆÏï˛y ÎyˆÏï˛ ã%˛lyñ Óy!° ~ÓÇ
x“˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ (CaCO3) ˆÙ¢yˆÏly •ˆÏï˛y–
•Ó˚ØyÓ˚ ˆ°yˆÏܲÓ˚y ˆÊ˛•z™ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛y Îy ~ܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÜÑ˛yã˛ ~ÓÇ
x°AܲyÓ˚ ≤Û!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ •ˆÏï˛y– ïÑ˛yÓ˚y §#§yñ Ó˚)˛õyñ ˆ§yly
~ÓÇ ï˛yÙyÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ôyï%˛à%!°ˆÏܲ à!°ˆÏÎ˚ ~ÓÇ SÈÑyyˆÏã˛ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ° !Ó!˲ߨ
ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ oÓƒ ÓylyˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛y– ïÑ˛yÓ˚y ï˛yÙyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !ê˛l ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ§!≈ lܲ
ôyï%˛ !Ù!¢ˆÏÎ˚ ܲy!ë˛lƒ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ !¢“ oÓƒ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛y–
ò!«˛î ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ùy!flÒˆÏï˛ (1000 üü 900 á #T˛˛õ)Ó≈yˆÏ∑ä ~ÓÇ í˛z_Ó˚
˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ •!hflÏly˛õ%Ó˚ G ï˛«˛¢#°yˆÏï˛ (1000 üü 200 á #T˛˛õ)Ó≈yˆÏ∑ä
ÜÑ˛yˆÏã˛Ó˚ x§Çრӛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ– !Ó!˲ߨ ôyï˛Ó x:y•zí˛ˆÏܲ Ó˚Oܲ
!•§yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÜÑ˛yã˛ G lyly ã˛Ü‰˛ã˛ˆÏܲ Ó› (Glare) Ó˚. ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏï˛y–
˲yÓ˚ï˛ í˛z˛õÙ•yˆÏòˆÏ¢ ôyï%˛Î%ˆÏàÓ˚ §%ã˛ly°ˆÏ@¿•z ˲yÓ˚ï˛ÓˆÏ£Ï≈ ï˛yÙy
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ôyï%˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ã˛ã≈˛y ¢%Ó%˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ !àˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– Ó•%!Óô ≤Ãbï˛y!_¥Ü˛ !lò¢≈l
ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃÙy!îï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎ ˲yÓ˚ï˛ÓˆÏ£≈Ï ˆ°y•y G ï˛yÙyÓ˚ !l‹Òy¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô¢°
§¡õ)î≈ fl∫ï˛sfÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛!SÈ°–
}à‰ˆÏÓò ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ìƒ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ ã˛Ù≈!¢“ ~ÓÇ §)!ï˛ ÓˆÏflfÓ˚
Ó˚Ol !¢ˆÏ“Ó˚ ≤Ãã˛°î 1000 üü 400 á,T˛˛õ)Ó≈ykô ˆÌˆÏܲ•z !SÈ°– í˛z_Ó˚
˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛ í˛zͲõߨ Ù,ͲõyˆÏeÓ˚ ܲyˆÏ°yÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ˛õy!°ˆÏ¢Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆ§yly°#
xy˲yÓ˚ ã˛Ù܉˛ xyçG xl%ܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚!l ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ~áˆÏly Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
!Ó¢y° Ó˚•§ƒ– ~•z Ù,Ͳõyeà%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲˆÏï˛y ò«˛ï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
ˆ§•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˛õye ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ ã%˛!Õ‘Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •ˆÏï˛y–
ˆÜ˛Ô!ê˛ˆÏ°ƒÓ˚ xÌ≈¢yˆÏflf §Ù%o ç° ˆÌˆÏܲ °Óî ≤Û!ï˛Ó˚ Óî≈ly Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È–
≤Ãyã˛#l ˜Ó!òܲ §y!•ˆÏï˛ƒ í˛z!ÏÕ‘!áï˛ Ó•%§ÇáƒÜ˛ !ÓÓ,!ï˛ G !Ó£ÏÎ˚
Ó›Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly xyô%!lܲ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Aà!ï˛˛õ)î–≈ í˛z_Ó˚
˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ó•% ≤Ãbï˛y!_¥Ü˛ !lò¢≈ˆÏl ï˛yÙyÓ˚ ˛õyeñ ˆ°y•yñ Ó˚)˛õyñ ˆ§ylyÓ˚
àÎ˚lyñ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yÙy!ê˛Ó˚ àÎ˚ly ~ÓÇ Ó˚Oܲ myÓ˚y x!AÜ˛ï˛ Ù,Ͳõye ˛õyGÎ˚y
ˆàˆÏSÈ– Ú¢%◊%ï˛ §Ç!•ï˛yÛÈüÈˆï˛ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÎy!àï˛yÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á
xyˆÏSÈ– ≤Ãyã˛#lÎ%ˆàÏ ˆÎ §Ü˛° ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ §y°!Ê˛í˛z!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ñ ly•z!ê˛∆ܲ
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÙyñ !ê˛l G òhflÏyÓ˚ x:y•zí˛ó ï˛yÙyñ òhflÏy G ˆ°y•yÓ˚
§y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ !§§y G ˆ°y•yÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ çylˆÏï˛l
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ܲÌy Úã˛Ó˚ܲ §Ç!•ï˛yÛÈüÈˆï˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ó˚ˆÏ§y˛õ!l£ÏˆÏò ÓyÓ˚%ò ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õyÎ˚ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y xyˆÏSÈ– ï˛y!Ù°
§y!•ˆÏï˛ƒ àrôܲñ ã˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲy°ñ §“!˛õê˛yÓ˚ å˛õê˛y!§Î˚yÙ ly•zˆÏê˛∆ê˛äñ ˛õyÓ˚òñ
ܲ˛õ)Ó≈ ˚ •zï˛ƒy!ò ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ xyï˛¢Óy!ç ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚
Óî≈ly Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
lyàyç%l≈ ~ܲçl Ù•yl ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ !ÓK˛yl# !SȈ° Ï l– !ï˛!l !SȈ° Ï l
~ܲçl ≤Ãáƒyï˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò‰ x˛õ‰Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò åxƒy°ˆÏܲ!ÙT˛ä ~ÓÇ
ôyï%˛!Óòƒy !Ó¢yÓ˚ò– ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Ó˚ã˛ly ÚÓ˚§Ó˚byܲÓ˚Û ˛õyÓ˚ò â!ê˛ï˛ ˆÎÔà
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛– ˆ§ylyñ Ó˚)˛õyñ ï˛yÙy G !ê˛l ôyï%˛Ó˚ !l‹Òy¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô¢°
§¡õˆÏܲ≈ G !ï˛!l xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èl– 800 á,T˛yˆÏ∑Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ §ÙˆÏÎ˚
ÚÓ˚§yl≈˲ÙÛ lyˆÏÙ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó•z ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚– ~ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛zˆÏjˆÏ¢ƒ
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ lyly ôÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ x!@¿Ü%˛u˛ñ ã%˛Õ‘# ~ÓÇ à°l ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ (Crheible)
í˛zˆÏÕ‘á xyˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏï˛ !¢áy ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ lyly ôyï%˛ˆÏܲ
§ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ã˛Ü ˛˛õy!îñ ÙyÜ≈˛y!Ó˚ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– §yÓyl
xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ Ü,˛!ï˛cG ïÑ˛yÓ˚– !ï˛!l §!Ó˚£yÏ Ó˚ ˆï˛° ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛
§yÓyl ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl !•§yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ° Ï l– á,T˛#Î˚ xT˛yò¢
¢ï˛y∑#ˆÏï˛ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚Óy˚ §yÓyl í˛zͲõyòl ¢%Ó%˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Ù•%Îy˚ Ó˚ Ó#çñ ~Ó˚yu˛yÓ˚
(Eranda) ˆï˛° ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ §yÓyl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛
•ˆÏï˛y–
xçhs˝y G •zˆ° Ï yÓ˚yÓ˚ à%•yÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ° ≤ÃyÆ Ó•%Îà% ˛õ)ˆÓÏ Ó≈ ˚ ˲yflÒÎ≈
!¢“ Îy ~áˆÏly ≤ÃyîÓhs˝ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãyã˛#l ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛zß¨ï˛ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ
ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ ˆòƒyï˛Ü˛ á,T˛#Î˚ 6¤˛ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲ ÓÓ˚y•!Ù!•Ó˚ Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ Ó,•Í§Ç!•ï˛y
•° ~ܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓŸªˆÏܲy£Ï– ~!ê˛ Óy!í˛¸âÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ù!®ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°
~ÓÇ SÈyˆÏò ≤Èϰ˛õˆÏÎyàƒ xyë˛y° Ó›Ó˚ ≤Û!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õyÎ˚ §¡õˆÏܲ≈
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ xÓàï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ §flõ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Ó!˲ߨ àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ Ê˛°ñ Ó#çñ
ÓÑyܲ°ÈüüüÈ~Ó˚ !lÎ≈y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ fl≥%˛ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ àyì˛¸#ܲÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
lyly ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ Ó˚çˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ù!¢ˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– ~•z §ÙhflÏ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ˲yˆÏÓ Ù)°ƒyÎ˚î ܲÓ˚y ΈÏÌT˛ xyܲ£Ï≈l#Î˚–
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy
1000 á #T˛˛õ)Ó≈yˆÏ∑ xÌÓ≈ˆÏÓˆÏò §lyï˛l ôyÓ˚îyÎ˚ Ó˚. ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ ~ܲy!ôܲ Ó˚Oܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎÙl •°%òñ ê˛Ü˛ê˛ˆÏܲ °y° Ó˚Oܲñ
Ùƒyí˛yÓ˚ (Madder), §)Î≈Ù%á# Ê%˛°ñ ˛õ#ï˛Ü˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ Ó˚Oܲ
(Orpinent), °ï˛yˆÏly àySÈ ˆÜ˛y!ã˛ˆÏl° (Cochineal), ˆÙˆÏ•!®ñ
ày°y •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á xyˆÏSÈ– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ó˚Oܲ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ !ܲS%È
!ܲS%È xÇ¢ˆÏܲ !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ °«˛l#Î˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ !ܲS%È ˛õòyÌ≈
åÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆáy§yñ àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ Óyܲ°ñ ܲyˆÏë˛Ó˚ !lÎ≈y§ •zï˛ƒy!ò ˆÎà%!°ä
ܲƒy!¡õ!°Ü˛y (Kampilica), ˛õyê˛yAà (Pattanga), çyê%˛Ü˛y
(Jatuka) •zï˛ƒy!ò–
ÓÓ˚y•!Ù!•Ó˚ Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ÚÓ,•Í §Ç!•ï˛ÛÈüÈˆï˛ §%àrô# G ≤çyôl# §yÙ@˝Ã#Ó˚
í˛zˆÏÕ‘á Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ã%˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó˚Oܲ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •ï˛ àySÈ åˆÎÙl l#°
ÉÉÉÉäÈüÈ~Ó˚ !lÎ≈y§ñ ˆ°y•yñ •zflõyï˛ñ ܲyˆÏ°y ˆ°y•yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y á!lç à%шÏí˛¸yñ
ê˛ˆÏܲ ÎyGÎ˚y ˲yˆÏï˛Ó˚ çyí˛zÈüÈÓ˚ xy!¡‘ܲ !lÎ≈y§ •zï˛ƒy!ò– ÚàrôÎ%!=˛Ûˆï˛
§%àrô#oÓƒñ ê˛ƒy°Ü˛Ù ˛õyí˛zí˛yÓ˚ñ Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ ò%à≈rôly¢Ü˛ñ fl¨yˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ §%à!rôñ ô)˛õ •zï˛ƒy!ò ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛Ô¢° Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y xyˆÏSÈ–
ã˛#ly ˛õ!Ó˚Ó yçܲ I-tisng ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Óî≈ly ˆÌˆÏܲ çyly ÎyÎ˚ñ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛
§Æò¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲ•z ܲyàˆÏçÓ˚ ˛≤Ãã˛°l !SÈ°– ï˛«˛¢#°yˆÏï˛ ˛õ%Ó˚yï˛y!cܲ
állܲyÎ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ çyly ÎyÎ˚ ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ ¢ï˛Ü˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ܲy!°Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
!SÈ°– ܲy!°Ó˚ Ó˚. ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛ ã˛Ü˛ñ ˆÓ˚í˛ ˆ°í˛ñ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
•ï˛–
§Ω˛Óï˛ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ˆÏòÓ˚ §rôyl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Óy í˛z͈ϧã˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
§%˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ !SÈ°– ˆÓò ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛Ô!ê˛ˆÏ°ƒÓ˚ xÌ≈¢yˆÏflf !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
§%Ó˚yÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á xyˆÏSÈ– ã˛Ó˚ܲ §Ç!•ï˛yÎ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á xyˆÏSÈ xy§Ë˛ (Asava)
lyÙܲ â%ˆÏÙÓ˚ Å£Ïô ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ lyly ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyˆÏSÈÓ˚ Óyܲ°ñ ܲyu˛ñ
Ê%˛°ñ Ê˛°ñ ˛õyï˛yñ ܲyë˛ñ ¢§ƒòylyñ xyá •zï˛ƒy!ò ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •ï˛–
§Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ !ܲS%È x!Ó˲yçƒ x!hs˝Ù ܲîy myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ÈüüüÈ~•z
ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ Ë˛yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ òy¢≈!lܲˆÏòÓ˚ !ã˛hs˝y˲yÓlyÓ˚ §%Ê˛° !•§yˆÏÓ
á #T˛˛õ)Ó≈yˆÏ∑Ó˚ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ¢ï˛Ü˛ xyˆÏà•z !ÓòƒÙyl !SÈ°– xyã˛yÎ≈ ܲlyòñ
!Î!l ܲ¢ƒ˛õ lyˆÏÙ §%˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ !SȈϰl ~ÓÇ SÈÎ˚¢ á,T˛˛õ)Ó≈yˆÏ∑
çˆÏ¡!¨ SȈ°Ï lñ !ï˛!l•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyl%ÓyˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ≤ÃÓ=˛y !SȈ° Ï l– !ï˛!l•z x!ï˛
«%˛o x!Ó˲yçƒ Ü˛îyÓ˚ åÎyˆÏܲ !ï˛!l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰlä
ï˛c ≤ÃîÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ï˛l ژӈϢ!§Ü˛y §%eÛ (Vaiseshika Sutras)
lyˆÏÙ ˛õ%Ñ!Ì Ó˚ã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– ï˛ÑyÓ˚ Ùï˛Óyò xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈•z
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% lyÙܲ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ù!T˛– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% ° Ï y xly!òñ ¢yŸªï˛ñ
ˆày°#Î˚ñ x!ï˛à%î@˝Ãy•#ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ôÁǧ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly ~ÓÇ Ù)° xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛
3
~Ó˚y ܲ¡õl¢#°– !ï˛!l Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ° Ï l ˆÎñ ~•z ~ܲܲ §_¥yà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ÙylÓ xAà !òˆÏÎ˚ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ܲî≈yò xyˆÏÓy˚
ӈϰ!SȈϰl ˆÎñ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ôÓ˚ˆÏlG
!Ó!˲ߨï˛y Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ï˛!l ӈϰ!SȈϰlñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y Î%@¬ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Óy
eÎ˚# (Triiplet) xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Óy xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÇÎ%!=˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
~ÓÇ xò,¢ƒ Ó° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ÙÌ!fl;Îy˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !ÓK˛yl# çl í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚
(1766 - 1844) ≤ÃyÎ˚ xyí˛¸y•z •yçyÓ˚ ÓSÈÓ˚ xyˆÏà !ï˛!l ~•z ï˛ˆÏcÓ˚
ôyÓ˚îy ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
ã˛Ó˚ܲ §Ç!•ï˛y •° ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ≤Ãyã˛#lï˛Ù xyÎ%ˆÏÓ≈!òܲ @˝ÃrÌ– lyly
ˆÓ˚yˆÏàÓ˚ !ã˛!ܲͧy ˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ˆÏï˛ Ó!î≈ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ– ôyï%˛Ü˛îyÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
•…y§ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ôyÓ˚îy ã˛Ó˚ܲ §Ç!•ï˛yˆÏï˛ §!ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yy!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ܲî≈yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ã˛Ó˚Ù ÙyeyÎ˚ ܲ!ÙˆÏÎ˚ xylyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îyˆÏܲ lƒyˆÏly≤ÃÎ%!=˛
(Nanothchnology) ӈϰ– ã˛Ó˚ܲ §Ç!•ï˛yÎ˚ !ã˛!ܲͧy¢yˆÏflf ôyï%˛Ë˛flø
ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl lƒyˆÏlyܲîyÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ≤ÃÙy!îï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
x˛õÓ˚§yÎ˚l (Alchemy) ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ •zÎ˚yˆÏê˛∆yÓ˚§yÎ˚l
(Iattrochemistry) ~ܲ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚– !ܲv !ÓÇ¢
¢ï˛ˆÏܲ ˛õyŸã˛ï˛ƒ !ã˛!ܲͧy ¢yˆÏflÓf ˚ ≤ÃÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~•z ÓƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˛õï˛l
âˆÏê˛– fiÌ!ÓÓ˚ï˛yÓ˚ ~•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ xyÎ˚%ˆÏÓ≈òˆÏÜ ˛ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Å£Ïô ≤Û!ï˛Ó˚
!¢“ àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛ñ !ܲv ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ÓƒÓfiÌyÓ˚G ˛õï˛l âˆÏê˛– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
100ÈüÈ150 ÓSȈÏÓ˚ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚Ó˚y lï%˛l !ã˛!ܲͧy ˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆ¢ˆÏá G
xÓ°¡∫l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏò¢# ˛õˆÏîƒÓ˚ xl%≤ÈÏÓ¢ âˆÏê˛–
~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° fl∫ˆÏò¢# ˙!•ï˛ƒàï˛ ˆÜ˛Ô¢° ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ˆ°y˛õ ˛õyÎ˚– |!l¢
¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ¢£Ï xLjϢ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xyô%!lܲ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ xy!ÓË≈˛yÓ âˆÏê˛–
|!l¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ¢£Ï xLjϢ ˲yÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xyô%!lܲ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ xy!ÓË≈˛yÓ
âˆÏê˛– |!l¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙyV˛yÙy!V˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ •zí˛zˆÓÏ y˚ ˛õ#Î˚ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ˲yÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛
xy§ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó%̊ ܲˆÏÓ˚l ~ÓÇ xyô%!lܲ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ x@˝Ãà!ï˛ âê˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !¢áˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆ° Ï ˆÎñ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ
˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ í˛z˛õyòylñ àë˛l ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚
àë˛lܲyÓ˚# Ù)° í˛z˛õyòyl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˲yˆÏ°y ܲˆÏÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z
Ó˚§yÎ˚lˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ !ÓK˛yl– xyÙÓ˚y ܲ# ~•z
˛í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y ˆòáˆÏï˛ñ Gçl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚⁄
!l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy àîly
ܲÓ˚y ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ G ~•z ܲ!lܲyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ å˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%ä ÙˆÏôƒ
4 Ó˚§yÎ˚l
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ܲ# §Ω˛Ó⁄ xyÙÓ˚y ~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚
~ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ܲS%È ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ !òˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy– xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏÓ˚y
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈yÓ!°ˆÏܲ §Çáƒy§)ã˛Ü˛
ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà í˛z˛õÎ%=˛˛ ~ܲܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
1.1 Ó˚ § yÎ˚ ˆ Ï l Ó˚ à% Ó ˚ % c (IMPORTANCE OF
CHEMISTRY)
!ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚§yÎ˚l ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ
~ÓÇ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ¢yáyˆÏï˛G ~Ó˚ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
xyÓ•yGÎ˚yÓ˚ ôÓ˚lñ Ù!hflψÏ:Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲ°y˛õ ~ÓÇ Ü˛!¡õí˛zê˛yÓ˚
§!Ü ˛Î˚ܲÓ˚îñ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ܲyÓ˚áylyÓ˚ í˛zͲõyòlñ §yÓ˚ í˛zͲõyòlñ «˛yÓ˚ñ
x¡‘ñ °Óîñ Ó˚Çñ ˛õ!°ÙyÓ˚ñ Å£Ïôñ §yÓylñ !í˛ê˛yÓ˚ˆç Ï rê˛ñ ôyï%˛ñ §ÇܲÓ˚ôyï%˛
•zï˛ƒy!ò ~ÓÇ lï%˛l lï%˛l Ó›Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ l#!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à
xyˆÏSÈ–
çyï˛#Î˚ xÌ≈l#!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ xÓòyl Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ áyˆÏòƒÓ˚ ã˛y!•òy˛õ)Ó˚ˆÏîñ fl∫yfĩ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ£ÏÓy §¡õÜ≈˛ç!lï˛
˛õyÙ@˝Ã# ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ !Ó!˲ߨ §yÙ@˝Ã#Ó˚ ã˛y!•òy˛õ)Óˆ˚ îÏ Ó˚ çlƒ Ó˚§yÎ˚l
á%Ó•z à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ §yÓ˚ñ í˛zßï¨ ˛ÙyˆÏlÓ˚
ܲ#ê˛ly¢Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õï˛Aàly¢Ü˛ •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ Ó,•Í˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî í˛zͲõyòl•z •°
~Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, T˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃•z ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zͧ ~•z §Ü˛°
ç#ÓlòyÎ˚# ţψôÏ Ó˚ Ü,˛!eÙ í˛zͲõyòl ˛õÂô!ï˛G çyly ˆàˆÏSÈ– ~ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
Å£Ïô •° !§§≤’ƒy!ê˛l åCisplatinä ~ÓÇ ˆê˛:° åTaxoläñ ܲƒy™yÓ˚
ˆÓ˚ y ˆÏ à Ó˚ !ã˛!ܲͧyÎ˚ ˆÎà% ˆ Ï ° y á% Ó •z í˛z ˛ õܲyÓ˚ # – AZT
åxƒy!çˆÏí˛yÌy•z!Ù!í˛lä ~•zí˛‰§ åAIDSä ˆÓ˚yˆÏàÓ˚ !ã˛!ܲͧyÎ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛
•Î˚–
çyï˛#Î˚ ≤Ãà!ï˛ ~ÓÇ §¡∫!, ÂôˆÏï˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !Ó¢y° xÓòyl Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ l#!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛zߨï˛ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˆÌˆÏܲ !l!ò≈T˛ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ôÙ≈ñ
ï˛!í˛¸ÍôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ°yܲÓï≈˛# ôÙ≈ §¡õߨ lï%˛l lï%˛l í˛z˛õܲÓ˚î !í˛çy•zl
~ÓÇ §ÇˆÏŸ’£Ïî ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃•z í˛zFã˛˛õ!Ó˚Óy•#
!§Ó˚y!Ùܲñ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ˛õ!°ÙyÓ˚ñ x˛õ!ê˛Ü˛ƒy° Ê˛y•zÓyÓ˚ •zï˛ƒy!ò í˛zͲõyòl
ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ §yÙ@˝Ã# ˆÎÙlÈüÈ x¡‘ñ «˛yÓ˚ñ Ó˚Çñ
˛õ!°ÙyÓ˚ ôyï%˛ •zï˛ƒy!ò ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~Ùl !¢“ܲyÓ˚áyly ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §y•y΃ ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚– çyï˛#Î˚ xÌ≈l#!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~
ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚áylyÓ˚ !Ó¢y° xÓòyl Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Ó•% ˆ°yˆÏܲÓ˚
ܲÙ≈§ÇfiÌyl •Î˚–
˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ xÓl!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
xyçܲy° Ó˚§yÎ˚l ˲#£Ïî˲yˆÏÓ §y•y΃ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ÎˆÏÌT˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
§yÊ˛°ƒG ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ– ˆÓ˚!Ê ˛ççyˆÏÓ˚ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ çlƒ
!Ó˛õIlܲ CFCs åˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊœ%˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈l§äñ ˆÎ!ê˛ ˆT˛ˆÏê˛y!fl≥˛Î˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xÓ«˛ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#ñ Ü,˛!eÙ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ ˆ§!ê˛Ó˚G !lÓ˚y˛õò !Óܲ“ ˜ï˛!Ó˚
ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!òG ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢àï˛ Ó•% Óí˛¸ Óí˛¸ §Ù§ƒy
Ó˚§yÎ˚l!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚ à˲#Ó˚ í˛zˆÏmˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù§ƒy
•° !ÙˆÏÌlñ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ @˝Ã#l•yí˛zç àƒy§ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
ÓƒÓfiÌy˛õly– ˜çÓ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ §ÙƒÜ˛ ôyÓ˚lyñ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ oÓƒ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ Ó,•òyÎ˚ï˛l í˛zͲõyòˆÏl ~lçy•zˆÏÙÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
~ÓÇ lï%˛l Ó!•Ó˚yàï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §ÇˆÏŸ’£Ïî •° ˲!Ó£ÏƒÍ ≤ÃçˆÏß√Ó˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ Ó%!ÂôÙ_y ≤ÃÙyî ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y §Ù§ƒy–
˲yÓ˚ï˛ÓˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zߨÎ˚l¢#° ˆòˆÏ¢ ~•z ã˛ƒyˆÏ°O @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚
çlƒ ≤Ã!ï˛Ë˛yÓyl ~ÓÇ §,çl¢#° Ó˚§yÎ˚l!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl–
~ܲçl à%î# Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò !Î!l ~•z ã˛ƒyˆÏ°O @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ lñ xÓ¢ƒ•z
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ôyÓ˚îyà%ˆÏ°y §¡∫ˆÏrô í˛zlyÓ˚ §ÙƒÜ˛ ôyÓ˚îy ÌyܲˆÏï˛
•ˆÏÓñ ÎyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ˛õòyÌ≈ §¡∫rô#Î˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˆÌˆÏܲ– ã˛° xyÙÓ˚yG
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ¢%Ó˚% ܲ!Ó˚–
1.2 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ (NATURE OF MATTER)
ï%˛!Ù •z!ï˛ÙˆÏôƒ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ ÚÓ›Û ¢∑!ê˛ §¡∫ˆÏrô
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚SÈ– ÎyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Îy !ܲS%Èê˛y fiÌyl ç%ˆÏí˛¸ ÌyˆÏܲñ
ï˛yˆÏܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ ӈϰ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ !ܲS%È
ˆÎÙlÈüÈ Ó•zñ ܲ°Ùñ ˆ˛õ!™°ñ ç°ñ ÓyÎ˚%ñ §Ü˛° §ç#Ó Ó› ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛
˛õòyÌ≈ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚– ï%˛!Ù çyl ˆÎñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y !ܲS%Èê˛y
fiÌyl ç%ˆÏí˛¸ ÌyˆÏܲ– ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y ˛õ)Ó≈ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfliy §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
ôÙ≈yÓ!°à%ˆÏ°y §ÙˆÏrô Îy ˛õˆÏí˛¸!SÈ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚–
1.2.1 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy §Ù)• (States of Matter)
~SÈyí˛¸yG ï%˛!Ù çyl ˆÎñ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ xÓfiÌy Óï≈˛Ùyl–
ˆÎÙlÈüÈ Ü˛!ë˛lñ ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚– ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !ï˛l xÓfiÌyÓ˚ àë˛lܲyÓ˚#
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y !ã˛e 1.1 ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ܲ!ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y
âl§!ߨ!ÓT˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §%¢C , °Ë˛yˆÏÓ !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛°yã˛ˆÏ°
ˆÓ!¢ fl∫yô#lï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ ly–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyܲˆÏ°G ~Ó˚y ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ
ã˛°yˆÏÊ˛Ó˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !ܲv àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ܲ!ë˛l Óy
ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy
ܲ!ë˛l ï˛Ó˚° àƒy§
!ã˛e ı 1.1 ܲ!ë˛lñ ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ àƒyˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
!Ólƒy§–
~ÓÇ Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°y §•ˆÏç•z o%ï˛ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°yˆÏÊ˛Ó˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîñ !Ó!˲ߨ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
i) ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ–
ii) ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l xyˆÏSÈ– !ܲv !l!ò≈T˛ xyܲyÓ˚ ˆl•z–
~ˆÏܲ ˆÎ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ñ ˆ§•z ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚È–
iii) àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyÎ˚ï˛l Óy xyܲyÓ˚ ˆl•z– ~ˆÏòÓ˚
ˆÎ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ñ ˆ§•z ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ §¡õ)î≈ xyÎ˚ï˛l x!ôܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~•z !ï˛l xÓfiÌyÓ˚
˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ܲ!ë˛l ï˛Ó˚° àƒy§
ï˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏà ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ xyˆÏÓ˚y
x!ôܲ ï˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏà ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyÌ≈ àƒy§#Î˚ åÓy‹õä xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
•Î˚– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° âl#Ë)˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ xyˆÏÓ˚y x!ôܲ ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° âl#Ë)˛ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚–
1.2.2 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà (Classification of Matter)
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y lÓÙ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ !mï˛#Î˚ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸SÈ ˆÎñ ÙƒyˆÏܲ  yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ
Óy ÓyÕÒhflψÏÓ˚ñ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ !Ù◊î Óy !Ó¢%Âô Ó›ˆÏï˛ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚y
ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !ã˛e 1.2 ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xyˆÏÓ˚y í˛z˛õˆÏ◊!îˆÏï˛
!Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Îál ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ §ÙhflÏ àë˛lÙ)°Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈
~ܲÓ˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏܲ !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyÌ≈ Ó°y •Î˚– !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
!Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ܲîy ÌyˆÏܲ–
!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ܲîy ÌyˆÏܲ
5
!ã˛e ı 1.2 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ï˛y•z !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚
§ÇÎ%!ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° •Î˚– ˆÎ §Ü˛° !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyÌ≈ myÓ˚y !Ù◊î ˜ï˛!Ó˚
•Î˚ñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl Ó°y •Î˚– ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚
ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà ˛õòyÌ≈•z •° !Ù◊î– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ !ã˛!lÓ˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓîñ ÓyÎ˚%ñ ã˛y
≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ •° !Ù◊î– !Ù◊î §Ù§_¥ Óy x§Ù§_¥ ò%•z•z •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
§Ù§_¥ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
!Ù!◊ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– xÌ≈yÍ §Ù§_¥ !Ù◊ˆÏî í˛z˛õyòyl ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°y §ÙhflÏ
!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ §ÙhflÏ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛
~ܲ•zÓÜ˚ ˛Ù •Î˚– !ã˛!lÓ˚ oÓî ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚% •° §Ù§_¥ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙ x§Ù§_¥ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%%!ï˛ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ó≈e §Ùyl •Î˚
ly ~ÓÇ Ü˛áˆÏly ܲáˆÏly !˲ߨ !˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòylG °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
°Óî ~ÓÇ !ã˛!lÓ˚ !Ù◊îñ !ܲS%È ˆlyÇÓ˚y ܲîy å≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z ˛õyÌÓ˚ä §• ¢§ƒ
G í˛yˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ù◊î •° x§Ù§_¥ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˜òl!®l
ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ç!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ~Ùl xyˆÏÓy˚ xˆÏlܲ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˲yÓˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y– ~áyˆÏl xÓ¢ƒ•z í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ
!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
•yï˛ÈüÈÓySÈy•zñ ˛õ!Ó˚flÀyÓlñ ܲ!ë˛l#˲Ól (Crystalisation), ˛õyï˛l
•zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õ,Ìܲ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
!Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ !Ù◊î ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ •Î˚– !Ó¢%Âô
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ܲ˛õyÓ˚ñ
!§°Ë˛yÓ˚ñ ˆày”˛ñ ç° •° !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î– @’ˆ% ÜÏ ˛yˆÏçÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈lñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl
xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛G ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù– ï˛y•z
xlƒylƒ !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ Ùï˛ @’ˆ% ÜÏ ˛yˆÏçÓ˚G ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ–
xÓ¢ƒ•z ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°y xÌ≈yÍ Ü˛yÓ≈lñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlñ ~ÓÇ
x!:ˆÏçlˆÏܲ §•ç ˆË˛Ôï˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ,Ìܲ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly–
6 Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛ ˆÙÔ° ~ÓÇ ˆÎÔàÈüÈ~•z ò%!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛G !Ó˲=˛
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ܲîyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ~ܲ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xî% ò%•z•z •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !Óàï˛
ˆ◊!îà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ (Previous Classes) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
•Î˚ˆÏï˛y ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛!ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈó Î!òG ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !mï˛#Î˚
xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ï%˛!Ù !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
!ã˛e ı 1.3 ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî% ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙñ ܲ˛õyÓ˚ñ !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlñ x!:ˆÏçl ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛
•° ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î– ~Ó˚y §Ü˛ˆÏ°•z ~ܲ•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– Î!òG !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛G !˲ߨ
!˲ߨ •Î˚– ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ Óy ܲ˛õyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y •° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Î!òG xlƒylƒ !ܲS%È ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛z˛õyòyl ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y
•° ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ xî%– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî% (H2O) ܲyÓ≈lÈ í˛y•z x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ xî%
(CO2)
!ã˛e ı 1.4 ˛˛ç° ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l í»˛y•zx:y•zí˛ xî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ã˛e–
àƒy§ñ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl àƒy§ ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ò%!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xî% àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ã˛e ı 1.3 ˆï˛ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àë˛l
ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
Îál !˲ߨ !˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Î%=˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛xî% ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚
~•z xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲG ˆË˛Ôï˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y §Ó˚°ï˛Ó˚ Ó›ˆÏï˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ,Ìܲ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ç°ñ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yñ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ñ !ã˛!l •° ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ !ܲS%È
í˛zòy•Ó˚î– ç° ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ xî%Ó˚ àë˛l !ã˛e ı 1.4
myÓ˚y í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y •°–
°«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòˆÏáyñ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xî% ò%!ê˛ ˛•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !òˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z
x:y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%ˆïÏ ˛ ò%!ê˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
§yˆÏÌ Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~˲yˆÏÓ•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ !˲ߨ !˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% °Ï yÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !l!ò≈T˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~•z xl%˛õyï˛!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§)ã˛Ü˛– Î!òG ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ôÙ≈ ~Ó˚
àë˛lܲyÓ˚# í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôÙ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl •° àƒy§ !ܲv ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ ˆÎÔà xÌ≈yÍ ç° •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyÌ≈– ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl
Ó˚yáy ÙçyòyÓ˚ ˆÎñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õ˛õ (Pop) ¢∑ §•Ü˛yˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃI!µ °ï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl ≤ÃIµ°ˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ !ܲv ç° x!@¿
!lÓ≈y˛õܲÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
1.3 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ (Properties of
matter & there measerment)
1.3.1 ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈§Ù)• (Physical and chemi-
cal properties)
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !lçfl∫ Óy ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒàï˛ ôÙ≈ xyˆÏSÈ– ~•z ôÙ≈§Ù)•ˆÏܲ
ò%•z ˲yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ üüüÈ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈ §Ù)•ñ ˆÎÙlÈü Óî≈ñ àrôñ
à°lyAܲñ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲñ âlc •zï˛ƒy!ò ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈§Ù)•ñ ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
§ÇÎ%!ï˛ñ òy•ƒï˛yñ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y •zï˛ƒy!ò–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ôÙ≈ §Ù)•ˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛Î˚ åôÙ≈ä Óy §ÇÎ%!ï˛
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲîy ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ Óy ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒàï˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ°Ï y •ˆÏ°y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È
x¡‘ï˛y Óy «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ï˛yñ òy•ƒï˛y •zï˛ƒy!ò– Ó›Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
ôÙ≈ Îb§•Ü˛yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚l!Óòàî Ó›!ê˛Ó˚
≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy G Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚l ~ÓÇ Ó›!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
xyàyÙ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓl˚ – l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ xl%ˆFÏ SȈòÏ xyÙÓ˚y ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õl ˛õÂô!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !¢áÓ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 7

1.3.2 ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ (Measurement of

physical properties)
˜ÓK˛y!lܲ xl%§rôyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ôÙ≈ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– Ó›Ó˚ ˆÓ¢ !ܲS%% ôÙ≈ ˆÎÙl ˜òâ≈ƒñ ˆ«˛eÊ˛°ñ xyÎ˚ï˛l
≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ •ˆÏ°y ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÙÎ˚ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîà §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ôÙ≈– ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛î Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
ÎyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ~ál ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲܲ ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆÎ ~ܲˆÏܲ ˆ§!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ~ܲ!ê˛ âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ 6 !ÙÉ !•§yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~áyˆÏl 6 •° §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ‘m’ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~áyˆÏl 6 •° §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ‘m’ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y
˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ xÌ≈yÍ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ (English
System) ~ÓÇ ˆÙ!ê˛∆ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆÜ˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È – ˆÙ!ê˛∆ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ Îy xT˛ò¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ¢ˆÏ£ÓÏ ˚ !òˆÏܲ Ê ˛yˆÏ™
ã˛y°% •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ˆ§!ê˛ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ §%!Óôyçlܲ !SÈ° ܲyÓ˚î ~!ê˛ ò¢!Ùܲ
˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ §¡±òyÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ≤ÃyÙyîƒ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏ°l– ~•z
ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ 1960 á #T˛yˆÏ∑ ã˛y°% •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ° ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ !ÓhflyÏ !Ó˚ï˛
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly !lˆÏã˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏ°y–
1.3.3 ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ (The International
System of Units) (SI)
~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ (In French Le System
International d’Unites- abbreviated as SI) Gçl ~ÓÇ
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ 11 ï˛Ù xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ §yôyÓ˚î §Ë˛y myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •Î˚
(CGPM from Conference Generale des Poids et
Measures). CGPM •° ~ܲ!ê˛ xyhs˝ı §Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ ã%˛!=˛ §ÇfiÌy Îy
1875 á #T˛yˆÏ∑ ˛õƒy!Ó˚ˆ§
Ï fl∫y«˛!Ó˚ï˛ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ܲlˆÏ˲l¢l lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
§yÓ˚!î 1.1 Ù)° Óy ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚y!¢ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲܲ §Ù)• (Base Physical Quantites & their units)
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ çyï˛#Î˚Ùyl ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy
(Maintaining the National Standerds of Measurement)
~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇK˛y §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Îál•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly l)ï˛l l#!ï˛ xl%§Ó˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛y (accuracy)
ÈüÈΈÏÌT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛zß¨ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y !àˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛ál•z (1875 á #T˛yˆÏ∑
fiÌy!˛õï˛ä !Ùê˛yÓ˚ !ê˛∆!ê˛ (metretreaty)ÈüÈÓ˚ §ò§ƒ ˆò¢à%ˆÏ°y
ˆ§•z ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ §ÇK˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl §ß√ï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˲yÓ˚ï˛
§• ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛ !¢ˆÏ“yß¨ï˛ ˆòˆÏ¢•z ~ܲ!ê˛ çyï˛#Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õl §ÇfiÌy
(National Metrology Institute) Óy NMI Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ÙylˆÏܲ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– lï%˛l !ò!Õ‘!fiÌï˛
çyï˛#Î˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà¢y°y (Nattional Physical
Laboratory, NPL)ÈüÈÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~ òy!Î˚c x˛õ≈î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
~•z ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà¢y°yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ G °kô ~ܲܲ
§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ Ùyl !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏî àˆÏÓ£Ïîy •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚
çyï˛#Î˚ Ù yl ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚ y ˆÏ á – ~§Ó Ùylܲà% ˆ Ï ° yˆÏ Ü ˛
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ !ӈϟªÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ òƈÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ùylܲ ~ÓÇ ˛õƒy!Ó˚ˆÏ§Ó˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ òƈÏÓ˚
(International Bureau of Standards) Ó˚ y áy
Ùylܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü)˛ê˛˜Ïl!ï˛Ü˛ ã%˛!=˛–
~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §yï˛!ê˛ Ù)° ~ܲܲ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §yÓ˚!î–
1.1 ~ ï˛y!°Ü˛yË)˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ~ܲܲà%ˆÏ°y §yï˛!ê˛ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛
˜ÓK˛y!lܲ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛– xlƒylƒ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ˆÎÙl o%!ï˛
xyÎ˚ï˛lñ âlc ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ~•z Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~ܲܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇK˛yà%ˆÏ°y §yÓ˚!î
1.2 ˆï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–

Ù)° ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚y!¢ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ !ã˛•´ SI ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ SI ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚

lyÙ !ã˛•´
˜òâ≈ƒ l !Ùê˛yÓ˚ m
˲Ó˚ m !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ kg
§ÙÎ˚ t ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ s
ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤ÃÓy• I xƒy!¡õÎ˚yÓ˚ A
ï˛y˛õ àï˛#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y T ˆÜ˛°!˲l K
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî n ˆÙy° mol
ò#˛õl ¢!=˛ Iv ܲƒyˆÏu˛°y cd
8 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ à%îܲ Óy í˛z˛õ à%îܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ~ˆÏ§y xyÙÓ˚y o%ï˛ ~Ùl !ܲS%È Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ܲÌy ˆçˆÏl ˆl•zñ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ í˛z˛õ§à≈ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z í˛z˛õ§à≈à%ˆÏ°y §yÓ˚!î 1.3 ~ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z ~•z Ó•zˆÏÎ˚ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–
ï˛y!°Ü˛yË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–

§yÓ˚!î 1.2 ~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ~ܲܲ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §ÇK˛y (Defination of SI Base Units)

˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲܲ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ¢)îƒ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xyˆÏ°y ~ܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛Ó˚ 1/299 792 458 ˲yà §ÙˆÏÎ˚
ˆÎ ò)Ó˚c x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ 1 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ӈϰ–

˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲܲ !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ •ˆÏ°y ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲܲ– ~!ê˛ !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛
ˆ≤ÃyˆÏê˛yê˛y•zˆÏê˛Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ùyl–

§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ 1 ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ •° Ë)˛!Ù hflψÏÓ˚ !§!çÎ˚yÙ -133 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y §)-
¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ 9 192 631 770 !ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚–

ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ~ܲܲ xƒy!¡õÎ˚yÓ˚˛ 1 xƒy!¡õÎ˚yÓ˚ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ !Óò%ƒÍ ≤ÃÓy• Îy làîƒ ≤ÃfïÏFSÈò
Î%=˛ x§#Ù ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ï˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ¢)ˆÏîƒ 1
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ 2 × 10–7 !lí˛zê˛l Ó° §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚–

ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲܲ ˆÜ˛°!˲l ˆÜ˛°!˲l •° í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õ àï˛#Î˚ ~ܲܲñ Îy çˆÏ°Ó˚
* ˜eô!Ó®%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ àï˛#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ 1/273.16 xÇ¢–

˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲܲ
ˆÙy° 1. 1 ˆÙy° (mole) •° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ§•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õòyÌ≈
ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyÓ≈l-12 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 0.012 !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ Ù)° ܲ!lܲy í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚
!ã˛•´ •° ˆÙy° (mole).
2. ˆÙy° (mole) ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° Ù)° ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
!l!ò≈T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó°ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî%ñ xyÎ˚lñ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ xlƒylƒ ܲ!îܲy Óy xlƒylƒ ܲ!îܲyÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙÓyÎ˚
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–

ò#˛õl ≤ÃyӈϰƒÓ˚ ~ܲܲ
* çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˜eô!Ó®% åTriple pointä •°
ܲƒyˆÏu˛°y
0.01 °C or 279.16K (32.01°F)
ܲƒyˆÏu˛°y •° í˛z͈ϧÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ x!˲Ù)ˆÏá ˆ§•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ò#˛õl
≤ÃyÓ°ƒ Îy 540 × 1012 •yÍ≈ç ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚˚ ~ܲ Óî≈# !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !l§,ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ÎyÓ˚ ˙ x!˲Ù)ˆÏá !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ •° 1/683 GÎ˚yê˛
≤Ã!ï˛ ˆfiê˛ˆÏÓ˚!í˛Î˚yl–
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 9

§yÓ˚!î 1.3 ~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ í˛z˛õ§à≈ Ó˚y•zí˛yÓ˚

(Prefixes used in the SI System) Óy•Ü˛
à%!îï˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õ§à≈ !ã˛•´
10–24 •zGܲˆÏê˛y (yocto) y ò[˛
10 –21
ˆç˛õˆÏê˛y (zepto) z
10–18 xƒyˆÏê˛y (atto) a
Ó˚y•zí˛yÓ˚
10 –15
ˆÊ˛ÙˆÏê˛y (femto) f
Óy•Ü˛ fl$;
10–12 !˛õˆÏܲy (pico) p
10 –9
lƒyˆÏly (nano) n
ï%˛°y˛õye
10 –6
Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛y (micro) m
10–3 !Ù!° (milli) m
10 –2
ˆ§!rê˛ (centi) c
10 –1
ˆí˛!§ (deci) d
10 ˆí˛Ü˛y (deca) da ˛õˆÏÎr˚ ê˛yÓ˚
ˆ•ˆÏQy (hecto) ˆ°ˆÏÓ!°Ç ï%˛°y˛õye ~ÓÇ ˆflÒ°
!l‹Òy¢l ò[˛ !l‹Òy¢l
102 h
fl$;
103 !ܲˆÏ°y (kilo) k
106 ˆÙày (mega) M
!ã˛e ı 1.5 !ӈϟ’£Ïîydܲ ï%˛°yÎsf–
109 !àày (giga) G
1012 ˆê˛Ó˚y (tera) T å!Ùê˛yÓ˚)3 – !ܲv ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
10 15
ˆ˛õê˛y (peta) P ˆ§•zçlƒ xyÎ˚ï˛lˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÎ˚•z 刧!Ùä3 Óy åˆí˛!§!Ùä3 ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢
1018 ~:y (exa) E
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
1021 ˆçê˛y (zeta) Z
10 24
•zGê˛y (yotta) Y
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲܲ !°ê˛yÓ˚
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ Îy SI ~ܲܲ lÎ˚–
1.3.2 ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ Gçl (Mass & Weight)
1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ = 1000 !Ù!°!Ùê˛yÓ˚
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˙ Ó›ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õòyÌ≈ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y 1000 ˆ§!Ù3 = 1 åˆí˛!§!Ùê˛yÓ˚ä3
ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ !ܲv Ó›!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ Ó° ≤ÃÎ%=˛ •Î˚ ˆ§ê˛y•z •°
Gçl– Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ ô %Óܲ !ܲv fiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚ x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ Ó° !ã˛e ı 1.6ÈüÈ~ ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛à%ˆÏ°y flõT˛ ˆòáy ÎyˆÏFSÈ–
(g) ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ Ê˛ˆÏ° Gçl ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˛õòà%ˆ°Ï y ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˆï˛yÙyˆÏܲ §ï˛Ü≈˛ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
ï%˛°yÎsf (Analytical Balance) ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– å!ã˛e ı 1.5ä
§yÓ˚!î 1.1 ~ ≤ÈÏòÎ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛~ܲܲ •° !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚lyàyˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ oˆÏÓƒÓ˚ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ï˛y•z
Ó˚§yÎ˚lyàyˆÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ˲@¿yÇ¢ @˝ÃyÙ (1 !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ È= 1000 @˝ÃyÙä ~ܲˆÏܲ
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
xyÎ˚ï˛l (Volume)
xyÎ˚ï˛l •° Ó›Ó˚ myÓ˚y x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî– ~Ó˚ ~ܲܲ •°
!ã˛e ı 1.6 xyÎ˚ï˛l ≤ÃܲyˆÏ¢ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ~ܲܲ–
å˜òâ≈ƒä3 – ï˛y•z ~§Éxy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲܲ •°
10
˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l xÇ¢y!AÜ˛ï˛ ˆã˛y.ñ Ó%ˆÏÓ˚ê˛ñ
!˛õˆÏ˛õê˛ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– K˛yï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛lÙy!eܲ Êœ˛yflÒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !ã˛e ı
1.7 ÈüÈ~ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Îsfà%ˆÏ°y ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!ã˛e ı 1.7 xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !ܲS%È ÎsfyÓ!°–
âlc (Densitty)
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ƒ ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~•z ò%!ê˛ ôÙ≈ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
§¡õÜ≈˛ Î%=˛–
˲Ó˚
âlc =
xyÎ˚ï˛l
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ âlc •° ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲܲ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ~Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî–
ï˛y•zñ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ~§Éxy•z (SI) ~ܲܲ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ SI ~ܲܲ
âlˆÏcÓ˚ SI ~ܲܲ =
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ SI ~ܲÜ
kg
=
m3
xÌÓy kg m-3
~•z ~ܲܲ!ê˛ ÎˆÏÌT˛ Óí˛¸ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óòàî âlcˆÏܲ
gcm-3 ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ g ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛lˆÏܲ
cm3 ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ âlc xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ӈϰ
ˆòÎ˚ •z•yÓ˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y Ü˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §!•ï˛ §ÇâÓÂô– Î!ò
âlc ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •° ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
á%Ó•z ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ §ÇâÓÂô xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
ï˛y˛õÙyey (Temperature)
ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ çlƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ˆflÒ° xyˆÏSÈ– ˆÎÙl oC
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
å!í˛!@˝Ã ˆ§°!§Î˚yÙäñ oF å!í˛!@˝Ã Ê˛yˆÏÓ˚l•y•zê˛ä ~ÓÇ K åˆÜ˛°!˲lä–
~áyˆÏl K •° SI ~ܲܲ– !ã˛e ı 1.8ÈüÈ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ ÌyˆÏÙ≈y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ à%ˆÏ°y
~•z ˆflÒ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˆ§°!§Î˚y§
ˆfl҈ϰ ÌyˆÏÙ≈y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ !ê˛ 0o ˆÌˆÏܲ 100o ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆflÒ° ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl
~•z ò%ˆÏê˛y ï˛y˛õÙyey •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ çˆÏ°Ó˚ !•ÙyAܲ ~ÓÇ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ–
Ê˛yˆÏÓ˚l•y•zê˛ ˆflÒ° 32o ˆÌˆÏܲ 212o ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
~•z ò%ˆÏê˛y ˆfl҈ϰÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ Óï≈˛ÙylÈüüüÈ
o o
F = 9/5 C + 32
ˆÜ˛°!˲l ~ÓÇ ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ ˆflÒ° !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ÈüÈ
o
K = C + 273.15
~ê˛y á%Ó•z ÙçyòyÓ˚ ˆÎ ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ ˆfl҈ϰ 0oC åˆÎÙl }îydܲ
Ùylä ~Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey G ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó !ܲv ˆÜ˛°!˲l
ˆfl҈ϰ }îydܲ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚–
!ã˛e ı 1.8 ÌyˆÏÙ≈y!Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˆflÒ°–
1.4 àîlyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y (UNCERTAINTY IN
MEASUREMENT)
1.4 Ó˚§yÎ˚l !lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲçlˆÏܲ
ˆÎÙl ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô ï˛Ìƒ !lˆÏÎ˚ ܲyç ܲyÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •Î˚ ˆï˛Ù!l ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ àîly
!lˆÏÎG˚ ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •Î˚– §Çáƒyà%ˆ°Ï yˆÏܲ xÌ≈˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛
˛õÂô!ï˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÎÌy§Ω˛Ó ÓyhflÏÓ§¡øï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ l#ˆÏã˛ !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛
˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°–
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy
≤ÃÙyî ï˛Ìƒ (Reference Standard)
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲܲ ˆÎÙl !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ Óy !Ùê˛yÓ˚
!•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ñ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ≤ÃÙyîƒ ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚
!˲!_ˆÏï˛ §¡øï˛ •lñ ˆÎ à%ˆÏ°y §ÙhflÏ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Îsfà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !lË≈˛Ó˚ˆÏÎyàƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒñ §ÙhflÏ
Îsf ˆÎÙl !Ùê˛yÓ˚ òu˛ ~ÓÇ !ӈϟ’£îÏ Ù)°Ü˛ ï)˛°yÎsfàˆ% ° Ï y ˜ï˛!Ó˚
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– Îy ˆ•yܲñ !ܲS%È ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Îsfàˆ% °
Ï y ≤ÃÙy!îï˛
•Î˚– 1889 á #T˛y∑ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî Ùyl •° !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ–
~!ê˛ !•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ Ê ˛yˆÏ™Ó˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛
Ó%ƒˆÏÓ˚y xÊ˛ GˆÏÎ˚ê˛§ xƒyu˛ ˆÙçyÓ˚§ÛÈüÈ~ Ó˚yáy ~ܲ!ê˛
≤’y!ê˛lyÙÈüÈ•z!Ó˚!í˛Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚ ôyï%˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !lˆÏÓ˚ê˛ ˆã˛yˆÏ.Ó˚
˲Ó˚– Pt-Ir ˆÜ˛ ≤ÃÙyˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ !lÓ≈y!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ܲyÓ˚î
~!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyÜ ˛ÙˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yô# ~ÓÇ ò#â≈ !òl
˛õˆÏÓ˚G ~Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly–
!ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §rôƒyl ܲˆÏÓl˚ –
§!ë˛Ü˛ ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆã˛T˛y
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏFSÈ– ~•z lï%˛l ≤ÃÙyˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õyÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ò,!T˛ !lÓrô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ lÙ%lyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲ
ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ñ Îy x!ï˛ !Ó¢%Âô !§!°Ü˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜ˛°yˆÏ§Ó˚
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ âlc !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏî X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ñ Îy 106
~Ó˚– ~ܲ ˲yˆÏàÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛y xyˆÏSÈ !ܲv ~Ùl ˛~ܲ!ê˛
≤ÃÙyî !•§yˆÏÓ !°!˛õÓÂô ~álG à,•#ï˛ •Î˚!l– xlƒylƒ ˛õÂô!ï˛
xyˆÏSÈ !ܲv ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÂô!ï˛ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl Pt-Ir !§!°u˛yÓ˚
≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy˛õˆÏl ˛õÎ≈yÆ lÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ˆÏ®• ˆl•zñ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~•z
ò¢ˆÏܲÓ˚ (decade) ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ãï˛ƒy¢y ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
o
0 C (273.15k) ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy ≤’y!ê˛lyÙÈüÈ•!z Ó˚!í˛Î˚yÙ
(Pt-Ir) ôyï%˛Ó˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ òˆÏu˛Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ òyˆÏàÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˜òâ≈ƒˆÏܲ
Ù)°ï˛ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– 1960
á #T˛yˆÏ∑ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ !•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ ~ܲ!ê˛
!Ü ˛˛õê˛l ˆ°çyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚
1.65076373 ×106 à%î– Î!òG ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê xÓyhflÏÓ §Çáƒy
!SÈ°ñ ~!ê˛ !Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÓ˚!«˛ï˛ ˜òâ≈ƒ– 1983
á #T˛yˆÏ∑ CGPM myÓ˚y !Ùê˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
•Î˚ñ ¢)lƒ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xyˆÏ°yܲ 1/299792458 ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛ ˆÎ ò)Óc˚
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ˜òâ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ Ë˛ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õñ
xlƒylƒ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî Ùyl xyˆÏSÈ–
11
1.4.1 ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ (Scientific Notation)
Ó˚§yÎ˚l •° xî% ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
xï˛ƒhs˝ «%˛o ~ÓÇ Ó,•Í §ÇáƒyÎ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛y•z Ó˚§yÎ˚l!ÓòˆÏòÓ˚
602, 200, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Óí˛¸
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî% Îy 2 @˝ÃyÙ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ Óy ~ܲ!ê˛ HÈüÈ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 0.00000000000000000000000166
@˝ÃyÙ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y «%˛o §Çáƒy !lˆÏÎ˚ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓ
xlƒylƒ ô Ó% ܲÓ˚y!¢à%ˆ° Ï y ˆÎÙl ≤’ƒyAܲ ô Ó% ܲ ñ xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÓàñ ܲlyÓ˚
xyôyl •zï˛ƒy!òG í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùyl§¡õߨ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ç!í˛¸ï˛–
~ï˛ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ¢)îƒ §Ù!ß∫ï˛ §Çáƒy ˆ°áy Óy ¢)îƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ àîly
ܲÓ˚y Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛Ó˚ çlƒ ÙçyòyÓ˚ ÙˆÏl •ˆÏ°G ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎyàñ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yàñ à%î
Óy ˲yà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y !SÈ° ˲#£Ïî
ã˛ƒyˆÏ°ˆÏOÓ˚– G˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §Çáƒyà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ò%!ê˛ §Çáƒy !°ˆÏáñ
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°•z ï%˛!Ù
Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ~Ùl §Çáƒy !lˆÏÎ˚ ܲyç ܲÓ˚y ÓyhflψÏÓ Ü˛# ˲#£Ïî
Ó˚Ü˛Ù ~ܲ!ê˛ ã˛ƒyˆÏ°O–
~•z çyï˛#Î˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ çlƒ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~•z
§Ù§ƒyÓ˚ §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎÙl ~•z Ùylà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ (exponential
notation) Óƒyáƒy Ù)°Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒyl ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ N ×10 Ó˚%ˆÏ˛õ
n
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl n •° §)ã˛Ü˛ Îy ôlydܲ Óy }îydܲ •ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ N •° ~ܲ!ê˛ §Çáƒy å!í˛!çê˛ ¢∑!ê˛ Ó°yä Îy 1.000.....
~ÓÇ 9.999... ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
~˲yˆÏ Ó ñ xyÙÓ˚ y ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏ Ü ˛ 232.508 ˆÜ˛
2.32508 × 102 Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– í˛zˆÏՑრˆÎñ ~!ê˛ ˆ°áyÓ˚
§ÙÎ˚ ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®% ÓyÙ !òˆÏܲ ò% âÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyGÎ˚y
fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy (2) Îy ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ 10 ~Ó˚ §)ã˛Ü˛–
~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓ 0.00016 ˆÜ˛ 1.6 × 10-4 Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚–
~áyˆÏl ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®% í˛yl !òˆÏܲ ã˛yÓ˚ âÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ (-4) •°
˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ 10 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §)ã˛Ü˛–
~álñ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ §Çáƒy àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ (Point) à%ˆÏ°y ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
à%î ~ÓÇ Ë˛yà (Multiplication & Division)
~•z ò%Û!ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ §)ã˛Ü˛ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~ܲ•z !lÎ˚Ù xl%§Ó˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ
12 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

(5.6 × 10 ) × (6.9 × 10 ) = (5.6 × 6.9) (10 )

5 8 5+8
˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ Óy àîlyÜ,˛ï˛ Ùylà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛y !lˆÏò¢≈
= (5.6 × 6.9) × 1013 ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ÎÌyÌ≈ §Ù§ƒy í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy xÌ≈˛õ)î≈
= 38..64 × 1013 §Çáƒy Îy !l!Ÿã˛ï˛ ˲yˆÏÓ çyly ÎyÎ˚– x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛y !ܲS%È §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ
= 3.864 × 1014 ˆ¢ˆÏ£Ï x!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ !ܲS%È §Çáƒy !°ˆÏá !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓñ xyÙÓ˚y
(9.8 × 10 ) × (2.5 × 10 ) = (9.8 × 2.5) (10
−2 −6 −2 + ( −6 )
) Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛°ˆÏܲ 11.2 mL !°!áñ ï˛ál Ó!° 11 •° !l!Ÿã˛ï˛
= (9.8 × 2.5) (10 −2 − 6
) ~ÓÇ 2 •° x!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛y •ˆÏÓ ˆ¢£Ï §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ± 1. Î!ò
= 24.50 × 10 −8 xlƒ !ܲS%È í˛z!ÏÕ‘!áï˛ ly ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆ¢ˆÏ£Ï §ÇáƒyÓ˚ x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛y §Ó≈òy
= 2.450 × 10 −7 ± 1.
2.7 × 10−3 ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy!ê˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ §Çáƒy !lî≈ˆÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ !ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ !lÎ˚Ù
5 × 104
( )
= (2.7 ÷ 5.5) 10 −3 − 4 = 0.4909 × 10 −7
5.5 xyˆÏSÈ– ~•z à%ˆÏ°y l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •° ı
= 4.909 × 10 −8
1. §ÙhflÏ ¢)lƒ!Ó•#l §Çáƒy •° ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ
ˆÎyà ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yà (Addition & Subttraction) 285cm ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒñ !ï˛l!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
~•z ò%!ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ˆ°áy •Î˚ 0.25ml ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò%!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy xyˆÏSÈ–
ÎyˆÏï˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §)ã˛Ü˛ ~ܲ•z •Î˚– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ §•àà%ˆ°Ï yˆÏܲ ˆÎyà Óy !ÓˆÏÎy˚ à 2. ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ¢)lƒ!Ó•#l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢)lƒ §Çáƒy
ˆÎ Ó˚Ü˛Ù ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆ§ Ó˚Ü˛Ù Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ lÎ˚– ~Ó˚y ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚ fiÌyl !lˆÏò≈¢
~•z˲yˆÏÓ 6.65 ×104 ~ÓÇ 8.95 × 103 ˆÜ˛ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒñ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤Ã̈ÏÙ í˛z˲Î˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §)ã˛Ü˛ §Ùyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓñ 0.03 ÈüÈˆï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ 6.65 ×104 + 0.895 × 104 0.0052 ~Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ~•z §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– 3. ò%!ê˛ ¢)lƒ!Ó•#l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ¢)lƒ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy •Î˚–
(6.65 + 0.895) × 104 = 7.545 × 104 ~˲yˆÏÓ 2.005 ˆï˛ 4!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ ò%!ê˛ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yà !lˆÏ¡¨y=˛ ˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ÈüüüÈ 4. Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §Çáƒy ¢)lƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚ Óy xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÇáƒyÓ˚
–2 –3
(2.5 × 10 ) – (4.8 × 10 ) í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ¢)lƒ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z ¢)lƒà%ˆÏ°y ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy
–2
= (2.5 × 10 ) – (0.48 × 10 ) –2
•Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ °«˛ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ¢)lƒà%ˆÏ°y ˆÎl ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚
= (2.5 – 0.48) × 10–2 = 2.02 × 10–2 í˛yl !òˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ 0.200 @˝ÃyÙÈüÈ~ !ï˛l!ê˛ ÎÌyÌ≈
1.4.2 ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy (Significant Figures)
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®% ly ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ ê˛y!Ù≈ly°
¢)lƒà%ˆ° Ï y ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ ly– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ 100 §Çáƒy!ê˛ˆÏï˛
≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ܲS%È x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ܲv 100 ~Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛
ܲyÓ˚î ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õܲ Îsfy!òÓ˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛y ~ÓÇ àîlyܲyÓ˚# Óƒ!=˛Ó˚ ò«˛ï˛yÓ˚
ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ 100.0 ~Ó˚ 4!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈
çlƒ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ §yôyÓ˚î ï)˛°yΈÏsfÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚
§Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ çyï˛#Î˚ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°y ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲÓ˚
àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° 9.4 @˝ÃyÙ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ܲv !ӈϟ’£ÏîÙ)°Ü˛ ï)˛°yΈÏsf §y•yˆÏ΃ xyÓ˚G ˲y° ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚– xyÙÓ˚y 100 §Çáƒy!ê˛ˆÏܲ
àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ 9.4213 @˝ÃyÙ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ӈϟ’£ÏîÙ)°Ü˛ 1 × 102 ~•z ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ÎyˆÏï˛
ï)˛°yΈÏsf !lî≈#ï˛ Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î ï)˛°yΈÏsf !lî≈#Î˚ Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy xyˆÏSÈñ ò%!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy
!ܲS%Èê˛y ˆÓ!¢– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚ å4ä §Çáƒy!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î §Ù!ß∫ï˛ 1.0 × 102 Óy !ï˛l!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ%î≈ §Çáƒy §Ù!ß∫ï˛
ï)˛°yΈÏsf ~•z àîlyÎ˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚– 1.0 × 102 myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy
5. Ó› §ÇáƒyÓ˚ àîlyÎ˚ñ
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ 2!ê˛ Ó° Óy 20!ê˛ !í˛Ù ~Ó˚ x§#Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛
ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Ü˛yÓ˚î ~à%ˆÏ°y •° §!ë˛Ü˛ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ
§Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚ í˛yl˛õyˆÏ¢ x§#Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛ ¢)lƒ !°ˆÏá
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆÎÙlÈüü 2 = 2.000000 Óy 20 = 20.000000
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ ˆ°áy xyˆÏSÈ ~Ùl §ÙhflÏ §Çáƒy•z
•° ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î–≈ í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ 4.01 × 102 ~Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈
§Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ~ÓÇ 8.256 × 10-3 ~Ó˚ 4!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È–
Î!òG §Ü˛ˆÏ°•z ã˛y•zˆÏÓ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÎl ÎÌyÌ≈ ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ •Î˚–
Îál xyÙÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ܲÌy Ó!°ñ ï˛ál ≤ÃyÎ˚•z flõT˛ï˛y
~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
flõT˛ï˛y Óy §)-ï˛y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ•z ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!˲ߨ
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ü˛ï˛ Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ •Î˚– Î!òG §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛y •ˆÏ°y
~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛Ùyl Îy Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ
•Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ Ùyl Î!ò 2.00 g •Î˚
~ÓÇ ~ܲçl SÈye A ò%!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ˆlÎ˚ ~ÓÇ 1.95 g ~ÓÇ 1.93 g
~•z Ê˛° ò%ˆÏê˛y !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚°– ~•z Ùylà%ˆÏ°y •° ÎÌyÌ≈ ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚y
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ !ܲv ~Ó˚y §!ë˛Ü˛ lÎ˚– xlƒ ~ܲçl SÈye
‘B’˛˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ~•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ Ü˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ ò%!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆ˛õ°
1.94 g ~ÓÇ 2.05 g – ~•z ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îà%ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÌ≈ Óy §!ë˛Ü˛
ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyê˛y•z lÎ˚– Îál ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ~ܲçl SÈye ‘C’~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ ܲÓ˚°ñ ˆ§ 2.01 g ~ÓÇ 1.99 g ~•z §Çáƒy à%ˆÏ°y ˆ˛õ°–
~•z ò%!ê˛ Ùyl•z ÎÌyÌ≈ ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛– §yÓ˚!î 1.4 ~ ˆòGÎ˚y ï˛Ìƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ
~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ xyÓ˚G flõT˛ ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyˆÏÓ–
§yÓ˚!î 1.4 flõT˛ï˛y ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ï˛Ìƒ
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ‡g
1 2 àí˛¸ (g)
SÈye A 1.95 1.93 1.940
SÈye B 1.94 2.05 1.995
SÈye C 2.01 1.99 2.000
ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˆÎyà ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yà åAddition and
Subtraction of Significant Figures)
Ê˛°yÊ˛°!ê˛Ó˚ ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚ í˛yl !òˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ §ÇáƒÜ˛ xˆÏAܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy
ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ly Ù)° §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚–
13
12.11
18.0
1.012
31.122
~áyˆÏl 18.0 ~Ó˚ ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Çáƒy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
!°!˛õÓÂô Ê˛°yÊ˛° 31.1 •GÎ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ÎyÓ˚ ò¢!Ùܲ !Ó®%Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
§Çáƒy xyˆÏSÈ–
ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ à%î ~ÓÇ Ë˛yà (Multiplication &
Division of Significant, Figures)
ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ §Çáƒy !lˆÏÎ˚ à%î Óy ˲yà ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ°
Ï y §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
§ÙÎ˚ ˆÎ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ï˛yˆÏï˛ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛
l)ƒlï˛Ù ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy ÌyܲˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ly–
2.5 × 1.25 = 3.125
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ 2.5 §Çáƒy!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ò%ˆêÏ ˛y ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy xyˆÏSÈñ ï˛y•z Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°
3.1 ÈüÈ~ ò%ˆÏê˛yÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
Ê˛°yÊ˛°!ê˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §#ÙyÓÂô
Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ Îál G˛õyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ
ï˛ál ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚ ˆÎ Ê˛°yÊ˛°!ê˛Ó˚ xy§ß¨ ˛õ)î§≈ ÇáƒyÎ˚ Ùyl
ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÙˆÏl ã˛°ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
1. §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÎ §Çáƒy!ê˛ˆÏܲ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ
ˆ§!ê˛ Î!ò 5 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
1 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ 1.386 §Çáƒy!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ
Î!ò 6 x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ xy§ß¨ Ùyl •ˆÏÓ
1.39–
2. §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÎ §Çáƒy!ê˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆ§!ê˛
Î!ò 5ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ 4.334 §Çáƒy!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ Î!ò 4
ˆÜ˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ xy§ß¨ Ùyl •ˆÏÓ 4.33–
3. §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÎ §Çáƒy!ê˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆ§!ê˛
Î!ò 5ÈüÈ•Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# §Çáƒy!ê˛ Î!ò ˆçyí˛¸ §Çáƒy •ˆÏ°
˛õ)ÓÓ≈ ï≈˛# §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyñ !ܲv ˛õ)ÓÓ≈ ï≈˛#
§Çáƒy!ê˛ !ÓˆÏçyí˛¸ §Çáƒy •ˆÏ° §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ 1 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
•Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ 6.35 §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ 5 x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛
•ˆÏ° 5ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# §Çáƒy 3 ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ 1 ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ §Çáƒy!ê˛
4 ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ xy§ß¨ Ùyl •ˆÏÓ 6.4, Î!òG
6.25 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ xy§ß¨ Ùyl •ˆÏÓ 6.2–
14 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

1.4.3 âyï˛Ùyey §ÇÜ  ˛ yhs˝ !ÓˆÏ Ÿ ’£Ï î (Dimensional xÌ≈yÍ

Analyasis) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲܲ à%îl#Î˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ m3 ~ܲܲ!ê˛ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ°
≤ÃyÎ˚•z àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ §ÙÎ˚ñ ~ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲܲ ≤ÃÌÙ ~ܲܲ à%îl#Î˚ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ âlÙyl !lˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ˆÎ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ 3
 1m  1 m3
= (1) = 1
3
ï˛yˆÏܲ à%îܲ ˆ°ˆÏÓ° ≤Ãîy°# Óy ~ܲܲ à%îܲ ≤Ãîy°# Óy âyï˛Ùyey  100 cm  ⇒
106 cm 3
§ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ !lˆÏã˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •°–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î / ~álñ 2 L = 2 × 1000 cm3
~ܲ!ê˛ ôyï˛Ó òˆÏu˛Ó˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ 3 in å•z!M˛ˆÏï˛ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ä– ˆ§!rê˛!Ùê˛yÓ˚ G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Çáƒy!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲܲ à%îܲ !òˆÏÎ˚ à%î ܲÓ˚y •°–
~ܲˆÏܲ ~Ó˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ 1 m3 2 m3
2 × 1000 cm 3 × = = 2 × 10 −3 m 3
§Ùyôyl / xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ 106 cm 3 103
1 in = 2.54 cm í˛zòy•Ó˚î /
~•z ï%˛°ƒï˛y ˆÌˆÏÜñ xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ §Ùyôyl / 2 !òˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ü˛ï˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ xyˆÏSÈ⁄
~áyˆÏlñ xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ
1 in 2.54 cm
=1= 1 !òl (day) = 24 ârê˛y (h)
2.54 cm 1 in
1 day 24 h
Óyñ =1=
24 h 1 day
1 in 2.54 cm ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ñ 1 ârê˛y (h) = 60 !Ù!lê˛ (min)
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ 2.54 cm ñ 1 ~Ó˚ §Ùyl ~ÓÇ 1 in G 1 ~Ó˚
1h 60 min
Óyñ =1=
§Ùyl– ~•z ò%ˆÏê˛yˆÏܲ•z ~ܲܲ à%îܲ Óy à%îl#Î˚ܲ ӈϰ– !ܲS%È §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ 60 min 1h
Î!ò ~•z ~ܲܲ à%îܲ åxÌ≈yÍ 1ä !òˆÏÎ˚ à%î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ §Çáƒy!ê˛ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 2 !òlˆÏܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒñ
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ ly– xÌ≈yÍ 2 !òl ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ = ................. ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛– ~ܲ ôyˆÏ˛õ•z
ôÓ˚ñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ≤Ãò_ 3 •z!M˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲܲ à%îܲ myÓ˚y à%î ܲÓ˚y •°– ~ܲܲ à%îܲà%ˆÏ°y !òˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y à%î ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
2.54 cm 24 h 60 min 60 s
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ 3 in = 3 in × = 3 × 2.54 cm = 7.62 cm 2 day × × ×
1 in 1 day 1h 1 min
~ál ˆÎ ~ܲܲ à%îܲ myÓ˚y ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓñ ˆ§!ê˛ •ˆÏÓ = 2 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
2.54 cm = 172800 s
ˆ§•z ~ܲܲ à%îܲ åí˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ä ÎyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
1 in 1.5 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏÎyà (Laws of Chemical Combinations)
ܲy!A«˛ï˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ– xÌ≈yÍ ~ܲܲ à%îˆÏܲÓ˚ °Ó!ê˛Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyˆÏà ˆÎÔà í˛zͲõߨ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !l¡¨!°!áï˛
~ÓÇ Ü˛y!A«˛ï˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ~ܲÓ˚Ü˛Ù •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– 5!ê˛ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ §)e myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚–
~!ê˛ í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ Ü˛Ó˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ˆÎñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚ˆîÏ ˆÎ ~ܲܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y xlƒylƒ §Çáƒy §)ã˛Ü˛ xLjϢÓ˚ Ùï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ 1.5.1 ˲ˆÏÓÓ
˚ ˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)e (Laws of Conservation of Mass)
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ Óy!ï˛°ñ !Ó˲=˛ñ à%!îï˛ñ Óà≈ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~ˆÏ§y 1789 á #T˛yˆÏ∑ xƒyrê˛!l °ƒy˲Î˚!§Î˚yÓ˚ (Antoine Lavoisier)ñ
xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚– ~•z §)e ≤ÃîÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ï˛!l ò•l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
í˛zòy•Ó˚î / !lˆÏÎ˚ §yÓôyˆÏl ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲˆÏÓ˚l
~ÓÇ !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •l ˆÎñ §Ü˛° ˆË˛Ôï˛
§Ùyôyl / ~ܲ!ê˛ çˆÏà 2 !°ê˛yÓ˚ ò%ô Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ò%ˆÏôÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l m3
~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ã˛°yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚
~ܲˆÏܲ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ˆÙyê˛ Ë˛ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly– ˆ§•zçlƒ
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ 1 L = 1000 cm3
~ÓÇ 1 m˚ = 100 cmñ !ï˛!l !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •l ˆÎñ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛ §,!T˛ Antoine Lavoisier
Óy ôÁǧ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~ˆÏܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y (1743–1794))
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 15

§)e ӈϰ– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° Ó˚y§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó•%Ù%á# í˛zߨ!ï˛Ó˚ !˲!_ ~•z §)e ~áyˆÏlñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ˲Ó˚ (2 g) ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– ≤Ãܲ, ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˲Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y åxÌ≈yÍ 16 g ~ÓÇ 32 gä ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚° xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ~ÓÇ °ƒy˲Î˚!§Î˚Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ xÌ≈yÍ 16 : 32 = 1: 2
˛õÓ˚#«˛yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÎˆÏb ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“lyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚î!ï˛•z !SÈ° ~•z Ê˛°yÊ˛° 1.5.4 ˆàÈüÈ°%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ àƒy§ xyÎ˚ï˛l §)e (Gay-Lussac’s Law
(Gsut)– of Gaseous Volumes)
1.5.2 !fiÌÓ˚yl%˛õyï˛ §)e (Law of Difinite Proportions)
1808 á #T˛yˆÏ∑ ˆàÈüÈ°%§yܲ ~•z §)e ˆòl– !ï˛!l ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚l
Ê˛Ó˚y!§ Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò ˆÎyˆÏ§Ê˛ ≤Ãyí˛zfiê˛ (Joseph Proust) ~•z §)e
ˆÎñ ~ܲ•z ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ
≤ÃîÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !ï˛!l ӈϰl ˆÎñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚
ˆÎÔˆÏà §Ó≈òy•z í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
àƒy§à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l §Ó˚° xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ
GçˆÏlÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Óy !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
≤Ãyí˛zfiê˛ (Proust) !ܲí˛z!@˝Ãܲ ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ ê˛Ó˚ ò%ˆêÏ ˛y ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ ˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% °Ï y Î!ò
lÙ%ly !lˆÏÎ˚ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï l– ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§#Î˚ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛zͲõߨ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
!SÈ° ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ àƒy§à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Joseph Louis
Gay Lussac
xlƒ!ê˛ !SÈ° Ü,˛!eÙ– !ï˛!l ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyl ˆÎñ Joseph Proust §ˆÏAà §Ó˚° xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
ò%ˆÏê˛y lÙ%lyˆÏï˛•z í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ (1754–1826) ~˲yˆÏÓñ 100 mL •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl 50 mL
§ÇÎ%!=˛ ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù Îy !lˆÏã˛ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •ˆÏ°y– x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ 100 mL fiê˛#Ù í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Cu ~Ó˚ O ~Ó˚ C ~Ó˚
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl + x!:ˆÏçl È → È ç° åfiê˛#Ùä
¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 100 mL 50 mL 100 mL
≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ lÙ%ly 51.35 9.74 38.91 ~˲yˆÏÓñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l à%ˆÏ°y 2:1 ~ܲ!ê˛
Ü,˛!eÙ lÙ%ly 51.35 9.74 38.91 §Ó˚° xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ ~ܲˆÏe åxÌ≈yÍ 100 !Ù!°!°ê˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ 50 !Ù!°!°ê˛yÓ˚ä
Î%=˛ •Î˚– ˆàÈüÈ°%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ)î≈§ÇáƒyÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚
~•z ˲yˆÏÓñ !ï˛!l ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ xyˆÏ§l ˆÎñ í˛zͧ Îy•z ˆ•yܲ ly ˆÜ˛lñ
•° ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛– !l!ò≈T˛ xl%˛õyï˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÎÔˆÏà §Ó≈òy ~ܲ•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ° !l!ò≈T˛ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛
§)e!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ Ó°y •ï˛– 1811 !á T˛yˆÏ∑
Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z §)ˆeÏ Ó˚ ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛y !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤ÃÙy!îï˛
xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆàÈüÈ°%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ §)e §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏܲ ܲálG ܲálG !l!Ïò≈T˛ §ÇÎ%!=˛ §)eG (Law of
Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï l–
Difinite Composition) Ó°y •Î˚–
1.5.3 à%îyl%˛õyï˛ §)e (Law of Multiple Proportions) 1.5.5 xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §)e (Avogadro Law)
1803 !á T˛yˆÏ∑ í˛y°ê˛l ~•z §)e í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l– ~•z §)e 1811 §yˆÏ° xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí˛» y ≤ÃhflyÏ Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓl
˚ ˆÎñ ~ܲ•z ã˛y˛õ G ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚
xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ÚÎál ò%!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ §Ù xyÎ˚ï˛l §Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ xl% ÌyˆÏܲ– xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y
ˆÎÔà àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ GçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà x˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lÓ˚%˛õl
ˆÙÔ° ˆÎ !˲ߨ !˲ߨ GçˆÏl Î%=˛ •Î˚ñ ˆ§•z Gçlà%ˆÏ°y §Ó≈òy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚l Îy Óï≈˛Ùyl §ÙˆÏÎ˚ flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y
«%˛o˛õ)î≈§ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ó˚° xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÎyÎ˚– xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlñ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˆÎÔà x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ç° í˛zͲõߨ •GÎ˚yÓ˚
àë˛l ܲˆÏÓñ˚ ˆÎà%ˆ°Ï y •° ç° (H2O) ~ÓÇ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õyÓ˚ x:y•zí˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ܲÌy ˲y!Óñ xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•zñ
(H 2O 2)
ˆÜ˛yl xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ x!:ˆÏçl !là≈ï˛ SÈyí˛¸yñ ò%•z Lorenzo Romano
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl + x!:ˆÏçl È → ç° Amedeo Carlo
2g 16 g 18 g
xyÎ˚ ï ˛l •y•z ˆ Ï í » ˛ yˆÏ ç l ~ܲ xyÎ˚ ï ˛l Avogadro di

•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl + x!:ˆÏçl È → È •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õyÓ˚ x:y•zí˛ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ò%•z xyÎ˚ï˛l Quareqa edi Carreto
2g 32 g 34 g ç° åT˛#Ùä í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
16
!ã˛e ı 1.9 ò%•z xyÎ˚ï˛l •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ܲ xyÎ˚ï˛l x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ò%•z xyÎ˚ï˛l T˛#Ù í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!ã˛e ı 1.9 ~ °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Óy: §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ xl%ôyÓl
ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ó›ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ñ xƒyˆÏí˛yàyˆÏí»˛yñ xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ó•%˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ ôˆÏÓ˚
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
Î!ò •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçlˆÏܲ !m˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ôÓ˚y •Î˚ñ
Îy ~Ùl fl∫#Ü,˛ï˛ñ ï˛ál í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° §•ç˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚–
ï˛y§ˆÏ_¥Gñ í˛y°ê˛l ~ÓÇ xlƒÓ˚y ˙ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !ÓŸªy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛l ˆÎñ ~ܲ•z
ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù)• Î%=˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óy
x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%àˆ% ° Ï y x!hflcÏ •#l– xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí˛» yÓ˚
≤ÃhflÏyÓ Ê˛Ó˚y§# Journal De Physiduc ˆï˛ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
§!ë˛Ü˛ •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥Gñ ~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÙÌ≈l °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚!l–
≤ÃyÎ˚ 50 ÓͧÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ 1860 §yˆÏ°ñ !Ó!˲ߨ ôyÓ˚îy §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
çyÙ≈yl#Ó˚ Karlsruche Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ §ˆÏ¡ø°l
xl%!¤˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z §Ë˛yÎ˚ñ Stanislao Canniraro Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ò¢≈ˆlÏ Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ xLjϢÓ˚ (Course) ˆflÒã˛‰ í˛z˛õfliy˛õl
ܲˆÏÓl˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí˛» yÓ˚ ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ à%Óˆ%˚ cÏ Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆçyí˛¸ ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚–
1.6 í˛y°ê˛ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ï˛_¥ (Dalton’s
Atomic Theory) :
˛õòyÌ≈ «%˛o «%˛o x!Ó˲yçƒ Ü˛îy !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛
John Dalton
ÎyÓ˚y xƒyê˛!ÙG åxÌ≈ x!Ó˲yçƒä lyˆÏÙ (1776–1884)
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ÈüÈ~•z ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ Ó•%ܲy° xyˆÏà
ˆí˛ˆÏÙyˆÏÜ ˛!ê˛ˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ùܲy°#l ~ܲçl @˝Ã#ܲ òy¢≈!lˆÏܲÓ˚ (460-370
á #T˛˛õ)Ó≈) §ÙÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zͲõ!_ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ ˆ§!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛
àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÓyÓ˚ ˛˛õ%lÓ˚%ay!˛õï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚° ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z!ÏÕ‘!áï˛ §)eyÓ!° ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ–
1808 §yˆÏ°ñ í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ ‘A New System of
Chemical Philosophy ˆï˛ !ï˛!l !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ÃhflÏyÓà%ˆÏ°y
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ı
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
1. ˛ õòyÌ≈ x!Ó˲yçƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛–
2. ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §Ü˛° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ ~ܲ•z–
3. !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ%l≈§ÇáƒyÓ˚ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
4. Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˛õ%l!Ólƒy§ âˆÏê˛– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §,!T˛ Óy ôÁǧ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
í˛y°ê˛ˆÏ l Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚ Ù yî!Óܲ ï˛ˆÏ _ ¥ Ó ˚ myÓ˚ y Ó˚ y §yÎ˚ ! lܲ §ÇˆÏ Î yà
§)eyÓ!°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Î!òG àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝
§)eyÓ!°à%ˆÏ°y ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥ Óƒyáy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ!˚ l Îy ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ°
xlƒylƒ !ÓK˛yl#àî Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
1.7 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ (Atomic & Molecular
Masses)
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî% §¡õˆÏܲ≈ !ܲS%È ôyÓ˚îy xç≈l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ myÓ˚y xyÙÓ˚y !ܲ Ó%!V˛ ï˛y ~ál xyÙÓ˚y §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚Ó–
1.7.1 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ (Atomic Mass)
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ Óy ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ á%Ó•z «%˛oñ ܲyÓ˚î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
á%Ó•z ˆSÈyê˛– xyçñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ xï˛ƒyô%!lܲ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛ xyˆÏSÈ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î
fl∫Ó˚)˛õÈüÈ Ë˛Ó˚ Óî≈y!° Ó#«˛î ΈÏsfÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ΈÏÌT˛
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ܲv |zl!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#ˆÏï˛ñ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ x˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
!lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ï˛ Îy ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl •ˆÏFSÈ
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ •y°Ü˛y ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ– 1 åˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲܲSÈyí˛¸yä
!lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ~ÓÇ xlƒ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ à%ˆ° Ï y ~•z ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §ˆÏ˛˛õˆÏ«˛
!lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛
ܲyÓ≈l -12 ˆÜ˛ ≤ÃÙyî !•§yˆÏÓ ôˆÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˲Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Îy 1961 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ fl∫#Ü,˛!ï˛ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
 C

Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 17

~áyˆÏlñ ܲyÓ≈l-12 •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ C12 myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛
C12 ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ 12 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ôÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
xlƒ§Ü˛° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ ~•z ≤ÃÙyîƒ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚– ~ܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ܲܲˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ C12 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
§!ë˛Ü˛ 1/12 xÇ¢ myÓ˚y §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈÉ
~ÓÇ 1 amu = 1.6605 × 10-24 g
~ܲ!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ = 1.6736 × 10-24 g
~˲yˆÏÓñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
˲Ó˚ È=
= 1.0078 amu
= 1.0080 amu
ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §Ó˚!îˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á xyˆÏSÈñ ï˛y ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚
!lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
1.7.3 xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ (Molecular Mass)
xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%ˆÏï˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˲Ó˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛°– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
§Çáƒy !òˆÏÎ˚ à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ à%îÊ˛°ˆÏܲ ~ܲˆÏe ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~!ê˛ !lî≈Î˚
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ 4!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ï˛y !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
!lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
!ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ Èü
(CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u

~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚-16 (016) ~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓñ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ÈüüüÈ

˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ •ˆÏÓñ È= 15.995 amu. = 2 × •y•zˆÏí˛» yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ + 1 × x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚

xyçܲy°ñ ‘amu’ u myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ Îy §Ùß∫Î˚ = 2 (1.008 u) + 16.00 u = 18.02 u
§yôl ܲÓ˚y ˲Ó˚ (Unified Mass) 1.7.4 §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ (Formula Mass)
Îál àîlyÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚ñ xyÙÓ˚y !ܲS%È ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎÙl ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Çàë˛Ü˛ ~ܲܲ
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ å§yôyÓ˚îä ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ xî%Ó˚ x!hflÏc ÌyˆÏܲ ly– ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ôlydܲ
Îy !lˆÏã˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– 刧y!í˛Î˚yÙä ~ÓÇ }îydܲ åˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ä ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y !eÈüÈÙy!eܲ àë˛ˆÏl
§!M˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ Îy !ã˛e 1.10 ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
1.7.2 àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ (Average Atomic Mass)
xˆÏlܲ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚•z ~ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §ÙfiÌy!lܲ xyˆÏSÈ– Îál
xyÙÓ˚y ~•z §ÙfiÌy!lܲ à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ x!hflcÏ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ≤Ãyã˛%Î≈
å¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîä !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ál ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ àîly ܲÓ˚y
ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ Ó˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !ï˛l!ê˛ §ÙfiÌy!lܲ
§ÙfiÌy!lܲ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ (%) ˲Ó˚ (amu)
12
C 98.892 12
13
C 1.108 13.00335
14
C 2 ×10–10 14.00317
!ã˛e ı 1.10 ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ Na+ ~ÓÇ Cl- ~Ó˚ ˆ˛õ!ܲÇ
xyˆÏSÈ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ƒ ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˆòáyˆÏly ~!ê˛ °«˛l#Î˚ ˆÎñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ~Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ Na+ ~Ó˚
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ 6!ê˛ Cl- ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ Ó=˛Óƒ!ê˛G §ï˛ƒ– ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ
ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ (NaCl) ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xyî!Óܲ
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛y •°ÈüüüÈ
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ~ܲܲ xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!hflÏc ÌyˆÏܲly–
(0.98892) (12 u) + (0.01108) (13.00335 u) + (2 × 10–12)
~•z ˲yˆÏÓñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚
(14.00317 u) = 12.011 u = ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ + ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚
~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓ xlƒ ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ àîly ܲÓ˚y = 23.0u + 35.5u = 58.5u
18
§Ù§ƒy 1.1
@’%ˆÏܲyˆÏç (C6H12O6) xî%Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ àîly ܲÓ˚–
§ÙyôylÈ /
@’%ˆÏܲyˆÏç (C6H12O6) xî%Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚
= 6(12.011 u) + 12(1.008 u) + 6(16.00 u)
= (72.066 u) + (12.096 u) + (96.00 u)
= 180.162 u
1.8 ˆÙy° ôyÓ˚îy ~ÓÇ xylÓ Óy ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ (Mole Con-
cept & Molar Masses)
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî% xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ xï˛ƒhs˝ «%˛o ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yî ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
«%˛o ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §Çáƒy §!ï˛ƒ•z á%Ó Óí˛¸– ~ï˛ Óí˛¸
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •ˆÏ° xl%Ó˛)˚ õ ÙyeyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl–
!ë˛Ü˛ ˆÎÙl xyÙÓ˚y 12!ê˛Ó˚ (item) çlƒ ~ܲ í˛çlñ 20 !ê˛Ó˚
çlƒ ˆflÒyÓ˚ (Score) 144 !ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ ~ܲ ˆ@˝Ãy§ (Gross)ñ ~ܲܲ
à%ˆÏ°y !°!á ˆï˛Ù!l xyl%Ó#«˛!îܲ hflψÏÓ˚ ܲîyÓ˚ §Çáƒy àîlyÓ˚ çlƒ
xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙy° ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚ åí˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˛)˚ ˛õÈüüüÈ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%‡xî%‡
ܲîy‡•zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l‡xyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ä–
SI ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ó›Ó˚ Óy ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ §ÆÙ
!˲!_ Ó˚y!¢ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆÙy° [!ã˛•´ÈüÈ mol åˆÙy°ä] ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî í˛z˛õyòyl ܲ!îܲyÓ˚ §Çáƒy C12
§ÙfiÌy!lˆÏܲÓ˚ 12 g åÓy 0.012 kgä ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî Ìyܲy ܲyÓ≈l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ñ ˆ§•z ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ G•z ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~ܲ
ˆÙy° ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ ˆçyí˛¸ !òˆÏÎ˚ Ó°y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
ˆÙyˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî §Ó≈òy ~ܲ•z §ÇáƒÜ˛ ܲ!îܲy ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛y ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl
˛õòyÌ≈ ˆ•yܲ ly ˆÜ˛l– ~•z §Çáƒy!ê˛ˆÏܲ !lá%Ñï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
çlƒñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë˛Ó˚ ˆflõܲˆÏê˛y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ܲyÓ≈lÈ-12 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ !lô≈yÓ˚î
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎÙl!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛y •° 1.992648 ×10-23 g–
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ˆÎñ 1 ˆÙy° ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ Gçl 12 gñ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
§Çáƒy •ˆÏÓñ
12 g / mol 12 C
= 1.992648 × 10 −23 g /12 C atom
= 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms/mol
1 ˆÙyˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~•z ܲ!îܲyÓ˚ §Çáƒy ~ï˛•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˆÎñ ~Ó˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ lyÙ G !ã˛•´ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~!ê˛ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ô %Óܲ lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙyˆÏòy xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §¡øyˆÏl NA myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z §Çáƒy!ê˛Ó˚ Ó,•Í ˆã˛•yÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛ §¡øyl çylyˆÏï˛ ã˛°
xyÙÓ˚y òˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly âyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ SÈyí˛¸y ¢%ô% ¢)îƒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
§Çáƒy!ê˛ !°!á–
622213670000000000000000
xÌ≈yÍ Ó•% §ÇáƒÜ˛ ܲ!îܲy å˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî% Óy xlƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ܲ!îܲyä ~ܲ!eï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Ó›Ó˚ 1 ˆÙy° àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyÙÓ˚yñ ï˛y•z Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎñ
1 ˆÙy° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% = 6.022 × 1023 !ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
1 ˆÙy° çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî% = 6.022 ×1023 !ê˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%–
1 ˆÙy° ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ = 6.022 × 1023 !ê˛ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ
ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ~ܲܲ–
ˆÙy°ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ñ 1 ˆÙy° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Óy
í˛z˛õyòyl ܲ!îܲyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ çyly x!ôܲ §•çï˛Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ– @˝ÃyÙ ~ܲˆÏܲ
≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ ~ܲ ˆÙy° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ xylÓ Ë˛Ó˚ ӈϰ– @˝ÃyÙ
~ܲˆÏܲ xylÓ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yÇáƒÙyl u ~ܲˆÏܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ‡xyî!Óܲ
§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyîÓ Óy ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ = 18.02 g mol
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyîÓ Óy ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ = 58.5
g mol-1
1.9 ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!=˛ (Percentage Composition) :
~ï˛«˛î xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ lÙ%lyÎ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ Ü˛!îܲy §Çáƒy
!lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚!SÈ°yÙ– !ܲv xˆÏlܲ §ÙÎ˚ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî çylyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚– ôÓ˚ñ
ˆï˛yÙyˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ xçyly Óy lï%˛l ˆÎÔà ˆòGÎ˚y •°ñ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ï%˛!Ù
!ã˛e ı 1.11 ~ܲ ˆÙy° !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õòyÌ≈
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy
≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !ܲ Óy ~Ó˚ §Çàë˛Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyl à%ˆÏ°y !ܲ !ܲ
~ÓÇ ≤Ãò_ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~Ó˚y !ܲ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl⁄ ~SÈyí˛¸yG
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly K˛yï˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ~•z ï˛Ìƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y !Ù!°ˆÏÎ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y
ÎyˆÏÓ ˆÎñ ˛≤Ãò_ lÙ%lyˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!=˛ !Ó¢%Âô
lÙ%lyÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!=˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ~ܲ Ó˚Ü˛Ù •ˆÏFSÈ !ܲly– xlƒ ˲yˆÏÓ
Ó°ˆÏ° ˆÎ ˆÜ˛í˛z ~•z ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ãò_ lÙ%lyÓ˚
!Ó¢%Âôï˛y Îyã˛y•z ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•§yˆÏÓ ç° (H2O) ˆÜ˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y Óƒy˛õyÓ˚ê˛y
ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲ!Ó˚–
çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl xyˆÏSÈ ~•z ò%!ê˛
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!=˛ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl ˙ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
= × 100
ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ Óy xylÓ Ë˛Ó˚
çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ = 18.02g
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî =
= 11.18
16.00
× 100
x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî = 18.02
= 88.79
ã˛°ñ xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚– •zÌylˆÏ°
ܲyÓ≈lñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲï˛⁄
•zÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ •° = C2H5OH
•zÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ •°
= (2×12.01 + 6×1.008 + 16.00) g = 46.068 g
24.02 g
ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚ = • 46.068 g ×100
= 52.14%
6.048 g
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚ = 46.068 g ×100
= 13.13%
16.00 g
x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚ = 46.068 g ×100
= 34.73%
˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y !•§yÓ !lî≈ˆÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y ~ál ˆò!áñ §ÇÎ%!ï˛Ó˚
¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ# ï˛Ìƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
19
1.9.1 xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏܲˆÏï˛Ó˚ çlƒ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ (Empirical
Formula for Molecular Furmula)
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ó˚°ï˛Ù
xl%˛õyï˛ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– x˛õÓ˚ ˛õˆÏ«˛ñ xyî!Óܲ
§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
§!ë˛Ü˛ §Çáƒy ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚ çyly
ÌyܲˆÏ° ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~SÈyí˛¸yG xyî!Óܲ
§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Î!ò xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ çyly ÌyˆÏܲ– !l¡¨!°!áï˛
í˛zòy•Ó˚î myÓ˚y ~à%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§Ù§ƒy Èüüü 1.2
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÎÔˆÏà 4.07% •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlñ 24.27% ܲyÓ≈lñ
71.65% ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xyˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ Óy xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚
•° 98.96 g– ~Ó˚ fiÌ)° ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !ܲ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyôyl ı
≤ÃÌÙ ôy˛õ ı ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ @˝ÃyˆÏÙ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ≠
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ xyÙÓ˚y ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚!SÈ–
ï˛y•z ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ §%!ÓôyÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ 100 g ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ¢%Ó%̊ˆÏï˛
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛•ˆÏÓ–
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ lÙ%ly ˆÎÔˆÏà 100 g ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒñ 4.07 g
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçlñ 24.27 g ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l 71.65 g ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l Óï≈˛Ùyl–
!mï˛#Î˚ ôy˛õ ı ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ı
!Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ Ë˛Ó˚ˆÜÏ ˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˲Ó˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– •z•y ˆÎÔˆÏàñ §Çàë˛Ü˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ˆÙÔ°§Çáƒy ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
4.07 g
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÙy° §Çáƒy = 1.008 g
= 4.04
24.27 g
ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy = 12.01g
= 2.021
71.65g
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy = 35.453 g
= 2.021
20
ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ôy˛õ ı ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ
«%˛oï˛Ù §Çáƒy !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yà–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ 2.021 §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ «%˛oï˛Ù Ùylñ ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚
H, C ~ÓÇ Cl ~Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ = 2:1:1
Î!ò xl%˛õyï˛à%ˆ° Ï y ˛õ)î§≈ Çáƒy ly •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §%!Óôyçlܲ
à%îyAܲ !òˆÏÎ˚ à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ ôy˛õ ı !lç !lç ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ !ã˛•´ !°ˆÏá ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏ¢ §Çáƒy
Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˆ°áy •Î˚–
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚ fli(°§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ •° CH2Cl.
˛õM˛Ù ôy˛õ ı xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˆ°áy ı
a) fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏܲˆÏï˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˲Ó˚ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
CH2Cl ~Ó˚ çlƒ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ •°
= 12.01 + (2 × 1.008) + 35.453
= 49.48 g
b) xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ˆÏܲ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚
xylÓ Ë˛Ó˚ 98.96 g
=
fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ 49.48 g
= 2 = (n).
c) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˆÜ˛ n myÓ˚y à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˛õy•z ÈüÈ
fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ = CH2Cl, n = 2
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ •° C2H4Cl2
1.10 fiê˛Î˚!§G!Ù!ï˛ ~ÓÇ fiê˛Î˚!§G!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ àîly
(Stoichiometry & Stoichiometric Calculations)
fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ ¢∑!ê˛ ~ˆÏ§ˆÏSÈ ò%ˆÏê˛y @˝Ã#ܲ ¢∑ Stoicheion ÈåxÌ≈
ÈüȈÙÔ°ä ~ÓÇ Metron åxÌ≈ÈüÈ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õä– ~˲yˆÏÓ fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ myÓ˚y
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ åܲálG ܲálG xyÎ˚ï˛lGä àîly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ !ÓܲyÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ÓÇ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àîly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛y ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ã˛°
xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !ܲ
ï˛Ìƒ çyly ÎyÎ˚ ï˛y xôƒÎ˚l ܲ!Ó˚– xyÙÓ˚y !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ò•l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚–
~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î !lˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°ÈüüüÈ
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
~áyˆÏlñ !ÙˆÏÌl G í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçlˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•z
x:y•zí˛ G ç°ˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ӈϰ– °«˛ ܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y •°
àƒy§#Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §ÇˆÏܲˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˛õyˆÏ¢ Órôl#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ - ‘g”
x«˛Ó˚ ˆ°áy •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ܲ!ë˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ‘s’ ~ÓÇ ‘l’ ˆ°áyˆÏï˛ •Î˚–
O2 ~ÓÇ H2O ~Ó˚ §•à Óy à%îܲ 2 ˆÜ˛ fiê˛Î˚!§G ˆÙ!ê˛∆ܲ à%îܲ
ӈϰ– ~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓ CH4 ~ÓÇ CO2 ~Ó˚ §•à •° 1. ~à%ˆÏ°y
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# Óy í˛zͲõߨ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
!lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~˲yˆÏÓñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ
* ~ܲ ˆÙy° CH4(g) ò%•z ˆÙy° O2(g) ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ ˆÙy° CO2(g) ~ÓÇ ò%•z ˆÙy° H2O (g) í˛zͲõߨ
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
* ~ܲ xî% !ÙˆÏÌl CH4(g) ò%•z xî% O2(g) ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ xî% CO2(g) ~ÓÇ ò%•z xî% H2O (g) í˛zͲõߨ
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
* 22.7 !°ê˛yÓ˚ !ÙˆÏÌlñ 45.4 !°ê˛yÓ˚ O2(g) ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ 22.7 !°ê˛yÓ˚ CO2(g) ~ÓÇ 45.4 !°ê˛yÓ˚ H2O(g)
í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
* 16 @˝ÃyÙ CH4(g), 2×32 @˝ÃyÙ O2(g) ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ 44 @˝ÃyÙ CO2(g) ~ÓÇ 2×18 @˝ÃyÙ H2O (g) í˛zͲõߨ
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z §Ü˛° §¡õÜ≈˛ •ˆÏï˛ñ !l¡¨Ó˚*ˆÏ˛õ ≤Ãò_ ï˛Ìƒ à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õyÓ˚flõy!Ó˚ܲ
Ó˚%˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
˲Ó˚ È ⇌ ˆÙy° ⇌ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy
˲Ó˚
= âlc
xyÎ˚ï˛l
1.10.1 §#Ùy !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ (Limiting Reagent)
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ xˆÏlܲ §ÙÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
ˆÎ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡õߨ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
!ÓܲyÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçlñ ˆ§•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ly–
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓܲyÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xlƒ!ê˛Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÎ
!ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§!ê˛ !ܲS%È«˛î ˛õÓ˚ !l/ˆÏ¢£Ï •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 21

~ÓÇ xlƒ !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ Îï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî•z í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyÜ%˛Ü˛ ly ˆÜ˛lñ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ xyÓ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ly– xÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛
!l/ˆÏ¢y!£Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆ§!ê˛ í˛zͲõߨ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚
§#Ùy (Limit) !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ~çlƒ•z ~ˆÏܲ §#Ùy !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ
(Limiting Suagent) Ó°y •Î˚–
fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ àîly §¡õyòl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛G ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy
òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚–
1.10.2 oÓˆÏî §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y (Reaction in Salution)
˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y•z oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛y•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyÌ≈ Îál oÓˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÓñ ˆ§!ê˛ çyly á%Ó•z à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈– ˆÜ˛yl ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
àyì˛¸c Óy !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
1. ˲Ó˚ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ Óy Gçl ¢ï˛yÇ¢ (w/w%)
2. ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢
3. ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛
4. ˆÙy°y!°!ê˛
ã˛ˆÏ°y ~ÓyÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛Ó˚ §¡∫ˆÏrô !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ xôƒÎ˚l ܲ!Ó˚–

~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ùï˛y !Óôyl (Balancing a chemical equation)

˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)eyl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÌyˆÏܲ– xˆÏlܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ê˛∆yÎ˚y° ~ÓÇ e%!ê˛ (Error) ˛õÂô!ï˛ myÓ˚y §Ùï˛y !Óôyl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !ܲS%È ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ xôyï%˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
x:y•zí˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~Ùl !ܲS%È !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !l•z–
4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) (a) §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î–
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) (b) §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î–
P4(s) + O2 (g) → P4O10(s) (c) §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î lÎ˚–
(a) ~ÓÇ (b) §Ù#ܲÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ ܲyÓ˚î §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy ~ܲ•z– x!ôܲv (c)
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ lÎ˚– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ !ܲv x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Çáƒy lÎ˚– ~!ê˛ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ñ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛yl ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ °«˛ƒ ˆÓ˚ˆÏáñ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÓyÙ˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ Óy!òˆÏܲ 5 à%îܲ fiÌy˛õl
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚–
P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s) §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
~álñ xyÙÓ˚y ˆ≤ÃyˆÏ˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ò•l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•§yˆÏÓ !l•z– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ôyˆÏ˛õ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃÌÙ ôy˛õ ı !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˆ°ˆÏáy– ~áyˆÏl ˆ≤ÃyˆÏ˛õl G x!:ˆÏçl •° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•z
x:y•zí˛ G ç° •° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈–
C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2 (g) + H2O(l) §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ lÎ˚–
!mï˛#Î˚ ôy˛õ ı C ÈüÈ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùï˛y !Óôyl ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲˆÏܲ 3 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ܲyÓ≈l Óï≈˛Ùyl– ï˛y•z í˛yl ˛õyˆÏŸª≈ 3 xî% CO2 ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl–
C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ôy˛õ ı •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùï˛y !Óôyl ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÓyÙ ˛õyˆÏ¢ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ 8 !ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyˆÏSÈñ
x!ôܲv ≤Ã!ï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%ˆÏï˛ 2!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛yl ˛õyˆÏ¢ 8!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ 4 xî%
çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ–
C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ ôy˛õ ı x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùï˛y !Óôyl ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛yl ˛õyˆÏ¢ 10!ê˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyˆÏSÈ (CO2 ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
3×2=6 !ê˛ ~ÓÇ H2O ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 4×1= 4!ê˛ä– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ 10!ê˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ 5 xî% x!:ˆÏçl ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl–
C3H8 (g) +5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
˛õM˛Ù ôy˛õ ı ã˛)˛í˛¸yhs˝ §Ùï˛yÎ%%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Îyã˛y•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˛õyˆÏ¢ 3 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ܲyÓ≈lñ 8
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ 10 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% x!:ˆÏçl–
§Ó §Ù#ܲÓ˚î•z §Ùï˛y !Óôyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ Î!ò §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ •Î˚– §Ó≈òy ÙˆÏl
Ó˚yáˆÏÓ ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §ÇˆÏܲˆÏï˛Ó˚ §yÓ!fl;≤Wz ~Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly–
22 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ 1.3 §Ùyôyl ı

16 @˝ÃyÙ !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ çˆÏ°Ó˚ (g) ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ !l¡¨Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ ˆ°áy ÎyÎÈ̊üüüÈ
àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– È
§Ùyôyl ı
!ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ ˆÙyˆÏ°Ó˚ àîly /
N2üÈ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) 1000g N2 1ˆÙy° N2
= 50.0 kg N2 × ×
1 kg N2 28.0 g N2
i) 16 g CH4 ñ 1 ˆÙy° !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl–
= 17.86 × 10 ˆÙy° 2
ii) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î •ˆÏï˛ 1 ˆÙy° CH4 í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ 2
H2üÈ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
ˆÙy° H2O (g) 1000g H2 1ˆÙy° H2
2 ˆÙy° H2O = 2 × (2+16) = 10.00 kg H2 ×
1 kg H2
×
2.016 g H2
= 2 × 18 = 36 g = 4.96 × 103 ˆÙy°
18 g H2O
1 ˆÙy° H2O = 18 g H2O = 1 ˆÙy° H O = 1 í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒñ
1 ˆÙy° N2 (g)üÈÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚ 3 ˆÙy° H2 (g)
2
18 g H O
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 2 ˆÙy° H2O × 1 ˆÙy° H2 O §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 17.86×102 ˆÙy° N2 (g)ÈüÈÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ–
2

= 2 × 18 g H2O = 36 g H2O 3 ˆÙy° H2(g)

17.86×103 ˆÙy° N2 ×
§Ù§ƒy ÈüÈ 1.4 1 ˆÙy° N2(g)

Ü˛ï˛ ˆÙy° !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° 22 g CO2(g) í˛zͲõߨ = 5.36 ×103 ˆÙy° H2
•ˆÏÓ⁄ !ܲv xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ ¢%ôÙ% ye 4.96×103 ˆÙy° H2(g) xyˆÏSÈ–
§Ùyôyl ı §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl •° !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ï˛y•z NH3(g) ¢%ô%Ùye í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ≤Ãò_ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ
xÌ≈yÍ 4.96×103 ˆÙy° ˆÌˆÏܲ–
44 g CO2 (g) ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ 16 g CH4(g) •ˆÏï˛ñ
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ 3 ˆÙy° H2(g) ˆÌˆÏܲ 2 ˆÙy° NH3(g) í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ñ
[∴ 1 ˆÙy° CO2 (g) ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ 1 ˆÙy° CH4(g) •ˆÏï˛]
4.96×103 ˆÙy° H2(g) í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚
1 ˆÙy° CO2 (g)
CO2 (g) ˛~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy= 22 g CO2 (g) × 2 ˆÙy° NH3(g)
44 g CO2 (g) = 4.96×103 ˆÙy° H2(g) ×
3 ˆÙy° H2(g)
= 0.5 ˆÙy° CO2 (g) = 3.30×103 ˆÙy° NH3(g)
§%ï˛Óy˚ Çñ 0.5 ˆÙy° CO2 (g) í˛Íz ˛õߨ •ˆÏÓ 0.5 ˆÙy° CH4(g) ˆÌˆÏܲ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 3.30×103 ˆÙy° NH3(g) í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÓ–
xÌÓyñ 22 g CO2 (g) ˛í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ 0.5 ˆÙy° CH4(g) Î!ò ~ˆÏܲ @˝ÃyÙ ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆ§!ê˛
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ– !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ı
§Ù§ƒy 1.5 1 ˆÙy° NH3(g) = 17.0 g NH3(g)
50 kg N2 (g) ~ÓÇ 10 kg H2(g) !Ù!◊ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ NH3(g) 17 g NH3(g)
3.30×103 ˆÙy° NH3(g) ×
í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚y •°– í˛zͲõߨ NH3(g) Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àîly ܲˆÏÓy˚ – ~•z 1 ˆÙy° NH3(g)
3
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ NH3(g) í˛zͲõyòˆÏl !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚– = 3.30×10 × 17g NH3(g)
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 23

oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy

= 56.1×103g NH3(g) xÌ≈yÍ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ (M) =
!°ê˛yÓ˚ ~ܲˆÏܲ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
= 56.1 kg NH3(g) ÙˆÏl ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ 1 ˆÙy°yÓ˚ (M) NaOH ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
1. ˲Ó˚ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ (Mass Percent)
oÓî xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ xyÙÓ˚y ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ 0.2 M ÙyeyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛oÓî
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ı ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚Ó–
oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 1 M NaOH oÓî Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ñ ~ܲ !°ê˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏî 1 ˆÙy°
˲Ó˚ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ = oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ × 100 NaOH Óï≈˛Ùyl–
0.2 M oÓˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ 0.2 ˆÙy°
§Ù§ƒy 1.6
NaOH ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ–
18 g çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 2 g ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî A ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ï˛y•z 1 M oÓî ˆÌˆÏܲ 0.2 M oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ !lˆÏï˛
oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°– oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ àîly ܲÓ˚–
§Ùyôyl / •ˆÏÓ 0.2 ˆÙy° NaOH Î%=˛ 1 M NaOH ~ÓÇ ç° ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚
A ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ °â% ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l •ˆÏÓ 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚–
A ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ = × 100
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ~álñ 1 M NaOH ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ Ü˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl 0.2 ˆÙy°
2g
= × 100 NaOH Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ Îy !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
A ~Ó˚ 2 g + 18 g ç°
1 ˆÙy° Î!ò 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ Óy 1000 mLÈüÈ~ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ
2g
= × 100 ï˛ˆÏÓ 0.2 ˆÙy° í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓñ
20 g
1000 m L
= 10 % = × 0.2 ˆÙy°
ˆÙy°
= 200 m L
2. ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ (Mole Fraction) ~˲yˆÏÓñ 200 m L 1 M NaOH ~Ó˚ oÓî !lˆÏÎ˚ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛
~!ê˛ •° oÓˆÏî Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç° ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ °â% ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏܲ 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛
oÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛– Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ A ˆÜ˛ B •ˆÏÓ– xy§ˆÏ° ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ àîlyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î !lÎ˚Ù
õòyˆÏÌ≈ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒyy ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ nA M1×V1 = M2 × V2 ˆÎáyˆÏl M ~ÓÇ V ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛
~ÓÇ nB •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° A ~ÓÇ B ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ à%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ M1 •° 0.2
A ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy ~Ó˚ §Ùylñ V1 = 1000 mL, ~ÓÇ M2 = 1.0 ; V2 àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
A ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ = •ˆÏÓ–
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
n §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî Ùylà%ˆÏ°y Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õy•zñ
= n +An
A B
0.2 M × 1000 mL = 1.0 M × V2
B ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
B ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ = = 200 mL
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
n
= n +Bn °«˛ƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚y 200 mL oÓˆÏî oyˆÏÓÓ˚ (NaOH) ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
A B

3. ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ (Molority)
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z ~ܲܲ!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà §Ó≈y!ôܲ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ ‘M’ !ã˛•´
myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
myÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚–
!SÈ° 0.2 ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ !ܲv °â% ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚G ~ܲ•z Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆàˆÏSÈ xÌ≈yÍ
0.2 ܲyÓ˚î xyÙÓ˚y ¢%ôÙ
% ye oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ç° ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SÈ–
!ܲv NaOHÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲ!Ó˚!l– !ܲv àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ܲÌyê˛y
!ܲv ÙyÌyÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏÓ–
24 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù§ƒy 1.7 §Ù§ƒy 1.8

4 g NaOH ˛õÎ≈yÆ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ 3M NaCl oÓˆÏîÓ˚ âlc 1.25 g mL-1 oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙy°y!°!ê˛
xyÎ˚ï˛l 250 mL ~ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ àîly ܲˆÏÓy˚ – àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§Ùyôyl ı §Ùyôyl ı
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ (M) M = 3 mol. L-1
NaCl ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ñ
oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy 1 L oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ = 3 × 58.5 = 175.5 g
=
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ !°ê˛yˆÏÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
1 L oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g
NaOHÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚‡ NaOHüÈ~Ó˚ xylÓ Ë˛Ó˚
= [∵ âlc = 1.25 g mL-1 ]
0.250 L
oÓˆÏî çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ = (1250 - 175.5) g = 1074.5 g
4 g/40 g˚ 0.1 ˆÙy°
= 0.250 L = 0.250 L oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
ˆÙy°y!°!ê˛ =
!ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
= 4.0 ˆÙy° L–1 3 mol
= 1.0745 kg
= 0.4 M åˆÙy°yÓ˚ä
ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏÓñ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ = 2.79 m. åˆÙy°y°ä
ܲyÓ˚î oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤ÃyÎ˚•ñz K˛yï˛ÙyeyÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ âlˆÏcÓ˚
oÓîˆÏܲ °â% ܲy!A«˛ï˛ ÙyeyÓ˚ åâlˆÏcÓ˚ä oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
4. ˆÙy°y!°!ê˛ (Molality) : 1 kg oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Îï˛ •Î˚– í˛zFã˛ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ~•z oÓîˆÏܲ Ùç%ï˛ (Stock) oÓîG Ó°y
ˆÙy° oyÓ Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y !òˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– •Î˚– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏÓñ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
m myÓ˚y !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î ˲Ó˚ xÓ¢ƒ•z ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy x˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~˲yˆÏÓñ ˆÙy°y!°!ê˛ (m) = kg ~ܲܲ oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ˲Ó˚

§yÓ˚yÇ¢ Óy §Ç!«˛Æ §yÓ˚ (Summary)

Ó˚§yÎ˚l xôƒÎ˚l á%Ó•z à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ ܲyÓ˚î ~!ê˛ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆ«˛eˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óòàî ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ôÙ≈ñ àë˛l ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó› ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y ܲ!ë˛lñ ï˛Ó˚° Óy àƒy§#Î˚ ~•z
!ï˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z !ï˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y !˲ߨ !˲ߨ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ!eï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §)ã˛Ü˛
ôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ñ ˆÎÔ!àܲ Óy !Ù◊ ~•z !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÙԈϰ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ~ܲ
≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲîy ÌyˆÏܲ Îy ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xî% ò%•z•z •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎÔà
àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓ!¢ ~ÓÇ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y •° !Ù◊ ˛õòyÌ≈–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ôÙ≈ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ §¡∫rô#Î˚ K˛yl Ìyܲy ˛≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
˛õÂô!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçlñ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÂô!ï˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó,!ê˛¢ ~ÓÇ
ˆÙ!ê˛∆ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ Óƒy˛õܲ ˲yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– Î!òG §Ù@˝Ã !ӈϟªÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ x!˲ߨ ~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ï˛y í˛z˛õ°!Âô
ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ SI ~ܲܲ åxyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲܲä Ó°y •Î˚–
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 25

ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ !°!˛õÓÂôܲyÓ˚# ï˛Ìƒñ Îy §Ó§ÙÎ˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ myÓ˚y ≤ÃyÆ
ï˛Ìƒ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y°ly ܲÓ˚y á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏl Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ 10-31 ˆÌˆÏܲ 10+23. ï˛y•z ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ
≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ §Çáƒy ≤ÃܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%!Óôyçlܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ÎÌyÌ≈ §Çáƒy !lˆÏÎ˚ x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Îb ˆlGÎ˚y
•Î˚ Îy ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛ˆÏî ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyeyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ≤ÃܲyˆÏ¢ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ §Ω˛Ó–
!Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛Ü˛Ó˚î Ù)° (basic) Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)eà%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏFSÈ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)eñ
!fiÌÓ˚yl%˛õyï˛ §)eñ à%îyl%˛õyï˛ §)eñ ˆàÈüÈ°%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ àƒy§ÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛l §)e ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §)e– ~•z §Ü˛° §)eyÓ°# ˆÌˆÏܲ•z í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ï˛_¥!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Îy !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% •° ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !lÙ≈yîܲyÓ˚# ܲîy (block)– ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ Ó˚ c12 xy•zˆ§Ï yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ ï%˛°ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ Ùyl •° 12u. ˆÜ˛yl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚
Ó°ˆÏï˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ àí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Îy ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ §ÙfiÌy!lˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ≤Ãyã%˛ˆÏÎ≈ƒÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lî≈Î˚
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyl%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛°•z •° xî%!ê˛Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÎÔˆÏà
Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãò_
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî% Óy xlƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲîyÓ˚ §Çáƒy xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ (6.022 × 1023) §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚Ó˚y •Î˚–
~Ó˚ myÓ˚y §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ܲîy Óy ܲîy §Ù!¤˛ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
!Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙÔ° ~ÓÇ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âê˛yˆÏlyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î xˆÏlܲ ï˛Ìƒ ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ à%îyAܲà%ˆ° Ï y ~ܲ!ê !l!ò≈T˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚#
ܲîyà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ í˛zͲõߨ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àï˛ xôƒÎ˚lˆÏܲ fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆
ӈϰ– fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ àîlyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçlñ ï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓG àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ oÓˆÏî Óï≈˛Ùyl ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˲Ó˚ñ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ñ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ ~ÓÇ lÙ≈y!°!ê˛–

xl%¢#°l# (Exercises)
1.1 !l¡¨!°!áï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
i) H2O ii) CO2 (ii) CH4
1.2 ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ (Na2SO4) ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!=˛ àîly ܲÓ˚–
1.3 xyÎ˚Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ Gçl !•§yˆÏÓ 69.9% xyÎ˚Ó˚î ~ÓÇ 30.1% í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl
xyˆÏSÈ–
1.4 ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈí˛y•zÈüÈx:y•zí˛ í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÓñ Îál
(i) 1 ˆÙy° ܲyÓ≈l ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏly •°–
(ii) 1 ˆÙy° ܲyÓ≈lˆÏܲ 16 @˝ÃyÙ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏly •°–
(iii) 2 ˆÙy° ܲyÓ≈lˆÏܲ 16 @˝ÃyÙ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏly •°–
1.5 500 mL 0.375 ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ ˛ç°#Î˚ oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl
•ˆÏÓ ï˛y àîly ܲÓ˚– ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ 82.024 g mol-1.
26 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

1.6 ly•z!ê˛∆ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lÙ%lyÓ˚ âlc 1.41 g mol-1 ~ÓÇ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 69% •Î˚– ï˛ˆÏÓ mol/L ~ܲˆÏܲ
~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
1.7 100 g ܲ˛õyÓ˚ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ (CuSO4) ˆÌˆÏܲ !ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲ˛õyÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ⁄
1.8 xyÎ˚Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyÎ˚Ó˚î ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 69.9 ~ÓÇ 30.1.
1.9 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ åàí˛¸ä àîly ܲÓ˚ ı
% ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚
35
Cl 75.77 34.9689
37
Cl 24.23 36.9659
1.10 3 ˆÙy° •zˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !l¡¨!°!áï˛à%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ï˛y àîly ܲÓ˚ ı
(i) ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy–
(ii) •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy–
(iii) •zˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy–
1.11 200 g !ã˛!l ˛õÎ≈yÆ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ 2 L oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°– !ã˛!lÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ˆÙy°‡!°ê˛yÓ˚ ~ܲˆÏܲ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
1.12 Î!ò !ÙÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ âlc 0.793 kg L-1 •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ 2.5 L 0.25M oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ⁄
1.13 ˛õ,T˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ˆ«˛eÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ%=˛ Ó° myÓ˚y ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ àîly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ SI ~ܲܲ •° ˛õyflÒy° Îy !lˆÏã˛ ≤Ãò¢≈l
ܲÓ˚y •° ı
1 Pa = 1Nm-2
Î!ò §Ù%o ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ 1034gm-2 •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˛õyflÒy° ~ܲˆÏܲ ã˛y˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚–
1.14 ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ SI ~ܲܲ ܲ#⁄ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ~ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚⁄
1.15 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ í˛z˛õ§à≈ à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ à%!îï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §yçyGı
í˛z˛õ§à≈ à%!îï˛Ü˛
i) Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛y (micro) 106
ii) ˆí˛Ü˛y (deca) 109
iii) ˆÙày (mega) 10-6
iv) !çày (giga) 10-15
v) ˆÊ˛ÙˆÏê˛y (femto) 10
1.16 ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy (Significant Figures) Ó°ˆÏï˛ !ܲ ˆÓyV˛⁄
1.17 ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyl#Î˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ lÙ%ly ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊ˛Ù≈ !òˆÏÎ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ ò)!£Ïï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ôÓ˚ •z•y ܲy!§ˆÏlyˆÏç!lܲ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛– ò)£ÏˆÏîÓ˚
Ùyey •° 15ppm å˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ä
i) ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ~Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!ï˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ii) çˆÏ°Ó˚ lÙ%lyÎ˚ ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yÊ˛ˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
1.18 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ !ã˛•´ (notation) myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
i) 0.0048
ii) 234.000
iii) 8008
iv) 500.0
v) 6.0012
1.19 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ⁄
i) 0.0025
ii) 208
Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôyÓ˚îy 27

iii) 5005
iv) 126.000
v) 500.00
vi) 2.0034
1.20 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xy§ß¨ Ùyl ï˛,ï˛#Î˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆ°ˆÏáy ı
i) 34.216
ii) 10.4107
iii) 0.04597
iv) 2808
1.21 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ï˛Ìƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Îál í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ
ˆÎÔàà%ˆÏ°y í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
i) 14g 16g
ii) 14g 32g
iii) 28g 32g
iv) 28g 80g
a) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yô#l Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÜ˛yl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)eˆÏܲ §ÙÌ≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄ §)e!ê˛ !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚–
b) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢)îƒfiÌyl ˛õ)î≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
i) 1 km = ................... mm = ................... pm
ii) 1 mg = ................... kg = ................... ng
iii) 1 ml = ................... L = ................... dm3.
1.22 Î!ò xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 3.0 × 108ms-1 •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ 2.0 ns §ÙˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛ï˛ ò)Óc˚ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ ï˛y àîly ܲˆÏÓy˚ –
1.23 ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
A + B2 → AB2
Î!ò !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !Ù◊îà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
i) 300 !ê˛ A ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% + 200 !ê˛ B xî%
ii) 2 ˆÙy° A ˛ + 3 ˆÙy° B
iii) 100 !ê˛ A ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% + 100 !ê˛ B xî%
iv) 5 ˆÙy° A ˛ + 2.5 ˆÙy° B
v) 2.5 ˆÙy° A ˛ + 5 ˆÙy° B
1.24 !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xl%ÎyÎ˚# í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y
í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
i) Î!ò 2.00 × 103 g í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçlñ 1.00 × 103 g í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y
í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ii) ~ ò%ˆÏê˛y !ÓܲyÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ x!ÓÜ,˛!ï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ !ܲ⁄
iii) Î!ò •Ñƒy •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
28 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

1.25 ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ 0.50 ˆÙy° Na2CO3 ~ÓÇ 0.50M åˆÙy°yÓ˚ä Na2CO3 ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !˲ߨ⁄
1.26 10 xyÎ˚ï˛l í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒy§ 5 xyÎ˚ï˛l í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°ñ Ü˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l ç°#Î˚
Óy‹õ í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÓ⁄
1.27 !l¡¨!°!áï˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ~ܲˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
i) 28.7 pm.
ii) 15.15 pm.
iii) 25365 mg.
1.28 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy §Ó≈y!ôܲ⁄
i) 1g Au (s)
ii) 1g Na (s)
iii) 1g Li (s)
iv) 1g Cl2(g)
1.29 •zÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ÎyˆÏï˛ •zÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ 0.040 åôˆÏÓ˚ lyGñ çˆÏ°Ó˚ âlc 1ä–
1.30 @˝ÃyÙ ~ܲˆÏܲ 12C ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
1.31 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ àîlyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛⁄
0.02856 × 298.15 × 0.112
i) ii) 5 × 5.364
0.5785
iii) 0.0125 + 0.7864 + 0.0215
1.32 !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ≤Ãò_ ï˛Ìƒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyà≈ˆÏlÓ˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ å≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ≤Ãò_ä xyˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ Óy §ÙfiÌy!lܲ à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
xyˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ ˛≤Ãyã%˛Î≈
36
Ar 35.96755 g mol–1 0.337%
38 –1
Ar 37.96272 g mol 0.063%
40 –1
Ar 39.9624 g mol 99.600%
1.33 !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Çáƒy àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
i) 52 ˆÙy° Ar ii) 52 u He iii) 52 g He
1.34 ~ܲ!ê˛ ì˛y°y•z çµy°yl# àƒy§ ܲyÓ≈l ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yÙylƒ lÙ%ly x!:ˆÏçˆÏl ≤Ãçµ!°ï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° 3.38 g ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ñ 0.690 g ç° í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ly– 10.0 L
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ åSTPˆï˛) ~•z ì˛y°y•z çµy°yl# àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Gçl 11.69 g– àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ i) fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏܲï˛ñ ii) xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ
iii) xyî!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
1.35 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xl%ÎyÎ˚# ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ñ HCl ~Ó˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ CaCl2 ~ÓÇ CO2 í˛zͲõߨ
ܲˆÏÓ˚– CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
0.75 M HCl ~Ó˚ 25 mL §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlˆÏê˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ⁄
1.36 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ ÙƒyAày!lç í˛y•z x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ åMnO2ä §ˆÏAà •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏÜœ˛y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l àƒy§ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
4 HCl (aq) + MnO2(s) → 2H2O (l) + MnCl2(aq) + Cl2 (g)
5.0 g ÙƒyAày!lç í˛y•z x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Ü˛ï˛ @˝ÃyÙ HCl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
(STRUCTURE OF ATOM)
í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ï%˛!Ù §«˛Ù •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ~ÓÇ !lí˛zê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚
~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylˆÏï˛–
• ÌÙ§lñ Ó˚ y òyÓ˚ ˆ Ï Ê ˛yí≈ ˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÓyÓ˚ ~Ó˚
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ÙˆÏí˛° Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒy ÙˆÏí˛° ~Ó˚
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §¡õˆÏ≈ܲ çylˆÏï˛–
• ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ ï˛_¥ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛–
• ˛xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Óî≈ly ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ G •y•zˆÏçlÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛!ê˛ !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ
§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛xyÊ˛ÓyG l#!ï˛ñ ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ ~ÓÇ
•%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ Ùy!Œê˛!≤’!§!ê˛‡§Ó≈y!ôܲ Ó•%Ù%á#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
!lÎ˚Ù !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ !°áˆÏï˛–
29
!mï˛#Î˚ xôƒyÎ˚
(UNIT 2)
!Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˜Ó!ã˛ˆÏeƒÓ˚ ≤Ãyã%˛Î≈ƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xhs˝/fiÌ àë˛l ˆÎ !Ó!˲ߨñ ï˛y ¢ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
Ó•%ܲy° ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˲yÓ˚ï˛#Î˚ G !@˝Ãܲ òy¢≈!lܲàî å400 !á fiê˛˛õ)Ó≈yˆÏ∑ä ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
x!hflψÏcÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰlñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy !SÈ° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% lyÙܲ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ܲîy
myÓ˚y•z ˛õòyÌ≈ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛ñ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù !Ó˲yçˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ≤ÃyÆ x!hs˝Ù
ܲîy •° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% x!Ó˲y烖 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ¢∑!ê˛ ~ˆÏ§ˆÏSÈ !@˝Ãܲ ¢∑
Úxƒyê˛!ÙGÛ ˆÌˆÏܲñ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ á[˛l xˆÏÎyàƒ Óy x!Ó˲y烖 ~•z §ÙhflÏ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ
ôyÓ˚îyà%ˆ° Ï y !SÈ° !lï˛yhs˝•z xl%Ùyl !˲!_ܲ ~ÓÇ ˆÎà%ˆ° Ï y ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô lÎ˚ Óy ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ §ï˛ƒï˛y !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÂô!ï˛ çyly !SÈ° ly– ~•z §ÙhflÏ ôyÓ˚îyà%ˆÏ°y Ó•%ܲy°
§%Æ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ !SÈ° ~ÓÇ |l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl#àî ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ%l/çyà!Ó˚ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~•z ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ï˛_¥!ê˛ ò,ì˛¸ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛
≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ܲ •zLjÏÓ˚ç !Óòƒy°Î˚ !¢«˛Ü˛ñ çl í˛y°ê˛lñ 1808 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑–
ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ~•z ï˛_¥!ê˛ˆÏܲ•z í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ï˛_¥ Ó°y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎáyˆÏl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xy!ò ܲîy !•§yˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ≤ÃÌÙ xôƒyÎ˚– í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ÓyˆÏòÓ˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ xyÙÓ˚y ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)eñ !fiÌÓ˚yl%˛õyï˛ §)e ~ÓÇ à%îyl%˛õyï˛ §)e
§Ê˛°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õˆÏÓ˚!SÈ– Î!òGñ ~•z ï˛_¥ xˆÏlܲ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛°
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~ê˛y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ xçyly lÎ˚ ˆÎ ˆÓ˚¢Ù
Óy ˛õ¢Ù !òˆÏÎ˚ ܲyã˛ Óy •zˆÏÓyly•zê˛ˆÏܲ â£ÏˆÏ° ï˛!í˛¸Í í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ xyÙÓ˚y |l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆ¢£Ï˲yˆÏà ~ÓÇ !ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚
≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚%
ܲÓ˚Ó– ~•z §ÙhflÏ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃÙy!îï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ !Ó˲y!çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
!Ó!˲ߨ xÓÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîy ˆÎÙl •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆lñ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ~ÓÇ !lí˛zê˛∆l •zï˛ƒy!ò ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §Aà!ï˛˛õ)î≈ lÎ˚–
30
2.1 xÓÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚ Ù yî!Óܲ ܲîy §Ù) ˆ Ï • Ó˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚
(DISCOVERY OF SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES)
ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÙy«˛î lˆÏ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛!í˛¸Í«˛Ó˚î â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z !ӣψÏÎ˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ ~•z
xyôyl@˝ÃfiÌ Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°y ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y !l!ò≈T˛ !lÎ˚Ù ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ°– ˆÎÙl
ÚÚ§ÙôÙ≈# xyôyl ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ôÙ≈#
xyôyl ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ˆÏܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚–ÛÛ !ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#ˆÏï˛ xˆÏlܲ
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xÓÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîy xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!òG ~•z
xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ò%ˆÏê˛y ܲîy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l G ˆ≤Ãyê˛l !lˆÏÎ˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
2.1.1 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ (Discovery of Electron)
1830 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ùy•zˆÏܲ° Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛ ˆò!áˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎ Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£ÏƒÎ%=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ
ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyˆÏÓ˚
!ܲS%È ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ Óy çÙy •Î˚– !ï˛!l !l!ò≈T˛ !ܲS%È §)ˆeÏ Ó˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛
Ó˚)˛õ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y myò¢ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏÓ–
~•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛° ï˛!í˛¸ˆÏï˛Ó˚ ܲîyôÙ≈#ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
1850 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ùy•zˆÏܲ°
Ê˛ƒyÓ˚ y ˆÏ í ˛ G xlƒylƒ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚ y xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏ Ó ÓyÎ˚ % ¢ ) l ƒ
ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÙy«˛î lˆÏ° ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÙy«˛î â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ~•z
l°!ê˛ˆÏܲ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˆÙy«˛î l° Ó°y •Î˚– å!ã˛e 2.1ä–
ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ l°!ê˛ Ü˛yã˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò%!ê˛ ˛õyï˛°y
ôyï˛Ó ˛õyï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyÓ˚ ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye
í˛zFã˛!ÓË˛Ó ~ÓÇ x!ï˛!lß√ã˛yˆÏ˛õ•z àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÙy«˛î
âˆÏ ê ˛– àƒy§ !l‹Òy¢ˆÏ l Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ Î ƒ !Ó!˲ߨ àƒyˆÏ § Ó˚ çlƒ
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy ÎyÎ˚– ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÙy«˛î lˆÏ° ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyÓ˚
ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ΈÏÌT˛ í˛zFã˛ÙyeyÓ˚ !ÓË˛Ó ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ° }îydܲ
ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyÓ˚ åܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ä ˆÌˆÏܲ ôlydܲ ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyÓ˚ åxƒyˆÏlyí˛ä
~Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ܲîyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy• Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤ÃÓy• ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚
ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ Óy ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ܲîy Ó°y •Î˚– xƒyˆÏlyˆÏí˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ܲ!ê˛ !SÈo ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˛õŸã˛yˆÏï˛ Ü˛yˆÏã˛Ó˚
ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ° ≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ ôÙ≈ !Ó!¢T˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ !çAܲ
§y°Ê˛y•zí˛ ≤Èϰ˛õ !òˆÏÎ˚ ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– xƒyˆÏlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ !SÈo!ê˛Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ~ˆÏ§ ~•z
Ó˚!Ÿ¬à%ˆÏ°y !çAܲ§y°Ê˛y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyhflÏÓ˚ˆÏî ˛õí˛¸ˆÏ° xyhflÏÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ÓyÎ˚% ¢)lƒ !l‹Òy¢Ü˛ ˛õy¡õ
ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ xƒyˆÏlyí˛
í˛zFã˛!Ó˲Ó
!ã˛e 2.1(a) ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˆÙy«˛îl°
í˛z ˛ õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z Iµ° !Ó®% Ó ˚ §, ! T˛ •Î˚ åˆê˛!°!˲¢l ÎˆÏ s f
~Ó˚ܲÙê˛y•z §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ä !ã˛e 2.1(b)– ~•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ
Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ à,•#ï˛ !§Âôyhs˝àˆ% °
Ï y !l¡¨Ó˛)˚ õÈüüüÈ
(i) ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ xƒyˆÏlyˆÏí˛Ó˚
!òˆÏܲ ÎyÎ˚–
ÓyÎ˚%¢)lƒ !l‹Òy¢Ü˛ ˛õy¡õ
≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ xyhflÏÓ˚l
ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛
xƒyˆÏlyí˛
í˛zFã˛!Ó˲Ó
!ã˛e 2.1(b) fl∫!SÈo xƒyˆÏlyí˛ Î%=˛ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ˆÙy«˛î l°
(ii) ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬à%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏçÓ˚y xò,¢ƒ •ˆÏ°G !ӈϢ£Ï ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!ܲS%È ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ å≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ Óy xl%≤ÃË˛ä §y•yˆÏ΃ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
xyã˛Ó˚î ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Îál ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬à%ˆÏ°y ~ˆÏòÓ˚
xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆê˛!°!˲¢ˆÏlÓ˚ !˛õ܉˛ã˛yÓ˚ !ê˛í˛zÓG ~ܲ!ê˛
ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ l° ~ÓÇ ˆê˛!°!˲¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õòy≈Î˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï
≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ åfluorescentä Óy xl%≤Ã˲ åphosphorescentä
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xyhflÏÓ˚î ÌyˆÏܲ ӈϰ•z ˆê˛!°!˲¢ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲yÓ˚
åfluorescenceä ÙyôƒˆÏÙ SÈ!Ó ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚–
(iii) ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e Óy ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ xl%˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬
§Ù)• §Ó˚° ˆÓ˚áyÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°– å!ã˛e 2.2ä
(iv) ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e Óy ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ }îydܲ ܲîy
§Ù)• ˆÎ Ó˚˛) õ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬G ˆ§•zÓ˛)˚ õ xyã˛Ó˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ }îydܲ xyôyl@˝ÃhflÏ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
ܲîyÓ˚ §Ù!T˛ÈüüüÈ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ӈϰ–
(v) ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lä ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆÙy«˛î lˆÏ°Ó˚
ÙôƒfiÌ àƒy§ G ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ ôyï%˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° lÎ˚–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ xyÙÓ˚y ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õ!lï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l •ˆÏFSÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ í˛z˛õyòyl–
2.1.2 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl G ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ (Charge to
Mass Ratio of Electron)
1897 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ •zLjÏÓ˚ç ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò ˆç ˆç ÌÙ§l ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛
Ó˚!Ÿ¬l° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl åe−ä G •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ åme ä xl%˛õyï˛ !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e
~ÓÇ ã%˛¡∫ܲˆÏ«˛e ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚
§yˆÏÌG °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÎ%=˛ •Î˚ å!ã˛e 2.2ä– ÌÙ§ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í
G ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˛õÌ
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙyê˛ Ü˛ï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó£ÏÎà˚ ˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ÈüüüÈ
(i) ܲîyÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ }îydܲ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl Îï˛ Óyí˛¸ˆÏÓñ ï˛!í˛¸Í
G ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Ü˛îyÓ˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚yG ï˛ï˛ Óyí˛¸ˆÏÓ
~ÓÇ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG ï˛ï˛ Óyí˛¸ˆÏÓ–
(ii) ܲîyÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ÈüÈܲîyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ Îï˛ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ–
(iii) ï˛!í˛¸Í Óy ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ÈüüüÈ ï˛!í˛¸ÍmyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó˲Ó
ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ xƒyˆÏlyí˛
!ã˛e 2.2 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl G ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Îsf‡í˛z˛õܲÓ˚î
31
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Óy ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ¢!=˛ Îï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏÓñ !lçfl∫
à!ï˛ ˛õÌ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢
•ˆÏÓ–
¢%ô%Ùye ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !lçfl∫
à!ï˛˛õÌ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ lˆÏ°Ó˚ A !Ó®%ˆÏï˛
xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ¢%ô%Ùye ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !lçfl∫ à!ï˛˛õÌ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬
lˆÏ°Ó˚ C !Ó®%ˆïÏ ˛ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ §yÓôyˆÏl ï˛!í˛¸Í G ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚
¢!=˛ ÙyeyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ùï˛y Ó˚«˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛˛õÌ ï˛yÓ˚
!lçfl∫ ˛õˆÏÌ xÌ≈yÍ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆ«˛e G ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ xl%˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ à!ï˛˛õÌ ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§•z ˛õˆÏÌ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§ ~ÓÇ
≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ ˛õò≈yÓ˚ B !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛ˆÏe G
ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲˆÏ«˛ˆÏe •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˛õÌ!Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
e
ÌÙ§l m ~Ó˚ ˆÎ Ùyl !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏî §ÙÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl ˆ§!ê˛ •°ñ
e
e
11 –1
(2.1) ˆÎáyˆÏl me •ˆÏFSÈ
me = 1.758820 × 10 C kg
!ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ åkgä ~ܲˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ e •ˆÏFSÈ Ü%˛°¡∫
åCä ~ܲˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl
làîƒ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôylˆÏܲ −e myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
2.1.3 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl (Charge on the Electron)
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ R.A. Millikan (1868-
1953) åxyÓ˚É~É Ù%!°Ü˛ylä ˜ï˛° !Ó®% ˛õÓ˚#«˛y å1906-14ä lyÙܲ
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓfiÌy˛õly ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛°
≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ ˛õò≈y
ã%˛¡∫ܲ
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ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl – 1.6 × 10–19 Ü%˛°¡∫ åCä
!l!î≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ fl∫#Ü,˛ï˛ Ùyl!ê˛ •°
– 1.602176 × 10–19 Ü%˛°¡∫ åCä– ~•z Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
e !ܲS%È ˜ï˛° !Ó®%ˆÏܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í¢#ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ G˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚
ÌÙ§ˆÏlÓ˚ m xl%˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛Ü˛Ó˚î myÓ˚y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
e
˲Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
e 1.602176 × 1019 C
me = =
e / me 1.758820 × 1011 C kg −1
= 9.1094×10–31 kg (2.2)
2.1.4 ˆ≤Ãyê˛l G !lí˛zê˛∆l xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ (Discovery of Protons
and Neutrons)
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬lˆÏ° ï˛!í˛¸Í«˛Ó˚î â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ ôlydܲ xyôyl
!Ó!¢T˛ ܲîy xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •Î˚ñ Îy ˆÜ˛ly° åCanalä Ó˚!Ÿ¬ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
~•z ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
(i) ~•z ôlydܲ ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï y ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ Ùï˛ lÎ˚– ~Ó˚y ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛
Ó˚!Ÿ¬ lˆÏ° í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ~à%ˆ°Ï y
Ó›ï˛ ôlydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ àƒy§#Î˚ xyÎ˚l–
(ii) ~•z ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛!í˛¸ï˛yôyl ~ÓÇ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ˆÎ
àƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°–
(iii) !ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ ôlydܲ xyôyl@˝ÃfiÌ Ü˛îy ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ à%!îï˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîG xyôyl Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iv) ï˛!í˛¸Í G ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z§Ó ܲîyÓ˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ñ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óy ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ôÙ≈# •Î˚–
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z «%˛oï˛Ù ~ÓÇ §Ó≈yˆÏ˛õ«˛y •y°Ü˛y
˛õÓ˚y ï˛!í˛¸ÍÓy•# xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l Ó°y •Î˚–
1919 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ~•z ôlydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ ܲîy!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
!lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ܲîy !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ ܲîyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl
xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l– !ÓK˛yl# §ƒyí˛í˛z•zܲ å1932ä ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õyï˛°y ˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ xy°Ê˛y åαä ܲîy myÓ˚y xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ܲîy
xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ §yÙylƒ ˆÓ!¢ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
~ܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl•#l ܲîyÓ˚ !l/§Ó˚î •Î˚– !ï˛!l ~•z ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚l !lí˛zê˛∆l– ~•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ôÙ≈§Ù)• §yÓ˚!î 2.1ÈüÈ~ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
2.2 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡∫rô#Î˚ ÙˆÏí˛° (ATOMIC MODELS)
˛õ)ˆÓÏ y≈ =˛ xLjϢ ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ܲÌy Ó°y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ Èñ ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!Ù!°Ü˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˜ï˛°!Ó®% ˛õÂô!ï˛
(Millikan’s Oil Drop Method)
~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛îyÓ£Ï≈# åatomiserä myÓ˚y §,T˛ Ü%˛Î˚y¢yÓ˚ Ùï˛
§)- !SȈÏoÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚yˆÏly •Î˚– Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛y!Ùê˛yÓ˚
x!˲ˆÏle °yàyˆÏly ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó#«˛î ΈÏsfÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ~•z
˜ï˛°!Ó®% à % ˆ Ï ° yÓ˚ !l¡¨ y !˲Ù% á # à!ï˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ y •Î˚ –
˜ï˛°!Ó®%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ù!°ˆÏܲl
˜ï˛°!ÓÓ®%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– ܲ«˛!ê˛Ó˚
ˆË˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲà%FSÈ åbeamä XÈüÈ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˛õy!ë˛ˆÏÎ˚
àƒy§!ê˛ˆÏܲ xyÎ˚!lï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°– àƒy§#Î˚ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §ÇâˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° ˜ï˛°!Ó®%à%ˆÏ°y ï˛!í˛¸Íxy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ˜ï˛°!Ó®%Ó˚ xyôyl ~ÓÇ
ˆ≤’ê˛!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÙÓ˚%¢!=˛ G ˆ≤’ê˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÎ%=˛ !Ó˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyôylÎ%=˛ ˜ï˛°!Ó®%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~•z ˛õï˛lˆÏܲ !Ó°!¡∫ï˛ñ
cÓ˚y!¡∫ï˛ Óy !fiÌ!Ó˚Ü,˛ï˛ åstationaryä ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˜ï˛°!Ó®%Ó˚
à!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Îb§•Ü˛yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ù!°Ü˛l ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õ!lï˛ •l ˆÎ ˜ï˛°!Ó®%Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùylñ qñ §Ó≈òy ï˛!í˛¸Í xyôyl e ~Ó˚ à%!îï˛Ü˛ •Î˚ñ xÌ≈yÍ
q = n e ˆÎáyˆÏl n = 1, 2, 3... –
˜ï˛°!Ó®% xy!•ï˛ ˆ≤’ê˛ å+ä
xƒyˆÏê˛yÙy•zçyÓ˚
ˆSÈyê˛ !SÈo
í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ
X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬
ˆê˛!°ˆÏflÒy˛õ
xy!•ï˛ ˆ≤’ê˛ å−ä ˛õÓ˚#«˛yô#l ˜ï˛°!Ó®%
!ã˛e 2.3 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl åeä !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ !Ù!°ˆÏܲˆÏlÓ˚
˜ï˛°!Ó®% Îsf åí˛z˛õܲÓ˚îä– ÎˆÏsfÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ ˜ï˛°!Ó®%Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° Ó°à%ˆÏ°y •° ı x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç Ó°ñ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚
í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í Ó°ñ ˜ï˛°!Ó®%Ó˚ à!ï˛Ó˚
!ÓÓ˚%ˆÏÂô §yrô ï˛y ç!lï˛ Ó°–
~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ í˛y°ê˛l Ó!î≈ï˛ x!Ó˲yçƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ôlydܲ G }îydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ xÓܲ!îܲy
myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛–
G•z §ÙÎ˚ !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ §yÙˆÏl ˆÎ ≤Ãôyl §Ù§ƒyà%ˆÏ°y !SÈ°
ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •°ÈüüüÈ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 33

§yÓ˚!î 2.1 ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ܲîy§Ù%ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ

lyÙ !ã˛•´ ˛õÓ˚Ù xyôyl‡ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ˲Ó˚‡ˆÜ˛!ç åkgä ˲Ó˚‡u xyl%Ùy!lܲ
C åÜ%˛°¡∫ä xyôyl ˲Ó˚‡u

•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l e –1.602176×10–19 –1 9.109382×10–31 0.00054 0

ˆ≤Ãyê˛l p +1.602176×10–19 +1 1.6726216×10–27 1.00727 1

!lí˛zê˛∆l n 0 0 1.674927×10–27 1.00867 1

• xÓÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ܲîyà%ˆ°
Ï y xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c
ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
• ˆË˛Ôï˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
xyã˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ xlƒ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xyã˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ï˛%°ly ܲÓ˚y–
• !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xî%
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ˆòGÎ˚y ~ÓÇ
• ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ Óy !l/§y!Ó˚ï˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
í˛zͲõ!_ G ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çyly •zï˛ƒy!ò–
~•z xyôylÎ%=˛ ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ
ï˛y Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡∫rô#Î˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– Î!òG í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚!l– ˆç ˆç ÌÙ§l
~ÓÇ xyÓ˚ˆlÏ fiê˛ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛yí≈˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ ~Ùl ò%!ê˛ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §¡∫ˆrÏ ô
l#ˆÏã˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°–
2.2.1 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÌÙ§l ÙˆÏí˛° (Thomson Model of
Atom)
1898 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆç ˆç ÌÙ§l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛l §¡∫rô#Î˚ ˆÎ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚
ôlydܲ ˆày°Ü˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!ã˛e 2.4 ı ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÌÙ§l ÙˆÏí˛°
≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆ§!ê˛ !SÈ° ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ åÓƒy§yô≈
≤ÃyÎ˚ 10–10 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ä ˆÎáyˆÏl ôlydܲ xyôyl §Ù)• §Ù˲yˆÏÓ !ÓlƒhflÏ
ÌyˆÏܲ– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~˲yˆÏÓ @˝Ã!Ìï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ÎyˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
|l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆ¢£ÏyˆÏô≈ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ Ó!î≈ï˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬§Ù)• SÈyí˛¸yG
xyÓ˚G !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– í˛z•z!°Î˚yÙ
Ó˚rê˛ˆÏçl å1845-1923ä ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆò!áˆÏÎ!˚ SȈ° Ï l ܲƒyˆÏÌí˛
Ó˚!Ÿ¬ lˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆË˛ï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ylÓ›ˆÏܲ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y xyâyï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï
ˆÎ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚y ܲƒyˆÏÌí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ lˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yáy
≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ôÙ≈# Ó›Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲ §,!T˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Î!òG
Ó˚rê˛ˆÏçl ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ §¡∫ˆÏrô çylˆÏï˛l ly ӈϰ ~•z
Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ lyÙ ˆòl XÈüÈÓ!˚ Ÿ¬ ~ÓÇ ~•z lyÙ!ê˛ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏlG ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛–
ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ XÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ lˆÏ° ï˛ál•z í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ Îál
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• lˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆË˛ï˛Ó˚ Ó˚yáy ˲yÓ˚# ôyï˛Ó ܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ˆÏܲ
xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ÎyˆÏܲ ê˛yˆÏà≈ê˛ ÓˆÏ°– ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬ §Ù)• ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e
Óy ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛e myÓ˚y !ӈϫ˛!˛õï˛ •Î˚ ly ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó›ˆÏܲ
ˆË˛òl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ ˆÓ!¢ñ ï˛y•z Ó›Ó˚ xhs˝fiÌ àë˛l
çylyÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •ˆÏï˛y– ~•z Ó˚!Ÿ¬ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà
˜òâ≈ƒ á%Ó ˆSÈyê˛ å∼0.1 nmä ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ôÙ≈
≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ å2.3.1 xl%ˆÏFSÈòä
ˆ•lÓ˚# ˆÓˆÏܲÓ˚ƒy° å1852-1908ä °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l !ܲS%È
!l!ò≈T˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆÌˆÏܲ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~ܲôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ !ï˛!l ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛Ó˚ lyÙ ˆòl ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ï˛y ~ÓÇ ~•z
§ÙhflÏ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ lyÙ ˆòl ˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ ˆÙÔ°– ˆÙÓ˚# Ü%˛Ó˚#ñ
!˛õˆÏÎÓ˚ #˚ Ü%˛Ó˚#ñ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ ˆÊ˛yí≈˛ G ˆÊ ˛í˛!Ó˚ܲ ˆ§yí˛# ˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ï˛yÓ˚
~•z ˆ«˛e!ê˛Ó˚ xyÓ˚G í˛zߨÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ
ˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° α, β ~ÓÇ γÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ lyÙܲ !ï˛lôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
Ó˚!Ÿ¬ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚– Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛ ≤ÃÙyî ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ ~•z αÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬
í˛zFã˛ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ò%•z ~ܲܲ ôlydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ ~ÓÇ ã˛yÓ˚
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ܲܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ܲîy– !ï˛!l ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
!§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •l ˆÎ ~Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ò%Û!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !•!°Î˚yÙ àƒy§ í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y•z αÈüÈܲîy§Ù)•
34 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

fl∫ˆÏî≈Ó˚ ˛õyï˛
Ó›ï˛ !•!°Î˚yÙ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ñ βÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ xy§ˆÏ° }îydܲ xyôyl
Î%=˛ ܲ!îܲy Îy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ò,¢– γÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ §Ù(• XÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚
ÙˆÏï˛y í˛zFã˛¢!=˛ §¡õߨ !ÓܲÓ˚îñ ~Ó˚y ï˛!í˛¸Í !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛îy myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ lÎ˚– ˆË˛òl «˛Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ
αÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ˆË˛òl «˛Ùï˛y §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ βÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ÈαüÈܲîy §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ°ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˆ≤’ê˛
«˛Ùï˛y åαÈüÈܲlyÓ˚ 100 à%îä ~ÓÇ γÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ ˆË˛òl «˛Ùï˛y í˛zͧ xyˆÏ°yܲ!ã˛e ˆ≤’ê˛
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ åαÈüÈܲlyÓ˚ 1000 à%îä– A. Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ !ӈϫ˛˛õî ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
ÈαüÈܲîy Ó˚!Ÿ¬à%FSÈ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í !Ólƒy§ myÓ˚y fiÌy!Î˚c ≤ÃyÆ ˛õyï˛°y fl∫ˆÏî≈Ó˚ ˛õyï˛
•Î˚ å!ã˛e 2.4ä– ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ° ˆÎÙl
≤’yÙ Ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÜ˛Ü˛ åplum puddingäñ Óí˛¸!òˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ü˛ åraisin
puddingä Óy ï˛Ó˚Ù%ç åwatermelonä– ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛Ü˛ !Ó!«˛Æ È
åpuddingä Óy ï˛Ó˚Ùç % ˆÏܲ åwatermelonä ~ܲ!ê˛ ôlydܲ xyôyl αüÈܲîy
!•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤’yÙ åplumä Óy Ó#ç åseedä •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
@˝Ã!Ìï˛ xyˆÏSÈ– ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •ˆÏFSÈ ˆÏÎ
~áyˆÏl ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §Ù@˝Ã ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ù˲yˆÏÓ !Ó!«˛Æ È
αüÈܲîy
!ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ– Î!òG ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ xyôyl ¢)lƒï˛yÓ˚
Óƒyáƒy !òˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– !ܲv ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!«˛Æ ÈαüÈܲîy
§yˆÏÌ §Aà!ï˛˛õ)î≈ !SÈ° ly– àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝
B. ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ!“ï˛ ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyï˛ ÙôƒfiÌ xî%Ó˚ ò,¢ƒ
Óƒy˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ xl%§rôyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ÌÙ§lˆÏܲ 1906
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ófl˚ ÒyˆÏÓ˚ §¡øy!lï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– !ã˛e 2.5 Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ!“ï˛ !ӈϫ˛˛õ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ò,¢ƒ– Îál ~ܲ!ê˛
xy°Ê˛y åαä ܲîyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy• ˛õyï˛°y ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ xyâyï˛
2.2.2 Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ÙˆÏí˛° (Rutherford’s
Nuclear Model of Atom)
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ x!ôܲyÇ¢ Ó˚!Ÿ¬•z ˆÜ˛yl ≤Ã˲yÓSÈyí˛¸y
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ ܲ!îܲy !ӈϫ˛˛õ ˆòáyÎ˚–
Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛yí≈˛ G ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ò%çl SÈye 啃yl§ !ààyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyl≈T˛ ÙyÓ˚§ˆÏí˛lä
á%Ó ˛õyï˛°y ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ αÈüÈܲ!îܲy Ó£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ã˛e §Ù˲yˆÏÓ !ÓlƒhflÏ ~•z ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˛õyï˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ
2.5ˆï˛ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ ˆÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ !Óáƒyï˛ αÈüÈܲ!îܲy !ӈϫ˛˛õî ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ Ù!®Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ «%˛o
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zͲõߨ x!ï˛ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ !ÓFS%È!Ó˚ï˛ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !ò܉˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– ~ê˛y•z ≤Ãï˛ƒy!¢ï˛
í˛zFã˛ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ αÈüÈܲîyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyï˛°y åˆÓô !SÈ°– !ܲv ˆòáy ˆà° ˆÎÈüüüÈ
∼ 100 nmä ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lˆÏ«˛˛õ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ~•z (i) ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà αÈüÈܲîy ˆÜ˛ylG !ӈϫ˛˛õ SÈyí˛¸y•z ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyï˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ
˛õyï˛°y ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ã˛Ü ˛yܲyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛≤Ã˲y í˛zͲõߨܲyÓ˚# x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ°–
§y°Ê˛y•zí˛ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– αÈüÈܲîy Îál ~•z ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ xyâyï˛
(ii) αÈüÈܲîyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xÇ¢ «%˛o ˆÜ˛yˆÏî !Ó!«˛Æ •°–
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛y §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ˆ§•z !Ó®% ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ V˛°Ü˛y!l ˆòáy
ˆÎï˛– (iii) á%Ó «%˛o §ÇáƒÜ˛ αÈüÈܲîy å20,000 ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 1!ê˛ä ˛õyˆÏï˛
~•z !ӈϫ˛˛õî ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÓ¢ x≤Ãï˛ƒy!¢ï˛ !SÈ°– ôyE˛y ˆáˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ•z ˛õˆÏÌ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏ§!SÈ° xÌ≈yÍ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 180°
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÌÙ§ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛° xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏî !ӈϫ˛!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §Ù@˝Ã ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ~•z §ÙhflÏ âê˛ly ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ αÈüÈܲîyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ ¢!=˛ xyˆÏSÈ ï˛yˆÏï˛ ~Ó˚y §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •lÈüüüÈ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
(i) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà xÇ¢•z ÊÑ˛yܲy ܲyÓ˚î ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà
αÈüÈܲîy•z ˆÜ˛yl !ӈϫ˛˛õ SÈyí˛¸y ˆ§ylyÓ˚ ˛õyï˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ !Óly ÓyôyÎ˚
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ°–
(ii) !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ܲîy ÌyˆÏܲ ӈϰ•z !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
ôlydܲ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– xyˆÏà•z ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏ°G xyôyˆÏlÓ˚
≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ !ܲv !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛– !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛
§Çáƒy•z •ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ Óy ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy åZä–
(iii) Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáyˆÏ°l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ~•z !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l xï˛ƒhs˝ là ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
Óƒy§yô≈ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 10–10 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ Î!òG !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ≤ÃyÎ˚
10–15 !Ùê˛yÓ˚– !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ü ˛ˆÏÜ˛ê˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚
§Ùyl •ˆÏ° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ •ˆÏÓ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 5 !ܲˆÏ°y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ÈüüüÈ
~•z ï%˛°lyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~•z ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y
ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– í˛z˛õ!Ó˚í˛z=˛ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î G !§Âôyhs˝ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛
ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏyÓly
ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°l– ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ~•z ÙˆÏí˛° xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ÈüüüÈ
(i) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~•z ôlydܲ xyôyl G ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà ˲Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o
xLjϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛ ~•z «%˛o xÇ¢!ê˛Ó˚
lyÙ ˆòl !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§–
(ii) ~•z !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l§Ù)• x!ï˛ í˛zFã˛
à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏà ˆÎ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚ºÙî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y ܲ«˛Ü˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ~•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛
ˆ§ÔÓ˚çàˆÏï˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §ò,¢ƒ˛õ)î≈ ˆÎáyˆÏl !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ Ùï˛
ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏl xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l§Ù)• @˝Ã•ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùï˛
â%ˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ–
(iii) ~•z •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l G !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏÌ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
Ó° myÓ˚y xyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ–
2.2.3 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy (Atomic Number
and Mass Number)
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ܲîy ÌyˆÏܲ ӈϰ•z !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ôlydܲ
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– xyˆÏà•z ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏ°G xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ !ܲv !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛–
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy!ê˛ •° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ
Óy ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy åZä– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy 1ñ xlƒ!òˆÏܲ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ
35
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ~•z §Çáƒy 11– ï˛y•z ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
1 ~ÓÇ 11– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ï˛y ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒñ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ Îï˛ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy Zä ÌyˆÏܲ !ë˛Ü˛
ï˛ï˛ÈüȧÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
G ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 1 ~ÓÇ 11–
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy åZä = ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy
= xyôyl !lÓ˚ˆ˛Ï õ«˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛l∆
§Çáƒy (2.3)
ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ôlydܲ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •ˆÏ°G
ˆ≤Ãyê˛l G !lí˛zê˛∆l ܲîy !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#–
˛õ)ˆÓÏ •≈ z xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l
G !lí˛zê˛∆l ~ܲˆÏe !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚l§‰ ‰ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚l§‰ ~Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛
§Çáƒy ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §Çáƒy åAä !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
˲Ó˚§Çáƒy åAä = ˆ≤Ãyê˛∆l §Çáƒy åZä +
!lí˛zê˛∆l §Çáƒy ånä (2.4)
2.2.4 xy•zˆÏ§yÓyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ å§ÙfiÌy!lܲä (Isobars
and Isotopes)
~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ åXä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Óy!òˆÏܲ ¢#£Ï≈ˆÏòˆÏ¢ ˲Ó˚§Çáƒy åAä ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ˆÏòˆÏ¢
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Ü ˛ÙyAܲ åZ ä ˆ°áy •Î˚– åxÌ≈yÍ AZ Xä
ˆÎ §Ü˛° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚§Çáƒy §Ùyl !ܲv ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy
!Ó!˲ߨ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xy•zˆ§Ï yÓyÓ˚ Ó°y •Î˚ÈüüüÈ ˆÎÙl 146C G 147Nñ xlƒ!òˆÏܲ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆòÏ Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy §Ùyl !ܲv ˲Ó˚§Çáƒy !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ Óy §ÙfiÌy!lܲ ӈϰ– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ°
å§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 2.4 xl%§yˆÏÓä˚ xy•zˆ§Ï yˆÏê˛y˛õ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§
!lí˛zê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛ƒÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈ˆlÏ – í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 99.985% •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ xyˆÏSÈ
¢%ô%Ùye 1!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l– ~•z xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ!ê˛Ó˚ lyÙ ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛Î˚yÙ å11Hä–
xÓ!¢T˛yLjϢ xyˆÏSÈ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xlƒ ò%!ê˛ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õñ
ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 1!ê˛ˆÏï˛ xyˆÏSÈ 1!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l G 1!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l Îy !í˛í˛zˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yÙ
å12D, 0.015%ä !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ!ê˛ˆÏï˛ 1!ê˛
ˆ≤Ãyê˛l G 2!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ Îy !ê˛∆!ê˛Î˚yÙ å31Tä !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ˆ¢ˆÏ£Ïy=˛ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ!ê˛ ˛õ,!ÌÓ#ˆÏï˛ á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ xlƒylƒ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
36 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù§ƒy 2.1 §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ §¡∫rô#Î˚ ˆÎ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á

80
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛lñ !lí˛zê˛∆l ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy
35 Br

§Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z §Çáƒy !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy myÓ˚y– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
§Ùyôyl
ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ !lí˛zê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ x!ï˛ là
~áyˆÏl 8035 Br, Z = 35, A = 80 ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l/hflÏ!í˛¸Í ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛y˛õ ~ܲ•z Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%– ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy = •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy = Z = 35
2.2.5 Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ e%!ê˛ §Ù)•
!lí˛zê˛∆l §Çáƒy = 80 – 35 = 45 å§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 2.4ä (Drawbacks of Rutherford Model)
§Ù§ƒy 2.2 Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛yˆÏí˛≈ Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§Î%=˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆïÏ ˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆lñ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ~ÓÇ !lí˛zê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ «%˛o§ÇflÒÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õñ ˆÎáyˆÏl !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§!ê˛ •° !Ó¢y° ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
§Çáƒy ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 18ñ 16 ~ÓÇ 16!ê˛– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ !ã˛•´ §)ˆÎÏ Ó≈ ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~ÓÇ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆ° Ï y xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ ܲÙ˲Ó˚Î=% ˛ @˝Ã•à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚
!lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– Ùï˛– í˛z˛õÓ˚v •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ Ü%˛°¡∫#Î˚ Ó°
§Ùyôyl åkq1q2/r2ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl q1 ~ÓÇ q2 xyôylñ r •ˆÏFSÈ ò%!ê˛ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy Óy ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy = 16 – ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c ~ÓÇ k ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ ô %Óܲä ày!îï˛#ܲ˲yˆÏÓ
xÌ≈yÍ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ åSä  1 2 
mm
˲Ó˚ §Çáƒy = ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy + !lí˛zê˛∆l §Çáƒy x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç ӈϰÓ˚ Ùï˛  G. r 2  ˆÎáyˆÏl m1 ~ÓÇ m2 •°
 
= 16 + 16 ò%!ê˛ Ë˛Ó˚ñ r •ˆÏFSÈ ò%!ê˛ Ë˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c ~ÓÇ G •° Ù•yܲ£Ï≈#Î˚
= 32 ô %Óܲ– ˆ§ÔÓ˚Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §lyï˛l Ó°!ÓòƒyÓ˚D ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ !l/hflÏ!í˛¸Í lÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy G ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎ §)ˆÏÎ≈ƒÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y !l!ò≈T˛ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ @˝Ã•à%ˆÏ°y
§Çáƒy §Ùyl lÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xƒylyÎ˚l å}îydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ä xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_Ó¥ ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ @˝Ã•à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ §Ùï˛°#Î˚
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyl = 18 – 16 = 2– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ÎÌyÎÌ˲yˆÏÓ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ 1632 S 2 – §ˆÏAà ï˛y §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ §•Ùï˛ ˆ˛õy£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§ÔÓ˚Ù[˛° G ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ê˛#ܲy åNoteä !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yò,¢ƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •GÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚
Z X ≤Ãï˛#ܲ!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ~!ê˛ !ܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !lhflÏ!í˛¸Í
A
ˆÎ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l§Ù)• ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y !l!ò≈T˛ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ly!ܲ ôlydܲ xyÎ˚l Óy }îydܲ xyÎ˚l ï˛y ˆòˆÏá
ܲˆÏÓ˚ â%Ó˚ˆÏSÈ– Îy ˆ•yܲñ Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó› ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌ ˆâyˆÏÓ˚ñ
lyG– Î!ò ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l/hflÏ!í˛¸Í ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ çlƒ
ï˛ál Ó›!ê˛ˆÏï˛ cÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ Î!ò Ó›!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.3ä ≤ÈÏÎyçƒ xÌ≈yÍ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy = •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!lˆÏÎ˚G ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ ˆâyˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛Ó%G !òܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
§Çáƒy = ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy– Î!ò Ó›!ê˛ xyÎ˚l •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ
ˆòáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ˆÏï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy !ܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ cÓ˚î §,!T˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l
ˆÓ!¢ åܲƒyê˛yÎ˚lñ ôlydܲ xyÎ˚lä xÌÓy Ü˛Ù åxlƒylyÎ˚lñ Îál ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ â)î≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ cÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚
}îydܲ xyÎ˚lä– !lí˛zê˛∆l §Çáƒy §Ó≈òy•z ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ A– àë˛l @˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y– Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Íã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚
Z myÓ˚y ï˛y ˆ§!ê˛ xyÎ˚l Óy !l/hflÏ!í˛¸Í Îy•z ˆ•yܲ ly ˆÜ˛l– ï˛Ìƒyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyôylÎ%=˛ ܲîyÎ˚ cÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál
•ˆÏFSÈ 6!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l Î%=˛ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 6!ê˛ñ 7!ê˛ ï˛y ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ !ÓܲÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ å@˝ÃˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛
~ÓÇ 8!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ å 12 13
6 C, 6 C, 6 C
14
äó 17!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l Î%=˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚y !lhflÏ!í˛¸Íä ï˛y•z ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ xyÓï≈˛l¢#°
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 18!ê˛ ~ÓÇ 20!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆÎ ¢!=˛ Ó•l
ÌyˆÏܲ å 17
35
Cl, 1737
Cl ä– Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ•z ~ˆÏï˛ í˛zò‰Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚– ܲ«˛˛õÌ ï˛y•z
* §lyï˛l Ó°!Óòƒy ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ !ÓK˛yl ˆÎ!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛§)ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛– ~!ê˛ Ó,•òyܲyÓ˚ Ó›Ó˚ à!ï˛ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ !lÎ˚Ùà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
x!ÓÓ˚ï˛ §AÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ– àîlyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Q…l !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ á!˛õ≈° ˛õˆÏÌ â%Ó˚ˆÏï˛ â%Ó˚ˆÏï˛ 10–8
ˆ§ˆÏܲ[˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ xySȈíÏ ˛¸ ˛õí˛¸ˆÓÏ – !ܲv ÓyhflˆÏ ÓÏ ï˛y §Çà!ë˛ï˛
•Î˚ ly– ˆ§•z çlƒ•z Ó˚yòyÓ˚ ˆÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ â)î≈l §lyï˛l Ó°!Óòƒy
~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸Íã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
~•z ≤ß¿!ê˛ !çˆÏK˛§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛•z ˛õyÓ˚ ˆÎ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ xyÓï≈˛l¢#°
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ•z ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y
ÎyˆÏFSÈ ly ï˛y•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ !lŸã˛°
ӈϰ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ ly ˆÜ˛l⁄ Î!ò ~•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y !lŸã˛° •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ
x!ï˛Ë˛yÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá ê˛yl xl%˲Ó
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ÌÙ§ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ §ÇflÒÓ˚î
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
~SÈyí˛¸y Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛yˆÏí˛≈ Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xyˆÏÓÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ ÙyÓ˚ydܲ
e%!ê˛ •° ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ólƒy§ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ܲS%È
Ó°y •Î˚!l xÌ≈yÍ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆ°
Ï y
!ÓlƒhflÏ ~ÓÇ ~•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛•z Óy ܲ#⁄
2.3 ˆÓyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛° àë˛ˆÏl §y•yÎƒÜ˛yÓ˚# í˛zßï¨ ˛ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ
àˆÏÓ£Ïîy (DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE
BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM)
Ó› ~ÓÇ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Çâ£Ï≈ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
≤ÃyÆ ˙!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡õˆÏܲ≈
x§Çრï˛Ìƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ– l#°§‰ˆÏÓyÓ˚ ~•z §ÙhflÏ Ê˛°yÊ˛°
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛yˆÏí˛≈ Ó˚ ≤ÃhflyÏ !Óï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚ §ÇflÒyÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ò%!ê˛ í˛zß¨ï˛ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛° ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Ù%áƒ
Ë)˛!Ùܲy !lˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •°ÈüüüÈ
(i) ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˜mï˛ ã˛!Ó˚e ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ ~•z !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
ï˛Ó˚Aà ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ Ü˛îyôÙ≈ ò%•z•z ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
(ii) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óî≈y°# â!ê˛ï˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛° Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ Î!ò ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚y^˝ê˛y•zçí˛ å2.4 xl%ˆÏFSÈòä
2.3.1 ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ôÙ≈#ï˛y
(Wave
Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation)
|l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ÙyV˛yÙy!V˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ñ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓK˛yl#àî í˛z_Æ
Ó› myÓ˚y ˆ¢y£Ïî ~ÓÇ !l/§Ó˚î !Ó!ܲÓ˚î §!Ü ˛Î˚˲yˆÏÓ xôƒÎ˚l
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– ~!ê˛ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î– ï˛ÑyÓ˚y ï˛y˛õ#Î˚
37
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î ܲ# ï˛y á%ˆÑ ç
Ï ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓl˚ – ~ál ~!ê˛ §%˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
§ï˛ƒ ˆÎ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y •° !Ó!˲ߨ ܲ¡õyAܲ Óy ï˛Ó˚Aà
˜òâ≈ƒ !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– ~!ê˛ ˆÓ¢ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ xyô%!lܲ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ Îy |l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà
xˆÏlܲê˛y xçyly !SÈ°– 1850 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §)eà%ˆÏ°y §!Ü ˛Î˚˲yˆÏÓ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ~ÓÇ
1870 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆçÙ§ Üœ˛yÜ≈˛ Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚° ï˛!í˛¸Íã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛_¥ ~ÓÇ
xyôylÎ%=˛ ܲîy §Ù)•ˆÏܲ cÓ˚y!ß∫ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚
!l/§Ó˚îˆÏܲ í˛zß¨ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l– ~!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆ•l!Ó˚ã˛ •y!ê≈˛ç åHeinrich
Hertzä ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §%!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓl ˚ – ~•z xl%ˆFÏ SȈòÏ ï˛!í˛¸Í
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !ܲS%È ï˛Ìƒ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õí˛¸Ó–
ˆçÙ§ Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚° å1870ä §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ xyôylÎ%=˛ ܲîyˆÏòÓ˚
!ÙÌ!‹;Îy˚ ~ÓÇ xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e G ã%˛¡∫ܲˆÏ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ xyã˛Ó˚î
§%!l!ò≈T˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– ïÑ˛yÓ˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yl ï˛!í˛¸Í@˝ÃhflÏ
ܲîy Îál cÓ˚î §• à!ï˛¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e G
ã%˛¡∫ܲˆÏ«˛e §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ≤Ã!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˆ«˛eà%ˆÏ°y ï˛Ó˚AàÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ
ˆ≤Ã!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ Îy !ܲly ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà Óy ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
≤Ãyã˛#lܲy° ˆÌˆÏܲ•z ôyÓ˚îy !SÈ° ˆÎ xyˆÏ°yܲ ~ܲ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î ~ÓÇ ≤Ãy˜Ïà!ï˛•y!§Ü˛ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ m®µ
!SÈ°– ≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ å!lí˛zê˛lä ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° xyˆÏ°yܲ §Ω˛Óï˛
ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ܲîy !òˆÏÎ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ åܲÓ˚˛õyˆÏ§°‰§‰ä– |l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y!∑ˆÏï˛
xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ôÙ≈ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚
í˛z˛õyòyl
!ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
x!˲Ù%á
ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl
!ã˛e 2.6 ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ~ÓÇ ã%˛¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚
í˛z˛õyòyl xÇ¢– í˛z˛õyòyl xÇ¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒñ ܲ¡õyAܲñ
o%!ï˛ ~ÓÇ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏ°G ~Ó˚y !ܲv ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
°¡∫˲yˆÏÓ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ò%!ê˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ ï˛ˆÏ° ܲ!¡õï˛ •Î˚–
38
Ùƒy!:GˆÏÎ˚° ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°l ˆÎ xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛Ó˚Aàñ
ˆòyò%°ƒÙyl ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ å!ã˛e
2.6ä– Î!òG ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ Ë˛#£Ïî ç!ê˛°ñ xyÙÓ˚y
¢%ô%Ùye ~Ó˚ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚î ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
(i) ˆòyò%°ƒÙyl xyôyl@˝ÃfiÌ Ü˛îy ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ ˆòyò%°ƒÙyl ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏ«˛e
~ÓÇ ã%˛¡∫ܲˆÏ«˛e §,!T˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚y !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ §yˆÏÌG °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ §Ó˚°#Ü,˛ï˛ !ã˛e 2.6-
~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •°–
(ii) ¢∑ ï˛Ó˚Aà xÌÓy ç° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛yñ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚G ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ÙyôƒˆÏÙÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚ ly ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y ¢)lƒ
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(iii) ~ê˛y ~Ùl ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ §ï˛ƒ ˆÎñ xˆÏlܲ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î xyˆÏSÈñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ åxÌÓy ܲ¡õyAܲä
xlƒ!ê˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ xy°yòy •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒÎ%=˛ ~•z àë˛l
!ã˛e!ê˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Óî≈y°# lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ å!ã˛e 2.7ä– ~•z
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xÇ¢ !Ó!˲ߨ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
•° ı 106 •yÍç≈ åHzä ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xM˛°!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚!í˛G Óy
ˆÓï˛yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xM˛° Ó°y •Î˚ñ Îy ˆÓ˚!í˛G §¡±ã˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲyˆÏç
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– 1010 •yÍç≈ åHzä ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xM˛°!ê˛ˆÏܲ
Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛yGˆÏÎ˚˲ xM˛° ӈϰñ Îy Ó˚yí˛yˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛yGˆÏÎ˚˲
γ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ X Ó˚!Ÿ¬
ò,¢ƒÙyl Óî≈y°#
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ålƒyˆÏly!Ùê˛yÓ˚ä
!ã˛e 2.7 (a) ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î Óî≈y°#–˛ (b) ò,¢ƒÙyl Óî≈y°#– ò,¢ƒÙyl Óî≈y°# •° §¡õ)î≈ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xÇ¢–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
1013 •yÍç≈ åHzä ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xM˛°!ê˛ˆÏܲ xӈϕ!°ï˛
xM˛° ӈϰñ Îy í˛z_ÆܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– 1016 •yÍç≈
åHzä ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xM˛°!ê˛ˆÏܲ x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%î# xM˛° Ó°y •Î˚ñ
Îy •° ˆ§ÔÓ˚!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õyòyl– 1015 •yÍç≈ åHzä
~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xM˛°ˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ò,¢ƒÙyl
xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó°y •Î˚– ¢%ôÙ% ye ~•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲ•z xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
ˆã˛yá ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ å§ly=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ä– xò,¢ƒ !ÓܲÓ˚î
§ly=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ !ӈϢ£Ï ΈÏsfÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚–
(iv) ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲܲ
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
~•z §Ü˛° !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Ù)°ï˛ ܲ¡õyAܲ åν ä ~ÓÇ
ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ åλä ~•z ò%!ê˛ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°–
ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ åν ä SI ~ܲܲ!ê˛ •° •yÍ≈≈ç åHz, s–1ä– ˆ•l!Ó˚ã˛
•yÍ≈ˆÏçÓ˚ lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®% !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏ[˛ Îï˛ §ÇáƒÜ˛
ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ §ÇAày!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲܲ •° ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲܲ ~ÓÇ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y
çyl SI ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲܲ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ åmä– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ
!Ó!¢T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà myÓ˚yñ ï˛y•z ~Ó˚ çlƒ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ܲܲ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ Ü˛¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒÎ%=˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !ã˛e È2.7üÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
ò#â≈ ˆÓ˚!í˛G ï˛Ó˚Aà
ï˛Ó˚Aà
ˆÓ˚!í˛G ï˛Ó˚Aà
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 39

ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ Îy•z •í˛zܲ ly ˆÜ˛lñ ÓyÎ˚% ¢)lƒ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §ÙhflÏ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ °y° xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ
ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ~ܲ•z à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏà ºÙî ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ 3.0 ×
c 3.00 × 108 ms −1
108 m s–1 ~Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ Ùyl!ê˛ •° (2.997925 × 108 m s–1)– v= = = 4.00 × 1014 Hz
λ 400 × 10−9 m
~ˆÏܲ•z xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ •° ÚcÛ– ~•z ò,¢ƒÙyl xyˆÏ°yܲ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ 4.0 × 1014 ˆÌˆÏܲ 7.5 × 1014
ܲ¡õyAܲ åν äñ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ åλä ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Hz ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
§Ù§ƒy 2.3 §Ù§ƒy 2.5
!ò!Õ‘!fiÌï˛ x° •z!u˛Î˚y ˆÓ˚!í˛GÓ˚ !Ó!Óô˲yÓ˚ï˛# ˆfiê˛¢l ˆÌˆÏܲ •°%ò !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ÎyÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ 5800 Å. ï˛yÓ˚ (a) ï˛Ó˚Aà
ˆÎ ˆÓ˚!í˛G ï˛Ó˚Aà §¡±ã˛yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ •° 1,368 §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ (b) ܲ¡õyAܲ àîly ܲÓ˚–
!ܲˆÏ°y •yÍ≈ç
≈ åkHzä– ˆ≤ÃÓÜ˚ ˛Îsf ˆÌˆÏܲ !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ ï˛!í˛¸Íã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚
§Ùyôyl
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ï˛!í˛¸Íã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Óî≈y°#Ó˚
(a) ï˛Ó˚Aà §ÇáƒyÓ˚ àîly å ν ä
ˆÜ˛yl‰ xÇ¢!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ!ê˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ⁄ λ = 5800Å = 5800 × 10–8 cm
§Ùyôyl = 5800 × 10–10 m
ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ åλäñ c/ν ~Ó˚ §Ùylñ ˆÎáyˆÏl c •ˆÏFSÈ ÓyÎ˚% ¢)lƒ 1 1
ν = =
fiÌyˆÏl ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ~ÓÇ ν •ˆÏFSÈ λ 5800 × 10−10 m
= 1.724 × 106 m−1
ܲ¡õyAܲ– ≤Ãò_ Ùylà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•z
c = 1.724 × 104 cm−1
λ=
v (b) ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ àîly åνä
3.00 × 108 ms −1 c 3 × 108 ms −1
= ν= =
1368 kHz λ 5800 × 10−10 m
= 5.172 × 1014 s−1
3.00 × 108 ms −1
=
1368 ×103 s −1 åcä ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.5ä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
= 219.3m
c=ν λ (2.5)
~!ê˛ •° ˆÓï˛yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛§)ã˛Ü˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ– Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~Ùl xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛
§Ù§ƒy 2.4 Ó˚y!¢ •° ï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒy åwavenumberä– ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲܲ ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆÓà%!l å400 lƒyˆÏly!Ùê˛yÓ˚ä ˆÌˆÏܲ °y° å750 í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
lƒyˆÏly!Ùê˛yÓ˚ä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ xM˛°!ê˛ ò,¢ƒÙyl– ~•z ï˛Ó˚Aà •Î˚– ~Ó˚ ~ܲܲ •ˆÏFSÈ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ xˆÏlƒylƒÜ˛ xÌ≈yÍ
˜òâ≈ƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲ åHzä ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚– å1nm = 10–9 !Ùê˛yÓ˚–1 åm–1ä– !ܲv ˆÎ ~ܲܲ!ê˛ §ã˛Ó˚yã˛Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
mä
ˆ§!ê˛ •° ˆ§!rê˛!Ùê˛yÓ˚–1 åcm–1ä åÎy SI ~ܲܲ lÎ˚ä–
2.3.2 ï˛!í˛Í¸ ã%˛¡Ü∫ ˛#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ܲîy ô!Ù≈ï˛y ı ≤’ƒyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
§Ùyôyl
ï˛c (Particle Nature of Electromagnetic
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 2.5 ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÓà%!l xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ •ˆÏFSÈ Radiation: Planck’s Quantum Theory)
−1
c 3.00 × 10 ms 8
ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô âê˛ly ˆÎÙl !ÓFSÈ%Ó˚îD ~ÓÇ Óƒ!ï˛ã˛yÓ˚D Îy
v= =
λ 400 × 10−9 m
!ܲly ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy
= 7.50 × 1014 Hz
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Î!òG !lˆÏ¡¨y=˛ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îà%ˆÏ°y !ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛
* !ÓFS%ÈÓî˚ •° ˆÜ˛yl ÓyôyÓ˚ §¡ø%ˆáÏ ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ !ӈϫ˛˛õ–
* Óƒ!ï˛ã˛yÓ˚ •° ò%!ê˛ §Ù Óy !˲ߨ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ Îy ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ !Ó®%ˆïÏ ˛ °kô ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yí˛¸l •° ˙ ò%Û!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ Ó#ç à!îï˛#Î˚ xÌÓy ˆË˛QÓ˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyl–
40
˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îˆÏܲ ~Ùl!ܲ |l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃G Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly åÎy §lyï˛l
Ó°!Óòƒy !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ä–
(i) ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z_Æ Ó› ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
åÜ,˛!£÷Ïܲy !Ó!ܲÓ˚îä–
(ii) Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôyï˛Ó ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î myÓ˚y xyâyï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ñ
ï˛ál ˆÎ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !l/§Ó˚î •Î˚ñ åxyˆÏ°yܲÈüÈï˛!í˛¸Í !Ü ˛Î˚yä–
(iii) ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l Ó›Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy!•ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Îál ï˛y˛õÙyey
~ܲ!ê˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛–
(iv) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°# !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚
ˆÓ˚áyÓî≈y°#–
~•z âê˛lyà%ˆÏ°y •z!Aàï˛ ˆòÎ˚ ˆÎ ï˛sf åsystemä ˆÜ˛Ó°
Ùye !Ó!FSÈߨ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ¢!=˛ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– §Ω˛yÓƒ §Ü˛°
≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢!=˛ @˝Ã•î Óy !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–~ê˛y Ó°y !ӈϢ£Ï
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl ˆÎ 1900 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ü,˛£÷Ï Ó›Ó˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ âê˛ly §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°Ï l Ùƒy: ˛õƒyAܲ– !lˆÏ¡¨ âê˛ly!ê˛ ˆòGÎ˚y
•° ı
Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲ!ë˛l Ó›ˆÏܲ í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál ï˛yÓ˚y
!Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î âê˛yÎ˚– í˛zFã˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ °«˛ƒî#Î˚ xl%˛õyï˛ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ò,¢ƒÙyl xM˛ˆÏ°
•Î˚– ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆ° Ï ˆÓ!¢ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâÓ≈ ˚
ål#° xyˆÏ°yܲä !Ó!ܲÓ˚î í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚˛) õ Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ˆ°Ô• ò[˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ã˛Ùl#ˆÏï˛ í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ ï˛y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ •y°Ü˛y
ï˛Ó˚Aà˜Ïòâ≈ƒ
!ã˛e 2.8 ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒÈüÈ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ §¡õÜ≈˛–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!ã˛e 2.8 (a) Ü,˛£÷Ï Ó›–
°y° Óî≈ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛y˛õÙyey Óyí˛¸yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
§yˆÏÌ ï˛y x!ôܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ °y° Óî≈ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y˛õÙyey
Óyí˛¸yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ xyÓ˚G í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚ˆ°
Ï §yòy !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ°ñ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ l#° ÓˆÏîÓ≈ ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
!là≈ï˛ •Î˚–
xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏ° ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°ÈüüüÈ Ü˛¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚
§yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ñ ~•z !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !l¡¨ ܲ¡õyAܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ Ü˛¡õyˆÏAܲ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
•Î˚– ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Óî≈y°#ˆÏï˛ °y° ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°y !l¡¨ ܲ¡õyAܲ
!Ó!¢T˛ ~ÓÇ l#° ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°y í˛zFã˛ Ü˛¡õyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛– ~ܲ!ê˛
xyò¢≈ Ó› ˆÎ!ê˛ §Ü˛° ܲ¡õyAܲˆÏܲ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î G ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ÈüÈ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ü,˛£÷Ï Ó› ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ˆÎ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î âê˛yÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ
Ü,˛!_ܲy !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ– ~•z !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ܲ¡õyAܲ Órê˛l
åxÌ≈yÍ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ ÓlyÙ Ü˛¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy !ã˛eä ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ü,˛£÷Ï Ó›Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢%ô% Ùye ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ !l!ò≈T˛
!Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ܲÙyÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ï˛y xyÓyÓ˚
Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Îy !ã˛e 2.8ÈüÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó!î≈ï˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ °kô Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚
ï˛Ó˚Aà ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ≤’ƒyˆÏAܲÓ˚
§%˛õy!Ó˚¢ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xî% ¢%ô%Ùye !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚
¢!=˛Ó˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î åÓy ˆ¢y£Ïîä ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv x!Ó!FSÈߨ ˲yˆÏÓ
lÎ˚È üüüÈ Îy ï˛álܲyÓ˚ !òˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ çl!≤ÃÎ˚ ôyÓ˚îy !SÈ°– ≤’ƒyAܲ
¢!=˛Ó˚ ~•z «%˛oï˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî!ê˛Ó˚ lyÙ ˆòl ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Îy ï˛!í˛¸Í
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !là≈ï˛ Óy ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yˆÏÙÓ˚ ¢!=˛ åEäñ ~Ó˚ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.6ä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
E = hυ (2.6)
~•z §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ ô %Óܲ ÚhÛ ≤’ƒyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ô %Óܲ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ùyl 6.626×10–34 J s –
~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤’ƒyAܲ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ
Óy ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ myÓ˚y !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃyӈϰƒÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛lˆÏܲ
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl–
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÎ˚l åQuantisationä ˆÜ˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !§Ñ!í˛¸Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
òÑy!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyܲyÓ˚ §!•ï˛ ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲçl Óƒ!=˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !§Ñ!í˛¸Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ òÑy!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv
ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õˆÏ«˛ ò%!ê˛ ôyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl òÑy!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ Ìyܲy §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚–
ˆï˛Ù!l ¢!=˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ§ê˛à%ˆ° Ï y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛
Ùyl !lˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ùyl !lˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
E = 0, hu, 2hu, 3hu....nhu.....
xyˆÏ°Ü˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í !Ü ˛Î˚y åPhotoelectric Effectä
1887 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ñ ~•zã˛ •y퉲ç ~ܲ!ê˛ !ã˛_yܲ£Ï≈ܲ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚l
ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l åxÌÓy ï˛!í˛¸Íä !l/§Ó˚î °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Îál
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ôyï%˛ˆÏܲ åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙñ Ó˚%!Ó!í˛Î˚ƒÙñ
!§!çÎ˚yÙ •zï˛ƒy!òä ~ܲ!ê˛ xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ §¡ø%ˆÏá Ó˚yáy •Î˚ÈüÈ Îy
!ã˛e 2.9 ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛ˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í
!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ–
xyˆÏ°yܲ
!í˛ˆÏê˛QÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ï˛°
xƒyÙ!Ùê˛yÓ˚
ÓyÎ˚%¢)lƒ ܲ«˛
Óƒyê˛y!Ó˚
!ã˛e 2.9 xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í !Ü ˛Î˚y àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Îsf– ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ ÓyÎ˚%¢)lƒ ܲˆÏ«˛ Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚
ôyï˛Ó ˛õ,¤˛ˆÏܲ xyâyï˛ Ü˛Ó˚°– ôyï˛Ó ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!l/§Ó˚î ¢%Ó˚% •° ~ÓÇ àîly ΈÏsfÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §Çáƒy àîly
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •°–
41
Ùƒy: ≤’ƒyAܲ
(1858 – 1947)
Ùƒy: ≤’ƒyAܲñ ~ܲçl çyÙ≈y!lÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò !Î!l
ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÎ˚ !Ùí˛z!lቲ !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°Î˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ 1879 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ph.D §¡øyl °y˲
ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ l – 1888 !á  fi ê˛yˆÏ ∑ !ï˛!l Óy!°≈ l
!ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ Institute of Physics ~Ó˚ x!ôܲï≈˛y !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˆÎyàòyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ≤’ƒyAܲ ï˛ÑyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ çlƒ 1918 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆlyˆÏÓ°
˛õ%Ó˚flÒyÓ˚ ˛õyl– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy ~ÓÇ ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ¢yáyÎ˚G
≤’ƒyˆÏAܲÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ xÓòyl xyˆÏSÈ–
~Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y •°ÈüüüÈ
(i) ôyï˛Ó ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !l/§Ó˚î ï˛ál•z §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚
Îál xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˆ§•z ˛õ¤˛ˆÏܲ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ°yܲ
˛Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ôyï˛Ó ˛˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !l/§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xÓܲy¢ ÌyˆÏܲ ly–
(ii) !l/§,ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ Óy ÅIµˆÏ°ƒÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ •Î˚–
(iii) ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ôyï%˛Ó˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ l)ƒlï˛Ù ܲ¡õyAܲ åν ä 0
xyˆÏSÈ åÎy !ܲly threshold frequency lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ä
ÎyÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly Îál ܲ¡õyAܲ
ν >ν 0ñ ï˛ál ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ à!ï˛¢!=˛ §¡õߨ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!l/§Ó˚î ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z à!ï˛¢!=˛ xy˛õ!ï˛ï˛
xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó!î≈ï˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y §lyï˛l Ó°!Óòƒy myÓ˚y Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆòáy ˆà° ˆÎ xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ˆÏï˛
!l!•ï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÅIµˆÏ°ƒÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
à!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ í˛zI° µ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°–
°«˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy xyˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛zI° µ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï G !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛
!ܲv •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ
ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛#Ó ï˛yÓ˚ °y° xyˆÏ°y [ν = (4.3 ˆÌˆÏܲ 4.6) × 1014
Hz] ~ܲê%˛Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y ˛õê˛y!§Î˚yÙˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ârê˛y í˛zIµ° Ó˚yˆÏáñ !ܲv
ˆÜ˛yl Ê˛ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛êÛl !l/§Ó˚î •Î˚ ly– !ܲv Î!ò ò%Ó≈° •°%ò
xyˆÏ°yܲ åν = 5.1–5.2 × 1014 Hzä ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ôyï%˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸
42
Table 2.2 ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ ôyï%˛Ó˚ Work Function Ùyl
ôyï%˛ Li Na
W0 /eV 2.42 2.3
ï˛ˆÏÓ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ôyï%˛ í˛zIµ° ˆòáyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §yˆÏÌ Ê˛ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!l/§Ó˚îG âˆÏê˛– ˛õê˛y!§Î˚yÙ ôyï%˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚Ω˛ ܲ¡õyAܲ §#Ùy åν0ä
•° 5.0×1014 HzÉ
xy•zlfiê˛y•zl å1905ä xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §)ã˛lyˆÏܲ
åstarting pointä ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤’ƒyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl–
ܲ!îܲy à%FSÈ Óy ˆÊ˛yê˛l !lˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z ôyï˛Ó ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛
xy˛õ!ï˛ï˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬à%FSÈ í˛zIµ°ï˛yÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùlê˛y•z ˲yÓy •°–
çyÙ≈yl ˆòˆÏ¢ çß√@˝Ã•îܲÓ˚y# xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyl
˛õòyÌ≈!Óò xƒy°Óyê≈˛ xy•zlfiê˛y•zl !ӈϟªÓ˚
ò%•zçl Ù•yl !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲçl
!•§yˆÏÓ §%˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ !SȈϰl åx˛õÓ˚ ~ܲçl
!SÈ ˆ Ï ° l xy•z ç yܲ !lí˛z ê ˛lä– 1 9 0 5
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Îál !ï˛!l ÓyˆÏl≈Ó˚ §%•z§ ˆ˛õˆÏê˛rê˛ xƒy°Óyê≈˛ xy•zlfiê˛y•zl
x!Ê˛ˆÏ§ ܲy!Ó˚à!Ó˚ §•Ü˛yÓ˚# !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !lÎ%=˛ (1879 – 1955)
!SȈϰlñ ï˛ál ïÑ˛yÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy˛õe å!ӈϢ£Ï xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ï˛yñ
Ó yí˛zl#Î˚ à!ï˛ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤Ã˲yÓä ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓܲyˆÏ¢ñ
!ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï l– 1921!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ xyˆÏ°yܲï˛!í˛¸Í
≤Ã˲yÓ ÓƒyáƒyÓ˚ çlƒ !ï˛!l ˆlyˆÏÓ° §¡øyˆÏl Ë)˛!£Ïï˛ •l–
Îál ΈÏÌT˛ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ˆÊ˛yê˛l ~ܲ!ê˛ ôyï˛Ó ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓñ˚ ~!ê˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §ÇâˆÏ£Ó≈Ï ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
ï˛yÍ«˛!îܲ˲yˆÏÓ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ¢!=˛ •hflÏyhs˝Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yl §ÙÎ˚
lT˛ ly ܲˆÏÓ˚•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ˆÊ˛yê˛l Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ¢!=˛
§¡õߨ •ˆÏÓñ ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢!=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏl •hflÏyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÓ
~ÓÇ !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ ¢!=˛G ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ–
xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏ°ñ !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ñ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛
ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– Î!òG
xyâyï˛Ü˛yÓ˚# ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ hν ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!l/§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ˆÎ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ï˛y •° hν0 åÎyˆÏܲ
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
K Mg Cu Ag
2.25 3.7 4.8 4.3
ܲyÎ≈ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ӈϰñ ωο ~ÓÇ §yÓ˚!î 2.2äñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •ˆÏÓ åhν – hν ä Îy Ê˛ˆÏê˛y•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
0
•hflÏyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ¢!=˛Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)e xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ !l/§!Ó˚ï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ˆÏܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 2.7 myÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
1
hν = hν 0 + m c v 2 (2.7)
2
ˆÎáyˆÏl me •° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ V •° !l/§!Ó˚ï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓà– §Ó≈ˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ï xyˆÏÓ˚y ï˛#Ó  xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ à!ë˛ï˛
•Î˚ !ÓÓ˚yê˛ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛l myÓ˚yñ ܲyˆÏç•z ˆÎ §ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!l/§!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ §ÇáƒyG ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛
Ü˛Ù ï˛#Ó  xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚–
ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˜mï˛ xyã˛Ó˚î åDual Behaviour
of Electromagnetic Radiationä
xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲîy ô!Ù≈ï˛y !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ §ÇܲˆÏê˛ ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°!SÈ°–
~ܲ!òˆÏ Ü ˛ ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ Î ƒ ˆÎÙl Ü, ˛ £÷ Ï Ó ›Ó˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ î ~ÓÇ
xyˆÏ°yܲï˛!í˛¸Í ≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ §ˆÏhs˝y£Ïçlܲ˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ !ܲv
xlƒ!òˆÏܲ xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà §yôyÓ˚î ôÙ≈ !ÓFS%ÈÓ˚î G Óƒ!ï˛ã˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
§yˆÏÌ §yÙO§ƒ˛õ)î≈ lÎ˚– ~•z §ÇÜ˛ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z_Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲÙye
í˛z˛õyÎ˚ •ˆÏFSÈñ xyˆÏ°yܲ ˆÎ ï˛Ó˚Aà G ܲîy ô!Ù≈ï˛yÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚# ~•z
ôyÓ˚îy @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚y xÌ≈yÍ xyˆÏ°yܲ ˜mï˛ ôÙ≈#– !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚
Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ xyˆÏ°yܲ •Î˚
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Óy ܲîyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– Îál
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î Ó›Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ñ ï˛ál ~!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ !ÓFS%ÈÓ˚î
~ÓÇ Óƒ!ï˛ã˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ ܲîy ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ ≤Ãò¢≈l
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îál ˆ§ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ÓK˛yl#àî Ó› ~ÓÇ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÎÓ˚)˛õ ôyÓ˚îy ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ° ~•z ï˛_¥ !SÈ° ï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ)î≈
ˆÓÙylyl ~ÓÇ ~•z ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ ˆÎ §!ï˛ƒ ï˛y ˆÙˆÏl !lˆÏï˛ ïÑ˛yÓ˚y xˆÏlܲê˛y
§ÙÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– ~Ó˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ï%˛!Ù ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆòáˆÏÓ
ˆÎñ !ܲS%È xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ ܲîy ˆÎÙl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lG ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲîy ˜mï˛
ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 43

§Ù§ƒy 2.6 §Ùyôyl

~ܲˆÏÙy° !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ 300 nm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ åEäÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ
5 ×1014 •yÍ≈ç åHzäÉ hν =
hc
λ
§Ùyôyl
6.626 × 10−34 Js × 3.0 × 108 ms −1
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ åEä ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ =
300 × 10−9 m
E = hν -19
= 6.626 × 10 J
h = 6.626 ×10
–34
Js ~ܲˆÏÙy° ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛
ν = 5×10 s (≤Ãò_)
14 –1
= 6.626 ×10–19 J × 6.022 ×1023 mol–1
E = (6.626 ×10
–34 14
J s) × (5 ×10 s )
–1
= 3.99 × 105 J mol–1
= 3.313 ×10
–19
J ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ôyï%˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲˆÏÙy° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !là≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛
~ܲˆÏÙy° ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl
= (3.313 ×10
–19
J) × (6.022 × 10 mol )
23 –1
= (3.99 –1.68) 105 J mol–1
= 199.51 kJ mol
–1 = 2.31 × 105 J mol–1
~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ¢!=˛
§Ù§ƒy 2.7
2.31 × 105 J mol−1
~ܲ!ê˛ 100 GÎ˚yê˛ Óy°‰Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ ~ܲÓî≈# xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ =
6.022 × 1023 electrons mol−1
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ •° 400 lƒyˆÏly!Ùê˛yÓ˚– Óy°Ó‰!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛
= 3.84 × 10−19 J
ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÊ˛yê˛l !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
~Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õ«˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒñ
§Ùyôyl hc
Óy!ï˛!ê˛Ó˚ «˛Ùï˛y = 100 GÎ˚yê˛ ∴λ =
E
–1
= 100 J s 6.626 × 10−34 J s × 3.0 × 108 m s −1
=
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ E = hν = hc/λ 3.84 × 10−19 J
6.626 × 10−34 J s × 3 × 108 m s −1 = 517 nm
= ~!ê˛ •° §Ó%ç xyˆÏ°yܲ–
400 × 10−9 m
= 4.969 × 10 J
-19
§Ù§ƒy 2.9
!là≈ï˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy ~ܲ!ê˛ ôyï%˛Ó˚ §)ã˛ly ܲ¡õyAܲ åν0 ä 7.0 ×1014 s–1 – ôyï%˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ
100 J s −1 ν =1.0 ×1015 ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ –1 ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !òˆÏÎ˚ xyâyï˛
= = 2.012 × 1020 s −1
4.969 × 10−19 J ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° !là≈ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§Ù§ƒy 2.8 §Ùyôyl
Îál 300 nm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ Î%=˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î xy•zlfiê˛y•zˆÏlÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ôyï˛Ó ï˛ˆÏ° xy˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál 1.68 ×105 J à!ï˛¢!=˛ = ½ mev2=h (ν – ν0 )
mol à!ï˛¢!=˛ §¡õߨ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !là≈ï˛ •Î˚– ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ
–
= (6.626 ×10–34 J s) (1.0 × 1015 s–1 – 7.0 ×1014 s–1)
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !là≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù Ü˛ï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl⁄ = (6.626 ×10–34 J s) (10.0 ×1014 s–1 – 7.0 ×1014 s–1)
Ê˛ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !là≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ = (6.626 ×10–34 J s) × (3.0 ×1014 s–1)
§ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ Ùyl!ê˛ Ü˛ï˛⁄ =1.988 ×10–19 J
44
2.3.3 â)î≈lÓ˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚
åܲyÎ˚yrê˛y•zçí˛Dä ≤ÃyÙyîƒ ï˛Ìƒ ı ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óî≈y°#
( Evidence for the quantized* Electronic
Energy Levels: Atomic spectra)
ˆÎ ÙyôƒˆÏÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyˆÏ°y ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~ܲÙyôƒÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yܲÓ˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ !lçfl∫ à!ï˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛
Óy ≤Ã!ï˛§Ó˚î âˆÏê˛– §yòy xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !≤ÃçˆÏÙÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyë˛yˆÏ°
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ «%˛oï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ xyˆÏ°y Óí˛¸ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ xyˆÏ°y
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ §yòy xyˆÏ°y ò,¢ƒÙyl
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ñ ï˛y•z §yòy xyˆÏ°yÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ Ó˚!.î ˛õ!ê˛Ó˚ åbandsä ~ܲ!ê˛ §y!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸üüüÈ
~ˆÏܲ•z Óî≈y°# Ó°y •Î˚– °y°ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ˆÓ!¢
•GÎ˚yÎ˚ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚– !ܲv ˆÓà%!l ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚
xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ Ü˛Ù •GÎ˚yÎ˚ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– §yòy xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÎ Óî≈y°# xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z ˆ§•z
xM˛°!ê˛Ó˚ §#Ùy 7.50 × 1014 •yÍ≈ç ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ˆÓà%!l
xyˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ 4×1014 •yÍ≈ç ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ °y° ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°y
˛õÎ≈hs˝– ~Ó˚)˛õ Óî≈y°#ˆÏܲ !lÓ˚Ó!FSÈߨ Óî≈y°# Ó°y •Î˚– !lÓ˚Ó!FSÈߨ
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° Óî≈y°#!ê˛ ˆÓà%!l xyˆÏ°y l#° xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
!وϢ ˆàˆÏSÈñ l#° xyˆÏ°y §Ó%ç xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !وϢ ˆàˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
~˲yˆÏÓ §Ó xyˆÏ°y•z ˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !وϢ ˆàˆÏSÈ– xyܲyˆÏ¢
Îál Ó˚yÙôl% ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚•z ~ܲ!ê˛ Óî≈y°# ˜ï˛!Ó˚
•Î˚– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏÓ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xÇ¢
•ˆÏFSÈ ò,¢ƒÙyl xyˆÏ°y å!ã˛e 2.7ä– Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
~ÓÇ xî% ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ xyˆÏ§ñ ï˛ál ~Ó˚y
¢!=˛ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zFã˛ ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚– ~•z í˛zFã˛¢!=˛
§¡õߨ ~•z ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï y xfiÌyÎ˚# ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ï˛y•z §yôyÓ˚î ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚
!Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xy§yÓ˚ çlƒ åÎy !ܲly fiÌyÎ˚#ñ !l¡¨¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚äñ ~•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
Óy xî%à%ˆÏ°y ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xLjϢ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!l/§Ó˚î G ˆ¢y£Ïî Óî≈y°# åEmission and Absorption
Spectraä
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó› ¢!=˛ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î âˆÏê˛ñ ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ Óî≈y°# §,!T˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ !l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°#
ӈϰ– ¢!=˛ ˆ¢y£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî% Óy xyÎ˚l ˆÎ xÓfiÌy
xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Úí˛zˆÏ_!çï˛Û xÓfiÌy Ó°y •Î˚–
* ˆÜ˛yÎ˚y!rê˛ˆÏç¢l •° ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ !Ó!FSÈߨ §#ÙyÓÂô Ùyl–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°# §,!T˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Ó›Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lÙ%lyˆÏܲ
í˛z_ÆܲÓ˚î Óy !ܲÓ˚î#ï˛ åirradiatingä ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ¢!=˛
§Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ lÙ%ly Ó›!ê˛ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ¢!=˛ ˆSȈÏí˛¸ ˆòÎ˚
ӈϰ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ åÓy ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ä !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ¢y£Ïî Óî≈y°# •ˆÏFSÈ xˆÏlܲê˛y !Ó!ܲÓ˚î Óî≈y°#Ó˚
xyˆÏ ° yܲ!ã˛ˆÏ e Ó˚ !lˆÏ à !ê˛ˆÏ Ë ˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏ ï ˛y– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó›Ó˚ í˛z ˛ õÓ˚
!lÓ˚!Ó!FSÈߨ˲yˆÏÓ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î âê˛yˆÏ° ï˛y ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚– G•z Ó›!ê˛ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÎ ï˛Ó˚Aà
˜òâ≈ƒ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ï˛y í˛zIµ° !lÓ˚!Ó!FSÈߨ Óî≈y°#ˆÏï˛
~ܲ!ê˛ xrôܲyÓ˚ fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !l/§Ó˚î G ˆ¢y£Ïî Óî≈y°#Ó˚
xôƒÎ˚lˆÏܲ Óî≈y°#Ó#«˛î Ó°y •Î˚– í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
ò,¢ƒÙyl xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ Óî≈y°# !lÓ˚!Ó!FSÈߨ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î
Óî≈y°#!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ò,¢ƒÙyl xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒà%ˆÏ°y å°y° ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÓà%%!lä í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !l/§Ó˚î
Óî≈ y °#ˆÏ ï ˛ °y° ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ ˆÓà% ! l ï˛Ó˚ A à ˜òˆÏ â ≈ ƒ Ó˚ xyˆÏ ° y
!lÓ˚Ó!FSÈߨ˲yˆÏÓ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ lyñ ÓÓ˚Ç ï˛yÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà
˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ xyˆÏ°y !l/§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xrôܲyÓ˚ fiÌyl
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù !Ó!FSÈߨ Óî≈y°#ˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°# Óy ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óî≈y°# Ó°y •Î˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î Óî≈y°#ˆÏï˛ í˛zq(ï˛ í˛zIµ° ˆÓ˚áy myÓ˚y ~•z
!l/§,ï˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î§Ù)• §ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ å!ã˛e 2.10ä–
•zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l xôƒÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÓ˚áy !l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°#Ó˚
à%Óc%̊ Ó˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy xyˆÏSÈ– ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛sf ˆÓ˚áy
!l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°# ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óî≈y!°ˆÏï˛ ~•zÓ˛)˚ õ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒÙ)°Ü˛
ˆÓ˚áy ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xK˛yï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆòÏ Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §ly=˛
ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Óñ ˆÎÙl ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyAà%ˆ° Ï Ó˚ SÈy˛õ myÓ˚y Ùyl%£Ï §ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ K˛yï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÓ˚áy !l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°# ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ ~ܲ!ê˛ xK˛yï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ !Ù° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ˆÏܲ o%ï˛ §ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Óñ çyÙ≈yl Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò Ó˚Óyê˛ Ó%lˆÏ§l
å1811-1899ä !SȈ° Ï l xlƒï˛Ù ≤ÃÌÙ í˛zqyÓܲ !Î!l ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙÔ° §ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ !SȈ° Ï l–
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)• ˆÎÙlñ Ó˚%!Ó!í˛Î˚yÙ åRbäñ !§!çÎ˚yÙ åCsäñ
̃y!°Î˚yÙ åTl äñ •zl!í˛Î˚yÙ å Inäñ àƒy!°Î˚yÙ åGa ä ~ÓÇ
flÒƒyl!í˛Î˚yÙ åScäÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ á!lˆÏçÓ˚ Óî≈y°#
Ó#«˛î myÓ˚y xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 45

í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ !Ê˛Õ√
lÙ%ly
(a) Ó,!Âô≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ

ˆ¢y£ÏîܲyÓ˚# !l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°#

!Ê˛Õ√
lÙ%ly !≤ÃçÙ Ó,!Âô≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ
(b)
§yòy xyˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛zͧ
ˆ¢y£Ïî Óî≈y°#

!≤ÃçÙ
!ã˛e 2.10 (a) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ !l/§Ó˚l í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%§Ù)• Óy xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙÔ° ˆÎ xyˆÏ°y !l/§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y !≤ÃçˆÏÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚
˛õyë˛yˆÏ° ï˛y !Ó˲=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î Óî≈y°#Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ!ã˛ˆÏe !°!˛õÓÂô ˆÎ !Ó˲=˛
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°# ӈϰ– Î%!=˛Î%=˛ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly lÙ%lyÓ˚ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!òG ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ•z
§ÙˆÏÎ˚ ¢%ô% Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ x!ôܲ§ÇáƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ ÌyܲˆÏ° §Ó §Ω˛yÓƒ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– xyˆÏ°yÓ˚
!Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y !l¡¨ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§ñ Îy Óî≈y°# §,!T˛Ó˚ çlƒ òyÎ˚#– (b) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˆ¢y£ÏîÈüȧyòy xyˆÏ°yܲÓ˚!Ÿ¬ˆÏܲ xl%ˆÏ_!çï˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyë˛yˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ §%- !SÈo ~ÓÇ !≤ÃçˆÏÙÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyë˛yˆÏ°ñ ˆÎ xyˆÏ°yܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !l/§,ï˛
xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §Ùyl !ܲv ï˛#Ó ï˛y !ܲS%È Ü˛Ù (a)– ~•z !°!˛õÓÂôܲyÓ˚# ˆ¢y£Ïî Óî≈y°# G ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°# ~ÓÇ ï˛y !l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°#Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆlˆÏà!ê˛Ë˛ xyˆÏ°yܲ!ã˛e–
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°# §%•zˆÏí˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Óî≈y°# Ó#«˛î!Óòñ ˆçy•yˆÏl§ !Ó˚í˛Óyà≈ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
Îál •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óò%ƒÍ «˛Ó˚î ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚l ÎyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ ˆÓ˚áy
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xl%§Ù)• !Ó˲y!çï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl §y!Ó˚ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §,!T˛ •Î˚ Îy !ܲly ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚  1 1 
!Ó!ܲÓ˚î âê˛yÎ˚– ~•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°# à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ !Ó!˲ߨ §y!Ó˚Ó˚ ν = 109, 677  2 − 2  cm −1 (2.9)
 n1 n 2 
ˆÓ˚áy myÓ˚y ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ í˛zqyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓ˚–
1885 !á  fi ê˛yˆÏ ∑ ÓyÙyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ # «˛y°kô ˛õÎ≈ ˆ Ï Ó «˛ˆÏ î Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ Î ƒ
ˆÎáyˆÏl n1 =1,2........
ˆò!áˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎñ Î!ò Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒy å ν ä n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2......
myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ò,¢ƒÙyl ˆÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°y •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z Ùyl 109,677 cm–1ñ ÎyˆÏܲ !Ó˚í˛Óyà≈
!lˆÏ¡¨y=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ°ÈüüüÈ §yÓ˚!î 2.3 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy §Ù)•
 1 1 
ν = 109, 677  2 − 2  cm −1 (2.8) §y!Ó˚ n1 n2 Óî≈y°# xM˛°
2 n 
ˆÎáyˆÏl n ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒyñ ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl 3 ~Ó˚ §Ùyl Óy ï˛yÓ˚ !°Ùƒyl 1 2,3.... x!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!l
ˆÌˆÏܲ Óí˛¸ åxÌ≈yÍ n = 3,4,5,....ä ~•z ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÓyÙyÓ˚ 2 3,4.... ò,¢ƒÙyl
§y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §y!Ó˚ˆÏܲ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yˆÏܲ ÓyÙyÓ˚ §y!Ó˚ ˛õƒyˆÏ§l 3 4,5.... xӈϰy!•ï˛
Ó yˆÏÜ˛ê˛ 4 5,6.... xӈϰy!•ï˛
ӈϰ– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#ˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ÓyÙyÓ˚ §y!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°y•z
Ê%˛u˛ 5 6,7.... xӈϰy!•ï˛
¢%ô%Ùye ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ò,¢ƒÙyl xLjϢ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
46
˛õƒyˆÏ§l §y!Ó˚ åxӈϰy!•ï˛ä
ÓyÙyÓ˚ §y!Ó˚ åò,¢ƒÙylä
ˆÓà%!l
•°%ò
°y°
l#°
¢!=˛
!°Ùƒyl §y!Ó˚ åx!ï˛ˆÏÓà%!lä
!ã˛e 2.11 •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ åˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e!ê˛ˆÏܲ
!°Ùƒylñ ÓyÙyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õƒyˆÏ§l fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §y!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°y ˆòáyˆÏly
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈä ~•z ܲ«˛à%ˆÏ°y §ÙˆÏܲw#Î˚˲yˆÏÓ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ §!Iï˛–
ô %Óܲ Ó°y •Î˚– ≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ §y!Ó˚ xÌ≈yÍ n1 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 •°
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !°Ùƒylñ ÓyÙyÓ˚ñ ˛õƒyˆÏ§lñ Ó yˆÏÜ˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ Ê%˛u˛ §y!Ó˚– §yÓ˚!î
2.3 ˆï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ~•z §y!Ó˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!ã˛e 2.11 ˆï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !°Ùƒylñ ÓyÙyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õƒyˆÏ§l
§y!Ó˚ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§ÙhflÏ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §Ó˚°– ˲y!Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏòÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°# x!ôܲ
ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ ç!ê˛°– Î!òG ~•z§Ó ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î
ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ xyˆÏSÈ xÌ≈yÍñ
(i) ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#à%ˆÏ°y fl∫ï˛sf ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ
(ii) ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §%£ÏÙï˛y xyˆÏSÈ–
~ál ≤ß¿ •ˆÏFSÈñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §yò,¢ƒï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ܲ#⁄ ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
!ܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ܲS%È Ó°y ÎyÎ˚⁄ ~•z §ÙhflÏ
≤ÃܲˆÏ“Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆòGÎ˚y ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl– xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ˆÏï˛ á%ˆÑ ç
Ï ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚Ó
ˆÎ ~•z §ÙhflÏ ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l
Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ §)e ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
2.4 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛° (BOHR’S
MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM)
l#°§ ˆÓyÓ˚ å1913ä ≤ÃÌÙ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î ˜Ó!¢T˛ §Ù)• ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓl˚ – Î!òG
~•z Ùï˛Óyò §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyô%!lܲ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó° !ÓK˛yl !˲!_ܲ
!SÈ° lyñ ï˛Ó%G ~•z ï˛_¥ˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ xˆÏlܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ˆÏܲ Î%!=˛§¡øï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈à%ˆÏ°y !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ ı
(i) •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ xyÓï≈˛lÓ˚ï˛– ÎyÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛
!l!ò≈T˛– ~•z ˛õÌà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ܲ«˛ Óy §%!fiÌï˛ xÓfiÌy Óy
xl%ˆÏÙy!òï˛ ¢!=˛ hflÏÓ˚ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚–
(ii) ܲˆÏ«˛ â)î≈lÓ˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
•Î˚ ly– Î!òG •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
ˆÜ˛Ô!lܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà åAngular Momentumä
˜Ó˚!áܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÓÏ à •ˆÏFSÈ Ó›Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ G ˜Ó˚!áܲ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚
à%îÊ˛°ñ ˆ§•zÓ˚)˛õ çyí˛ƒ ºyÙܲ åI ä G ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˆÓà åωä ~Ó˚
à%îÊ˛° •° ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà– ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÎyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ meñ
r Óƒy§yô≈ Î%=˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ â%ˆÏÓ˚ ã˛°ˆÏSÈñ
ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà = I × ω
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ I = mer2ñ ~ÓÇ ω = v/r ˆÎáyˆÏl v •ˆÏFSÈ ˜Ó˚!áܲ
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà–
ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà = mer2 × v/r = mevr
!l¡¨!fiÌï˛ hflÓÏ ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛!fiÌï˛ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ Óy í˛zFã˛!fiÌï˛
hflÓÏ ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨!fiÌï˛ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ ˆàˆÏ° ¢!=˛Ó˚ !l/§Ó˚î •Î˚ å§Ù#ܲÓ˚î
2.16ä– ~•z ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l x!ÓÓ˚yÙ˲yˆÏÓ •Î˚ ly–
(iii) ∆E ¢!=˛ÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒÎ%=˛ ò%!ê˛ fiÌyÎ˚# ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ âˆÏê˛ ˆÎ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ˆ¢y£Ïî
Óy !l/§Ó˚î •Î˚ ï˛y ~˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ÈüüüÈ
∆E E2 − E1
ν= = (2.10)
h h
ˆÎáyˆÏl E1 ~ÓÇ E2 ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !l¡¨_Ó˚ G í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ xl%ˆÏÙy!òï˛
¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ
§)e !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
(iv) ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌ â)î≈lÓ˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚
ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.11ä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
h
me v r = n. , n = 1,2,3..... (2.11)
2π
ï˛y•z •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ¢%ôÙ% ye ˆ§•z ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ•z â%Óˆ˚ ïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓñ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl
ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓàñ h/2π Ó˚y!¢!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õ)î≈ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ à%!îï˛Ü˛ •Î˚ Îy
!ܲly ¢%ôÙ% ye ܲï˛à%ˆ°Ï y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ çlƒ•z xl%ˆÙÏ y!òï˛– §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚
¢!=˛ §¡õÜ≈˛#ï˛ ˆÎ !Ó¢ò àîly ˆÓyÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ï˛y !SÈ°
xï˛ƒhs˝ ç!ê˛° ~ÓÇ ï˛y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ– Î!òGñ
ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛_¥yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ı
a) •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õÌà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §Çáƒy!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ n = 1,2,3.....– ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒy åxl%ˆÏFSÈò
2.6.2ä Îy !ܲly Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
b) ~•z §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ı
rn = n2 a0 (2.12)
ˆÎáyˆÏl a0 = 52.9 pm– ï˛y•z ≤ÃÌÙ §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚
Óƒy§yô≈ •° 52.9 pmñ ÎyˆÏܲ ˆÓyÓ˚ ܲ«˛ Ó°y •Î˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ ~•z ܲˆÏ«˛
ån=1ä ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Îál n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
r ~Ó˚ ÙylG Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
~Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
c) •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •ˆÏFSÈ
§%!fiÌï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ– Îy !ܲly ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ñ
 1 
En = − RH  2  n = 1,2,3.... (2.13)
n 
ˆÎáyˆÏl RH ˆÜ˛ Ó°y •Î˚ !Ó˚í˛Óyà≈ Óyà≈ ô %Óܲ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ùyl
2.18×10–18 J– §Ó≈!l¡¨ xÓ§ÌyÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ Îy !ܲly fl∫y˲y!Óܲ
1
xÓfiÌy lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ñ ~Ó˚ Ùyl E1 = –2.18×10–18 ( 12 ) =
–2.18×10–18 J – n = 2 ~Ó˚ çlƒ §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
1 x!ôܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ }îydܲ •Î˚– §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ }îydܲ
•ˆÏÓñ E2 = –2.18×10–18J ( 22 )= –0.545×10–18 J – !ã˛e 2.11
~ Ó!î≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ !Ó!˲ߨ §%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Óy
47
l#°§ ˆÓyÓ˚
(1885 – 1962)
l#°§‰ ˆÓyÓ˚ñ ~ܲçl í˛ƒy!l¢ ˛õòyÌ≈!Óòñ
1 9 1 3 !á  fi ê˛yˆÏ ∑ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ ˛ õlˆÏ • ˆÏ à l
!ÓŸª!Óòƒy°Î˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ph.D. §¡øyˆÏl Ë)˛!£Ïï˛
•l– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ !ï˛!l ˆçÉ ˆçÉ ÌÙ§l ~ÓÇ
xyÓ˚ˆÏlfiê˛ Ó˚yòyÓ˚Ê˛ˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ •zÇ°ƒyˆÏu˛
1ÓͧÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ x!ï˛Óy!•ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– 1913 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õl
ˆ•ˆÏàˆÏl !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§l ~ÓÇ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# !òlà%ˆÏ°y ~áyˆÏl•z
ܲy!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– 1920 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l Institute of theo-
retical Physics ~Ó˚ x!ôܲï≈˛y !lÎ%=˛ •l– ≤ÃÌÙ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏÂôÓ˚
˛õÓ˚ñ !ï˛!l ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ¢y!hs˝˛õ)î≈ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ í˛zˆÏòƒyà#
•l– 1957 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l•z §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ xƒyê˛Ù§‰ Ê˛Ó˚ !˛õ§ åAt-
oms for Peace ä §¡øyl °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˆÓyÓ˚ 1922 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ó˚flÒyˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!£Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl–
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚– ~•z í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õlyˆÏܲ•z Ó°y
•Î˚ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e–
Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ !lÎ˚sfî Ù%=˛ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛ál
ï˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢)lƒ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ ˆÎ ˆÎ
§%!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy = n = ∝ ~ÓÇ
ï˛yˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#ï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ӈϰ– Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ myÓ˚y xyܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Îy n ܲˆÏ«˛ Óï˛≈Ùylñ ~!ê˛ ¢!=˛
!l/§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ •z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ }îydܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚
¢!=˛ åEnä Ó°ˆÏï˛ !ܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚⁄
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ §Ó ܲ«˛ §Ù)ˆÏ• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî }îydܲ !ã˛•´ Î%=˛ •Î˚– å§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 2.13ä– ~•z }îydܲ
!ã˛•´ myÓ˚y ܲ# ≤Ãܲy¢ ˛õyÎ˚⁄ ~•z }îydܲ !ã˛•´ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛
xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !fiÌÓ˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ìyܲy ~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xˆÏ˛õ«˛y Ü˛Ù– !fiÌÓ˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ìyܲy ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
•° ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Îy !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ x§#Ùò)Ó˚ˆÏc xyˆÏSÈ
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢)lƒ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ày!îï˛#ܲ˲yˆÏÓ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
å2.13äÓ˚ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl ∞ ôÓ˚ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛ál
E∞ = 0 •Î˚– Îál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§
åxÌ≈yÍ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚äñ En ~Ó˚ Ùyl xˆÏlܲ Óí˛¸ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Îál n=1 •Î˚ Îy !ܲly ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
§%!fiÌï˛ xÓfiÌyñ xyÙÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ Ó!°–
48 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

å2.13ä ~ܲ!ê˛ }îydܲ !ã˛•´ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛  R   RH 

∆ E =  − H2  −  − 2 
fiÌyÎ˚#c Ó!î≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ ¢)lƒ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ n = ∝ ~Ó˚  nf
   ni 
§yˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ– ni ~ÓÇ nf ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ G x!hs˝Ù ܲ«˛–
d) ˆÓyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ï˛_¥ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ çlƒ G ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
 1 1   1 1 
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Îy !ܲly •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yò,¢ƒ˛õ)î≈– −18
∆E = RH  n 2 − n 2  = 2.18 × 10 J  n 2 − n 2 
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ He+ Li2+, Be3+ •zï˛ƒy!ò– xyÎ˚lˆÏòÓ˚ §%!fiÌï˛  i f   i f 

(2,17)
¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ åÎy !ܲly •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl §ò,¢ Óà≈ åspeciesää ¢!=˛Ó˚
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 2.18 ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ Óy !l/§!Ó˚ï˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛ Î%=˛ ܲ¡õyAܲ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
 Z2 
En = − 2.18 × 10−18  2  J (2.14) ∆ E RH  1 1 
n  ν = =  2 − 2 
h h  ni nf 
~ÓÇ Óƒy§yô≈ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
52.9 (n 2 ) 2.18 × 10−18 J  1 1 
=  2 − 2 
rn = pm (2.15) −34
6.626 × 10 J s  ni nf  (2.18)
Z
ˆÎáyˆÏl Z •ˆÏFSÈ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ !•!°Î˚yÙ G  1 1 
!°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùyl ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 2,3 – í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î = 3.29 × 1015  2 − 2  Hz
n  (2.19)
 i nf 
ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃÙyî ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ Z ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° ¢!=˛Ó˚ ôlydܲ
~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒy å ν ä myÓ˚y
Ùyl xyÓ˚G Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ Ùyl •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏ°y
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆ°
Ï y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ xyÓ˚G ò,ì˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyÓÂô ÌyܲˆÏÓ– ν RH  1 − 1 
ν= =  
e) ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ â)î≈lÓ˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ c hc  ni2 n 2f  (2.20)

à!ï˛ˆÏÓàG !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó– Î!òG ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥ §!ë˛Ü˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î

3.29 × 1015 s −1  1 1 
ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚!lñ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ ôîydܲ = −s 
− 2
3 × 10 m s  ni
8 2
n f 
xyôyl Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Ùyey Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
~ÓÇ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° ~Ó˚ Ùyl •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–  1 1 
= 1.09677 × 107  2 − 2  m −1 (2.21)
 ni n f 
2.4.1 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy (Explanation 
of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen) ˆ¢y£Ïî Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ nf > ni ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÌÙ Órôl#ˆÏï˛ xyÓÂô
ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏ í ˛° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ xÇ¢ 2.3.3 ˆï˛ í˛z ˆ Ï Õ ‘ ! áï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˆ¢y£Ïî âˆÏê˛– xlƒ!òˆÏܲ !l/§Ó˚î
•y•z ˆ Ï í » ˛ yˆÏ ç ˆÏ l Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÎ ˆÓ˚ á y Óî≈ y °# ˛õyGÎ˚ y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛y Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ni > nf , ∆ E }îydܲ ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !l/§Ó˚î âˆÏê˛–
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– 2lÇ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.17ä!ê˛ xˆÏlܲê˛y !Ó˚í˛Óyà≈ ~Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ å2.9ä
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Îál !l¡¨ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ùï˛ Îy !ܲly ï˛álܲyÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ál !Ó!ܲÓ˚î å¢!=˛ä ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ñ !ܲv í˛zFã˛ myÓ˚y í˛zq$ï˛– x!ôܲvñ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#Ó˚ñ ï˛y ˆ¢y£Ïî Óy
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ !l/§Ó˚î Óî≈y°# Îy•z ˆ•yܲ ly ˆÜ˛lñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ˆàˆÏ° !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ å¢!=˛Ó˚ä !l/§Ó˚î •Î˚– ò%Û!ê˛ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !l!ò≈T˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛ Î%=˛– xˆÏlܲ §ÇáƒÜ˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.16ä myÓ˚y !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒñ §Ω˛yÓƒ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
Óî≈y°#ˆÏï˛ !Ó¢y° §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– ~•z §ÙhflÏ Óî≈y°#Ó˚
∆E = Ef – Ei (2.16)
ÅIµ°ƒ Óy ï˛#Ó ï˛y !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ Óy !l/§,ï˛ §Ùï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâƒ≈ Ó˚
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î (2.13) ~ÓÇ (2.16) ~Ó˚ §Ù!ß∫ï˛ Ó˚)˛õ Óy ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 49

§Ù§ƒy 2.10 2.4.2 ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛y (Limitations of Bohr’s

Model)
~ܲ!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ n = 5 ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ n = 2 ܲˆÏ«˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ !l/§ˆÏ®ˆÏ•
fiÌylhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎ ˆÊ˛yê˛l !l/§,ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ G
Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ àë˛l !ã˛e xˆÏ˛õ«˛y í˛zߨï˛Ó˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ܲï˛⁄
~!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl §ò,¢ xyÎ˚l åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ
§Ùyôyl He+, Li2+, Be3+ •zï˛ƒy!òä §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ fiÌyÎ˚#c G Óî≈y°# !ӈϟ’£ÏˆÏî
~áyˆÏl ni = 5 ~ÓÇ nf = 2ñ ~•z fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ §«˛Ù– Î!òG ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ ~ï˛•z §Ó˚° !SÈ° ˆÎ !l¡¨!°!áï˛
§,!T˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y ò,¢ƒÙyl ÓyÙyÓ˚ §y!Ó˚ Ë%˛=˛– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.17ä !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚!l–
ˆÌˆÏܲ–
(i) xyô%!lܲ Óî≈y°# !ӈϟ’£Ïܲ ≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
1 1 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óî≈y°#ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyÆ §)- §)- ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ àë˛l ådoublet
∆E = 2.18 × 1018 J  2 − 2 
5 2  ˆçyí˛¸ñ xÌ≈yÍ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ Ìyܲy ò%!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áyä Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
−19
= −4.58 × 10 J ~!ê˛ ÓƒÌ≈– ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óƒï˛#ï˛ xlƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l/§,ï˛ ¢!=˛– ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ å~áyˆÏl ¢!=˛Ó˚ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ñ í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ !•!°Î˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÎyˆÏï˛ !ܲ ly ò%!ê˛
ÙyeyÓ˚ ܲÌy ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈä ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈñ Óƒyáƒy !òˆÏï˛ x§ÙÌ≈– ~SÈyí˛¸y ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
∆E ÙˆÏí˛° ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ å!çÙƒyl ≤Ã˲yÓä
ν= xÌÓy ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ åfiê˛yÜ≈˛ ≤Ã˲yÓä Óî≈y°#Ó˚
h
ˆÜ˛yl ˆÜ˛yl ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ ~ܲy!ôܲ §)-ï˛Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ !Ó˲yçl Óƒyáƒy
4.58 × 10−19 J
= ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛G x§ÙÌ≈–
6.626 × 10−34 Js
(ii) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚y ˆÎ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ xl%àë˛ˆÏl §ÙÌ≈ñ
= 6.91×1014 Hz
~•z ï˛_¥ ï˛y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
c 3.0 × 108 ms −1
λ= = = 434 nm xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ°ñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó!î≈ï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy
ν 6.91 × 1014 Hz
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zߨï˛ï˛Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl Îy !ܲ ly ç!ê˛°
§Ù§ƒy 2.11 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !ӈϢ£Ï ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
He+ ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ñ ܲ«˛!ê˛Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ܲï˛⁄ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
§Ùyôyl 2.5 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓK˛yl ~Ó˚

(2.18 × 10 −18 J ) Z 2
xÓï˛yÓ˚ î y ( TOWARDS QUANTUM
En = − atom–1 MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM)
n2
ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
He+ çlƒñ n = 1, Z = 2
xyˆÏÓ˚y Ùylyl§•z ~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙˆÏí˛° í˛zqyÓl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y
(2.18 × 10 −18 J )(22 ) •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ò%!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ í˛zqyÓl Îy !ܲ ly lï%˛l ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ çlƒ
E1 = − 2
= −8.72 × 10 −18 J
1 xï˛ƒhs˝ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ !SÈ°ñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •°ÈüüüÈ
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.15ä xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ ܲ«˛!ê˛Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ •ˆÏÓ
1. Ó›Ó˚ ˜mï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ñ
2. •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛–
2
(0.0529 nm)n
rn = −
Z
2.5.1 Ó›Ó˚ ˜mï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ (Dual Behaviour of Matter)
~áyˆÏl n = 1 ~ÓÇ Z = 2
1924 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ê˛Ó˚y!§ ˛õòyÌ≈!Óòñ !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!° ≤ÃhflÏyÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎñ
2
(0.0529 nm)1 !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ùï˛ Ó›G ˜mï˛ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ Ü˛îy ~ÓÇ
rn = − = 0.02645 nm
2 ï˛Ó˚Aà ôÙ≈ í˛z˲Î˚•z– ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎÙl
50 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

°%•z§ !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!° å1892 – 1987ä §Ùyôyl

(Louis de Broglie) !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ å2.22ä
°%•z§ !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°ñ ~ܲçl Ê˛Ó˚y!§ ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò
h (6.626 × 10−34 Js)
1910 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙyˆÏô≈ xfl¨yï˛Ü˛ hflψÏÓ˚ λ= =
mv (0.1 kg ) (10 m s −1 )
•z!ï˛•y§ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õí˛¸y¢%ly ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ≤ÃÌÙ
!ÓŸªÎ%ˆÏÂô ˆÓ˚!í˛G ˆÎyàyˆÏÎyˆÏàÓ˚ òy!Î˚c = 6.626 × 10–34 m (J = kg m2 s–2)
˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ !ï˛!l !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ í˛zͧy•# §Ù§ƒy 2.13
•ˆÏÎ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛l– 1924 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l ˛õƒy!Ó˚§ !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°Î˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 9.1×10–31 kg– Î!ò ~Ó˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛
Dr. Sc. §¡øyl °y˲ ܲˆÏÓl ˚ – 1932 !á fiê˛y∑ ˆÌˆÏܲ 1962 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
3.0×10–25 J •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
ã˛yܲ!Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xÓ§Ó˚ ˆlGÎ˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏà ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ï˛!l ˛õƒy!Ó˚§
!ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ !Ó˲yˆÏàÓ˚ xôƒy˛õܲ !SȈϰl– !ï˛!l §Ùyôyl
1929 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ó˚flÒyˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!£Ïï˛ •l–
1
à!ï˛¢!=˛ mv2
˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ xyˆÏSÈñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚G ˆï˛Ù!l ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ xyˆÏSÈ– !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°ñ ~•z ï%˛°ƒÓ˚)˛õï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛  2 × à!ï˛¢!=˛ 
v =
 2 × 3.0 × 10−25 kg m 2 s −2 
=
 
Ó› ܲîyÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ åλä ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ åpä ÙˆÏôƒ !l¡¨!°!áï˛  m   9.1× 10−31 kg 
§¡õÜ≈˛ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– = 812 m s–1
h h h 6.626 × 10−34 Js
λ= = (2.22) λ= =
mv p m v (9.1 × 10−31 kg) (812 ms −1 )
ˆÎáyˆÏl m •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛îyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚– ~!ê˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà v ~ÓÇ p •ˆÏFSÈ ~Ó˚ = 8967 × 10–10 m = 896.7 nm
˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà– !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ ˲!ӣσmyî# ˆÎ §!ë˛Ü˛ ï˛y ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô˲yˆÏÓ §Ù§ƒy 2.14
ˆÓyV˛y ˆà° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lFSÈê˛yÓ˚ !ÓFS%ÈÓî˚ ˆÌˆÏܲñ Îy !ܲ ly ï˛Ó˚Aà ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚
3.6 Å ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ã˛y!Ó˚!eܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛– ~•z âê˛ly ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l xî%Ó#«˛î
Îsf ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ÎyÓ˚ !˲!_ !SÈ° •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Ù §Ùyôyl
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆÎÙl˲yˆÏÓ §yôyÓ˚î xî%Ó#«˛î Îsf ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ λ = 3.6 Å = 3.6 × 10–10 m
ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà = xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà
ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ˆÏܲ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xyô%!lܲ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÎ˚ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
h 6.626 × 10−34 Js
xî%Ó#«˛î Îsf ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# Îsfñ ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl m= =
m v (3.6 × 10−10 m) (3 × 108 ms −1 )
Ó›ˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 150 °«˛ à%î !ÓÓô≈l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
= 6.135 × 10–29 kg
~ê˛y !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ Ó°y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ ï˛_¥yl%§yˆÏÓ˚
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ à!ï˛¢#° Ó›Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛Ó˚Aà ôÙ≈ Óï≈˛Ùyl– §yôyÓ˚î
2.5.2 •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!l!Ÿã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ (Heisenberg’s
Ó› ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ á%Ó ˆSÈyê˛ åܲyÓ˚î ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
Uncertainty Principle)
í˛zFã˛ Ë˛Ó˚äñ ï˛y•z ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ly– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
Óy xlƒ í˛z˛õܲîyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe åÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ làlƒä ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y GÎ˚yl≈yÓ˚˚ •y•zˆÏ§lÓyà≈ ~ܲçl çyÙ≈yl ˛õòyÌ≈!Óòñ 1927 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
myÓ˚y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù§ƒyÓ!°Ó˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l Îy !ܲly Ó› ~ÓÇ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÙyî ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˜mï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛°– ~ˆÏï˛ Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
§!ë˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà åÓy à!ï˛ˆÏÓàä Î%à˛õÍ
§Ù§ƒy 2.12 !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y x§Ω˛Ó–
à!ï˛¢#° ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 0.1 kg ~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.23ä §y•yˆÏ΃ ~!ê˛ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
10 m s–1ñ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ܲï˛⁄ ÎyÎ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 51

∆x × ∆px ≥
h ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âê˛yˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ xyÙÓ˚y !l/§ˆÏ®ˆÏ••z
(2.23)
4π
h
Óyñ ∆x × ∆(mvx ) ≥
4π
h
Óyñ ∆x × ∆vx ≥
4π m
ˆÎáyˆÏl ∆x •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛îy!ê˛Ó˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y ~ÓÇ
∆px åÓy ∆vx ä •ˆÏFSÈ Ë˛Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ åÓy à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ä x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y
ܲîy!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ– Î!ò •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ÎÌyÌ≈˲yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ å∆x ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •Î˚äñ ï˛ál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà •ˆÏÓ
x!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ [∆(vx ) ~Ó˚ Ùyl ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Î˚]– xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ Î!ò
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà §)-˲yˆÏÓ çyly ÎyÎ˚ [∆(vx ) ~Ó˚ Ùyl
ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y]ñ ï˛ál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl •ˆÏÓ x!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ å∆x ~Ó˚
Ùyl Óí˛¸ •ˆÏÓä– ï˛y•ˆÏ°ñ xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl Óy
à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õl ã˛y°y•zñ ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛°
§Ó§ÙÎ˚•z •ˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ xflõT˛ Óî≈l Óy ò%ˆÏÓ≈yôƒ SÈ!Ó–
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ
ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚– ôÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙyˆÏܲ Ó°y •° ~ܲ!ê˛ x!ã˛!•´ï˛ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆflÒ°
myÓ˚y ~ܲ ê%˛Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y ܲyàˆÏçÓ˚ ˆÓô !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– flõT˛ï˛•zñ ˆÎ
Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ï˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ e%!ê˛Î%=˛ ~ÓÇ xÌ≈•#lñ §!ë˛Ü˛
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ çlƒ ˆï˛yÙyˆÏܲ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ xÇ¢y!AÜ˛ï˛ Îsf ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ÎyÓ˚ ~ܲܲ!ê˛ •ˆÏÓ Ü˛yàˆÏçÓ˚ ê%˛Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆÓô xˆÏ˛õ«˛y
Ü˛Ù– xl%Ó˚)˛õ˲yˆÏÓñ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
•ˆÏ°ñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˆflÒ° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ
ÎyÓ˚ ~ܲܲ •ˆÏÓ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ Ùyey ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù åÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛
•ˆÏÓ ˆÎ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®% xyôyl ôÓ˚y •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ Ùyey•#lä–
~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚°«˛î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒñ xyÙÓ˚y ~!ê˛ˆÏܲ
xyˆÏ°y!Ü˛ï˛ Ü˛!Ó˚ ÚxyˆÏ°yÜ˛Û Óy ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃–
ˆÎ ÚxyˆÏ°yÜ˛Û ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ xÓ¢ƒ•z
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏï˛ ••ˆÏÓ– í˛z=˛ xyˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà
 h
Î%=˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚  p = λ  – §ÇâyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛
 
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓyñ !ܲv §ÇâyˆÏï˛Ó˚
˛õÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ á%Ó Ü˛Ù•z xyÙÓ˚y çylˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚Ó–
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛Ó˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ åSignificance of Uncertainty
Principleä
•y•zˆÏ§l ÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛Ó˚ xlƒï˛Ù à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ §ÇˆÏŸ’£Ï
•ˆÏFSÈ ~•z l#!ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óy xlƒylƒ §ò,¢Ü˛îyÓ˚ xyÓï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
ˆÜ˛yl !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õÌ Óy ≤Èϫ˛˛õ ˛õÌ xyˆÏSÈ üüüÈ ~•z ôyÓ˚îy Óy!ï˛°
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›Ó˚ ≤Èϫ˛˛õ ˛õÌ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÓ !Ó!˲ߨ
Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ ï˛yÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl Óy à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ˆÌˆÏܲ– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ó› ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ ˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ G•z Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ ï˛yÓ˚
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# ӈϰÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî çylˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ !ܲS%È«˛î ˛õÓ˚ Ó›!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚ ÌyܲˆÏÓ ï˛y xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ó–
ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›Ó˚
xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà•z Ó›!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Èϫ˛˛õ ˛õÌ !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Ù%•ˆ) ïÏ ˛≈ •zFSÈy •ˆÏ°•z •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
~ܲ!ê˛ xÓ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîyÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà Î%à˛õÍ
§)-˲yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyñ ï˛y•z •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ≤È«Ï ˛˛õ §¡õˆÏܲ≈ G
!ܲS%È Ó°y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛°
¢ô%Ùye xyî%!Ó«˛î#ܲ Ó›Ó˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ x!ï˛Ü˛yÎ˚
Ó›Ó˚ çlƒ ~•z ≤Ã˲yÓ làlƒ– !lˆÏÙy=˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚
ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚–
Î!ò x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó›Ó˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ÎyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y ≤ÃyÎ˚ ~ܲ !Ù!°@˝ÃyÙ å10–6 kgäñ ï˛ál
h
∆v.∆x =
4π .m
6.626 × 10−34 Js
= ≈ 10−28 m 2 s −1
4 × 3.1416 × 10−6 kg

GÎ˚yl≈yÓ˚ •y•zˆ§Ï lÓyà≈ åWerner Heisenbergä å1901 – 1976äı GÎ˚yl≈yÓ˚ •y•zˆ§Ï lÓyà≈ !Ùí˛z!lá !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°Î˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
1923 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÎ˚ Ph.D.§¡øyl °y˲ ܲˆÏÓl
˚ – !ï˛!l ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ ÓͧÓ˚ Gottingen~ Ùƒy: Óî≈ ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ~ÓÇ
!ï˛l ÓͧÓ˚ l#°§‰ ˆÓyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ˛õlˆÏ•ˆÏ§l‰ ~ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓl˚ – !ï˛!l !°˛õ!çà‰ !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ 1927 !á fiê˛y∑ ˆÌˆÏܲ 1941
!á fiê˛y∑ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÓ˚ xôƒy˛õܲ !SȈ° Ï l– !mï˛#Î˚ !ÓŸªÎ%ˆÂÏ ôÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ •y•zˆ§Ï lÓyà≈ çyÙ≈y!lÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÓyÙy !Ó£ÏÎÜ˚ ˛
àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ òy!Î˚ˆcÏ !SȈ°Ï l– Î%ˆÂÏ ôÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° !ï˛!l à!ê˛lˆÏçl ~ xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ùƒy: ≤’ƒyAܲ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÎ˚
x!ôܲï≈˛y •l– !ï˛!l !SȈ° Ï l !l˛õ%î ˛õÓ≈ï˛yˆÏÓy˚ •#– •y•zˆ§Ï lÓyà≈ 1932 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ófl˚ ÒyˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!£Ïï˛ •l–
52 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

∆v∆x ~Ó˚ ˆÎ Ùyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏ°y ï˛y á%Ó•z ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ~ÓÇ

h
ï˛yͲõÎ≈•#l– ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˆÎ ˆÜ˛í˛z Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ~ܲ !Ù!°@˝ÃyÙ Óy ∆v =
4π ∆x m
ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ ˲Ó˚ Î%=˛ Ó›Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl
6.626 × 10−34 Js
ܲòy!ã˛Í ˆÜ˛yl ÓyhflÏÓ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆòÎ˚– ∆v =
4 × 3.14 × 0.1 × 10−10 m × 9.11 × 10−31 kg
~ܲ!ê˛ xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ Ó›Ó˚ ˆÎÙl ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚
= 0.579×107 m s–1 (1J = 1 kg m2 s–2)
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆v.∆x ~Ó˚ Ùyl ΈÏÌT˛ Óí˛¸ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚
= 5.79×106 m s–1
Ùyl ÓyhflÏÓ§¡øï˛– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓñ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÎyÓ˚
˲Ó˚ 9.11×10–31 kgñ •y•z ˆ Ï § lÓyˆÏ à ≈ Ó ˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ ï ˛y l#!ï˛ §Ù§ƒy 2.16
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à°Ê˛ Ó° ÎyÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 40g ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ o%!ï˛ 45 m/sÉ Î!ò
~Ó˚ o%!ï˛ 2% §!ë˛Ü˛ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚
h xÓfiÌyl à!ë˛ï˛ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
∆v.∆x =
4π m
6.626 × 10−34 Js §Ùyôyl
= 2
4 × 3.1416 × 9.11 × 10−31 kg o%!ï˛Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y 2% xÌ≈yÍ 45 × = 0.9ms −1
100
= 10−4 m −2 s −1
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å2.22ä ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
ï˛y•ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛í˛z Î!ò •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ h
xÓfiÌyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ã˛yÎ˚ñ ôÓ˚y Îyܲ ˆ§ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ∆x =
4π m ∆v
Ùyl 10–8 mñ ï˛ál x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y ∆v ~Ó˚ Ùyl •ˆÏÓ 6.626 × 10−34 Js
=
10−4 m 2 s −1 4 × 3.14 × 40 g × 10−3 kgg −1 (0.9ms −1 )
≈104 m s −1
10−8 m = 1.46×10–33 m
Îy !ܲly ~ï˛ ÓˆÏí˛¸y ˆÎ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ å!fiÌÓ˚ä xyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ Îy !ܲly ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §lyï˛l !ã˛eˆÏܲ §ÙÌ≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ° 1018 à%î ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y– ˛õ)ˆÓ
Ï •≈ z Ó°y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎ ÓˆÏí˛¸y xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ܲîyÓ˚
~ê˛y•z ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ~•z l#!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚¢%Âô Ó=˛ˆÏÓƒ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ çlƒ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §)- ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ §Ω˛yÓƒ ¢∑!ê˛ ˆ°áy ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §#Ùy ˆl•z–
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçlñ Îy !ܲly •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ
ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÓƒÌ≈ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î §Ù)• åReasons for the
˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà ˆòÎ˚– ~Ùlê˛y•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓK˛yl ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ° Failure of the Bohr Modelä
Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲçl §•ˆÏç•z ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÓƒÌ≈ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î
§Ù§ƒy 2.15 Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ xy!•ï˛ ܲîy
~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó#«˛î ΈÏsf í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛l ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ Îy !ܲ ly !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ â%ˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈ– ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
ò)Ó˚c 0.1 Å ÙˆÏôƒ §ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y •°– ~Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ñ ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ôÓ˚y •Î˚!l– ï˛ySÈyí˛¸y ܲ«˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%!l!ò≈T˛ ˛õÌ
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õÌ!ê˛ ï˛ál•z ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚y˛õ%!Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Î!ò ~ܲ•z
§ÙˆÏÎ˚ ~Ó˚ÙˆÏôƒ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà
§Ùyôyl
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ çyly ÎyÎ˚– •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
h h
∆x ∆p = xÌÓy ∆x m∆v = ï˛y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ ï˛y•z
4π 4π
¢%ô%Ùye Ó›Ó˚ ˜mï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ xÓK˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y•z lÎ˚ñ •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
1910 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ x!ê˛∆Î˚yl ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò
~Ó˚ ! ˲l ˆflÀ y !í˛OyÓ˚ ñ !˲ˆÏ Î ˚ l y
!ÓŸª!Óòƒy°Î˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ˛õòyÌ≈
!ÓòƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ph.D. í˛z˛õy!ô °y˲
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ≤’yˆÏAܲÓ˚ xl%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏô 1927
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ñ ≤’yˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚
Óy!°≈l !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈˲yÓ˚ @˝Ã•î
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– 1933 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !•ê˛°yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚!˲l ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚
lyÍ!§Óyò Óy Ê˛ƒy!§Óyò l#!ï˛Ó˚ å1887-1961ä
!ÓˆÏÓ˚y!ôï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !ï˛!l Óy!°≈l
ˆSȈÏí˛¸ñ 1936 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ x!fiê˛∆Î˚yÎ˚ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– çyÙ≈y!lÓ˚
x!fiê˛∆Î˚y xyÜ ˛ÙˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ˆÏܲ ˆçyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ xôƒy˛õܲ
˛õò ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó˚yˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ï˛ál !ï˛!l xyÎ˚yÓ˚°ƒyˆÏu˛Ó˚ í˛yÓ!°ˆÏl
ã˛ˆÏ° Îyl ˆÎáyˆÏl !ï˛!l §ˆÏï˛ˆÏÓ˚y ÓSÈÓ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ !SȈϰl– 1933 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ñ !˛õÉ~É~ÙÉ !í˛Ó˚yܲ å P.A.M. Diracä ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛
!Ù!°ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ !ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ó˚flÒyÓ˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛Ó˚G !ÓˆÏÓ˚yô#– ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z §ÙhflÏ xhs˝!l≈!•ï˛
ò%Ó≈°ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ xlƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y
xÌ≈•#l– Ó›ï˛ ~•z çlƒ•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î àë˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏ°y Îy !ܲly Ó›Ó˚ ܲîy G
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜mï˛ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏ§l ÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ˆÏܲ §ÙÌ≈l
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚•z Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓòƒyÓ˚ xÓï˛yÓ˚ly •Î˚–
2.6 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓK˛yl ÙˆÏí˛° (QUANTUM
MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM
§lyï˛l Ó°!Óòƒy Îy !lí˛zê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛§)ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚
•ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ ï˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §ÙhflÏ fiÌ)°Ó› ˆÎÙl ˛õï˛l¢#° ˛õyÌÓ˚ á[˛ñ
xyÓï≈˛l¢#° @˝Ã• §Ù)• •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ à!ï˛ §Ê˛°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
ˆ˛õˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xï˛ƒyÓ¢ƒÜ˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ•z ܲîyÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
Îy ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈y=˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÎ˚ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!òG ~!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî% •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ Ùï˛ xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ Ó›Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛
ÓƒÌ≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ §lyï˛l Ó°!ÓòƒyˆÏï˛ Ó›Ó˚
˜mï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÓ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe– !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ
¢yáyˆÏï˛ Ó›Ó˚ ˜mï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îyˆÏܲ fl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ lyÙ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒy–
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒy •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ !ÓK˛yl ÎyˆÏï˛ ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛î
ˆÎyàƒ ï˛Ó˚Aà ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ Ü˛îyôÙ≈ xyˆÏSÈ ~Ùl xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ Ó›Ó˚
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à!ï˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ã˛ã≈˛y ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z §ÙhflÏ Ó› ˆÎ à!ï˛§)e Ùylƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y
~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §%!l!ò≈T˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y xyˆÏSÈ– ˆÜ˛yl Ó,•òyܲyÓ˚ Ó›Ó˚ åÎyˆÏòÓ˚
ï˛Ó˚AàôÙ≈ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛î#Î˚ä ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°
ˆÎ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛y §lyï˛l Ó°!Óòƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
xl%Ó˚)˛õ •Î˚– 1926 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ GÎ˚yl≈yÓ˚ •y•zˆÏ§l Óyà≈ ~ÓÇ xyÓ˚í˛z•zl
ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓòƒyÓ˚ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ !Óܲy¢ §yôl ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ Èl–
Î!òG xyÙÓ˚y ~áyˆÏl ï˛Ó˚Aà Ó°!Óòƒy !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó Îy
!ܲly ï˛Ó˚Aàà!ï˛ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛Ó˚Aà
Ó°!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
~Ó˚ çlƒ 1933 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ófl˚ ÒyˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!£Ïï˛
•l– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ !í˛ Ó à!° ≤ÃhflyÏ !Óï˛ Ó›Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲîyÓyò xhs˝Ë˛≈% =˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy !ܲ ly ΈÏÌT˛ ç!ê˛° ~ÓÇ §ÙyôyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚
à!îˆÏï˛Ó˚ K˛yl Ìyܲy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– !Ó!˲ߨ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ çlƒ ~Ó˚ §Ùyôyl
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
~ܲ!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ çlƒ åˆÎÙl ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%
ÎyÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ lyä ˆflÀy!í˛OyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˆÎ˲yˆÏÓ ˆ°áy •Î˚ ˆ§!ê˛ •° H y = E y ˆÎáyˆÏl
~ܲ!ê˛ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ ã˛y°Ü˛ ÎyˆÏܲ •ƒy!Ù°ˆÏê˛!lÎ˚yl ã˛y°Ü˛ Ó°y •Î˚–
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ ¢!=˛ ≤Ãܲy¢Ü˛yÓ˚# ~•z Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚
ã˛y°Ü˛!ê˛ àë˛l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãîy°# !òˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛
¢!=˛ !•§yˆÏÓ !ï˛!l §ÙhflÏ xÓ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîyÓ˚ å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ
!lí˛zÜœ˛#Î˚y§ä à!ï˛¢!=˛ñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l G !lí˛zÜœ˛#Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚
xyܲ£Ïî≈ ç!lï˛ !ÓË˛Ó ~ÓÇ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l G !lí˛zܲœ #Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ïî≈ ç!lï˛
!ÓË˛Ó fl∫ï˛sf˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ӈϰ ˆË˛ˆÏÓ!SȈϰl– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
§Ùyôyl ˆÌˆÏܲ E ~ÓÇ ψ ~Ó˚ Ùyl çyly ÎyÎ˚–
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓî˚ åHydrogen Atom
and the Schrödinger Equationä
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ
§Ùyôyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆà° ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÎ§Ü˛° §Ω˛yÓƒ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚
ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!ܲ≈ï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ åψä ~Ó˚ Ùyl çyly ÎyÎ˚–
!l!ò≈T˛ ¢!=˛§¡õߨ ~•z ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y ~ÓÇ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà
xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛y!Ó˚!eܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ§ê˛ åsetä åÙ%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy nñ xƒy!çÙ%Ìy°
Óy ˆàÔî Óy !òàÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy l ~ÓÇ ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
§Çáƒy m lä ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •Î˚ñ Îy ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §Ùyôyl
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ xÓfiÌyl
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ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál G•z ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ §ÙhflÏ ï˛Ìƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– G•z ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
xÓfiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆË˛Ôï˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly–
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl §ò,¢ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ ˆ§Ó˚)˛õ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ ӈϰ–
~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ ~Ó˚)˛õ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ
~ܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õÂô!ï˛ Ó°y •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly G•z !Ó®%!ê˛Ó˚ |ψ2| ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
§Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÎ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óî≈y°#ˆÏܲ
§Ê˛°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ~SÈyí˛¸y ˆÓyÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎ
ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ âê˛ly Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó •Î˚!l ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚G Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚ §Ù§ƒyÓ°#ı ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î Ó•% •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
myÓ˚y §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~•z §Ù§ƒy!ê˛Ó˚ !lÓ˚§l ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ ¢%ô%Ùye xl%Ùyl!˲!_ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛– xyô%!lܲ ܲ!¡õí˛zê˛yÓ˚ ~Ó˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ ~Ó˚)˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óƒ!ï˛ï˛ ˆÎ
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆl•z Îy !ܲly í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ù%რ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ
!l!•ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ !lí˛zÜœ˛#Î˚ xyôyl Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ– ~•z çlƒ•z §ÙhflÏ
ܲ«˛à%ˆÏ°y !ܲS%Èê˛y §ÇˆÏܲy!ã˛ï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– x!ôܲvñ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ˆÏï˛
ï%˛!Ù ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ ˆÎ åí˛z˛õxl%ˆÏFSÈò 2.6.3 ~ÓÇ 2.6.4ä
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛ Óy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl §ò,¢ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyl ¢%ô%Ùye ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy n í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°G
~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ñ Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ n ~ÓÇ l ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà Ó°!Óòƒy ÙˆÏí˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ §Ù)•
åImportant Features of the Quantum Mechanical
Model of Atomä
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà Ó°!Óòƒy ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
~ܲ!ê˛ SÈ!Óñ Îy ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏàÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà Ó°!Óòƒy
ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛à%ˆÏ°y !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ ı
1. ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛y•zçí˛
•Î˚ åxÌ≈yÍ ¢%ôÙ% ye !l!ò≈T˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl ÌyˆÏÜ˛ä– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• Îál !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ xyÓÂô
ÌyˆÏܲ–
2. ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛y•zçí˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ x!hflÏc •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
ï˛Ó˚Aà §ò,¢ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ~ÓÇ ˆflÀy!í˛OyÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ §Ùyôyl ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲÌy ï˛y•z ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
3. ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà Î%à˛õÍ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly å•y•zˆÏ§l ÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛äñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÌ
ï˛y•z ܲáˆÏly•z !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly Óy §!ë˛Ü˛ çyly ÎyÎ˚ ly–
ï˛y•zñ ï%˛!Ù ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ˆÏï˛ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ ˆÎñ ¢%ô%Ùye ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
!Ó!˲ߨ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly !lˆÏÎ˚•z §Ü˛ˆÏ°
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
4. ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
•z ˆ Ï ° ê˛∆ ˆ Ï l Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚ A à xˆÏ ˛ õ«˛Ü˛ ψ– Îál ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ myÓ˚y Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ál
xyÙÓ˚y Ó!° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ§•z ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
~•z §ÙhflÏ ÚÚ~ܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ÛÛ xÌÓy
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_
•Î˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ¢!=˛
Óï≈˛Ùyl– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò%Û!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyܲˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y•z
~ܲ!ê˛ Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆÎ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ ˆ§ñ ˆ§•z ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !Ó!¢T˛ •ˆÏÓ– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
§ÙhflÏ ï˛Ìƒ §!M˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ψ ~Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!ÓòƒyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ψÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ
~•z §ÙhflÏ ï˛Ìƒ ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ–
5. ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓlyñ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÓˆÏà≈Ó˚ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ xÌ≈yÍ ˙
!Ó®%Ó˚ |ψ|1 ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ– |ψ|2 §Ω˛yÓly âlc lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
~ÓÇ ï˛y §Ó≈òy•z ôlydܲ– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!˲ߨ
!Ó®%ˆÏï˛ |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ˆÜ˛yÌyÎ˚
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly ˆÓ!¢ ï˛yÓ˚ ˲!ӣσÍÓyî# ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
2.6.1 ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy (Orbitals and
Quantum Numbers)
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xˆÏlܲ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛ Ìyܲy §Ω˛Ó– à%îàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 55

~•z ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏ˲ò ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ñ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ xyÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ Óy x!ôܲ §ÇáƒÜ˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ Óy í˛z˛õhflÓÏ ˚
x!˲!Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆSÈyê˛ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù%áƒÜ˛ˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy n ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢– •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛ ån = 1äñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye í˛z˛õܲ«˛ ÎyˆÏܲ
xl%Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ G x!˲!Ólƒy§ ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Îy l = 0 ~Ó˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ– !mï˛#Î˚ Ù%áƒÜ˛ˆÏ«˛ ån = 2ä ò%!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ ål = 0,
!òˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly xlƒylƒ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– 1ä ÎyˆÏܲñ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ ån = 3ä !ï˛l!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ ål = 0, 1, 2ä ÌyˆÏܲ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚˛) õ– ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚
ÎÌyÎÌ˲yˆÏÓ !lÓ˚˛) õî ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ !òàÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y– í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ çlƒ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ l
§Çáƒy ÎÌy n, l ~ÓÇ m l myÓ˚y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ùyl §Ù)• ≤Ãܲy¢ •° !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ myÓ˚y–
Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ‘n’ ~ܲ!ê˛ ôlydܲ ˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒyñ ÎyÓ˚ l ~Ó˚ Ùyl ı 0 1 2 3 4 5 ............
Ùyl n = 1,2,3......– ~•z Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ s p d f g h ............
xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ Ó,•Í ˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl çlƒ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ ı
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl §ò,¢ xyÎ˚l åHe+, Li2+, .... •zï˛ƒy!òä
§yÓ˚!î 2.4ÈüÈ~ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ lÈüÈ~Ó˚
~Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l ¢%ô%Ùye ‘n’ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°–
§Ω˛yÓƒ Ùyl ~ÓÇ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛!ê˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
~SÈyí˛¸yG Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y ܲ«˛ §ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ §Ω˛yÓƒ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇáƒyG Ó,!Âô §yÓ˚!î 2.4 í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏܲï˛
˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ún2Û myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ÚnÛ ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏܲï˛
çlƒ §Ü˛° ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï y §!¡ø!°ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ x«˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
n = 1 2 3 4 ............
ܲ«˛ = K L M N ............
Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ÚnÛ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ }îydܲ xyôyl Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ôlydܲ
xyôyl Î%=˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl
•Î˚ñ ï˛y•z n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ùyl Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚–
!òàÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ÚlÛ Îy !ܲly ܲ«˛#Î˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÓÏ à
Óy §•yÎ˚ܲ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !eÙy!eܲ xyÜ,˛!ï˛G !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– n ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒñ l ~Ó˚ ÙylˆÏܲ n myÓ˚y §#Ùy!Î˚ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ 0
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ÚmlÛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï y !ӈϢ£Ï
ˆÌˆÏܲ n − 1ñ xÌ≈yÍñ n ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ l ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ
!eÙy!eܲ x!˲!Ólƒy§ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ùylà%ˆÏ°y •° ı l = 0, 1, 2, .......... (n–1)–
í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ çlƒ åÎyψÏܲ l myÓ˚y §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ä mlÈüÈ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ
í˛zòy•Ó˚fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ Îál n = 1ñ ï˛ál l ~Ó˚ Ùyl ¢%ô%Ùye 0, n = Ùyl •° 2l+1 ~ÓÇ ~•z Ùylà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáyˆÏly •Î˚ ı
2, ~Ó˚ çlƒ l ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ Ùyl 0 ~ÓÇ 1, n = 3 ~Ó˚ çlƒ l ~Ó˚ ml = – l, – (l –1), – (l– 2)... 0,... (l – 2), (l–1), l
§Ω˛yÓƒ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏ°y 0, 1 ~ÓÇ 2– ï˛y•z l ~Ó˚ Ùyl ¢)lƒ •ˆÏ° xÌ≈yÍ l = 0 •ˆÏ° ml ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ
56 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

~ܲÙye Ùyl!ê˛ •ˆÏÓ ml = 0, [2(0)+1 = 1]– l = 1 •ˆÏ° ml ~Ó˚
Ùyl •ˆÏÓ –1, 0 ~ÓÇ +1 [2(1)+1 = 3Ïñ 3Ï!ê˛ p ܲ«˛Ü˛]– l = 2
•ˆÏ° ml = –2, –1, 0, +1 ~ÓÇ +2 •Î˚ [2(2)+1 = 5, 5!ê˛ d
ܲ«˛Ü˛]– ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ml ~Ó˚ Ùyl l ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ l ~Ó˚ Ùyl n ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛y•ˆÏ°
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ n, l ~ÓÇ
ml ~Ó˚ Ùyî §Ù!ß∫ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ§ê˛ myÓ˚y– ˆÜ˛yˆÏÎ˚rê˛yÙ §Çáƒy n = 2, l
= 1, ml = 0 myÓ˚y ˆÎ ܲ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆ§!ê˛ •° !mï˛#Î˚
ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ p í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ï˛y!°Ü˛yÎ˚ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ G
§Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õܲ≈˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ı
l ~Ó˚ Ùyl 0 1 2 3 4 5
í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ s p d f g h
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy 1 3 5 7 9 11
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l â)î≈l ÚsÛ ı ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ñ xyÜ,˛!ï˛
~ÓÇ x!˲!Ólƒy§ñ á%Ó Ë˛yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Ó!î≈ï˛ !ï˛l!ê˛
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y– Î!òG Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù,Âô ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ÓƒyáƒyÎ˚ ~•z §Ü˛° ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy•z ΈÏÌT˛ lÎ˚ñ xÌ≈yÍñ
!ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆÓ˚áyÇ¢ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ í˛yÓˆÏ°ê˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÌyˆÏܲ åò%!ê˛ °y•zl
â!lT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §!ߨ!•ï˛äñ !ê˛∆˛õˆÏ°ê˛ å!ï˛l!ê˛ °y•zl â!lT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §!ߨ!•ï˛ä
•zï˛ƒy!ò–
~!ê˛ §%˛õy!Ó˚¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y ˆÎ
¢!=˛ hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~à%ˆÏ°y SÈyí˛¸yG xyÓ˚G ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏï˛
Óï≈˛Ùyl– 1925 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ çç≈ í˛zˆ°Ï lÓƒyܲ åGeorge Uhlenbeckä
~ÓÇ §ƒyÙ%ˆÏÎ˚° ˆàyí˛¸!fløê˛ åSamuel Goudsmitä ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃhflyÏ Óly ܲˆÏÓl˚ Îy!ܲly •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ â)îl≈ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy
åmsä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ï˛yÓ˚ !lˆÏçÓ˚ x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
â)îl≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy ˛õ,!ÌÓ#Ó˚ !lˆÏçÓ˚ x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ â)îˆ≈ lÏ Ó˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ
Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ xyôyl ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ SÈyí˛¸yG !lçfl∫ â)îl≈ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy xyˆÏSÈ– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ â)î≈l ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà ~ܲ!ê˛
ˆË˛QÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢ ÎyÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ x!˲!Ólƒy§ xyˆÏSÈñ Îy ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙˆÏly!lï˛ xˆÏ«˛Ó˚
§ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ~•z ò%!ê˛ x!˲!Ólƒy§ §ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ â)î≈l
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ms myÓ˚y ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl ôÓ˚y •Î˚ +½ ~ÓÇ –½– ~ˆÏòÓ˚
Ó°y •Î˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ â)î≈yÎ˚Ùyl xÓfiÌy ~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ò%•z!ê˛
ï˛#Ó˚ !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ↑ åí˛zÂô≈â)î≈lä ~ÓÇ ↓ å!l¡¨â)î≈lä–
ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ms ~Ó˚ Ùyl !˲ߨ å~ܲ!ê˛ +½ ~ÓÇ xlƒ!ê˛Ó˚ –
½ä ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ â)î≈l xyˆÏSÈ Ó°y •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ò%Û!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ x«˛Ù ~ÓÇ
~•z ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xÓ¢ƒ•z !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ â)î≈l Î%=˛ •ˆÏÓ–
ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ˆÎ ï˛Ìƒ ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ
~•zÓ˚ܲÙÈüüüÈ
i) n myÓ˚y ܲ«˛ñ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ó,•Í ˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ii) n ï˛Ù ܲˆÏ«˛ñ n §ÇáƒÜ˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl– l myÓ˚y í˛z˛õܲ«˛
§ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
åxl%ˆÏFSÈò 2.6.2 ˆòˆÏáyä ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ (2l+1) §ÇáƒÜ˛
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyˆÏSÈñ xÌ≈yÍ ≤Ã!ï˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
s ܲ«˛Ü˛ (l = 0)ñ !ï˛l!ê˛ p ܲ«˛Ü˛ (l = 1) ~ÓÇ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ d
ܲ«˛Ü˛ (l = 2)– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
l myÓ˚y !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛G ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–

ܲ«˛ñ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c (Orbit, orbital and its importance)
ܲ«˛ ~ÓÇ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ §ÙyÌ≈ܲ lÎ˚– ˆÓyÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏy!Óï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ˛õÌ Îy !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
~•z ˛õÌ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ã˛°yã˛° ܲˆÏÓ˚– •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛yñ l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ Óî≈ly ˆòGÎ˚y ≤ÃyÎ˚ x§Ω˛Ó– ï˛y•z ˆÓyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ xÌ≈ ˆl•z ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ x!hflÏc ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÙyî ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
Ó°!Óòƒy â!ê˛ï˛ ôyÓ˚îy ~ÓÇ Îy ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ψ– ~!ê˛ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ån,
l ~ÓÇ mlä myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ fiÌylyˆÏAܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ψ ~Ó˚ !lçfl∫ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆË˛Ôï˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ ˆl•z– ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚
Óà≈ xÌ≈yÍ |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ xyˆÏSÈ– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ ˆÎ Ùyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛y G•z !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ §Ω˛yÓly âlc–
§Ω˛yÓly âlc å|ψ|2 ä •ˆÏFSÈ ≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲܲ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl §Ω˛yÓly ~ÓÇ |ψ|2 G ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ åÎy !ܲly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyÎ˚ï˛l !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ä
à%îÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ G•z xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ å~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xyÎ˚ï˛l Î%=˛ ˆÙÔ° Ó°yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ Ùyl ~ܲ xM˛°
ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ xM˛ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ !ܲv ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xyÎ˚ï˛lÎ%=˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~Ó˚ Ùyl ô %ÓˆÏܲ ôÓ˚y •Î˚ä– ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˆÙyê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ §ÙhflÏ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛° ~ÓÇ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §•àyÙ# xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ– ~áyl ˆÌˆÏܲ•z
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ !Ólƒy§‡Ó^˝ê˛l ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 57

iii) ml , ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲!Ólƒy§ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ l ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛

ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒñ ml ~Ó˚ Ùyl å2l+1äñ Îy !ܲ ly í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛
xÓ!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈñ ˆÎ˲yˆÏÓ
ï˛yÓ˚y x!˲!ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ §Çáƒy•z ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy–
iv) ms •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l â)î≈ˆÏlÓ˚ x!˲Ù%á ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–

§Ù§ƒy 2.17
Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy n = 3 •ˆÏ° ˆÙyê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy
!lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§Ùyôyl
n = 3 ~Ó˚ çlƒñ l ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ Ùyl 0, 1 ~ÓÇ 2– xÌ≈yÍ
~áyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ 3s ܲ«˛Ü˛ ån = 3, l = 0 ~ÓÇ ml = 0äó
!ï˛l!ê˛ 3p ܲ«˛Ü˛ ån = 3, l = 1 ~ÓÇ ml = –1, 0, +1äó
˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛ ån = 3, l = 2 ~ÓÇ ml = –2, –1, 0, !ã˛e 2.12 ˆ°á!ã˛e (a) ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ψ (r); (b) 1s ~ÓÇ
+1+, +2ä– 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc ψ 2 (r) ˆ§!ê˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c årä ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚
ï˛y•ˆÏ°ñ ˆÙyê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy 1+3+5 = 9 ~•z ~ܲ•z Ùyl
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy = n2 ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛ myÓ˚yñ xÌ≈yÍ
32 = 9– 2.12(a)ñ 1s (n = 1, l = 0) ~ÓÇ 2s (n = 2, l = 0) ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚

§Ù§ƒy 2.18 çlƒ ˆ§Ó˚)˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ°áy!ã˛e–

s, p, d, f ≤Ãï˛#ܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏ¡¨y=˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy çyÙ≈yl ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò Ùƒy: Óî≈ åMax Bornä xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
myÓ˚y ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚ Óà≈ åxÌ≈yÍ |ψ|2ä ˙ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ xÓfiÌyl âlc ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– r xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛
(a) n = 2, l = 1, (b) n = 4, l = 0, (c) n = 5,
l = 3, (d) n = 3, l = 2 ψ 2 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ 1s ~ÓÇ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ !ã˛e 2.12(b) ˆï˛
ˆòGÎ˚y •°– ~áyˆÏl xyÓyÓ˚ñ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ 1s
§Ùyôyl
~ÓÇ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ°á!ã˛eà%ˆÏ°y !˲ߨ–
n l ܲ«˛Ü˛
~ê˛y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ §Ω˛yÓƒï˛y
a) 2 1 2p
b) 4 0 4s âlc !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ˆàˆÏ° ~•z
c) 5 3 5f Ùyl Ü ˛Ù¢ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
d) 3 2 3d xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc ≤Ã̈ÏÙ o%ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÙ
¢)lƒ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Óyí˛¸ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó%̊ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛
2.6.2 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ (Shapes of Atomic
Orbitals) ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~!ê˛ xyÓyÓ˚ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ¢)ˆÏlƒÓ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ Óy xyˆÏ§ Îál r ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ˆÎ xM˛ˆÏ° ~•z §Ω˛yÓƒ
ψ ~Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆË˛Ôï˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ ˆl•z– ~!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌylyˆÏAܲÓ˚ âlc xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ܲˆÏÙ ¢)lƒ •Î˚ ï˛y !lflõ® ï˛° åNodal surfacesä
~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛– Îy•z ˆ•yܲñ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ Óy ˆÜ˛Ó° ˆlyí˛ ÓˆÏ°– §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓñ ~ê˛y ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ns
çlƒ ˆÎ xl%Ó˚)˛õ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ˆ°á!ã˛e ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆ§!ê˛ r ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ån – 1ä §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆlyí˛ xyˆÏSÈñ xÌ≈yÍ ˆlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy Ù%áƒ
å!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚cä ~ܲ!ê˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ Óy !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚– !ã˛e ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy n Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ 2s
58 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~Ó˚ çlƒ ˆlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy 1, 3s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~Ó˚ çlƒ 2 ~ÓÇ

~˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~Ó˚˛) õ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyôylÈüȈÙâ !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ åcharge
cloud diagramsä myÓ˚y ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚ [!ã˛e 2.13(a)]– ~•z !ã˛ˆÏe
~ܲ!ê˛ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛ê˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ âlc G•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
§Ω˛yÓƒ âlcˆÏܲ Ó%V˛yÎ˚–
!Ó!˲ߨ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlˆÏc ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy
˛õ,¤˛ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙyê˛yÙ%!ê˛ Ë˛y° í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õly–
~•z í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õlyÎ˚ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ xÑyܲy ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛
Óy §#Ùy§)ã˛Ü˛ ˆÓ˚áy ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ Ùyl ô %Óܲ–
l#!ï˛àï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~Ó˚)˛õ xˆÏlܲ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ §Ω˛Ó– x!ôܲv !ã˛e 2.13 (a) 1s ~ÓÇ 2s ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒñ ¢%ô%Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ ô %Óܲ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlcD ˙ ˆ°á!ã˛e– í˛ê˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ âlc G•z xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ
˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏ°y âlcˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õly !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– Îy !ܲ ly ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆâÓ˚y xM˛° xÌÓy (b) 1s ~ÓÇ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e–
xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly á%Ó ˆÓ!¢ñ ôˆÏÓ˚y 90%
!ã˛e 2.13(b) ˆï˛ 1s ~ÓÇ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ ˆ°á!ã˛e
ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ˆÎ ˆÜ˛í˛z ≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ı ˆÜ˛l xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆâÓ˚y
xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ ˆ°á!ã˛e xÑyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ lyñ ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly 100 %⁄ ~•z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ •° !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x§#Ù ò)Ó˚c•z •í˛zܲ ly ˆÜ˛l §Ω˛yÓƒ ò)Ó˚c |ψ|2 ~Ó˚ !ܲS%È
Ùyl ÌyܲˆÏÓñ Îï˛•z «%˛o •í˛zܲ ly ˆÜ˛l– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ àë˛l !ã˛e ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly 100%
ï˛y xÑyܲy §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ !ã˛e xy§ˆÏ°
ˆày°yܲyܲyÓ˚ Îy !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w#Ë)˛ï˛– !mÙy!eܲ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ
~•z ˆày°Ü˛!ê˛ ˆòáˆÏï˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆâÓ˚y xM˛° ˆÎáyˆÏl
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly ≤ÃyÎ˚ 90%–
ï˛y•z xyÙÓ˚y 1s ~ÓÇ 2s ܲ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ ˆày°yܲyÜ,˛!ï˛ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z–
≤Ãܲ, ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ñ §ÙhflÏ s ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)• ˆày°#Î˚˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ùñ xÌ≈yÍ ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓly §Ó!òܲ !òˆÏÎ˚•z §Ùyl– !ã˛e 2.14 !ï˛l!ê˛ 2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ !ã˛e–
~!ê˛ xyˆÏÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆòáyˆÏly •°– ~•z §ÙhflÏ !ã˛ˆÏe !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ•z Ù)° !Ó®% !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ
Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xÌ≈yÍ 4s > 3s > 2s > 1s ôÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ sÈüÈܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ !ã˛e ˆày°yܲyÓ˚
~ÓÇ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l G !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ lÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ p-ܲ«˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ xÇ¢ ÌyˆÏܲ ÎyˆÏܲ ˆ°yÓ§
ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ålobesä ӈϰ– Îy !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §Ùï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
!ã˛e 2.14 ~ !ï˛l!ê˛ 2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ål = 1ä ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ !ã˛e ò%•z !òˆÏܲ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ò%!ê˛ ˆ°yÓ§‰ ˆÎ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ˆÏܲ flõ¢≈

* Î!ò §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc |ψ|2 ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ çlƒ ô %Óܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° G•z ï˛ˆÏ° |ψ| G ô %Óܲ •ˆÏÓ– |ψ|2 ~ÓÇ |ψ| ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ x!˲ߨ–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§•z !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ~•z §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚ Ùyl ¢)lƒ– !ï˛l!ê˛
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ñ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §Ùï)˛°ƒ– ˆ°yӈϧÓ˚
x!˲!Ólƒy§ myÓ˚y ~•z ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lÓ˚)˛õî ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÙˆÏl
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎ ~•z §ÙhflÏ ˆ°yÓ§ §Ù)• x, y xÌÓy z x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ 2px, 2py, ~ÓÇ 2pz ~ˆÏòÓ˚ myÓ˚y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
x!ôܲvñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎñ ml (–1, 0, +1) ~Ó˚
Ùyl ~ÓÇ x, y, z ~Ó˚ x!˲Ù%á ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
§¡õÜ≈˛ ˆl•z– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ çlƒ ~!ê˛ ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy ΈÏÌT˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎñ
ܲyÓ˚î ml ~Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ §Ω˛yÓƒ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x«˛à%ˆ°
Ï y
!ã˛e 2.15 ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ 3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e–
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˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ °Ω˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xÓ!fiÌï˛– s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùï˛ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
xyܲyÓ˚ G ¢!=˛Ó˚ ÙylG Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z !Ó!˲ߨ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù ~ÓÇ xyܲyÓ˚
~•zÓ˚)˛õ 4p > 3p > 2p – x!ôܲvñ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ñ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
§Ω˛yÓƒ âlc xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùylñ ¢)lƒ ~ÓÇ x§#Ù ò)Ó˚c SÈyí˛¸yG ¢)lƒ
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ Îál !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚c Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ˆlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy
n –2 myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl 3p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ xÓ˚#Î˚ ˆlyí˛
åradial nodeä ~Ó˚ §Çáƒy 1 ~ÓÇ 4p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ 2 ~ÓÇ ~˲yˆÏÓ
ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
l = 2 ~Ó˚ çlƒñ ˆÎ ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyˆÏSÈ ï˛y d- ܲ«˛Ü˛ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
~ÓÇ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ånä §Ó≈!l¡¨ Ùyl 3 ܲyÓ˚î l ~Ó˚ Ùyl!ê˛
ån–1ä ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓˆÏí˛¸y •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– l = 2 ~Ó˚ çlƒ ml ~Ó˚ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛
Ùyl xyˆÏSÈ (–2, –1, 0, +1, +2) ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ d ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– !ã˛e 2.15 ~ d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy ˛õ,¤˛ !ã˛e ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2–
y2
~ÓÇ dz2 !•§yˆÏÓ– ≤ÃÌÙ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ܲ•z Ó˚ܲÙñ
xlƒ!òˆÏܲ ˛õM˛Ù ܲ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ xÌ≈yÍ dz2 ~Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ xlƒˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ
xy°yòy– !ܲv ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ 3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ §Ùï)˛°ƒ– n ~Ó˚ Ùyl 3
xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢ ~Ó˚)˛õ d ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ å4d, 5d...ä xyÜ,˛!ï˛ñ 3d
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùï˛ !ܲv ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ÓÇ xyܲyÓ˚ !˲ߨ–
xÓ˚#Î˚ ˆlyí˛ SÈyí˛¸y åxÌ≈yÍ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚ Ùyl
¢)lƒäñ np ~ÓÇ nd ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ §Ω˛yÓƒ âlc xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚ Ùylñ
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ åÙ)°!Ó®%ä !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆàˆÏSÈ ~Ó˚˛) õ ï˛ˆÏ° ¢)lƒ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ
pz ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ xy ï˛°!ê˛ •° ˆlyí˛y° ï˛°ñ dxy ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ò%!ê˛ ˆlyí˛y° ï˛° xyˆÏSÈ Îy Ù)° !Ó®% !òˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ z x«˛
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ xy ï˛°ˆÏܲ !má![˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˆlyí˛ åangular
nodeä ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˆlyí˛ §Çáƒy ÚlÛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
xÌ≈yÍ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˆlyí˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ñ d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ
ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˆlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy ò%•z!ê˛ ~ÓÇ ~˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÙyê˛
ˆlyˆÏí˛Ó˚ §Çáƒy ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ån–1ä myÓ˚yñ xÌ≈yÍñ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˆlyí˛
l ~ÓÇ xÓ#Î˚ ˆlyí˛ ån – l – 1ä ~Ó˚ ˆÎyà Ê˛°–
2.6.3 ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛ (Energies of Orbitals)
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆïÏ ˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y•z !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛y•z
!lˆÏ¡¨y=˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ı
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1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d <4s = 4p = 4d
= 4f < (2.23)
~ÓÇ !ã˛e 2.16 ~ ï˛y ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– Î!òGñ 2s ~ÓÇ 2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !˲ߨñ ï˛Ìy!˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 2s ܲ«˛Ü˛ Óy 2p ܲ«˛Ü˛
ˆÎáyˆÏl•z Ìyܲ ly ˆÜ˛lÈüÈ ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ܲ•z ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ܲ•z
¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛ˆÏòÓ˚ §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ådegenerateä Ó°y •Î˚–
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 1s ܲ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
!fiÌ!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ Ë)˛!ÙhflÓÏ ˚ Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ myÓ˚y §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ò,ì˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyÓÂô– ~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ Îál 2sñ 2p xÌÓy xlƒ
í˛zFã˛¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌy Ó°y •Î˚–
Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
!ã˛e 2.16 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ܲ«˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ã˛e–
(a) •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ (b) Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏÓ ˆÎ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
!òâÇ¢#Î˚ åazimuthalä ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùyl !˲ߨ •ˆÏ°G
~ܲ•z Ù%რåprincipalä ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùyl !Ó!¢T˛
ܲ«˛ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛ §Ùyl– Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùyl §Ùyl •ˆÏ° !Ó!˲ߨ !òâÇ¢#Î˚
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù#ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛ !Ó!˲ߨ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ Îy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒÓ˚ܲÙñ ï˛y ¢%ô%Ùye
~Ó˚ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ åܲ«˛ä í˛z˛õÓ˚•z !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ x!ôܲv
!òâÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ åí˛z˛õܲ«˛ä í˛z˛õÓ˚G !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– xÌ≈yÍ
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈ T ˛ Ù% á ƒ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚ y rê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ çlƒ s,
p, d, f ... ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !˲ߨ– ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãò_ Ù%áƒ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛ s<p<d<f Ü ˛Ùyî%§yˆÏÓ˚
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• ˆÎÙl 4s<3d
~ÓÇ 6s<5d ó 4f<6p ~Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ~•z ˛õyÌ≈ Ü ˛ƒ
í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ ˆÏÎyàƒË˛yˆÏÓ §%flõT˛ ~ÓÇ xyŸã˛Î≈çlܲ– Ó•% •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚ܲˆÏÙÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl ܲyÓ˚î
•° •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !Óܲ£Ïî≈ – •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆïÏ ˛
}îydܲ xyôyl Î%=˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ ôlydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
xyܲ£Ï≈îç!lï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî ¢%ô%Ùye ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ–
Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù)ˆÏ•ñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° SÈyí˛¸yG ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ xlƒ
•zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ïî≈ Ó°G Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛y•z Ó•% •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚ˆÏcÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° ˆÙyê˛ xyܲ£Ï≈î
!ÙÌ!fl;Î˚yñ !Óܲ£Ï≈î !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢ •GÎ˚y– §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ
Ó!•/fiÌÏ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈îç!lï˛ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y
ˆÌˆÏܲ xhs/fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y x!ôܲ
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈îç!lï˛ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ôlydܲ xyôyl åZeä Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ–
xhs/fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ôlydܲ xyôyl
åZeä ~Ó˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° í˛z˛õ°!kô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~•z ≤Ã˲yÓ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ
ܲyÓ˚î !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ôlydܲ xyôyl xhs/fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y
xyÇ!¢Ü˛ xyÓ,ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Îy !ܲ ly Ó!•/fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)•
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ xhs/fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• myÓ˚y xyÓÓ˚î
lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó!•/fiÌ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• ˆÙyê˛ ˆ§ ôlydܲ xyôyl
xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ xyôyl åZeff eä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
xhs/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• myÓ˚y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó!•/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
§Ù)ˆÏ• xyÓÓ˚î# ≤Ã˲yÓ Ìyܲy §ˆÏ_¥G Ó!•/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• ˆÎ
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ xyôyl Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– xlƒ!òˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ åZ ä Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l åxÌ≈yÍ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ä ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y ç!lï˛
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ åxÌ≈yÍ ˆÓ!¢ ôlydÙܲ •Î˚ä–
~•z í˛z˲Î˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈ ~ÓÇ !Óܲ£Ïî≈ !ÙÌ!fl;Îy˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 61

ˆÎ ܲˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– ˆê˛!Ó° 2.5 ån + lä §)ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ˆày°yܲyܲyÓ˚ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ólƒy§
•ˆÏ° Ó!•/fiÌÏ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• myÓ˚y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ xyÓÓ˚î
n ~Ó˚ l ~Ó˚ ån + lä ~Ó˚
xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
Ùyl Ùyl Ùyl
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚#– xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õñ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• Ó!•/fiÌ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ xyÓÓ˚î xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ñ Î!òG ~•z §ÙhflÏ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ~ܲ•z
ܲˆÏ«˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– x!ôܲv ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒñ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒñ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲÙ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §ÙÎ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ âl §!ߨ!ÓT˛
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §ÙÎ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyˆÏܲ–
xlƒ!òˆÏܲñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ åÙ%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyä ~ܲ!ê˛
~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÎ Zeff xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y !òâÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲÙ
ålä Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ á%Ó•z ¢=˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ xyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
¢=˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ– s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù åˆÓ!¢ }îydܲä ~ÓÇ p ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲÙ
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ ~˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ
xyÓÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !Ó!˲ߨ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
!˲ߨ •Î˚ñ ï˛y•z ~!ê˛ ~ܲ•z ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ åxÌÓy ~ܲ•z ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyä ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ åZeffä Óyí˛¸yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ
¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó˲yçl ~Ó˚ Óƒy˛õyÓ˚!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y°ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ Îy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈•z Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ~ÓÇ xl%Ó˚)˛õ˲yˆÏÓ !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ n ~ÓÇ l ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– ày!î!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓñ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ~Ó˚ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢ ~ÓÇ ~˲yˆÏÓ ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– xÌ≈yÍ
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÎ n ~ÓÇ l ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ï˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ E2s(H) > E2s(Li) > E2s(Na) > E2s(K)–
ç!ê˛° !ܲv ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î §)e xyˆÏSÈ ï˛y •°ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
2.6.4 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y (Filling of Orbitals
çlƒ ån + lä ~Ó˚ Ùyl §Ùyl •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ÎyÓ˚ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü˛Ù ï˛yÓ˚
in Atom)
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG Ü˛Ù– §yÓ˚!î 2.5 ~ ån + lä ~Ó˚ §)e Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y
!Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õ)!ï≈˛ ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓï≈˛l
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚§Ù)• !ã˛e
l#ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÊ˛ÓyG l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ •Î˚– •%ˆuÏ ˛Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ
2.16 ~ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ê˛y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ
Ó•%ܲï˛y §)e ~ÓÇ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚G !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Ó•% •zˆÏܲê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢!=˛ !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚– x!ôܲvñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyÊ˛ÓyG l#!ï˛ åAufbau Principleä
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §Ùyl– ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ïñ ~!ê˛ ~áyˆÏl í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ÚxyÊ˛ÓyGÛ ~ܲ!ê˛ çyÙ≈yl ¢∑ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ ÚàˆÏí˛¸ ˆï˛y°yÛ– ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ ~ܲ•z í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àˆÏí˛¸ ˆï˛y°yÓ˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õ)!ï≈˛ ܲÓ˚y– ~•z l#!ï˛Ó˚
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xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% °Ï yÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflˆÏ ÓÏ ñ˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ à!ï˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
|ôÁ≈Ü ˛ˆÏÙ •Î˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ°ñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• ≤ÃÌÙ Ë˛!ï≈˛
•Î˚ Ü˛Ù ¢!=˛ !Ó!¢T˛ §•ç°Ë˛ƒ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ ¢%ô%Ùye !l¡¨
¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˲!ï≈˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l í˛zFã˛¢!=˛ !Ó!¢T˛
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸SÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ãò_
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• !Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z §ÙhflÏ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ó≈çl#l˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl §!ë˛Ü˛
Ü ˛Ù ˆl•z–
x!ôܲvñ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ
í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# ı
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 4f, 5d, 6p,
7s...
~•z Ü ˛Ù ˆÎ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy ÎyÎ˚ ï˛y !ã˛e 2.17 ~ ˆòGÎ˚y
!ã˛e 2.17 ˛Ü˛«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
•ˆÏ°y– í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ !ï˛Ó˚§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ x!˲Ù%á myÓ˚y ܲ«˛Ü˛
˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ xÌ≈yÍ ÓÑy!òˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl !òˆÏܲÓ˚
l#ã˛ ˛õÎ≈hs˝– §Ü˛° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~!ê˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒË˛yˆÏÓ §!ë˛Ü˛
ˆÎñ ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ •z•y §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ ~•z Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚
ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xÓ¢ƒ•z 3d ~ÓÇ 4s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ôyÓ˚îy
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xˆÏlܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ fl∫“ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ Ü ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚– ï˛y
§ˆÏ_¥G í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !ܲS%È Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛ÙG âˆÏê˛–
˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ åPauli Exclusion Principleä
!Ó!˲ߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• ˆÎ §ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛y
x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ myÓ˚y §#ÙyÓÂôñ Îy !òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈl x!fiê˛Î˚yÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl#
í˛z°Ê‰˛àƒyÇà ˛õyí˛z!° åWolfgang Pauliä å1926ä– ~•z l#!ï˛
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ı ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˆ§ê˛ ~ܲ•z •Î˚ly– ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛
~˲yˆÏÓ G Ó°y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı ÚÚ¢%ô%Ùye ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ•z
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l§Ù)• xÓ¢ƒ•z
!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# â)î≈l •ˆÏÓ–ÛÛ ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •°ñ ˆÎ ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
!ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy n, l ~ÓÇ ml ~Ó˚ Ùyl ~ܲ•z •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
!ܲv â)î≈l ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùyl !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚
x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ
§#ÙyÓÂôï˛yy ï˛y ã˛y!˛õˆÏÎ˚ !SȈϰl ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛
í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î «˛Ùï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ
1s í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye ܲ«˛Ü˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z 1s í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛
§ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ 2!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ p ~ÓÇ d í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy 6 ~ÓÇ 10 ~ÓÇ ~˲yˆÏÓ•z ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ÎyÓ˚
§yÓ˚yÇ¢ •ˆÏFSÈ ı Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy n •ˆÏ°ñ ˙ ܲˆÏ«˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùyl •ˆÏÓ2n2 –
•%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ Ùy!Œê˛!≤Ã!§!ê˛ !lÎ˚Ù åHund’s Rule of Maxi-
mum Multiplicityä
~•z §)e myÓ˚y ~ܲ•z í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ åxÌ≈yÍñ ˆÎ §Ü˛° ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ §Ùyl ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
§Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ÓˆÏ°ä– ~•z l#!ï˛ Ó=˛Óƒ •° ı ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛
åp, d Óy fä Óï≈˛Ùyl ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ï˛ál•z ˆçyí˛¸ •ˆÏÓ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l
Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛•z xhs˝ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ ~ܲܲ åsinglyä ˲yˆÏÓ x!ôÜ,˛ï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ 3!ê˛ pñ 5!ê˛ d ~ÓÇ 7!ê˛ f ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyˆÏSÈñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° pñ
d ~ÓÇ f ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÓ !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ñ £Ï¤˛ ~ÓÇ xT˛Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe– ~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎ
xô≈˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)• ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
!lçfl∫ ≤Ã!ï˛§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÓ!¢ fiÌyÎ˚# •Î˚–
2.6.5 ˛õÓ˚ Ù yî% Ó ˚ •z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ l #Î˚ !Ólƒy§ ( Electronic
Configuration of Atoms)
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ Órê˛lˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚
!Ólƒy§ Ó°y •Î˚– Î!ò ˆÜ˛í˛z !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î !lÎ˚Ùà%ˆÏ°y ÙˆÏl Ó˚yˆÏá ï˛ˆÏÓ á%Ó §•ˆÏç•z
ˆ§ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
!Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ ò%Û!ê˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ ı
(i) sa pbdc ...... ≤Ãï˛#ܲ
(ii) ܲ«˛Ü˛ !ã˛e
s p d
≤ÃÌÙ ≤Ãï˛#ܲñ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !lç !lç
x«˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy a, b, c,
... •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ Ùï˛ ¢#£Ï≈ ˆòˆÏ¢ !°ál myÓ˚y– !Ó!˲ߨ ܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ~ܲ•z
≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •Î˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
ˆ°áy Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy myÓ˚y– !mï˛#Î˚ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Óy: !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ
ôlydܲ !òˆÏܲ â)î≈lÓ˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ï˛#Ó˚ å↑ä myÓ˚y xÌÓy }îydܲ
!òˆÏܲ â)î≈lÓ˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ï˛#Ó˚ å↓ä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !mï˛#Î˚
≤Ãï˛#ܲ ≤ÃÌÙ!ê˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y §%!Óôyçlܲ ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ¢%ô%Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óï≈˛Ùyl Îy
§Ó≈!l¡¨ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛ 1s ~ ÎyÎ˚– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ 1s1 ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 1s
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ xyˆÏSÈ– !•!°Î˚yˆÏÙ !mï˛#Î˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛G 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ÌyܲˆÏï˛
63
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ~Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ 1s2 – ~•z ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ!ê˛ x˛õÓ˚!ê˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ â)î≈ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ xy°yòyñ Îy ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ
ܲ«˛#Î˚ !ã˛e ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
!°!ÌÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ åLiä ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ ˛õyí˛z°#Î˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛Ó˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ï˛y•ˆÏ° ~!ê˛ !mï˛#Î˚
§•ç°Ë˛ƒ ˛õSÈ® xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ÎyÎ˚– Li ~Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚
!Ólƒy§ 1s22s1 – 2s ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyˆÏÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˆÓ˚!Ó!°Î˚yÙ åBeä ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° 1s2 2s2 å§yÓ˚!î
2.6 ˆòˆáyñ ˛õ,¤˛y §Çáƒy 66 ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆÙÔ°ˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§
xyˆÏSÈä–
˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# SÈÎ˚!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆÓyÓ˚l åB, 1s22s22p1äñ ܲyÓ≈l åC,
1s22s22p2äñ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl åN, 1s22s22p3äñ x!:ˆÏçl åO,
1s22s22p4äñ Êœ˛% !Ó˚l åF, 1s22s22p5ä ~ÓÇ !lGl åNe, 1s22s22p6äñ
ˆÎáyˆÏl 2p ܲ«˛Ü˛ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ ˲!ï≈˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !lGl
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ~ˆÏ§ §¡õ)î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z §ÙhflÏ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ܲ«˛#Î˚ !ã˛e
!lˆÏÙy=˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚ y Ù å Na, 1s 22s 2 2p 6 3s 1 ä ˆÌˆÏ Ü ˛ xyà≈ l
åAr,1s22s22p63s23p6ä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˛õÂô!ï˛
!°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ !lGl ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ– ˆÜ˛Ó° ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ¢%ô%
~ê˛y•z ˆÎ ~áyl ˆÌˆÏܲ 3s ~ÓÇ 3p ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛ ¢%Ó%̊ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏܲ §•ç ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò ≤ÃÌÙ ò%ˆÏê˛y ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ !lGl ˆÙÔ° åNeä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲ!Ó˚–
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyà≈l ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙÔ°ˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ ˆ°áy
64
ÎyÎ˚ åNa, [Ne]3s1ä •ˆÏï˛ åAr, [Ne] 3s23p6ä– ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ ï˛yÓ˚y xhs˝/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛
~ÓÇ ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ Î%=˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
Ó°y •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ Ne ~ ˆÎ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y xhs˝/fiÌ
åcoreä •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ Na ˆÌˆÏܲ Ar-~ ˆÎ §Ü˛° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ
ï˛yÓ˚y ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l– ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ åKä ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒy°!§Î˚yÙ åCaä
~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ 4s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲÙñ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
~ܲ!ê˛ G ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ˛õÂô!ï˛ xl%§Ó˚î ܲÓ˚y Îy !ܲ ly ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
flÒƒyl!í˛Î˚yÙ åScä ˆÌˆÏܲ– 3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ 4p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y
Ü˛Ù ÓˆÏ° ≤Ã̈ÏÙ x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ •Î˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ò¢!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
çlƒñ flÒƒyl!í˛Î˚yÙ åScäñ ê˛y•zˆÏê˛!lÎ˚yÙ åTiäñ ˲ƒyly!í˛Î˚yÙ åVäñ
ˆÜ ˛y!ÙÎ˚yÙ åCräñ ÙƒyAày!lç åMnäñ xyÎ˚Ó˚l åFeäñ ˆÜ˛yÓyŒê˛
åCoäñ !lˆÏܲ° åNiäñ ܲ˛õyÓ˚ åCuä ~ÓÇ !çAܲ åZnä ˆÎáyˆÏl
˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ Óƒy˛õyÓ˚!ê˛ çylˆÏ°
xyÙÓ˚y !Óºyhs˝ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ ˛y!ÙÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ Ü˛˛õyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 4s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ 3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ~ÓÇ lÎ˚!ê˛Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ~ÓÇ ò¢!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ
§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ xô≈˛õ)î≈ ܲ«˛Ü˛ x!ôܲ §%!fiÌï˛ åxÌ≈yÍ Ü˛Ù
¢!=˛ §¡õß¨ä– ï˛y•z p3, p6, d5, d10,f 7, f14 •zï˛ƒy!ò •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚
!Ólƒy§ñ ÎyÓ˚y !ܲly xô≈˛õ)î≈ xÌÓy §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ ï˛yÓ˚y x!ôܲ
§%!fiÌï˛– ~ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÜ ˛y!ÙÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ Ü˛˛õyÓ˚ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ d5 ~ÓÇ d10
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ (xl%ˆÏFSÈò 2.6.7) [§ï˛Ü≈˛ï˛yı
Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù !ÓòƒÙyl] –
3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ 4p ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õ)î≈ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy
àƒy!°Î˚yÙ åGaä ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ü ˛˛õê˛ˆÏl åKrä §¡õ)î≈ •Î˚– ~Ó˚
˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xyë˛yˆÏÓ˚y!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚%!Ó!í˛Î˚yÙ åRbä ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆçll
åXeä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ñ 5s, 4d ~ÓÇ 5p ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ å˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ ôÓ˚lä 4s,
3d ~ÓÇ 4p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Îy í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚
xyˆÏ§ 6s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õy°y– !§!çÎ˚yÙ åCsä ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ åBaä ~Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ~•z ܲ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ÓÇ ò%Û!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ °ƒyrÌylyÙ åLaä ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyÓ˚ܲy!Ó˚ åHgäñ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ˆ«˛ˆÏe •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õ)!ï≈˛ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ 4f ~ÓÇ 5d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ ˲!ï≈˛
•Î˚ 6pñ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ 7s ~ÓÇ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ï 5f ~ÓÇ 6d ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)•–
•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ åUä ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• fl∫“fiÌyÎ˚# åshort-livedä
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y §Óy•z Ü,˛!eÙ˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ã›ï˛ •Î˚– K˛y!ï˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ §yÓ˚!î 2.6 ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°y– åÎy Óî≈y°#Ó#«˛î
˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈä–
•zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ çylyÓ˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ï˛y ܲ#⁄ Ó›ï˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
ˆÎ xyô%!lܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ï˛y ≤ÃyÎ˚ §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚
!Ólƒy§ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ñ Îy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xyã˛Ó˚î Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
§y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ≤ß¿ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ ˆÜ˛l ò%•z Óy ï˛yÓ˚
ˆÓ!¢ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xî% àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄ ˆÜ˛l !ܲS%È ˆÙÔ° ôyï%˛
Îál xˆÏlƒÓ˚y xôyï%˛⁄ ˆÜ˛l !•!°Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ xyà≈l ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• !l!‹;Î˚
!ܲv •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y §!Ü ˛Î˚⁄ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ
~Ó˚ §•ç Óƒyáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z §ÙhflÏ ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl í˛z_Ó˚
í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y xï˛ƒhs˝ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ ÎyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
xyô%!lܲ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ K˛yl ˛õyGÎ˚y §Ω˛Ó–
2.6.6 §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ xô≈˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ fiÌyÎ˚#c
(Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled
Subshells)
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ §Ó≈òy•z
~Ùl •Î˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ñ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ¢!=˛ §Ó≈!l¡¨ •Î˚– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚
˲yà ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ xl%ˆÏFSÈò 2.6.5 ˆòGÎ˚y Ù)°
l#!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y xl%§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!òG !ܲS%È ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎÙl Cu
xÌÓy Crñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ò%Û!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ å4s ~ÓÇ 3dä ¢!=˛àï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §yÙylƒ
!˲ߨñ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ!ê˛ !l¡¨¢!=˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛ å4sä ˆÌˆÏܲ
~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zFã˛¢!=˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛ å3däˆï˛ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ Î!ò ~Ó˚ܲÙ
fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zFã˛¢!=˛Î%=˛ ܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl §ÙhflÏ Ü˛«˛Ü˛
~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ Óy xô≈˛õ)î≈ •Î˚– Cr ~ÓÇ Cu ~Ó˚ ~•z
ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 3d4 4s2 ~ÓÇ 3d9
4s2 ly •ˆÏÎ˚ 3d5 4s1 ~ÓÇ 3d10 4s1 •Î˚ñ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ ~•z §ÙhflÏ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ fiÌy!Î˚c °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 65

§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ Óy xô≈˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î

§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ xô≈˛õ)î≈ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ fiÌyÎ˚#c

!l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏî •Î˚ ı
1. ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ı ~!ê˛ §%!Ó!òï˛ ˆÎ ≤Ã!ï˛§yÙƒ
fiÌyÎ˚#cˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ xÌÓy
xô≈˛õ)î≈ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ °yˆÏ˲Ó˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~à%ˆÏ°y ˆÓ!¢ §%!fiÌï˛ •Î˚– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• Î!ò 1 lÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ !Ó!lÙÎ˚
~ܲ•z ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏܲ å~áyˆÏl 3dä ï˛yÓ˚y §Ù¢!=˛§¡õߨ •Î˚
!ܲv fiÌy!lܲ !Óï˛Ó˚î !˲ߨ •Î˚– xï˛~Óñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
xyÓÓ˚î ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
myÓ˚y xyˆÏÓ˚y ò,ì˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyÜ,˛T˛ •Î˚–
2. !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ ı Îál ò%•z Óy ˆÓ!¢ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• ÎyÓ˚y
~ܲ•z !òˆÏܲ â)î≈l¢#° ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §Ù¢!=˛
§¡õߨ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ•z !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ 2 lÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ !Ó!lÙÎ˚
≤Ã˲yÓ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– ~•z §ÙhflÏ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y Îál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
fiÌyl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆòáyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ fiÌyl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÎ ¢!=˛ Î%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ ӈϰ– ~•z
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ •ˆÏÓ Îál í˛z˛õܲ«˛!ê˛ •Î˚ xô≈˛õ)î≈
xÌÓy §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ ÌyˆÏܲ å!ã˛e 2.18ä ~Ó˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
!Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ~ÓÇ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°ï˛y G §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ •Î˚–
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •Î˚ˆÏï˛y çyl ˆÎ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ •%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ §)e xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ 3 lÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ò%•z!ê˛ !Ó!lÙÎ˚
•Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ §Ù¢!=˛§¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï y Îï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ áy!°
ÌyܲˆÏÓñ ï˛ï˛«˛î •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆ°Ï y ~ܲܲ˲yˆÏÓ G•z ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï y
˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚ â)îl≈ ~ܲ•z!òˆÏܲ •ˆÏÓ– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ
Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ xô≈˛õ)î≈ Óy §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˙
x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ åiä ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ ܲÙ
xyÓÓ˚îñ åiiä «%˛oï˛Ó˚ Ü%˛°¡∫#Î˚ !Óܲ£Ïî≈ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ åiiiä Ó,•_Ó˚ 4 lÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!lÙÎ˚
!Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛– !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛
!Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– !ã˛e 2.18 d 5 !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ !Ó!lÙÎ˚
66 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§yÓ˚î# 2.6 ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§

ˆÙÔ° Z 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s 6p 6d 7s
H 1 1
He 2 2
Li 3 2 1
Be 4 2 2
B 5 2 2 1
C 6 2 2 2
N 7 2 2 3
O 8 2 2 4
F 9 2 2 5
Ne 10 2 2 6
Na 11 2 2 6 1
Mg 12 2 2 6 2
Al 13 2 2 6 2 1
Si 14 2 2 6 2 2
P 15 2 2 6 2 3
S 16 2 2 6 2 4
Cl 17 2 2 6 2 5
Ar 18 2 2 6 2 6
K 19 2 2 6 2 6 1
Ca 20 2 2 6 2 6 2
Sc 21 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
Ti 22 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
V 23 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
Cr* 24 2 2 6 2 6 5 1
Mn 25 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
Fe 26 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
Co 27 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
Ni 28 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
Cu* 29 2 2 6 2 6 10 1
Zn 30 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
Ga 31 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
Ge 32 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
As 33 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
Se 34 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
Br 35 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
Kr 36 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
Rb 37 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1
Sr 38 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2
Y 39 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Zr 40 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
Nb* 41 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 4 1
Mo* 42 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 1
Tc 43 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 6 1
Ru* 44 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 7 1
Rh* 45 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 8 1
Pd* 46 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10
Ag* 47 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 1
Cd 48 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2
In 49 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 1
Sn 50 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 2
Sb 51 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 3
Te 52 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 4
I 53 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 5
Xe 54 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6

D Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù# •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ Î%=˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)•

˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 67

ˆÙÔ° Z 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s 6p 6d 7s

Cs 55 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1
Ba 56 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 2
La* 57 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Ce* 58 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 2 6 2
Pr 59 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 3 2 6 2
Nd 60 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 4 2 6 2
Pm 61 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 5 2 6 2
Sm 62 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 6 2 6 2
Eu 63 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 7 2 6 2
Gd* 64 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 7 2 6 1 2
Tb 65 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 9 2 6 2
Dy 66 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 10 2 6 2
Ho 67 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 11 2 6 2
Er 68 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 12 2 6 2
Tm 69 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 13 2 6 2
Yb 70 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 2
Lu 71 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 1 2
Hf 72 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 2 2
Ta 73 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 3 2
W 74 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2
Re 75 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 5 2
Os 76 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 6 2
Ir 77 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 7 2
Pt* 78 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 9 2
Au* 79 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2
Hg 80 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2
Tl 81 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 1
Pb 82 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 2
Bi 83 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 3
Po 84 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 4
At 85 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 5
Rn 86 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6
Fr 87 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 1
Ra 88 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 2
Ac 89 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Th 90 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
Pa 91 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 2 2 6 1 2
U 92 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 3 2 6 1 2
Np 93 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 4 2 6 1 2
Pu 94 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 6 2 6 2
Am 95 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 7 2 6 2
Cm 96 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 7 2 6 1 2
Bk 97 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 8 2 6 1 2
Cf 98 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 10 2 6 2
Es 99 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 11 2 6 2
Fm 100 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 12 2 6 2
Md 101 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 13 2 6 2
No 102 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 2
Lr 103 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 1 2
Rf 104 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 10 2 6 2 2
Db 105 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 11 2 6 3 2
Sg 10 6 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 12 2 6 4 2
Bh 10 7 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 13 2 6 5 2
Hs 10 8 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 6 2
Mt 10 9 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 7 2
Ds 110 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 8 2
Rg** 111 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 1

DD 112 Óy ~Ó˚ x!ôܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ° ï˛yÓ˚y !ÓÓ,ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ !ܲv ~áˆÏly xl%ˆÏÙy!òï˛ lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ lyÙyܲÓ˚îG •Î˚!l–
68 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

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˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ï˛c ≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ ˆÎáyˆÏl Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ó›Ó˚ ã)˛í˛¸yhs˝ x!Ó˲yçƒ Ü˛îy– |l!ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆ¢£ÏyˆÏô≈ñ
˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÙy!îï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù)• !Ó˲yçƒ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚y !ï˛l!ê˛ Ù)° ܲ!îܲy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ~ÓÇ !lí˛zê˛∆l myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛–
xÓ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîyÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ àë˛l !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ≤ÃhflÏyÓlyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%%Ó˚ àë˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
1898 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ÌÙ§l ≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù˲yˆÏÓ Ó!î≈ï˛ ôlydܲ xyôyl Î%=˛ ˆày°Ü˛ ÎyˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l§Ù)•
@˝Ã!Ìï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z ÙˆÏí˛° xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ §Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛ 1909
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ï˛yÓ˚ !Óáƒyï˛ ∝ÈüÈܲîy !ӈϫ˛˛õ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y ≤ÃÙyî ܲˆÏÓ˚l ~•z ôyÓ˚îy Ë%˛°– Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yí≈˛ ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •l ˆÎ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ «%˛o ôlydܲ xyôyl Î%=˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ Îy ~Ó˚ ˆÜ˛wˆÏܲ Óï≈˛Ùyl ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• ~Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ Ó,_ܲyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ
xyÓï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ÙˆÏí˛°ñ ˆ§ÔÓ˚ çàˆÏï˛Ó˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ !l!Ÿã˛ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ÌÙ§ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ÙˆÏí˛°
ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zߨï˛Ó˚)˛õ– !ܲv ~•z ï˛_¥ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ fiÌyÎ˚#c Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ x§ÙÌ≈– xÌ≈yÍ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÜ˛l !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l xÌ≈yÍ !Ólƒy§ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ˆl•z– l#°§ ˆÓyÓ˚ 1913 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ïÑ˛yÓ˚ àë˛l !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ àë˛l !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚
x§%!Óôyà%ˆÏ°y ò)Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˆÓyÓ˚ òy!Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ xyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y
!l!ò≈T˛ ܲ«˛ !ÓòƒÙyl ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ¢!=˛§¡õߨ– ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲˆÏ«˛ â)î≈yÎ˚Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
¢!=˛ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚l ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ çlƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ò)Ó˚c §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˲!Ó£ÏƒÍ Óyî# ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˆÓyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ àë˛l !ã˛e
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óî≈y°# ÓƒyáƒyÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ê˛° àë˛l !ã˛e !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚ñ !ܲv Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆Ó˚l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óî≈y°#Ó˚
Óƒyáƒy !òˆÏï˛ ï˛y x§ÙÌ≈– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î!ê˛ §•§y•z xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àë˛l!ã˛ˆÏe ~!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ôÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ~ܲ!ê˛
xyôylÎ%=˛ ܲîy Îy !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛w ܲˆÏÓ˚ §%§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ó,_yܲyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌ xyÓ!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%!l!ò≈T˛ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ ˛õÌ ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õÌ!ê˛ˆÏܲ ï˛ál•z ¢%ô%Ùye §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ Îál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ §!ë˛Ü˛ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà ~ܲ•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ çyly ÎyÎ˚– •y•zˆÏ§lÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y
ܲÙyˆÏly•z §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ¢%ô%Ùye •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˜mï˛ ã˛!Ó˚eˆÏܲ•z í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ lñ ~!ê˛
•y•zˆÏ§l ÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛G xfl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~Ó˚í˛z•zl ˆflÀy![˛çyÓ˚ 1926 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ~Ó˚ ≤ÃhflÏyÓly ܲˆÏÓ˚l Îy ˆflÀy!í˛çyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ñ ÎyÓ˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ ¢)ˆÏlƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xl%ˆÏÙy!òï˛ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
!í˛ÈüÈÓ à°#Î˚ ôyÓ˚îy xÌ≈yÍ ï˛Ó˚Aà ܲîyÓ˚ ˜mï˛ ã˛!Ó˚e– •y•zˆÏ§l ÓyˆÏà≈Ó˚ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y l#!ï˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌG ~!ê˛ §Aà!ï˛˛õ)î≈– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ˆflÀy![˛çyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ åψä åÎy •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛ Î%=˛ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ä–
~•z §ÙhflÏ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛y•z¢í˛ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xl%Ó˚)˛õ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˆ§ê˛ ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ åÙ%áƒ
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy nñ !òàÇ¢#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy l ~ÓÇ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy mlä– ~•z ôyÓ˚îyà%ˆÏ°y ˆflÀy!u˛çyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
§Ùyôyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ˛õ!Ó˚î!ï˛ !•§yˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏë˛ xyˆÏ§– !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛yG xÓ¢ƒ ~•z §Ùyôyl
ˆÌˆÏܲ•z fl∫y˲y!Óܲ˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ§– ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó° !ÓòƒyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy xl%ÎyÎ˚# ≤ÃyÆ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏí˛°ñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
Óî≈y°#Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy !òˆÏï˛ §Ê˛°ñ Îy ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛° myÓ˚y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒy ÙˆÏí˛° xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y !Ó!˲ߨ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z ܲ«˛à%ˆ° Ï y xyÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ §Ù!ß∫ï˛ ~ÓÇ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ §Ù)• xyÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~Ó˚ §Ùß∫ˆÎÏ ˚
à!ë˛ï˛ÈüüüÈ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl §ò,¢ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ åˆÎÙl He+, Li2+ •zï˛ƒy!òä ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛
xÓ!fiÌï˛ §ÙhflÏ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ §Ùyl •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó•% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî n ~ÓÇ l ~Ó˚
ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ı ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ ån + lä Ùyl Îï˛ Ü˛Ùñ ï˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG ï˛ï˛ Ü˛Ù– Î!ò ò%Û!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ån + lä
Ùyl §Ùyl •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü˛Ù ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙylG Ü˛Ù– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù xˆÏlܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ω˛Ó ~ÓÇ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 69

•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• G•z ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ ˆÙˆÏl å~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ò%!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˆ§ê˛ ~ܲ •Î˚ lyä ~ÓÇ •%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ Ùy!Œê˛!≤’!§!ê˛ !lÎ˚Ù å~ܲ•z í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ܲ«˛Ü˛
§Ù)ˆÏ• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ •GÎ˚y ï˛ï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚ Îï˛«˛î ly G•z í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y
˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ~ܲܲ ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ä •Î˚– ~•z l#!ï˛à%ˆÏ°y•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˲!_–

xl%¢#°l#
2.1 (i) ~Ùl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ÎyÓ˚y ˆÙyê˛ ~ܲ @˝ÃyÙ Ë˛Ó˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(ii) ~ܲ ˆÙy° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xyôyl àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.2 (i) ~ܲ ˆÙy° !ÙˆÏ̈Ïl í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(ii) 7 mg C ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !lí˛zê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ (a) ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ (b) ˆÙyê˛ Ë˛Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚– åôˆÏÓ˚ lyG ~ܲ!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
14

1.675 × 10 kgä
–27

(iii) STP ˆï˛ 34 mg NH3 ˆï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ (a) ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ (b) ˆÙyê˛ Ë˛Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚– í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏ° í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓ !ܲ⁄
2.3 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l ~ÓÇ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy ܲï˛⁄
13 16 24 56 88
6C, 8O, 12 Mg , 26 Fe, 38 Sr

2.4 l#ˆÏã˛ ≤Ãò_ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ (Z) ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ (A) Î%=˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §¡õ)î≈ !ã˛•´ !°á–
(i) Z = 17 , A = 35.
(ii) Z = 92 , A = 233.
(iii) Z = 4 , A = 9.
2.5 ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ Óy!ï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ •°%ò ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ (λ) 580 nm. •°%ò xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ܲ¡õyAܲ (ν)
~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒy ( ν ) àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.6 !lˆÏã˛ ≤Ãò_ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(i) 3×1015 Hz. ܲ¡õyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ÓÇ
(ii) 0.50 Å ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
2.0 × 10 s ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ܲy° !Ó!¢T˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒñ ܲ¡õyAܲ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
–10
2.7
2.8 4000 pm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ xyˆÏ°yܲ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy Ü˛ï˛ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ˆÙyê˛ 1J ¢!=˛ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
2.9 4 × 10–7 m ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛l ˆÜ˛yl ôyï˛Ó ï˛ˆÏ° xyâyï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆ°
Ï ~ÓÇ ˙ ôyï%˛Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ 2.13 eV •ˆÏ°
(i) ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ (eV)
(ii) !l/§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe à!ï˛¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ
(iii) ˆÊ˛yˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y
–19
(1 eV= 1.6020 × 10 J).
2.10 ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ 242 nm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ•z ˛õÎ≈yÆ– ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚
xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ¢!=˛ kJ mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.11 25 GÎ˚yê˛ «˛Ùï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓyÕ∫ 0.57µm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ ~Ü˛ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ •°%ò xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ !là≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛
ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛y !l/§Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ •yÓ˚ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
70 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

2.12 ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôyï%˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!Ó˚ï˛ˆÏ° 6800 Å ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ xy˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •ˆÏ° ¢)lƒ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà §¡õߨ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !là≈ï˛
•Î˚– ôyï%˛Ó˚ §)ã˛ly ܲ¡õyAܲ (ν0 ) ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÎ≈ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛(W0 ) !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.13 Îál •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l n = 4 ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ n = 2 ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚ xÓï˛!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏ° !Óܲ#î≈ xyˆÏ°yܲ
Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ܲï˛⁄
2.14 Î!ò •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ n = 5 ܲˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ xyÎ˚!lï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛
Ü˛ï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl⁄ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ §!•ï˛ ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚ (n =1 ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛)
2.15 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l n = 6 ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ë)˛!ÙhflψÏÓ˚ xÓï˛!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏ° !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ
§Çáƒy ܲï˛⁄
2.16 (i) •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ –2.18 × 10–18 J atom–1. ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˛õM˛Ù ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
(ii) •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õM˛Ù ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
2.17 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÓyÙyÓ˚ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ Î%=˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.18 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÓyÓ˚ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õM˛Ù ˆÓyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ ç%°
~ܲˆÏܲ Ü˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ Îál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflψÏÓ˚ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ§ ï˛ˆÏÓ !Óܲ#î≈ xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ܲï˛⁄
Ë)˛!ÙhflψÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ –2.18 × 10–11 ergs.
2.19 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ En = (–2.18 × 10–18 )/n2 J. n = 2 ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ
§¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !là≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚– ~Ó˚)˛õ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyˆÏ°yܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ
cm ~ܲˆÏܲ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
2.05 × 10 m s à!ï˛ˆÏÓà §¡õߨ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
7 –1
2.20
2.21 ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 9.1 × 10–31 kg. Î!ò ~Ó˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ 3.0 × 10–25 J •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.22 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yîà%ˆÏ°y xy•zˆÏ§y•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆!lܲ xÌ≈yÍ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óï≈˛Ùyl⁄
Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, S2–, Ar.
2.23 (i) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ !°áı
– + 2– –
(a) H (b) Na (c) O (d) F
(ii) ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 1
(a) 3s (b) 2p
3
~ÓÇ (c) 3p5 ?
(iii) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ólƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
1 2 3 2 1
(a) [He] 2s (b) [Ne] 3s 3p (c) [Ar] 4s 3d .
2.24 n ~Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ Ùyl myÓ˚y g ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!hflÏcˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚⁄
2.25 ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 3d í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛– í˛z=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛Ó˚ n, l ~ÓÇ ml ~Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ Ùyl ˆ°ˆÏáy–
2.26 ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ 29!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ 35!ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– (i) ~Ó˚ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ (ii) ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
H2 , H2 ~ÓÇ O2 ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
+ +
2.27
2.28 (i) n = 3 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ l ~ÓÇ ml ~Ó˚ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄
(ii) 3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ (ml and l ) ï˛y!°Ü˛y ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(iii) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ í˛z˛õܲ«˛à%ˆÏ°y §Ω˛Ó⁄
1p, 2s, 2p ~ÓÇ 3f
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 71

2.29 s, p, d !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y Ó!î≈ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(a) n=1, l=0; (b) n = 3; l=1 (c) n = 4; l =2; (d) n=4; l=3.
2.30 ܲyÓ˚î §• Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˆ§ê˛ §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚–
(a) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½
(b) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = – ½
(c) n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = + ½
(d) n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = – ½
(e) n = 3, l = 3, ml = –3, ms = + ½
(f) n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = + ½
2.31 ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy Î%=˛ ܲÎ˚!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ⁄
(a) n = 4, ms = – ½ (b) n = 3, l = 0
2.32 ˆòáyG ˆÎñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÓyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚!ôñ ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ â)îy≈ Î˚Ùyl •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛ !í˛ÈüȈӠyà!°Ó˚
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ó˚° à%!îï˛Ü˛–
2.33 He+ Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ÓyÙyÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ n=4 ˆÌˆÏܲ n=2 ~Ó˚ ~ܲ•z ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl
fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ùyl⁄
2.34
+ 2+
He (g) g He (g) + e
–
~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
H ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ Ë)˛!ÙhflψÏÓ˚ xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ¢!=˛ 2.18 × 10–18 J atom–1

2.35 Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óƒy§ 0.15 nm •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ 20 cm ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚° ˆÓ˚áyˆÏï˛ ˛õ¢y˛õy!¢ Ó§yˆÏly ÎyÎ˚ ~Ó˚)˛õ
ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.36 2 ×108 §ÇáƒÜ˛ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ §yçyˆÏly •°– Î!ò ~•zÓ˚)˛õ §IyÎ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ 2.4 cm •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
Óƒy§yô≈ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.37 !çÇܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óƒy§ 2.6 Å– (a) pm ~ܲˆÏܲ !çÇܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ~ÓÇ (b) Î!ò !çÇܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢
˜òâ≈ƒ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ §yçyˆÏly •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ 1.6 cm ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.38 ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲîy 2.5 × 10–16C !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í xyôyl Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.39 Ù)!°ˆÏܲl ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ í˛zj#Æ X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬ myÓ˚y ˜ï˛° !Ó®%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í xyôyˆÏl xy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Î!ò ˜ï˛° !Ó®%Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í xyôyl –1.282 × 10–18C •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.40 Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ë˛yÓ˚# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÎÙl ˆày”˛ñ ≤’y!ê˛lyÙ •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ ˛õyï˛°y ˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ α-ܲîyÓ˚ myÓ˚y
xyâyï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– Î!ò ˛õyï˛°y ˛õyï˛ !•§yˆÏÓ •y°Ü˛y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÎÙl xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ •zï˛ƒy!ò ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
2.41 79
35
Br ~ÓÇ 79Br ≤Ãï˛#ܲ ò%!ê˛ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ !ܲv 79
35
Br ~ÓÇ 35Br ≤Ãï˛#ܲà%ˆÏ°y @˝Ã•îˆÏÎyàƒ lÎ˚– §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG–

2.42 81 ˲Ó˚§Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ 31.7% !lí˛zê˛∆l ˆÓ!¢ xyˆÏSÈ– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
≤Ãï˛#ܲ!ê˛ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
2.43 ~ܲ ~ܲܲ }îydܲ xyôylÎ%=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ §Çáƒy 37 – Î!ò xyÎ˚l!ê˛ˆÏï˛•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ 11.1% ˆÓ!¢
!lí˛zê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ xyÎ˚l!ê˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
72 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

2.44 3 ~ܲܲ ôlydܲ xyôyl Î%=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ §Çáƒy 56 ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ 30.4% !lí˛zê˛∆l ˆÓ!¢ xyˆÏSÈ–
xyÎ˚l!ê˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
2.45 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yçyG ı (a) Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛yGˆÏ˲l ã%˛Õ‘#Ó˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î (b) ê˛∆y!Ê˛Ü˛
!§àlƒyˆÏ°Ó˚ !˛õï˛y˲ •°%ò ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ (c) FM ˆÓ˚!í˛GÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î (d) Ù•y¢)lƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyàï˛ Ù•yçyà!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ (e)
X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬
2.46 ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ˆ°çyÓ˚ 337.1 nm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò !là≈ï˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy 5.6 × 1024 •Î˚
ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z ˆ°çyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ «˛Ùï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.47 §y•zlˆÏÓyˆÏí≈˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !lÎ˚l àƒy§ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò ~!ê˛ 616 nm ~ ¢!=˛¢y°# !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !là≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ (a) !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
ܲ¡õyAܲ (b) 30 s §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î myÓ˚y x!ï˛Ü ˛yhs˝ ò)Ó˚c (c) ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yˆÏÙÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ (d) Î!ò ~!ê˛ 2 J ¢!=˛ í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚
ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÓ˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.48 ˆçƒy!ï≈˛!ÓK˛yl §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛ˆÏlñ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# ï˛yÓ˚yà%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ò,¢ƒÙyl §ÇˆÏܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ò%Ó≈° •Î˚– Î!ò ˆÊ˛yê˛l
§ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î Îsf 600 nm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙyê˛ 3.15 × 10–18 J ¢!=˛ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ §ly=˛Ü˛Ó˚î ΈÏsf
§Çà,!•ï˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.49 í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xî%§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ç#Ólܲy° ≤ÃyÎ˚•z lƒyˆÏly ˆ§ˆÏܲ[˛ ˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy°§‰í˛ åpulsedä !Ó!ܲÓ˚î í˛zͧ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Î!ò !Ó!ܲÓ˚î í˛z͈ϧÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ܲy° 2 ns ~ÓÇ í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ !là≈ï˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy 2.5 × 1015 •Î˚
ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛z͈ϧÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.50 589 nm ~ÓÇ 589.6 nm ~ï˛ ò#â≈ï˛Ù ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆ¢y£Ïî í˛yÓˆÏ°ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲÙyAܲ
~ÓÇ ò%!ê˛ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.51 !§!çÎ˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ 1.9 eV – !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ (a) §%ã˛ly ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ (b) §%ã˛ly ܲ¡õyAܲ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– Î!ò
!§!çÎ˚yÙ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ˆÏܲ 500 nm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ í˛zqy!§ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ !l/§,ï˛ ˆÊ˛yˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛
~ÓÇ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.52 ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ôyï%˛ˆÏܲ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ í˛zqy!§ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ° !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛°à%ˆÏ°y ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ (a) §%ã˛ly
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ (b) ≤’yˆÏAܲÓ˚ ô %Óܲ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
λ (nm) 500 450 400
–5 –1
v × 10 (cm s ) 2.55 4.35 5.35
2.53 xyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !l/§,ï˛ ˆÊ˛yˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÌyÙyˆÏï˛ 0.35 V !ÓË˛Ó ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ Îál !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ •° 256.7 nm, !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.54 Î!ò 150 pm ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛l ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÓÂô
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 1.5 × 107 m s–1 à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏà !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ~!ê˛ ˆÎ ¢!=˛ˆÏï˛ xyÓÂô ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y !lî≈Î˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.55 ˛õƒyˆÏ§l §y!Ó˚Ó˚ Óî≈y!° n ï˛Ù í˛zFã˛ Ü˛«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ ~ÓÇ n = 3 ܲˆÏ«˛ ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ v = 3.29 × 1015 (Hz) [ 1/
3 – 1/n ] myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Î!ò fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚!ê˛ 1285 nm ~ ò,¢ƒÙyl •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚– Óî≈y°#!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yl
2 2

xM˛ˆÏ° xÓ!fiÌï˛⁄
2.56 !là≈Ùl fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y Îy 1.3225 nm Óƒy§yô≈ Î%=˛ ܲ«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ ~ÓÇ 211.6 pm Óƒy§yô≈Î%=˛
ܲˆÏ«˛ ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚– ~•z Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yl‰ §y!Ó˚Ë%˛=˛ ï˛yÓ˚ lyÙ ˆ°ˆÏáy ~ÓÇ •z•yÓ˚ Óî≈y°#àï˛ xÓfiÌyl ˆ°ˆÏáy–
2.57 !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ myÓ˚y ≤ÃhflÏy!Óï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˜mï˛ §_y Ùï˛Óyò!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xl%Ó#«˛î ΈÏsfÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ù)° ܲyÓ˚î Îy ≤ÃyÎ˚•z
˜ç!Óܲ xî%Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó›Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ !ÓÓ!ô≈ï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!Ó¡∫ §,!T˛ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò xî%Ó#«˛î ΈÏsf •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 1.6 × 106 ms–1 •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l 73

2.58 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓFS%ÈÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛yñ !lí˛zê˛∆l !ÓFS%ÈÓ˚î xî%Ó#«˛î ÎsfG xî%Ó˚ àë˛l !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò 800 pm
ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ !lí˛zê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ÇÎ%=˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛àï˛ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.59 Î!ò ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÓyÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 2.19 × 106 ms–1 •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ÇÎ%=˛ !í˛ÈüÈÓ à!°Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ
!lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
1000 V !ÓË˛Ó ≤ÈÏ˲ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ à!ï˛¢#° ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 4.37 × 10 ms – Î!ò ~ܲ•z à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏà à!ï˛¢#°
5 –1
2.60
~ܲ!ê˛ •!ܲ ӈϰÓ˚ Gçl 0.1 kg •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ÇÎ%=˛ ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
2.61 Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl + 0.002 nm ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !lË%˛≈ °Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÓÏ à ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚
x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚– Î!ò •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏÓà h/4πm × 0.05 nm •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z Ùyl §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x§%!Óôy xyˆÏSÈ !ܲ⁄
2.62 SÈÎ˚!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy §Ù)• !lˆÏ¡¨ ˆòGÎ˚y •°– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yçyG– ~•z §Ùß∫Î˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ܲ# §Ùyl xyˆÏSÈ ı
1
1. n = 4, l = 2, ml = –2 , ms = –
2
1
2. n = 3, l = 2, ml = 1 , ms = +
2
1
3. n = 4, l = 1, ml = 0 , ms = +
2
1
4. n = 3, l = 2, ml = –2 , ms = –
2
1
5. n = 3, l = 1, ml = –1 , ms = +
2
1
6. n = 4, l = 1, ml = 0 , ms = +
2
2.63 ˆÓ y!Ùl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ 35!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ 2p í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ 6!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ 3p í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ 6!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ 4p í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛
5!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xyôyl xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚⁄
2.64 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˆçyí˛¸à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ó° xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ⁄
(i) 2s ~ÓÇ 3s, (ii) 4d ~ÓÇ 4f, (iii) 3d ~ÓÇ 3p.
2.65 Al ~ÓÇ Si ~Ó˚ xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y 3p í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛– ˆÜ˛yl‰ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚#
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ó° xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ⁄
2.66 xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ÈyüüüÈ (a) P, (b) Si, (c) Cr, (d) Fe ~ÓÇ (e) Kr.
2.67 (a) n = 4 ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ܲÎ˚!ê˛ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ §ÇÎ%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ⁄
1
(b) n = 4 ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ §Ù)ˆÏ• í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy Ü˛ï˛ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ms Ùyl −
2
74
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
(Classification of Elements and
Periodicity in Properties)
í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ åObjectivesä
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y §«˛Ù •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
• ˛ˆÙÔ°§Ù) • ˆÏ Ü ˛ ~ˆÏ ò Ó˚ ôˆÏ Ù ≈ Ó ˚ !˲!_ˆÏ ï ˛
ˆ◊!îÓÂôܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ âˆÏê˛ˆÏSÈ ï˛y í˛z˛õ°!kô ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e!ê˛˛Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛– ˛
• ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!Ë!_ܲ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yˆÏàÓ˚ !˲!_ !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
Ü ˛ÙyAܲ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆!lܲ !Ólƒy§ ~Ó˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈
í˛z˛õ°!kô ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• IUPAC lyÙܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ÈZ >100 !Ó!¢T˛
ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛ˆÙÔ°§Ù)•ˆÏܲ s, p, d, f ÓœˆÏܲ ˆ◊!îË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ù%რôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylˆÏï˛–
• ˆÙÔ°§Ù) ˆ Ï • Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ G Ó˚ y §yÎ˚ ! lܲ ôˆÏ Ù ≈ Ó ˚
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ≤ÃÓîï˛yˆÏܲ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤Ãyã%˛ˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°y!˛õ ~ÓÇ ôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ˆÏܲ
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛õÓ˚ Ù yî% Ó ˚ !ܲS% È à% Ó ˚ % c ˛õ) î ≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆÎÙl
˛õyÓ˚ Ù yî!Óܲ‡xyÎ˚ l #Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ñ xyÎ˚ l yÎ˚ l
~l̃y°!˛õñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õñ ï˛!í˛¸Í
}îydܲï˛yñ ˆÎyçƒï˛y §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ôyÓ˚îy xyˆÏ°yã˛ly
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ ÎÌyÎÌ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ¢∑ ˲y[˛yÓ˚
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ xôƒyÎ˚
(UNIT 3)
˛The Periodic Table is arguably the most important concept in chemistry,
both in principle and in practice. It is the everyday support for students, it
suggests new avenues of research to professionals, and it provides a succinct
organization of the whole of chemistry. It is a remarkable demonstration of the
fact that the chemical elements are not a random cluster of entities but instead
display trends and lie together in families. An awareness of the Periodic Table is
essential to anyone who wishes to disentangle the world and see how it is built
up from the fundamental building blocks of the chemistry, the chemical ele-
ments.
Glenn T. Seaborg
~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ x@˝Ãà!ï˛Ó˚ •z!ï˛•y§ñ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~!ê˛ Óï≈˛ÙylÓ˚)˛õ
ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏS ~ÓÇ xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚Ó– xyÙÓ˚y ~ê˛yG çylÓ ˆÎ ܲ# ܲˆÏÓ˚
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yàÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ê˛°◊%!% ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Î%!=˛Î%=˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ï xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ
≤ÃÓîï˛y !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
3.1 ˆÜ˛l ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl⁄ (WHY DO WE NEED TO
CLASSIFY ELEMENTS ?)
xyÙÓ˚y ~ál çy!l §Ó ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Ù)° ~ܲܲ •° ˆÙÔ°– 1800 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ùye
31 !ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ܲÌy çyly !SÈ°– 1865 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ~•z §Çáƒy ≤ÃyÎ˚ !mà%î
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ 63 •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl 114 !ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ x!hflÏc çyly ˆàˆÏSÈ–
~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §y¡±!ï˛Ü˛ xy!Ófl,Òï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï y •° Ùl%£ƒÏ !l!Ù≈ï˛– lï%˛l ˆÙÔ° §ÇˆÏŸ’£ˆÏ îÏ Ó˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ çy!Ó˚ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §Çáƒy ~ï˛ !Ó¢y° •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y á%Ó•z ò%Ó•)˚ – ~•z §Ù§ƒyÓ˚ §ÙyôyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ !ÓK˛yl#àî ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ
ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒhflÏ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ K˛ylˆÏܲ §Çà!ë˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !lÎ˚Ùyl%à ˛õÂô!ï˛ xl%§rôƒyl
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ¢%ô% ˆÎ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ã˛!Ó˚eˆÏܲ Î%!=˛§•Ü˛yˆÏÓ˚
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ï˛y•z lÎ˚ñ ˛˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ çlƒ lï%˛l ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ x!hflˆÏ cÏ Ó˚ Óƒy˛õyˆÏÓG ˚
xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 75

3.2 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yˆÏàÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_ (GENESIS OF Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Ó˚%c xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yçyl ~ÓÇ °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION) ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆÌˆÏܲ àîly ¢%Ó%˚ ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xT˛Ù ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚
˛õÓ˚#«˛y ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ !ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ !ÓK˛yl#Ó˚ x!ç≈ï˛ ôÙ≈ñ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ •Î˚ å§yÓ˚!î 3.2ä– §Çà#ˆÏï˛Ó˚ fl∫Ó˚@˝ÃyˆÏÙ
K˛yˆÏlÓ˚ !lÎ˚Ùyl%à Ó˚#!ï˛ÓÂôܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ Ê˛°flÀ!% ï˛ˆÏï˛•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏܲ !Ó!˲ߨ xT˛Ù fl∫Ó˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆÎÙl ≤ÃÌÙ fl∫Ó˚!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ •Î˚ñ ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛G
ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ !ÓlƒhflÏ Ü˛Ó˚y ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§)e G ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù!Óܲy¢ !SÈ° xˆÏlܲê˛y ˙Ó˚Ü˛Ù– ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !lí˛z°ƒyu˛§‰
§Ω˛Ó •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– 1800 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑Ó˚ ˆàyí˛¸yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ çyÙ≈yl Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò ÈüÈ~Ó˚ xT˛Ü˛ §)e!ê˛ ≤ÈÏÎyçƒ •Î˚– Î!òG ï˛ÑyÓ˚ ~•z ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˙
ˆçy•yl ˆí˛yˆÏÓ!Ó˚lyÓ˚ §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ï˛y §ÙˆÏÎ˚ Óƒy˛õܲ˲yˆÏÓ à,•#ï˛ •Î˚!l ï˛Ó%G ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ° 1887 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
°«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– 1829 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!lñ !ï˛l!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÓ¢ °u˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó˚Î˚y° ˆ§y§y•z!ê˛ ~ !ӣψÏÎ˚ ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ çlƒ ˆí˛!˲ ˆÙˆÏí˛°
ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §yò,¢ƒ °«˛ (Devy Medal) !òˆÏÎ˚ í˛zlyˆÏܲ §¡øy!lï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l–
ܲˆÏÓl˚ åeÎ˚#ä– !ï˛!l °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï l ˆÎñ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ eÎ˚#Ó˚ ÙyV˛áyˆÏlÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y xyç ˆÎ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e çy!lñ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛zß!¨ ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ Ó˚y!¢Î˚yl
ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Óc%˚ x˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Óˆ%˚ cÏ Ó˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò !í˛!Ù!ê˛∆ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎË˚ ˛ åDmitri Mendeleevä (1834-
≤ÃyÎ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ •Î˚ å§yÓ˚!î 3.1)– !ï˛!l xyÓ˚G °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°l 1907) ~ÓÇ çyÙ≈yl Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò ˆ°yÌyÓ˚ ˆÙÎ˚yÓ˚ (1830-1895)
ˆÎ eÎ˚#Ó˚ ÙyV˛áyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ eÎ˚#Ó˚ xlƒ ò%ˆÏê˛y ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ôÙ≈ ~Ó˚ ܲyˆÏSÈ xyÙÓ˚y }î#– fl∫ï˛sf˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ~•z ò%•z Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò
!Ó!¢T˛ •Î˚– ˆí˛yˆÏÓ!Ó˚lyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ eÎ˚# §)e lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏ°Gñ l869 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎñ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
~!ê˛ §yÙylƒ ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÎÏ yçƒ !SÈ° ӈϰ ܲyܲï˛y°#Î˚ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Óc%̊ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yçyˆÏly •ˆÏ°ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.1 ˆí˛yˆÏÓ!Ó˚lyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ eÎ˚# (Dobereiner’s Triads)
ˆÙÔ° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˆÙÔ° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˆÙÔ° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
à%Óc%̊ à%Óc%̊ à%Óc%̊
Li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.5
Na 23 Sr 88 Br 80
K 39 Ba 137 I 127

âê˛ly ӈϰ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ~ÓÇ Óç≈l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– xÓܲyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ˆ◊!îÓÂô ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ≤ÈãÏ ˛T˛y!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ !SȈ°Ï l 1862 ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yò,¢ƒ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆ°yÌyÓ˚ ˆÙÎ˚yÓ˚ åLothar Meyerä
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ê ˛y™ Ë)˛ï˛_¥!Óò ~É •zÉ !ÓÉ !í˛ ã˛ylܲ!ê≈˛§ (A. E. B. de ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Óˆ%˚ cÏ Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ ˆÎÙl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Chancourtois)– !ï˛!l ˙ §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ à°lyAܲ ~ÓÇ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ ~Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆã˛y. xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Óc%˚ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_Ó˚ lÙ%ly ≤ÃyÆ Ü˛ˆÏÓl˚ – ˆ°yÌyÓ˚ ˆÙÎ˚yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
§y!çˆÏÎ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛l !ܲv !lí˛z°ƒyu˛§ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùï˛ !SÈ° lyñ !ï˛!l ~•z ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ !˲!_ܲ
ï˛ÑyÓ˚ ~•z ≤ÈãÏ ˛fiê˛yG !ӈϢ£Ï ÙˆÏlyˆÏÎyà xyܲ£Ïî≈ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ!˚ l– •zLjÏÓç
˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,!_Ó˚ ôÓ˚l!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˜òˆÏâƒ≈ Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°Ï l– 1868
Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò çl xyˆÏ°Ü˛çyu˛yÓ˚ !lí˛z°ƒyu˛§‰ 1865 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ÚxT˛Ü˛ !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ñ ˆ°yÌyÓ˚ ˆÙÎ˚yÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ xÓï˛yÓ˚îy
§)eÛ (Law of Octaves) ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ° Ï l– !ï˛!l ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï l Îy !SÈ° xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ xl%Ó˛)˚ õ–
§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.2 !lí˛z°ƒyu˛§ xfiê˛Ü˛ (Newlands’ Octaves)
ˆÙÔ° Li Be B C N O F
˛õyÉ à%Ó˚%c 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
ˆÙÔ° Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
˛õyÉ à%Ó˚%c 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
ˆÙÔ° K Ca
˛õyÉ à%Ó˚%c 39 40
76 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

!ÓK˛yl# !í˛!Ù!ê˛∆ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲ (Dmitri Mendeleev) G
ˆ°yÌyÓ˚ ˆÙÎ˚yÓ˚ ò%çˆÏl•z ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Èüȧˆ) eÏ Ó˚ !ӣψÎÏ ˚ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ çlƒ fl∫#Ü,˛!ï˛
ˆ˛õˆÏ°G ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏΈ˚ ËÏ ˛Ó˚ §)e!ê˛ §yÙylƒ xyˆÏà ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ˛õÎ≈y≈ Î˚
§)ˆÏeÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ lyÙ•z §yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘!áï˛ •Î˚–
Î!òG ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ §¡õÜ≈˛ ˆáÑyçyÓ˚ ܲyçê˛y
ˆí˛yˆÏÓ!Ó˚lyÓ˚ ¢%Ó%̊ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï lñ !ܲv !ÓK˛yl# ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎË˚ ˛•z §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§)e ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ !ÓÓ,!ï˛!ê˛ !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ ı
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôÙ≈ §Ù)• ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Ó˚%c Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,_ •Î˚–
ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Ó˚%c
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §y!çˆÏÎ˚ ܲï˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ §y!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ hflψÏΩ˛
fiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚l ÎyˆÏï˛ §ÙôÙ≈# ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ•z í˛zÕ‘¡∫ hflÏΩ˛ Óy @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ ˛õÂô!ï˛
ˆ°yÌyÓ˚ ˆÙÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ x!ôܲ §¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛ !SÈ°– !ï˛!l §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ó,!_Ó˚ ï˛yͲõˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ fl∫#Ü,˛!ï˛ ˆòl ~ÓÇ ˆË˛Ôï˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!Ólƒy§ˆÏܲ Ó,•_Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲˛ fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §yò,ˆÏ¢ƒÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
!ï˛!l xl%ôyÓl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰlñ Î!ò ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Ó˚%ˆÏcÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù
ÎÌyÎÌ˲yˆÏÓ xl%§,ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál !ܲS%È ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈ܲÓ˚# •Î˚ly– !ï˛!l ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ à%Ó˚%c ~Ó˚
Ü ˛Ù Óyò !òˆÏÎ˚ !ã˛hs˝y ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÜ˛lly !ï˛!l ˆË˛ˆÏÓ!SȈϰl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ
§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.3 ~ܲy xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ åàƒy!°Î˚yÙä ~ÓÇ ~ܲyÈüÈ!§!°Ü˛l ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˲!ӣσÍÓyî# [Mendeleev’s
Predictions for the Elements Eka-aluminium (Gallium) and Eka-silicon (Germanium)]
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ §Ω˛Óï˛ Ë%˛° ~ÓÇ §ÙôÙ≈# ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲˆÏe fiÌy˛õl
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ˆê˛°%!Ó˚Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ å@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈviä ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Gçl •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥G xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛lˆÏܲ å@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈviiä ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚
§yò,ˆÏ¢ƒÓ˚ çlƒ Êœ˛% ˛!Ó˚lñ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ~ÓÇ ˆÓ y!ÙˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà fiÌyl ˆòGÎ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ å§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.1ä– ~ܲ•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§ ï˛yÓ˚
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ °«˛ !SÈ° §ÙôÙ≈# ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ~ܲ•z @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ xÓfiÌyl– !ï˛!l
°«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎ !ܲS%È ˆÙÔ° ~álG xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •Î˚!l ~ÓÇ ˆ§çlƒ
§yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ xˆÏlܲ ÊÑ˛yܲy fiÌyl ˆÓ˚ˆÏá!SȈϰl– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ
ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ àƒy!°Î˚yÙ
~ÓÇ çyˆÏÙ≈!lÎ˚yÙ ~•z ò%ˆÏê˛y ˆÙÔ°•z xly!Ó‹,Òï˛˛ !SÈ°– !ï˛!l
xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÊÑ˛yܲy çyÎ˚ày ~ÓÇ !§!°Ü˛ˆÏlÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÊÑ˛yܲy
çyÎ˚ày Ó˚yˆÏál ~ÓÇ ~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲy xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ
~ܲy !§!°Ü˛l lyÙ ˆòl– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲˛ ¢%ô%Ùye àƒy!°Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ
çyˆÏÙ≈!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ x!hflψÏcÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈y˲y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚l!lñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈
!lˆÏÎ˚G xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– ~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ°
xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !ܲS%È ôÙ≈ ˛ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚
õ)Ó≈y˲y§ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ìƒ §yÓ˚!î
3.3-~ ï˛y!°Ü˛yË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •°–
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈ §¡∫ˆrÏ ô ˲!ӣσÍÓyî# ~ÓÇ ÎÌyÎÌ
ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏΈ˚ ËÏ ˛Ó˚ §≤Ã!ï˛Ë˛ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ §Ê˛y°ï˛y ï˛ÑyˆÏܲ G
ï˛ÑyÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏܲ !Óáƒyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓˆ˚ SÏ È– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏΈ˚ ËÏ ˛Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!î
1905 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚– Îy §yÓ˚!î 3.1ÈüÈ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •°–

ôÙ≈ ~ܲy xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ àƒy!°Î˚yÙ ~ܲy !§!°Ü˛l çyˆÏÙ≈!lÎ˚yÙ

åxyl%Ùy!lܲä å≤ÃyÆä åxyl%Ùy!lܲä å≤ÃyÆä

˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Gçl 68 70 72 72.6

Ùlc / (g/cm3) 5.9 5.94 5.5 5.36

à°lyAܲ /K Low 302.93 í˛zFã˛ 1231

x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ E2O3 Ga2O3 EO2 GeO2

ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ECl3 GaCl3 ECl4 GeCl4

 @˝Ã%˛õ ~ÓÇ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛
(PERIODIC SYSTEM OF THE ELEMENTS IN GROUPS AND SERIES)
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î§Ù)•
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_

127.6
126.9

SÈ!Ó 3.1- ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î

(Mendeleev’s Periodic Table published earlier)
77
78 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

!í˛!Ù!ê˛∆ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎË˚ ˛ (Dmitri Mendeleev) Ó˚y!¢Î˚yÓ˚ §y•zˆÓÏ !Ó˚Îy˚ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆê˛yÓy°ˆÏ:

åTobalskä çß√ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ÓyÓyÓ˚ Ù,ï%˛ƒÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ïÑ˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ ˆ§rê˛ !˛õê˛y§≈ÓyˆÏà≈ ã˛ˆÏ°
ÎyÎ˚– 1856 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏl ï˛ÑyÓ˚ Ùyfiê˛yÓ˚ !í˛!@˝Ã ~ÓÇ 1865 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ í˛QˆÏÓ˚ê˛ !í˛!@˝Ã
xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ï˛!l ˆ§rê˛ !˛õê˛yÓ˚Óyà≈ !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ xôƒy˛õly ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ ˆÎáyˆÏl !ï˛!l 1867
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ §yôyÓ˚î Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xôƒy˛õܲ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !lÎ%=˛ •l– ï˛ÑyÓ˚ !Óáƒyï˛ ˛õyë˛ƒ Ó•z ‘Principles
of Chemistry’ ~Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ܲyç ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎË ˚ ˛ˆÏܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ≤ÃhflyÏ ÓlyÎ˚
í˛zmÂ% ô ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˙ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛l xçyly !SÈ° ~ÓÇ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôÙ≈§Ù)• ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ly ˆÜ˛yˆÏly˲yˆÏÓ
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Ó˚%ˆÏcÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ~•z ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ !lï˛ƒyhs˝•z ܲy“!lܲ–
!ܲS%È ˆÙÔ°ˆÏܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲ !ܲS%È !ÓK˛yl# !í˛!Ù!ê˛∆
ˆÙÔ° ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙ !°ˆÏál ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ à%Ó˚%c å˲Ó˚ä •z˲ˆlÏ y!í˛§
Ë%˛° ӈϰ ≤ÃÙyl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲ ˆ§•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ xçyly ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎË˚ ˛
(1834-1907)
ÙˆÏôƒ ÊÑ˛yܲy fiÌyl ˆSȈÏí˛¸ Îyl ~ÓÇ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ï˛!l ˆÎ§Ó ≤ÃÓîï˛y
ˆòˆÏáˆÏSÈlñ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !ï˛!l ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˲!ӣσÍÓyî# ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˲!ӣσÍÓyî# !ÓfløÎ˚ܲÓ˚˲yˆÏÓ §!ë˛Ü˛ ӈϰ
≤ÃÙy!îï˛ •Î˚ Îál ˙ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˛õˆÏÓ˚ xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ò¢Ü˛ ôˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ«˛ˆÏe àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ ܲyçˆÏܲ xl%≤Ãy!îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤ÃÌÙ
ò%!ê˛ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒy§ !•!°Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ xyà≈l 1890 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙôÙ≈# xl%Ó˚)˛õ ≤ÃhflÏy!Óï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚
ÌyܲyÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓlyÓ˚ ܲÌy ӈϰl– ~•z ôyÓ˚îy ˆÌˆÏܲ xl%≤Ãy!îï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yوϧ !Ü ˛˛õê˛l ~ÓÇ ˆçll xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈
•ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– !ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y!∑Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!lÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˆÌy!Ó˚Î˚yÙ ~Ó˚ ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ xÓ«˛Î˚ §y!Ó˚ §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ܲyçà%ˆÏ°y §¡õߨ
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚G ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ !lÎ˚Ùà%ˆÏ°y xl%§Ó˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ Ó•%Ù%á# ≤Ã!ï˛Ë˛y !SÈ°– !ï˛!l Ó˚y!¢Î˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ÇÎ%=˛ xˆÏlܲ §Ù§ƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyç
ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ° Ï l– 1890 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l xôƒy˛õly ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õòï˛ƒyà ܲˆÏÓl˚ –
Ï l– !ï˛!l ~ܲ!ê˛ !lË%˛≈ ° ÓƒyˆÏÓy˚ !Ùê˛yÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
!ï˛!l Gçl G ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ Ó%ƒˆÏÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y°Ü˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !lÎ%=˛ •l– 1907 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ï˛ÑyÓ˚ Ù,ï%˛ƒÓ˚ ˛õ)Ó≈ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ï˛!l ˆÓ¢ !ܲS%È ˆ«˛ˆÏe
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ ܲyç ã˛y!°ˆÏÎ˚ Îyl–
ï%˛!Ù xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ åSÈ!ÓÈüÈ3.2ä °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎñ 101 õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ lyÙ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°!˲Î˚yÙ
ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ lyÙ!ê˛ xÙÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ܲ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyl !ÓK˛yl# ˆ@’lñ !ê˛ñ !§Óà≈
åGlenn T. Seaborgä ~•z lyÙ ≤ÃhflÏyÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰlñ Ù•yl Ó˚y!¢Î˚yl Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò ~Ó˚ x@˝Ãî# Ë)˛!ÙܲyÓ˚ fl∫#Ü,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ñ !Î!l
≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ xly!Ó‹,Òï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˲!ӣσmyl# ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰlñ ~!ê˛ !SÈ° ~Ùl•z
~ܲ!ê˛ l#!ï˛ Îy !SÈ° ≤ÃyÎ˚ §ÙhflÏ •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!lÎ˚yÙ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y!Óܲy!벖
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
3.3 xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl Ó˚)˛õ
(MODERN PERIODIC LAW AND THE
PRESENT FORM OF THE PERIODIC
TABLE)
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲ ˆÎ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ !Óܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°
Ï lñ Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò‰àî ï˛ál ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó#˚ î
àë˛l §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ܲS%È•z çylˆÏï˛l ly– !ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y∑#Ó˚ ˆàyí˛¸yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ
xÓ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ!îܲy §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤ÃË)˛ï˛ !Óܲy¢ âˆÏê˛!SÈ°–
1913 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ •zLjÏÓ˚ç ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò ˆ•l!Ó˚ ˆÙyçˆÏ° (Henry
Moseley), X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ Óî≈y°# ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§)ã˛Ü˛
ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ï˛y °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §ÇáƒyÓ˚
åzä ~Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ γ åˆÎáyˆÏl γ •° !là≈ï˛ X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬Ó˚ ܲ¡õyAܲä
~Ó˚ ˆ°á!ã˛e xAܲl ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓ˚áy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ !ܲv
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà γ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆ°á!ã˛e ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù ˆÜ˛yl ˆÓ˚áy
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~˲yˆÏÓ !ï˛!l ˆòáyˆÏ°l ˆÎñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôÙ≈– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e!ê˛ ˆ§•z xl%ÎyÎ˚# ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ~!ê˛ xyô%!lܲ
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e !•§yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
ÚÚˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈àˆ% °
Ï y ~ˆÏòÓ˚˛˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ
§Çáƒy Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÓ,_ •Î˚ÛÛ– ˛
õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e!ê˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyÆ 94!ê˛ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÎ˚ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚ å•zí˛z!Ó˚lyÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚
xyܲ!Ó˚ܲ ˛õ#ã‰˛ ˆÓœu˛ ~ xƒy!Q!lÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ≤’%ˆÏê˛y xƒy!Q!lÎ˚yÙ ~Ó˚
Ùï˛ ˆl˛õã%˛!lÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˆ≤ÃyˆÏê˛y!lÎ˚yÙ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ä– ~!ê˛ x˜ÏçÓ
Ó˚§yÎ˚l xôƒÎ˚ˆÏl lï%˛l˲yˆÏÓ xl%≤Ãy!îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl fl∫“ xyÎ˚% !Ó!¢T˛ Ü,˛!eÙ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §,!T˛ §Ω˛Ó •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆï˛yÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl åxÌ≈yÍ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l §Çáƒyä Óy ≤â٠˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆïÏ ˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ó!, _ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
§Çáƒy ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ í˛z˛õ°!kô ܲÓ˚y §•ç •Î˚–
ÓyhflψÏÓ ~!ê˛ fl∫#Ü,˛ï˛ ˆÎ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ !˲!_ܲ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛°ñ ˆÎ!ê˛ ≤Ãܲ, ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ˆÙÔ° ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛
G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ !lô≈yÓ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
D !ÓÇ¢ ¢ï˛y!∑Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà 1940 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆ@’l!ê˛ !§ÓˆÏà≈Ó˚ åGlenn T. Seaborg’sä ≤’%ˆÏê˛y!lÎ˚yÙ åplutoniumä ~ÓÇ ï˛Í§ˆÏAà 94 ˆÌˆÏܲ 102
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ •zí˛z!Ó˚!lÎ˚yÙ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ˛õ%l/!Ólƒy§ âˆÏê˛ ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
°ƒyrÌylˆÏÎ˚ˆÏí˛Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ fiÌyl ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !§Óà≈ˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ àˆÏÓîyÓ˚ fl∫#Ü,˛!ï˛fl∫Ó˚)˛õ 1951 !á fiê˛ˆÏ∑ ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ó˚flÒyˆÏÓ˚ Ë)˛!£Ïï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– 106 lÇ
ˆÙÔ°ˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ §¡øylyˆÏÌ≈ !§Ó!à≈Î˚yÙ (Sg) lyÙ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
79
§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌñ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î ˜ï˛!Ó˚
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ܲS%È ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
ˆçyí˛¸ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– xyÓyÓ˚ !ܲS%Ȉ«Ï ˛ˆÏe ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆçyÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ xyô%!lܲ §ÇflÒÓî˚
ÎyˆÏܲ ò#â≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î ӈϰ çy!l ˆ§!ê˛ •° §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §%!Óôyçlܲ
~ÓÇ Óƒy˛õܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ å§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.2ä– xl%˲) !Ùܲ §y!Ó˚àˆ% ° Ï yˆÏܲ
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ åˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛ ˛õÇ!=˛ä ~ÓÇ í˛zÕ‘Ω˛ hflÏΩ˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ @˝Ã%˛õ
Óy ˆ◊!î ӈϰ– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù ï˛y í˛zÕ‘Ω˛ §y!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ˆÏòÓ˚ @˝Ã%˛õ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– IUPAC åInter-
national Union of Pure & Applied Chemistryä §%˛õy!Ó˚¢
xl%ÎyÎ˚# @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ%ˆÏÓ˚yˆÏly ˛≤Ãï˛#ܲ IA … VIIA, VIII, IB …
VIIB ~ÓÇ 0 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ 18 §Çáƒy ˆ°áy •Î˚–
§yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙyê˛ §yï˛ å7ä!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚
xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy!ê˛ ånä ˛•°
õÎ≈yÎ˚ §Çáƒy– ≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y ˆÙÔ° xyˆÏSÈ– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 8, 8, 18ñ 18 ~ÓÇ 32!ê˛ ˆÙÔ°– §ÆÙ
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!ê˛ x§¡õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ £Ï¤˛ å6thä ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ùï˛ ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒG
ï˛yc#ܲ˲yˆÏÓ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ 32!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° Ìyܲy §Ω˛Ó åˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚
!˲!_ˆÏï˛ä– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ~Ó˚)˛õ àë˛ˆÏl £Ï¤˛ ~ÓÇ §ÆÙ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛ 14!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°ˆÏܲ åÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ °ƒylÌylˆÏÎ˚í˛ ~ÓÇ
xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛ä l#ˆÏã˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ fiÌyˆÏl fiÌyl ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
3.4 100ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ lyÙܲÓî˚
(NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS
WITH ATOMIC NUMBERS > 100)
lï%˛l ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ lyÙܲÓ˚ˆÏî ˙!ï˛•ƒàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚
!ӈϢ£Ïy!ôܲyÓ˚ !SÈ° ~ÓÇ ≤ÃhflÏy!Óï˛ lyÙ!ê˛ IUPAC myÓ˚y xl%ˆÏÙyòl
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏï˛y– §y¡±!ï˛Ü˛ ÓSÈÓà˚ ˆ% °
Ï yˆÏï˛ ~ !lˆÏÎ˚ !ܲS%È !Óï˛Ü≈˛ §,!T˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
í˛zFã˛ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ lï%˛l ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ~ï˛•z xfiÌyÎ˚# ˆÎñ
á%Ó•z fl∫“ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîñ ܲálG ܲálG ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%•z ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ï˛y•z ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §ÇˆÏŸ’£Ïî ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈ !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏl xï˛ƒhs˝ xï˛ƒyô%!lܲ
ÓƒÎ˚Ó•%° §Ó˚OyÙ ~ÓÇ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyàyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyç
≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÎy!àï˛yÙ)°Ü˛ Ùyl!§Ü˛ï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !ӈϟª ¢%ô%Ùye !ܲS%È
˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚•z ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
 80
≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ˆÙÔ°
≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô !l!Ï‹;Î˚ àƒy§
ˆÙÔ° ˆ◊!î §Çáƒy
18
ˆ◊!î §Çáƒy 1 0
H 22
1 2 1s1 13 14 15 16 17
1 He
He
IA II A III B IV B VB VI B VII B 1s
1s22
3 4 d -§!rôàï˛ ˆÙÔ° 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
2s1 2s 2 ˆ◊!î §Çáƒy 2s22 2p11 2s2 2p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s2 2p5 2s2 2p6
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Ar
III A IV A VA VI A VII A VIII IB II B 2
3s1 3s 2 3s 23p1 3s 23p2 3s 23p3 3s 23p4 3s 23p5 33s p66
s 233p
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Kr
1 2 2 2 3 2 5 1 5 2 7 8 2 10 1 10 2
4s1 4s2 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 64s2 3d 4s2 3d 4s 3d 4s 3d 4s 4s24p1 4s 24p2 4s24p3 4s24p4 4s24p5 44s p6 6
s2424p

˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §Çáƒy
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Xn
1 2 2 2 4 1 5 1 5 10 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5
5s1 5s2 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s 4d 5s2 4d75s1 4d85s1 4d 4d105s1 4d105s2 5s 5p1 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s 5p 5s225p66
Fig. 4.2

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La * Hf
14 2
Ta W Re Os Pt Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
5 6 2 6
Ir7 9
Au 1
2 2 3 4 1 10 10 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5
6s1 6s2 5d16s2 4f 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s2 5d 6s2 5d 6s2 5d 6s2 5d 6s 5d 6s 5d 6s2 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s 6p 6s26p6
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 _
Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
1 2
7s1 7s2 6d 7s

f - x˲ƒh
x˲ƒhss˝!Ó˚˝Ól˚#î§!rôàï˛
§!rôàï˛ˆÙÔ°
ˆÙÔ°
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
°ƒyrÌylˆÏ
* Î˚í˛§‰
0 -1 2 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
4f n5d 6s 2 0 2 3 0 2 4 0 2 5 0 2 6 0 2 7 0 2 7 1 2 9 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 2 13 0 2 0 2 1 2 11 12 14 14
4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 105d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s 4f 5d 6s
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
**
xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛§‰
n 0 -2 Th U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
2 2
Pa1
2
0 3 1 0 12 0 2
5f 6d 7s 5f 6d27s 2 5f 6d 7s 5f 6d 7s2 5f 46d 17s2 5f 66d 07s2 5 f 76d 7s2 5f 76d 17s2 5 f 96d 07s2 5f 106d07s2 5f 116d07s2 5f 6d 7s 5f 136d07s2 5f 146d07s2 5f 146d17s2

SÈ!Ó 3.2- ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ ~ÓÇ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ò#â≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ 1984 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ IUPAC~Ó˚ §%˛õy!Ó˚¢ xl%ÎyÎ˚# ˆ◊!îà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ 1-
18 l¡∫ˆÏÓ˚ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– l¡∫ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛˛õ%Ó˚yˆÏly õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ IA … VIIA, VIII, IB … VIIB ~ÓÇ 0 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ ~•z !ã˛•´˛myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 81

!ÓK˛yl#àî lï%˛l ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ˆÏÎyàƒ ï˛Ìƒ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏà•z §yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.4 ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ IUPAC lyÙܲÓ˚ˆîÏ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ Ù)° °ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑ ~ÓÇ
xˆÏlܲ §ÙÎ˚ ï˛y xy!ÓflÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ òy!Ó Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤Èϰy!Ë˛ï˛ •l– !ã˛•´ §Ù)• (Notation for IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements)
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õÈüüüÈ xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyl ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!˲ˆÏÎ˚ï˛ !ÓK˛yl#àî ~ܲ•z
§Çáƒy lyÙ §Ç!«˛Æ !ã˛•´
§yˆÏÌ 104 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ òy!Ó
ˆ˛õ¢ ܲˆÏÓl˚ – xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲylÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ Ó˚yòyÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛y!í≈˛Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!˲ˆÏÎï˚ ˛Ó˚y 0 !l° (nil) n
~ˆÏܲ Ü%˛Ó˚ˆãÏ ˛ˆÏê˛y!˲Î˚yÙ lyˆÏÙ x!˲!•ï˛ ܲˆÏÓl˚ – ~•z §Ù§ƒy §ÙyôyˆÏlÓ˚ 1 xyl (un) u
çlƒ IUPAC í˛zˆÏòƒyà ˆlÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §%˛õy!Ó˚¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ lï%˛l ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ 2 Óy•z (bi) b
xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÙy!lï˛ ly •GÎ˚y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ lyÙ x!Ê˛!§Î˚y!° 3 ê˛∆y•z (tri) t
fl∫#Ü,˛!ï˛ °y˲ ly ܲÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ñ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚
4 ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yí˛ (quad) q
lyÙyܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃÌyàï˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ xl%§Ó˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓñ
ˆÎÙl 0 ~ÓÇ 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ 9 ˛õÎ≈hs˝ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ù)° °ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑ 5 ˆ˛õrê˛ (pent) p

myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– 3.4 lÇ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ï˛y ˆòáyˆÏly •°ÈüüüÈ Ù)° 6 ˆ•: (hex) h
°ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùï˛ ˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy!ê˛ 7 ˆ§≤Wz (sept) s
àë˛l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆ¢ˆÏ£Ï Ú•zÎ˚yÙÛ (ium) ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyÙyܲÓ˚î ˆ¢£Ï 8 xQ (oct) o
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– 100 ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ IUPAC 9 ~l (enn) e
lyÙ 3.5 lÇ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°y–
§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.5 : 100ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% IUPAC ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !ã˛•´ IUPAC
Ü ˛ÙyAܲ lyÙ Óy §%˛õ!Ó˚ܲ!“ï˛ lyÙ lyÙ !ã˛•´
101 Unnilunium Unu Mendelevium Md
102 Unnilbium Unb Nobelium No
103 Unniltrium Unt Lawrencium Lr
104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db
106 Unnilhexium Unh Seaborgium Sg
107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassium Hs
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
110 Ununnillium Uun Darmstadtium Ds
111 Unununnium Uuu Rontgenium Rg
112 Ununbium Uub Copernicium Cn
113 Ununtrium Uut Nihonium Nh
114 Ununquadium Uuq Flerovium Fl
115 Ununpentium Uup Moscovium Mc
116 Ununhexium Uuh Livermorium Lv
117 Ununseptium Uus Tennessine Ts
118 Ununoctium Uuo Oganesson Og
82
~˲yˆÏÓñ lï%˛l ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ~ܲ!ê˛ xfiÌyÎ˚# lyÙ ˛õyÎ˚ñ ÎyÓ˚
§ˆÏAà !ï˛l!ê˛ x«˛Ó˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ IUPAC ≤Ã!ï˛!l!ôˆÏòÓ˚
ˆË˛yê˛ myÓ˚y ˛õˆÏÓ˚ fiÌyÎ˚# lyÙ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ ≤ÃyÆ •Î˚– fiÌyÎ˚# lyÙ!ê˛Ó˚
myÓ˚y ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ åÓy ˆòˆÏ¢Ó˚ xhs˝àï≈ ˛ Ó˚yˆÏçƒÓ˚ä ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ xy!Ófl,Òï˛
•ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ° ≤Ã!ï˛Ë˛yï˛ Óy ~ܲçl í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ ˆÏÎyàƒ !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏܲ ◊Âôy çylyˆÏly
•Î˚– ~ál ˛õÎ≈hs˝ 118 ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî) Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°à%!° xy!Ófl,Òï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §ÙhflÏ ˛õÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ x!Ê˛!§Î˚y°
lyÙ IUPAC myÓ˚y ˆây£Ïîy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.1
120 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ IUPAC lyÙ ~ÓÇ
!ã˛•´ !ܲ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyôyl ı
§yÓ˚!î 3.4 §Çáƒy 1,2 ~ÓÇ 0 ~Ó˚ Ù)° °ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑ ˛ˆÌˆÏܲ
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ xyl åUnäñ Óy•z åbiä ~ÓÇ !l° ånilä– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ ~ÓÇ lyÙ •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ Ubn ~ÓÇ xylÓy•z
!l!°Î˚yÙ åUnbiniliumä–
3.5 ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î
(ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF
ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC
TABLE)
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆçˆÏl!SÈ ˆÎñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óï≈˛Ùyl
~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ 4!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ§ê˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ~ÓÇ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ånä ≤Ãôyl ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy ܲ«˛ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– xyÙÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
˛õ)!ï≈˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸!SÈñ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ås, p, d, f ä
lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ Órê˛lˆÏܲ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ӈϰ– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl
ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyà%ˆÏ°y çyly ÎyÎ˚– ~•z
˛õ!Ó˚ˆFÏ SȈòÏ xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ò#â≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ãï˛ƒ«˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚Ó–
(a) ˛õÎ≈ y ˆÏ Î ˚ Ó ˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ •z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ l !Ólƒy§ å Electronic
Configurations in Periodsä
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ñ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Óy ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy ‘n’
~Ó˚ Ùyl !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓñ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ åsuccessive periodä •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚
Ù%რ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ån = 1, n = 2, ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ä ˛õ)î≈ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
~!ê˛ §•ˆÏç•z °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÙÔ° §Çáƒy
¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õ)î≈ •GÎ˚y ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !mÈüÈàî% –
≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!ê˛ ån = 1ä §Ó≈!l¡¨hflÏÓ˚ å1sä ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ñ
ï˛y•z ≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl åls1ä ~ÓÇ !•!°Î˚yÙ åls2ä ~•z ò%!ê˛
ˆÙÔ° ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛«˛ åK-shellä ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚– !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
ån = 2ä ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ åLiä ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ 2s
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ° ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ 4!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
xyˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 1s22s2– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆÙÔ° ˆÓyÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ
¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ 2p ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ L ܲ«˛
åShellä !lÎ˚ˆÏl å1s22s22p6ä ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚
8!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° xyˆÏSÈ– ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ån = 3ä ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚
~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 3s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ åorbitalä ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– 3s ~ÓÇ 3p
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õ)î≈ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyà≈l ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙyê˛ 8!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° ÌyˆÏܲ– ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
ån = 4ä ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ åKä !òˆÏÎ˚ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 4s ܲ«˛Ü˛
åorbitalä ˛õ)î≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ál ï%˛!Ù ~!ê˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ ˆÎñ 4p
ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä ˛õ)î≈ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !òܲ !òˆÏÎ˚ xl%Ü)˛° 3d
ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyÙÓ˚y ï˛Ìyܲ!Ìï˛ 3d §!rôàï˛
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §y!Ó˚ˆÏܲ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ~!ê˛ ˆflÒ!u˛Î˚yÙ åScä åZ =
1 2
21ä !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 3d 4s – !çAܲ åZnä
ˆÙԈϰ ~ˆÏ§ 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ñ ÎyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 3d104s2–
4Ì≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ 4p ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä ˛õ)î≈ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !Ü ˛˛õê˛l åKrä
!òˆÏÎ˚ ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚– §Ó !Ù!°ˆÏÎ˚ 4Ì≈ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ 18!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° xyˆÏSÈ– 4Ì≈
˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ò,¢ 5Ù ån = 5ä ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ Îy Ó˚%!Ó!í˛Î˚yÙ !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚%
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ 4d §!rôàï˛ §y!Ó˚ñ ˆÎ!ê˛ •z!ê˛∆Î˚yÙ åYä åZ =
39ä ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚%– ~•z ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!ê˛ 5p ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä ˛õ)î≈ •GÎ˚yÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆçlˆÏl åXeä ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚– 6¤˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ån = 6ä 32!ê˛ ˆÙÔ°
xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y 6s, 4f, 5d ~ÓÇ 6p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– 4f ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù !§!Ó˚Î˚yÙ åCeä ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚
ˆ°yˆÏê˛!¢Î˚yˆÏÙ åLuä ˆ¢£Ï •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y 4f x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î §!rôàï˛
§y!Ó˚ ˛õy•zñ ÎyˆÏܲ °ƒyrÌylˆÏÎ˚í˛ §y!Ó˚ ӈϰ– 6¤˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ò,¢
7Ù ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ (n = 7) 7s, 5f, 6d ~ÓÇ 7p ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä
Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï y ~Ó˚ xhs˝Ë˛≈% =˛– ~•z ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ 118 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛
ˆÙÔ° !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆ¢£Ï •ˆÏÓñ Îy ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒy§ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xhsË%≈˛=˛ •ˆÏÓ–
xƒyˆÏQ!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ åZ = 89ä ˛õÓ˚ 5f ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä ˛õ)î≈ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚%
•Î˚ñ Ê˛ˆÏ° 5f x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î §!rôàï˛ §y!Ó˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Îy xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛
§y!Ó˚ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
4f ~ÓÇ 5f x˲ƒhsÓ˚#î §!rôàï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îÓ˚
àë˛lyÜ,˛!ï˛ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙôÙ≈# ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲ•z hflψÏΩ˛
Ó˚yáyÓ˚ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ l#!ï˛!ê˛ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ xy°yòy fiÌyˆÏl
Ó˚yáy •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.2
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ 5Ù ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ 18!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyܲyÓ˚ ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛y
!ܲ˲yˆÏÓ Îyã˛y•z ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyôyl ı
Îál n = 5, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
§Ω˛ƒyÓƒ xÓ˚!Óê˛ƒy° 4d, 5s ~ÓÇ 5p ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ í˛zÂô≈Ü ˛Ù •°ÈüüüÈ
5s < 4d < 5p – §Ω˛yÓƒ xÓ˚!Óê˛ƒyˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy = 9
fiÌyl ˆòGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ~Ùl §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy = 9 × 2 =18
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 5Ù ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ 18!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° Óï≈˛Ùyl–
(b) @˝Ã%˛õ !˲!_ܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ åGroupwise Electronic
Configurationsä
~ܲ•z í˛zÕ‘¡∫ hflψÏΩ˛ Óy @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~ܲ•z ˆÎyçƒï˛y
ܲ«˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ xyˆÏSÈ– ï˛yÓ˚y §Ù ôÙ≈ !Ó!¢T˛ ~ÓÇ Ó!•fiÌ
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ•z §ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õÈüüüÈ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈI
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ å«˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ä ≤ÈÏï˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
1 ~ÓÇ !ã˛eÈüÈ 3.3 ˆï˛ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •°– xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ~•z ã˛yÓ˚
!Ólƒy§ •° ns ñ ï˛y !lˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°ÈüüüÈ
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy !ã˛•´ åSymbolä
åAtomic numberä
3 Li
11 Na
19 K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 (xÌÓy) [Ar]4s1
37 Rb
55 Cs
87 Fr
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ ~!ê˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ Ü ˛!Ùܲ !lË≈˛Ó˚ï˛y ~Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv ~Ó˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ lÎ˚–
3.6 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò ı s, p, d, f
ÓœÜ˛ (ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS AND
TYPES OF ELEMENTS: s, p, d, f BLOCKS)
xyí˛zÊ˛ÓyG åaufbauä l#!ï˛ ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
83
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ˆ◊!î!ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ !˲!_ ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ–˚
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zÕ‘Ω˛ §y!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%˛õ
Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ•z Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~
§yò,¢ƒ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛ §Ùyl
§ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ ~ܲ•z Ó˚ܲÙ
•Î˚– ˆÜ˛yl‰ ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌyl ˛õyˆÏFSÈñ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ 4 !ê˛ ÓœˆÏܲ xÌ≈yÍ s- ÓœÜ˛ñ p- ÓœÜ˛ñ d- ÓœÜ˛ ~ÓÇ
f- ÓœˆÏܲ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ã˛eÈüÈ3.3 ~ •z•y Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
xyÙÓ˚y ~•z ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ ò%!ê˛ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù °«˛ ܲ!Ó˚– Î!òG !•!°Î˚yÙ sÈüÈÓˆœ ÜÏ ˛Ó˚
xhs˝à≈ï˛ !ܲv pÈüÈÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ xlƒ @˝Ã%˛õ 18 ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ~Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl
§ÙÌ≈l ˆÎyàƒ Ü˛yÓ˚î ~Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲ«˛Ü˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ÌyˆÏܲ
å1s2ä ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ xlƒ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒÙ)°Ü˛ ôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°y
≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– xlƒ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛!Ù ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ •° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl– ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
Ùye sÈüÈ•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~•z çlƒ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ1 å«˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛äÈüÈ~ fiÌyl
ˆòGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ xç≈ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z çlƒ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ17
啃yˆÏ°yˆÏçl ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ä ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ùï˛ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
!ӈϢ£Ï ܲyÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlˆÏܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚
~ˆÏܲÓyˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ fiÌyl !òˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ Îy !ã˛eÈüÈ3.2
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ åElectronic configurationä
1s22s1 (xÌÓy) [He]2s1
1s22s22p63s1 (xÌÓy) [Ne]3s1
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s1 (xÌÓy) [Kr]5s1
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p66s1 (xÌÓy) [Xe]6s1
[Rn]7s1
ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ≤Ãôyl ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆ°
Ï y §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ xyÓ˚G !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy 3.7 xl%ˆÏFSȈÏò !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
3.6.1 sÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• åThe s-Block Elementsä
@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ1 å«˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ §Ù)•ä ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ2 ˆÙÔ°§Ù)• å«˛yÓ˚#Î˚ Ù,!_ܲy
ôyï%˛ §Ù)•ä ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ns1 ~ÓÇ ns2
 84

Nh Mc Ts Og

§yÓ˚!î 3.3 ı ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ fiÌyl Îy ôyï%˛ñ
xôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ ôyï%˛Ü˛ˆÏ“Ó˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ xÓfiÌylG ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
~Ó˚y sÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛– ~Ó˚yñ §Ü˛ˆÏ°•z §!Ü ˛Î˚ ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
xyÎ˚lÎ˚l ~l̃y°!˛õ Ü˛Ù– ~Ó˚y §•ˆÏç•z Óy!•ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
Óç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ 1+ xyÎ˚l å«˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeä xÌÓy 2+ xyÎ˚l
å«˛yÓ˚#Î˚ Ù,!_ܲy ôyï%˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeä í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚– @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ lyوϰ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
x!ôܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó¢%Âô xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚ ly– !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yÙ Óƒ!ï˛ï˛ §Ü˛° sÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ˆÎÔàà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãôylï˛ xyÎ˚l#Î˚˛–
3.6.2 pÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• åThe p-Block Elementsä
pÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ13 ˆÌˆÏܲ 18 ˆï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
sÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)•ˆÏܲ ~ܲˆÏe ≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ˆÙÔ° Óy Ù)° ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°
ӈϰ– ≤Ã!ï˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ns2np1
ˆÌˆÏܲ˛ ns2np6ÈüÈ~ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤Ã!ï˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ˆÙÔ°!ê˛
ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒy§ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
ns2np6– ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ê˛ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î Óy Óç≈l myÓ˚y ~•z §%!fiÌï˛
!Ólƒy§ lT˛ ܲÓ˚y á%Ó•z ܲ!ë˛l– ~•zçlƒ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒy§àˆÏ°yÓ˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù– ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒy§ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ SÈyí˛¸y
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ˲yˆÏÓ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ò%!ê˛ xôyï%˛Ó˚ @˝Ã%˛õ Óy ˆ◊!î xyˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚y
•° •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl å@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ17ä ~ÓÇ ã˛ƒy°ˆÏܲyˆÏçl å@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ16äñ ~•z
ò%!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ í˛zFã˛ }îycܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ
xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y §•ˆÏç•z ~ܲ!ê˛ Óy ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚
ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° xôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
~ÓÇ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ lyوϰ ôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
3.6.3 dÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• å§!rôàï˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)•ä [The d-
Block Elements (Transition Elements)]
~•z ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#fiÌyˆÏl @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ3 ˆÌˆÏܲ
@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ12üÈˆï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛– ~•z ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •° ~ˆÏòÓ˚
xhflÏ/fiÌ d ܲ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌyl ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z ~ˆÏòÓ˚ d
ÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° ӈϰ– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •°
(n-1)d1-10ns0-2 – ~Ó˚y §Ü˛ˆÏ°•z ôyï%˛– ~Ó˚y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ó˚!.l
xyÎ˚ l ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ñ ˛õ!Ó˚ Ó ï≈ ˛ l¢#° ˆÎyçƒï˛y åçyÓ˚ l hflÏ Ó ˚ ä ñ
˛õƒyÓ˚yÙƒyàˆÏl!ê˛Ü˛ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÎ˚¢•z xl%âê˛Ü˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Zn, Cd ~ÓÇ Hg §!rôàï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
85
ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
(n-1) d10ns2– §!rôàï˛ ôyï˛Ó ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yñ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ˲yˆÏÓ
sÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚ ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ13 ~ÓÇ 14 ~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù §!Ü ˛Î˚
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ§ï%˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛y•z ~Ó˚y §!rôàï˛ ˆÙÔ°
lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
3.6.4 fÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• åx˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#l §!rôàï˛ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)•ä
[The f-Block Elements (Inner-Transition
Elements)]
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ò%!ê˛ §y!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°ˆÏܲ °ƒyl̃ylˆÏÎ˚í˛ñ
Ce(Z = 58) ˆÌˆÏܲ Lu(Z = 71) ~ÓÇ xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛ñ Th(Z =
90) ˆÌˆÏܲ˛ Lr (Z = 103) ӈϰ– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!Ólƒy§ •°ÈüüüÈ (n-2)f1-14 (n-1)d0–1ns2– ~•z ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ fÈüÈܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§çlƒ
~•z ò%!ê˛ §y!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î §!rôàï˛ ˆÙÔ° ӈϰ
åfÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°ä– ~Ó˚y §Ü˛ˆÏ°•z ôyï%˛– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ §y!Ó˚Ó˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ôÙ≈ ≤ÃyÎ˚ ~ܲ•zÓ˚Ü˛Ù– ≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚l xl%Ó˚)˛õ °ƒyl̃ylˆÏÎ˚í˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
á%Ó•z ç!ê˛° !SÈ° ܲyÓ˚î ~•z §Ü˛° xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ~ܲy!ôܲ çyÓ˚î
hflÏÓ˚ §Ω˛Ó– xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ •Î˚– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà
xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆlˆÏly@˝ÃyÙ Óy ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲG Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚l
§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ çyly ÎyÎ˚ !l– •zí˛z!Ó˚!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
ê˛∆y™•zí˛z!Ó˚!lÎ˚yÙ Óy •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!lÎ˚yÙí˛z_Ó˚ ˆÙÔ° ӈϰ–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.3
117 ~ÓÇ 120 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ܲÙyAܲ åZä !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï y ~álG
xy!Ófl,Òï˛ •Î˚!l– ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ Óy @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ ï%˛!Ù ˆÙÔ° ò%!ê˛ˆÏܲ
fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
§Ùyôyl ı
xyÙÓ˚y !ã˛e 3.2 ˆï˛ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z 117 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy !Ó!¢T˛
ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ •ƒyˆÏ°ˆÏçl ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyˆÏÓ˚ å@˝Ã˛% õÈüÈ17ä xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •ˆÏÓ [Rn] 5f146d107s27p5 –
120 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ2 å«˛yÓ˚#Î˚ Ù,!_ܲy
ôyï%˛äˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •ˆÏÓ
[Uuo]8s2 –
86
3.6.5 ôyï%˛ñ xôyï%˛ ~Ó ôyï%˛Ü˛“ §Ù)• åMetals, Non-metals
and Metalloidsä
s, p, d~ÓÇ f ˆÙÔ°§Ù)•ˆÏܲ ˆ◊!î !Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚
!˲!_ˆÏï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ ˆ◊!î !Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Îy
!ã˛eÈüÈ 3.3 ˆï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ xôyï%˛
~•z ò%!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏà ˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛
78% ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ K˛yï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y •° ôyï%˛– ôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãôylï˛
âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛l [Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ˛õyÓ˚ò åï˛Ó˚°äñ àƒy!°Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ
!§!çÎ˚yÙ á%Ó•z !l¡¨ à°lyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ å~ˆÏòÓ˚ à°lyAܲ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
303K ~ÓÇ 302K)]– ôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ í˛zFã˛ à°lyAܲ ~ÓÇ
fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛– ~Ó˚y ï˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸ˆïÏ ˛Ó˚ ˛§%˛õ!Ó˚Óy•#– ~Ó˚y lÙl#Î˚
åxyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •y°Ü˛y ˛õyˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚lï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ä ~ÓÇ ≤çyÓ˚î¢#°
åï˛yÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ä– x˛õÓ˚ ˛õˆÏ«˛ñ xôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚
í˛yl ˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !òˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛– xy§ˆÏ° ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ
ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e ˛Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– xôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛l Óy àƒy§#Î˚
•Î˚– ~Ó˚y !l¡¨ à°lyAܲ ~ÓÇ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ åÓƒ!ï˛Ü ˛ÙÈüȈÏÓyÓ˚î
~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈lä– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸ˆïÏ ˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•#ï˛y Ü˛Ù– x!ôܲyÇ¢
ܲ!ë˛l xôyï˛Ó ˆÙÔ° ˲Aà%Ó˚ ~ÓÇ lÙl#Î˚G lÎ˚ Óy ≤çyÓ˚î¢#°G
lÎ˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !lˆÏã˛ lyوϰ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl !òˆÏܲ
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° xôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– !ã˛e 3.3ˆï˛ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ xôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy!ê˛ xÑyܲy Óyܲy
x≤Ãï˛ƒy!¢ï˛ lÎ˚ – ˛ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ xôyï%˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó˲yçl §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚# ~•z
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y åˆÎÙlÈüÈ!§!°Ü˛lñ çyˆÏÙ≈!lÎ˚yÙñ xyˆÏ§≈!lܲñ xƒy!rê˛Ù!l
~ÓÇ ˆê˛°%!Ó˚Î˚yÙä ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
˛õˆÏÌ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ôyï%˛ G xôyï%˛ í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xô≈ôyï%˛ Óy ôyï%˛Ü˛“ ӈϰ–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.4
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ xÓfiÌyl !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly
ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
§yçyG ı Si, Be, Mg, Na, P.
§Ùyôyl ı
ˆ◊!î ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ Ó,!Âô ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ôyï˛Ó
ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyî Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ •° ı P < Si < Be < Mg < Na.
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
3.7 ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù (Periodic Trends
in Properties of Elements)
xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚
••z Óy ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ ••z ï˛ál ˆÙÔ° §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ G
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôyÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!îܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù
@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ1 ôyï%˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛zFã˛ñ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ÙyˆÏV˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 17 xôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛
•Î˚– xl%Ó˚)˛õ˲yˆÏÓñ ≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ôyï%˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ åˆÎÙl
«˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ä §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚ ñ x˛õÓ˚ ˛ õˆÏ « ˛ñ xôyï% ˛ §Ù) ˆ Ï • Ó˚ @˝ à % ˆ Ï ˛ õÓ˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ åˆÎÙlÈ ü È
•ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçläñ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– !ܲv
ˆÜ˛l ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛à%ˆÏ°y ~•z ≤ÃÓîï˛y xl%§Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
~ÓÇ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚⁄ ~•z ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚
í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ xÓ¢ƒ•z xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ àë˛Ïl §Ùrô#Î˚ ï˛_¥ ~ÓÇ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ôÙ≈§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ lçÓ˚ !òˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚ˆFÏ SȈòÏ xyÙÓ˚y
!ܲS%È ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!îܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ Ü ˛Ù !lˆÏÎ˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy G ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛
~à%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚Ó–
3.7.1 ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ≤ÃÓlï˛y (Trends in Physical
Properties)
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ x§ÇრˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈ xyˆÏSÈñ ˆÎÙlÈüÈà°lyAܲ ~ÓÇ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲñ
à°l ~ÓÇ Óy‹õ#˲Ól ï˛y˛õñ xƒyˆÏê˛yÙy•zˆç Ï ¢l ¢!=˛ ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ Îy ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ≤Ãò¢≈î ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !ܲv ~áyˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚l#Î˚
Óƒy§yô≈ñ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õñ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸Í
}îydܲï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓlï˛yÓ˚ !ӣψÎÏ ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
(a) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ åAtomic Radiusä
ï%˛!Ù á%Ó•z ˲y° ˲yˆÏÓ Ü˛“ly ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyÓ˚ ˆÎñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛
!lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ á%Ó•z ò)Ó˚)•– ï%˛!Ù
!ܲ çyl ˆÜ˛l⁄ ≤ÃÌÙï˛/ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ å˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ~
1.2 Å xÌ≈yÍ, 1.2 × 10–10 mä á%Ó•z ˆSÈyê˛– !mï˛#Î˚ï˛/ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
xyܲyÓ˚ ÎÌyÎÌ˲yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyñ ܲyÓ˚îñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ô#ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ly– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ
Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ°ñ ˆÜ˛yl ÓƒÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆl•z ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 87

xyܲyÓ˚ Ùy˛õy ÎyÎ˚– x!ôܲyÇ¢ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §ÇÎ%=˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ò)Ó˚c ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ àîly ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ xôyï˛Ó ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
~ܲ!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ xÓ°¡∫l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# xî%ˆïÏ ˛
~ܲ Órôl myÓ˚y Î%=˛ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ò%Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y
àîly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Óƒy§yô≈
!lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xî%Ó˚ åCl2ä Órôl
ò)Ó˚c 198 pm – §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ = 99
pm– ôyï%˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ xyÙÓ˚y ôyï˛Ó Óƒy§yô≈ˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎñ ôyï˛Ó ˆÜ˛°yˆÏ§ ôyï%˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ xyhs˝/xyî!Óܲ ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚
xˆÏô≈ܲ•z •° ôyï˛Ó Óƒy§yô≈– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ܲ!ë˛l ܲ˛õyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ñ ò%ˆÏê˛y
˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ܲ˛õyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ò)Ó˚c 256 pm– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Cu ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ôyï˛Ó Óƒy§yô≈ = 128 pm– ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §%!ÓôyˆÏÌ≈ ~•z Ó•z!ê˛ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚yñ
ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ ôyï%˛ ly xôyï%˛ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Óy ôyï˛Ó
Óƒy§yô≈ í˛z˲Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ ˛õò!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ–
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ XüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ Óy xlƒ Óî≈y!°Ó#«˛î ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
!ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ §yÓ˚!îÈüÈ3.6 ~
ï˛y!°Ü˛y Ë%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •°– ò%ˆÏê˛y ≤ÃÓîï˛y §%˛õT˛– xyÙÓ˚y ~•z
≤ÃÓîï˛yà%ˆÏ°y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xyܲyÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ 3.6(a) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈‡pm ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ (Atomic Radii/pm Across the Periods )
Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ Îy !ã˛e 3.4 (a) ~ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏ°yñ ~ܲ•z ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ë%˛=˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÜ˛wˆÏܲÓ˚
xyôyl Ó,!Âô ˛õyGÎ˚yÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ó!•hflψÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛wˆÏܲÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ï˛#Ó ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ Óy @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Îy §yÓ˚!î 3.4 (b)ˆï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°– «˛yÓ˚
ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ ••z ï˛y•ˆÏ° Ù%რˆÜ˛yÙyrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ånä Ùyl Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
~ÓÇ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
xhs˝/fiÌ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ÌyܲyˆÏï˛•z ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
~Ó˚y•z Ó!•/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ !lí˛z!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈ ˆÏܲ xyÓ,ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óƒy§yô≈ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛Ê˛°l âˆÏê˛–
°«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòá ~áyˆÏl ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈
!ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚!l– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ •Î˚ ӈϰ
~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ åÓrôl!Ó•#l Óƒy§yô≈ä Ùyl á%Ó ˆÓ!¢
•Î˚– xy§ˆÏ°ñ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ ï%˛°ly §ÙˆÏÎyç#
Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ xlƒ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y°§
Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ܲÓ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛–

˛õÓ˚Ùyî% å!mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ä Li Be B C N O F

˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ 152 111 88 77 74 66 64

˛õÓ˚Ùyî% åï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ä Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ 186 160 143 117 110 104 99

§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ 3.6(b) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈‡pm ˆ◊!îÓ˚ l#ã˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ (Atomic Radii/pm Down a Family)
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
(@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ I) Óƒy§yô≈ (@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 17) Óƒy§yô≈
Li 152 F 64
Na 186 Cl 99
K 231 Br 114
Rb 244 I 133

Cs 262 At 140
88
SÈ!Ó 3.4 (a) !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
(b) xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ åIonic Radiusä
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚lñ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒylyÎ˚l í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÜ˛°yˆÏ§ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈
ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l ~ÓÇ xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚– §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓñ ˆÜ˛yl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ Ùï˛ ~ܲ•z ≤ÃÓîï˛y ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ Ù)°
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆSÈyê˛ •Î˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ü˛Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ÌyˆÏܲ Î!òG ~Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl ~ܲ•z ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ܲ!ê˛ xƒylyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
xyܲyÓ˚ Ù)° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xˆÏ˛õ«˛y Óí˛¸ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyˆÏàÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl •…y§
˛õyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ åF–ä xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ •°
136 pm Î!òG ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ •° Ùye 64 pmÉ
x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛ñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ 186 pm ~Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
+
Na ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ 95 pmÉ
!ܲS%È ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyÙÓ˚y Îál §Ùyl§ÇáƒÜ˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ °«˛ ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ál xyÙÓ˚y ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xy•zˆÏ§yÈüÈ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆!lܲ ˛õòyÌ≈* Ó!°– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ O2–, F–, Na+ ~ÓÇ
2+
Mg ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l å10ä xyˆÏSÈ– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈
!˲ߨ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl !˲ߨ– ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ôlydܲ
xyôyl ˆÓ!¢ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ˆSÈyê˛ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚
≤Ã!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈ ˆÓ!¢– xƒylyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ }îydܲ xyôyl x!ôܲ
D §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆÎyçܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù!ß∫ï˛ ~ܲ•z àë˛lyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ ~Ùl !ܲS%È ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xyÎ˚l Óy Ù)°Ü˛ ÎyÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl §¡õÜ≈˛ ˆl•z–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
SÈ!Ó 3.4 (b) «˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà G ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
•˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeñ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ !Óܲ£Ïî≈
Ó° !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.5
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚
Ó,•_Ó˚ ~ÓÇ «%˛oï˛Ó˚⁄
Mg, Mg2+, Al, Al3+.
§Ùyôyl ı
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚
Ù)° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xˆÏ˛õ«˛y «%˛oï˛Ó˚– xy•zˆÏ§y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆!lܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
Óy xyÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÎyÓ˚ ôlydܲ xyôyl ˆÓ!¢ ï˛yÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ «%˛oï˛Ó˚
•ˆÏÓ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Ó,•_Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ •° MgÉ ~ÓÇ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚î!ê˛
•° Al3+.
(c) xyÎ˚ly•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ Óy xyÎ˚ll !ÓË˛Ó åIonization
Enthalpyä
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õñ
xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– •z•y Ë)˛!ÙhflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ !fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!FSÈßñ¨ àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% åXä ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆÎ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •Î˚ ï˛y !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 89

xlƒË˛yˆÏÓñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° X ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y

3.1 §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (∆egH)

+ –
X(g) → X (g) + e ... (3.1)
xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ kJ mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚– xyÙÓ˚y !mï˛#Î˚
xy°ày˲yˆÏÓ Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y
!mï˛#Î˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ~!ê˛ •° 3.2
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î myÓ˚y ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ–
+ 2+ –
X (g) → X (g) + e ... (3.2)
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §Ó≈òy ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl
~ÓÇ ï˛y•z xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ §Ó≈òy ôlydܲ •Î˚– !mï˛#Î˚ xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õñ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î
~ܲ!ê˛ ôlydܲ xyÎ˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤âÙ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ x!ôܲ ܲ!ë˛l– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚
xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ !mï˛#Î˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ ~ÓÇ
~˲yˆÏÓ Ü ˛Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ly ÌyܲˆÏ° xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ 60 ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õ !ã˛e 3.5 ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
~ˆÏܲÓyˆÏÓ˚ °«˛ƒî#Î˚– ï%˛!Ù °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒy§ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚
§Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲ«˛˛õÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ á%Ó §%!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!Ólƒy§ Óï≈˛Ùyl ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛– x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛ñ «˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ó≈!l¡¨ñ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ü˛Ù Ùyl ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ x!ôܲ
SÈ!Ó 3.5 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy åZä 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ 60 ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ
xyÎ˚ly•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
§!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˛•GÎ˚yê˛y §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ~SÈyí˛¸yG ï%˛!Ù ò%ˆêÏ ˛y Ü ˛Ù ˛ˆòáˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓñ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ~ÓÇ
ˆ◊!îÓ˚ !lˆÏã˛ !òˆÏܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ~ÓÇ
≤ÃÌÙ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z ≤ÃÓîï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !ã˛e 3.6(a)
~ÓÇ 3.6(b)ÈüÈˆï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°– ï%˛!Ù í˛z˛õ°!kô ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎñ xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛
ôÙ≈– ~•z ≤ÃÓîï˛y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ñ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y ܲyÓ˚î !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
•ˆÏÓ ı (i) !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î ~ÓÇ (ii)
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Óܲ£Ï≈î– ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçܲ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛zÜœ˛#Î˚ xyôyl xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛y
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, ï˛ xyôyl ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î !lí˛zܲœ #Î˚ xyôylˆÏܲ
xhs˝/ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ˆÎyçܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÌˆÏܲ xyí˛¸y° Óy xyÓ,ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá–

SÈ!Ó 3.6 (a) ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°

Ï yÓ˚ SÈ!Ó 3.6 (b) ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ «˛yÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°y!˛õ (∆ i H)– xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°y!˛õ (∆ i H)–
90
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ (Li) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2s •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xhs˝/
1s •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%%ˆÏ°y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyí˛¸y° ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛˚) õ
ˆÎyçܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ ˆÙyê˛ (Net) ôlydܲ xyôyl xl%˲Ó
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y ˛≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ xyôyl +3 ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚– §yôyÓ˚î xyÓÓ˚î# ≤Ã˲yÓ
ï˛ál•z ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# •Î˚ Îál xhs˝/ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y
˛õ)î≈ ÌyˆÏܲ˛– «˛yÓ˚ôyï%˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎyçܲ ܲ«˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ns •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏÜ –
!mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y Îál !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ Êœ%˛!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ ••zñ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ï˛ál ~ܲ•z Ù)რ¢!=˛ÏhflψÏÓ˚ Î%=˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ xhs˝/•zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y !lí˛zܲœ #Î˚ xyôylˆÏܲ xyÓÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚
ÙyeyÓ˚ ï˛ï˛ê˛y Ó,!Âô •Î˚ lyñ ÎyˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó,!ÂôˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛•ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl !lí˛zÜœ˛#Î˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey xyÓÓ˚î# ≤Ã˲yÓ ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ~ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y xyÏÓ˚G ˆÓ!¢
ò,ì˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– xyÙÓ˚y Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly @˝Ãˆ% ˛Ï õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ ••zñ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ
ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ù¢ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ӈϰ
xhs˝/hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ myÓ˚y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl x!ôܲï˛Ó˚
xyÓ,ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl xyÓÓ˚î# ≤Ã˲yÓ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
≤Ã!ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ Ü ˛ÙÓô≈Ùyl xyܲ£Ï≈î ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%˛õ
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛«˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ܲÙ
¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚–
!ã˛e 3.6 åbä ~ ï%˛!Ù °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ˆÓyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ (Z = 5)
≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ Be(Z = 4) ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §yÙylƒ ܲÙñ
Î!òG ≤ÃÌÙ!ê˛Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl x!ôܲï˛Ó˚– Îál xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ•z
Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ hflÏÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ál ~ܲ!ê˛ s-•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ!ê˛
p-•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ÙyeyÎ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ myÓ˚y xyܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚–
ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyÎ˚ly•zˆÏ碈ÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÎ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ !là≈ï˛
•Î˚ ˆ§!ê˛ •° s- •z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ l – x˛õÓ˚ ˛ õˆÏ « ˛ñ ˆÓyÓ˚ ˆ Ï l Ó˚ (B)
xyÎ˚ly•zˆÏ碈Ïl p-•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !là≈ï˛ •Î˚– xyÓÓ˚l# ≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ ˆË˛ò
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lí˛zܲœ #Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y 2p •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ˆ§•zçlƒ ˆÓyÓ˚ˆÏîˆÏÓ˚ 2p •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ 2s
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xhs˝/ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ
x!ôܲ ÙyeyÎ˚ xyFSÈy!òï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ 2s •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
Ù%=˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓˆÏÓˆ˚ îÏ Ó˚ 2p •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Ù%=˛ ܲÓ˚y §•çï˛Ó˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
ˆÓyÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù •°ÈüüüÈ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •°ñ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
!ï˛l!ê˛ 2p •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !ï˛l!ê˛ !˲ߨ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xÓ˚!Óê˛ƒyˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚ å•%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ä– x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ñ 4!ê˛
2p •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 2!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xÓ¢ƒ•z 2p xÓ˚!Óê˛ƒyˆÏ°Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lÈüÈ•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– ï˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ 2p •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓÓ˚
ܲÓ˚y ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 3!ê˛ 2p •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §•çï˛Ó˚–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.6
ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Na, Mg ~ÓÇ Si ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ å∆i Hä Ùyl ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 496, 737 ~ÓÇ 786 kJ
mol–1É Al ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ∆i H ~Ó˚ Ùyl 575 Óy 760 kJ mol–
1
~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ ÓˆÏ° ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ÙˆÏl •Î˚–
ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ï˛ƒï˛y ÎySÈy•z ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§Ùyôyl ı
~!ê˛ 575 kJ mol–1 ~Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ •ˆÏÓ– Al ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
~•z Ùyl Mg ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !lí˛zÜœ˛#Î˚y§ ~ÓÇ
3p •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 3s •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyÓÓ˚î# ≤Ã˲yÓ
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ •Î˚–
(d) •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ åElectron Gain Enthalpyä
Îál ≤â٠àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% åXä •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál xƒylyÎ˚ˆîÏ
˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ å∆egHä ӈϰ– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 3.3 xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü˛ï˛ §•ˆÏç •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
•ˆÏÓñ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ çyly ÎyÎ˚–
–
X(g) + e – → X (g) (3.3)
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# Óy ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# •Î˚– xˆÏlܲ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˆÎ ¢!=˛ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î
~l̃y°!˛õ }îydܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ @˝Ã˛% õÈüÈ17 ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ 啃yˆÏ°yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚
ˆÙÔ° §Ù)•ä •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ Ùyl x!ôܲ }îydܲ˛ •Î˚
ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ §%!fiÌï˛ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛ñ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛zFã˛
ôlydܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ Ùyl x!ôܲ ôlydܲ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# í˛zFã˛ Ù)რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ hflψÏÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ò%/!fiÌï˛
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 91

§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ 3.7 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ‡(kJ mol–1)

@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 1 ∆egH @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 16 ∆egH @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 17 ∆egH @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 0 ∆egH
H – 73 He + 48
Li – 60 O – 141 F – 328 Ne + 116
Na – 53 S – 200 Cl – 349 Ar + 96
K – 48 Se – 195 Br – 325 Kr + 96
Rb – 47 Te – 190 I – 295 Xe + 77
Cs – 46 Po – 174 At – 270 Rn + 68

•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ê˛y í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyˆÏà í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !òˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.7
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ }îydܲ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ Óï≈˛Ùyl– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛Ó˚ }îydܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
ˆÓ!¢ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛Ó˚ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ⁄
•z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ l @˝ à •î ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ Ó ï≈ ˛ lñ xyÎ˚ l l
P, S, Cl, F.
~l̃y!°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù !lÎ˚!Ùï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î
!lÎ˚Ù •°ñ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ x!ôܲ }îydܲ •Î˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ §Ùyôyl ı
ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xyôyl Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚y §•çï˛Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ– x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl §yôyÓ˚îï˛
ˆ§•z çlƒ à,•#ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ó≈òy ôlydܲ xyôyl Î%=˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ x!ôܲ }îydܲ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ°
ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xÓfiÌyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– xyÙÓ˚y xÓ¢ƒ•z xy¢y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl Ü˛Ù }îydܲ •Î˚– ~SÈyí˛¸yG
ˆÎñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ Ü˛Ù 2p xÓ˚!Óê˛ƒyˆÏ° Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ Ó,•òyܲyÓ˚ 3p xÓ˚!Óê˛ƒyˆÏ°
}îydܲ •Î˚ñ ˆÜ˛lly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ ÙyeyÎ˚ !Óܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚– ˆ§çlƒ
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚Óï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– §yÓ˚!î 3.7ÈüÈ~
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ }îydܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î
ï˛y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Î!òGñ x!:ˆÏçl Óy Êœ%˛!Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
~l̃y°!˛õ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢– ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
@˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù }îydܲ •Î˚–
~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î Îál x!:ˆÏçl Óy Êœ%˛!Ó˚l ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ }îydܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù –
ï˛ál Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛ !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚ ån = 2ä ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !lˆÏçÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ à%îàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~•z hflψÏÓ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl xlƒylƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ≤ÃӰ˲yˆÏÓ
ï˛!í˛¸ÍÈüÈ}îydܲï˛y ӈϰ– xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î
!Óܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚– n = 3 ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ åS Óy Cläñ Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l!ê˛
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùï˛ ~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ˆÎyàƒ lÎ˚– Î!òG ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
x!ôܲ fiÌyl òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lÈüÈ•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Óܲ£Ï≈î
x˛õÓ˚yï˛!í˛¸Í ôÙ≈#ï˛yÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÙyl !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !ܲS%È §)ã˛Ü˛ ˆflÒ°ñ ˆÎÙl
á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
˛õyí˛z!°Ç ˆflÒ°ñ Ù%!°ˆÏܲlÈüȈç!Ê˛ ˆflÒ°ñ xy°ˆÏÓí˚ ˛ÈüȈÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛y ˆflÒ° ˜Ïï˛!Ó˚˛
(e) x˛õÓ˚yï˛!í˛Í¸ ôÙ≈#ï˛y Óy ï˛!í˛Í¸ }îydܲï˛y åElectronegativityä ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyí˛z!°Ç ˆflÒ° á%Ó Óƒy˛õܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛
ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óï≈˛Ùyl Órôl §,!T˛Ü˛yÓ˚# •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly •Î˚–
D xˆÏlܲ Ó•zˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ åAe ä §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 3.3-~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ }îydܲ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !•§yˆÏÓ xˆÏlܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚
≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ Ó˚#!ï˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !là≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ ôîydܲ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Îál •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ál
Î!ò ¢!=˛ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ }îydܲ !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– x!ôܲvñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õÓ˚Ù ¢)lƒ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚
~ÓÇ ˆ§çlƒ xlƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ åTä !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ«˛Ùï˛yñ ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î myÓ˚y àîly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ∆egH = –Ae – 5/2 RT –
92 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

!°ly§ ˛õyí˛z!°Ç ~ܲçl xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl# 1922 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛Ó˚ åˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲ«˛ä •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù)• ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l xyܲ£Ïî≈ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛y å4.0ä §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ §%!l!ò≈T˛ ÙˆÏôƒ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yG Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
Êœ˛% !Ó˚l ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆ°
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ܲS%È ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍÈüÈ}îydܲï˛yÓ˚ xyî%Ùy!lܲ Ùyl §yÓ˚!î ~ܲ•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏîñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈
3.8 (a) ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y •°– Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~•z ≤ÃÓîï˛y
≤Ãò_ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍÈüÈ}îydܲï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl §Ó≈òy xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ–
ô Ó% ܲ •Î˚ lyñ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yl ôÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏl ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛
xyÓÂô ~Ó˚ Ùyl ï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– Î!òG ~!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ˆçˆÏl ï%˛!Ù !ܲ ~ál ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y ~ÓÇ xôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ˆÎyàƒ Ó˚y!¢ lÎ˚ñ ï˛Ó% ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ Órôl myÓ˚y §ÇÎ%=˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛˛õyÓ˚ˆÏSÈy⁄
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ӈϰÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçlñ ˆ§ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ
~ܲ!ê˛ xÌ≈˛õ)î≈ xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ÈüüüÈ ~!ê˛ ~Ùl
xyÎ˚ly•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ
~ܲ!ê˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ñ ÎyÓ˚ §ÙˆÏrô ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚
àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍÈüÈ}îydܲï˛y
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈

xyÎ˚ly•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ

•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ

ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y

§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ

ã˛!Ó˚e
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ åôÓ˚ !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ åLiää ˆÌˆÏܲ Êœ%˛!Ó˚l åFä xôyï˛Ó
˛!Ó˚e
~ÓÇ ˆ◊!î ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ åôÓ˚ Êœ˛% !Ó˚l ôyï˛Ó ã

åFä ˆÌˆÏܲ xƒy§ˆÏê˛ê˛y•zl åAtää– !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ~•z ≤ÃÓîï˛y

Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ܲñ Îy ≤Ã!ï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚
ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y
•…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ !ܲv ˆ◊!î ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ •…y§ ˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ SÈ!Ó 3.7 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,_ ≤ÃÓîï˛y §Ù)•
§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ 3.8 (a) ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl å˛õyí˛z!°Ç ˆflÒ° xl%ÎyÎ˚#ä ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% å!mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ä Li Be B C N O F

ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲy 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

˛õÓ˚Ùyî% åï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ä Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲy 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

§yÓ˚!îüÈ 3.8 (b) ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl§Ù)• å˛õyí˛z!°Ç ˆflÒ° xl%ÎyÎ˚#ä @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ã˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚
(@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ I) Ùyl (@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ 17) Ùyl
Li 1.0 F 4.0
Na 0.9 Cl 3.0
K 0.8 Br 2.8
Rb 0.8 I 2.5
Cs 0.7 At 2.2
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
xôyï˛Ó ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ≤Ãã˛[˛ ˆÓ!¢–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y §Ó˚y§!Ó˚
§¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– xyˆÏÓ˚y !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó
ôÙ≈ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ ÓƒhflyÏ l%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– ~˲yˆÏÓñ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
}îydܲï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ åÓy ôyï˛Ó
ôÙ≈ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ä– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ ˆ◊!î ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ åÓy ôyï˛Ó
ôÙ≈ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ä–
~•z §ÙhflÏ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ˛ ≤ÃÓîï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù 3.7 !ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
3.7.2 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ Ü ˛Ù (Periodic Trends
in Chemical Properties)
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ x!ôܲyÇ¢ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù ˆÎÙl ܲî≈ §¡õÜ≈˛ñ !l!‹;Î˚
ˆçyí˛¸ ≤Ã˲yÓñ °ƒylÌylˆÏÎí˚ ˛ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l ≤Ã˲, !ï˛ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
@˝Ã%˛õ xl%ÎyÎ˚# xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ– ~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛!Ù ôÙ≈ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó [åLiä !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ Êœ%˛!Ó˚l
åFä]–
(a) ˆÎyçƒï˛y Óy çyÓ˚î hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ åPeriodicity of
Valence or Oxidation Statesä
ˆÎyçƒï˛y •° ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒÙ)°Ü˛ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎyçƒï˛y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yñ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆ¢Ï £Ï
ܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy Óy xyê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yàÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyló Îy l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
xyçܲy° çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ ¢∑!ê˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚•z ˆÎyçƒï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
çlƒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ò%ˆÏê˛y x!:ˆÏçl Î%=˛ ˆÎÔà OF2 ~ÓÇ
Na2O !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~•z ˆÎyàà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÙÔ° !ï˛l!ê˛Ó˚
ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù F > O > Na– Êœ%˛!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
§Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 2s22p5ñ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ F ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ myÓ˚y
@˝Ã%˛õ 1 2 13
ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy 1 2 3 4
ˆÎyçƒï˛y 1 2 3 4
93
§ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ OF2 xî% àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!òG §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛
ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˆÙÔ° F ~Ó˚ çyÓ˚lhflÏÓ˚ÈüÈ1É ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ xî%!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ò%ˆÏê˛y F ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óï≈˛Ùyl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 2s22p4ñ ~!ê˛ F ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ò%ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
xÇ¢#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ myÓ˚y ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ +2 çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Na2O xî%ˆÏï˛ñ x!:ˆÏçl x!ôܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
Na ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ –2
çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛ñ NaÈüÈ~Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ 3s1, ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l x!:ˆÏçlˆÏܲ òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
+1 çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ ˆòáyÎ˚– ~˲yˆÏÓñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÎÔˆÏà Óï≈˛Ùyl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ xî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
}îydܲï˛yÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ñ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xyôyl xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.8
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ myÓ˚y
§,T˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ ˆ°á ı
(a) !§!°Ü˛l ~ÓÇ ˆÓ y!Ùlñ
(b) xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚–
§Ùyôyl ı
(a) !§!°Ü˛l •° @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ14 ˆÙÔ°ñ ~Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y 4;
ˆÓ y!Ùl •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ñ ~Ó˚
ˆÎyçƒï˛y 1É §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ SiBr4
(b) Al @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ13 ~ xÓ!fiÌï˛ñ ~Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yñ 3; S-
@˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ16 ˆÙÔ°ñ ~Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÈüÈ2. §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚
§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ Al2S3É
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ Ü ˛˚!Ùܲ ≤ÃÓîï˛y å•y•zí»˛y•zí˛
~ÓÇ x:y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚ä §yÓ˚!î 3.9 ~ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°yÈüüüÈ xlƒylƒ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏ≈ÙÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ Ü ˛Ù ~•z Ó•zˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
xlƒe xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
14 15 16 17 18
5 6 7 8
3,5 2,6 1,7 0,8
94 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§yÓ˚!îÈüÈ 3.9üÈ~ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ Ü ˛Ù ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ §• ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
@˝Ã%˛õ 1 2 13 14 15 16 17

•y•zí»˛y•zí˛ LiH B2H6 CH4 NH3 H2O HF

~Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ NaH CaH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H 2S HCl

KH GeH4 AsH 3 H2Se HBr
SnH4 SbH3 H2Te HI

x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ Li2O MgO B2O3 CO2 N2O3, N2O5 –

§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Na2O CaO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6, P4O10 SO3 Cl2 O7

K2O SrO Ga2O3 GeO2 As2O3, As2O5 SeO3 –
BaO In2O3 SnO2 Sb2O3, Sb2O5 TeO3 –
PbO2 Bi2O3 – –

xˆÏlܲ ˆÙÔ° xyˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° ˆÎyçƒï˛y ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ˆÏAà xÌ≈yÍ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ Mg ~ÓÇ Al §ˆÏAà x!ôܲï˛Ó˚
•z•y !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ §!rôàï˛ ~ÓÇ xƒy!QlˆÏÎ˚í˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ àï˛ ôÙ≈ñ §ò,¢ – ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §yò,¢ƒ!˲!_ܲ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ˆÏܲ ˜Ó!¢ˆÏT˛ƒÓ˚
Îy xyÙÓ˚y ˛õˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó– xhs˝à≈ï˛ !ï˛Î≈ܲ Óy ܲî≈ §¡õÜ≈˛ !•§yˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
(b) !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ
˚ ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ Óƒ!ï˛Ü˛  !Ù ôÙ≈ §Ù)• åAnomalous ܲ# ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî s ~ÓÇ p ÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙÔ° ~ܲ•z @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚
Properties of Second Period Elementsä xlƒylƒ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôˆÏÙ≈ ˛õ,Ìܲ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄
≤Ã!ï˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙÔ°ñ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ1 å!°!ÌÎ˚yÙäñ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ2 åˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yÙä ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù# ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ «%˛o xyܲyÓ˚ñ í˛zFã˛
~ÓÇ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ13-17 åˆÓyÓ˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ Êœ%˛!Ó˚läñ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xyôyl‡Óƒy§yÏôÈ≈ üÈ~Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y– ~SÈyí˛¸yG
§ˆÏAà !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ 4!ê˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyˆÏSÈ å2s ~ÓÇ 2päñ
!°!ÌÎ˚yÙ xlƒylƒ «˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲñ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yÙ xlƒylƒ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ !ܲv @˝Ãˆ% ˛Ï õÓ˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛ §«˛Ù ~Ùl ˆÎyçƒï˛y
Ù,!_ܲy ôyï%˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ– ~Ó˚y §Ó≈òy §ÙˆÏÎyç# ˆÎÔà àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲˆÏ«˛ ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ 9!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl å3s, 3p, 3dä– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ
~ÓÇ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ãôylï˛ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎyç# ˆÎÔà àë˛l ≤Ã!ï˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ˆÎyçƒï˛y 4 •Î˚
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xy§ˆÏ°ñ !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# @˝Ãˆ% ˛Ï õÓ˚ åí˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˆÓyÓ˚î ¢%ô%Ùye [BF4]− àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ä– !ܲv @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚
xlƒylƒ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲ«˛ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛
ôÙ≈ ˆÙÔ°
ܲˆÏÓ˚ 4 ˆçyí˛¸yÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ôyï˛Ó Óƒy§yô≈ M/ pm Li Be B í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ [AlF6]3− àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
152 111 88 ~SÈyí˛¸yG ~ܲ•z @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
Na Mg Al p-ÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ˆÙÔ° §Ù)• !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ pπ –
186 160 143 pπ Ó•% Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆòáyÎ˚– åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ
Li Be C = C, C ≡ C, N = N, N ≡ Nä ~ÓÇ !mï˛#Î˚

xyÎ˚!lܲ Óƒy§yô≈ M+ / pm 76 31
˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xlƒylƒ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ˆÏAàG Ó•% Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚
Na Mg
≤ÃÓîï˛y åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ C = O, C = N, C ≡ N,
N = Oä ˆòáyÎ˚–
102 72
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.9
2+
[AlCl(H2O)5] ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Al ~Ó˚ çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
ˆÎyçƒï˛y §Ùyl •Î˚ !ܲ⁄
§Ùyôyl ı
lyñ Al ~Ó˚ çyÓ˚îhflÏÓ˚ •° +3 ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ˆÎyçƒï˛y •° 6.
3.7.3 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ Ü ˛Ù ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y (Periodic
Trends and Chemical Reactivity)
xyÙÓ˚y !ܲS%È ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚ ˆÎÙl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚!lܲ Óƒy§yô≈ñ
xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ Ü ˛Ù !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ– xyÙÓ˚y ~ál çy!l
˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– xÌ≈yÍ
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ G ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈Ó°# ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
!Ólƒy§ myÓ˚y– ~ál xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ôÙ≈Ó°# ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õܲ≈ çylyÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚Ó–
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ˆÎñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚!lܲ Óƒy§yô≈ §yôyÓ˚îï˛
˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓyÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl !òˆÏܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ å!ܲS%È Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù 3.7.1 (a) xLjϢ
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈä ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ }îydܲ •Î˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
~ˆÏܲÓyˆÏÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ §Ó ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ܲÙ
~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲÓyˆÏÓ˚ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ
§ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ }îydܲ– å!Óıoı ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲ«˛à%ˆÏ°y
§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ÌyˆÏܲ ӈϰ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î
~l̃y°!˛õ ôlydܲ ä– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ò%!ê˛ ã˛Ó˚Ù ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y
§ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛ˆÏw §Ó≈!l¡¨ •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓñ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛Ó˚Ù §#ÙyÎ˚
xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï y §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ å«˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒä ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛Ó˚Ù §#ÙyÎ˚ 啃yˆÏ°ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒä xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒylyÎ˚ˆlÏ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ôÙ≈ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ çyÓ˚î
~ÓÇ !ÓçyÓ˚î ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ Îy ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ܲyˆÏ°
!¢áˆÏÓ– ï˛ySÈyí˛¸yñ ~!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ~ÓÇ xôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
§Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ~˲yˆÏÓñ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ñ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆ¢Ï £Ï
≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙԈϰ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛y Ü ˛ˆÏÙ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– xôyï˛Ó
ôÙ≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl !òˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
95
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà x!:ˆÏçl ~ÓÇ •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y– ~áyˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ¢%ô%Ùye x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ܲÌy !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó– ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ã˛Ó˚ÏÙ §#ÙyÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ x:y•zí˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛Ó˚Ù §#ÙyÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ° x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ Na2Oä x:y•zí˛ñ x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛
í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛Ó˚Ù §#ÙyÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ° ï˛#Ó  x!¡‘ܲ x:y•zí˛
åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ Cl2Oä àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#fiÌyˆÏl xÓ!fiÌï˛
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ x:y•zí˛à%ˆÏ°y åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ Al2O3, As2O3ä í˛z˲ôÙ≈#
Óy ≤â٠åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ CO, NO, N2Oä •Î˚– í˛z˲ôÙ≈#
x:y•zí˛à%ˆÏ°y «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà xy!¡‘ܲ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
«˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ«˛ñ ≤â٠x:y•zí˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yl
xy!¡‘ܲ Óy «˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ3.10
çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáyG ˆÎ Na2O
~ܲ!ê˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ x:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ Cl2O ~ܲ!ê˛ xy!¡‘ܲ x:y•zí˛–
§Ùyôyl ı
Na2O çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ñ x˛õÓ˚ ˛õˆÏ«˛ñ
Cl2O7 çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
Cl2O7 + H2O → 2HClO4
~ˆÏòÓ˚ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ~ÓÇ xy!¡‘ܲ ôÙ≈ à%îàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !°ê˛Ùy§ ܲyàç
myÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ §!rôàï˛ ôyï%˛Ó˚ å3d §y!Ó˚ä ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ á%Ó Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î §!rôàï˛ å4f §y!Ó˚ä ôyï%˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl s ~ÓÇ p-
ÓœÜ˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~Ó˚y @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ1 ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ2 ôyï%˛Ó˚
ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù ï˛!í˛¸Í ôlydܲ–
~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚!lܲ Óƒy§yô≈ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ll
~l̃y°!˛õ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãôyl å≤Ã!ï˛!l!ôc ˆÙÔ°ä
@˝Ãˆ% ˛Ï õÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ !lÎ˚!Ùï˛ •…y§ åï,˛ï˛#Î˚
˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !ܲS%È Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù# ˆÙÔ° §• xôƒyÎ˚ 3.7.1(d) ~ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈä ˛õyÎ˚–
96 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

~˲yˆÏÓñ ôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ù¢ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !¢áˆÏÓ– Î!òG §!rôàï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛
~ÓÇ xôyï˛Ó ôÙ≈ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~•z Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !ÓçyÓ˚î Ü ˛Ù °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xyܲyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ll
~ÓÇ çyÓ˚î ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ Îy ï%˛!Ù ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–

§yÓ˚yÇ¢ (Summary)
~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ x@˝Ãà!ï˛ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚ÏSÈ– ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
åà%Ó˚%ˆÏcÓ˚ä í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyˆÏAܲ Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ 7!ê˛ xî%Ë)˛!Ùܲ
§y!Ó˚ å˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ä ~ÓÇ 18!ê˛ í˛zÕ‘¡∫ hflψϡ∫ å@˝Ã%˛õ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyÓ˚ä §yçyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ •° ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ !ܲv
~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ •z•y ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚!˲!_ܲ lÙ%lyÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~ܲ•z @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ܲ•z ~ÓÇ
ˆ§çlƒ ~ܲ•z Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Îy ˆ•yܲñ ~ܲ•z ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ê˛ˆÏ° !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ 4 ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙÔ° fl∫#Ü,˛ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~à%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏ°y s ÓœÜ˛ñ p ÓœÜ˛ñ d ÓœÜ˛ ~ÓÇ f ÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óï≈˛Ùylñ •z•y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
§yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ~ܲܲ xllƒ fiÌyl x!ôܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ K˛yï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ 78% ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ ôyï%˛– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
xôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°y xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §Çáƒy 20ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù– ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ xôyï%˛Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ˆÙÔ°§Ù)• ÎyÓ˚y §#Ùyly ˆÓ˚áyÎ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ åí˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õÈüÈSi, Ge, Asä ˆÙê˛y°ˆÏÎ˚í˛ Óy ôyï%˛Ü˛“ ӈϰ– ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ ôyï˛Ó ã˛!Ó˚e Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚ñ x˛õÓ˚ ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyˆÏAܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xyܲyÓ˚ñ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õñ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y ~ÓÇ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ Ü ˛!Ùܲ
≤ÃÓîï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÓyÙ!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛yl!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ
˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ~SÈyí˛¸y
ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yG xl%Ó˚)˛õ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆòáyÎ˚– ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ x!ôܲ }îydܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù }îdܲ •Î˚– ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ !ܲS%Èê˛y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ó,!_ xyˆÏSÈ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ ≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy xÌÓy xyê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ Óï≈˛Ùyl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yàÊ˛° í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚•z ˆÎyçƒï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y §Ó≈y!ôܲ ~ÓÇ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl §Ó≈!l¡¨ •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛Ó˚Ù §#ÙyÎ˚
xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙÔ° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ˲yˆÏÓ §!Ü ˛Î˚– ܲyÓ˚î ~Ó˚y §•ˆÏç •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ åxÌÓy !l¡¨ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ çlƒä– x!ôܲ
§!Ü ˛Î˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ù%=˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ §ÇÎ%=˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ÓyÙ !òˆÏܲÓ˚
ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ myÓ˚y §,T˛ x:y•zí˛ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ myÓ˚y §,T˛ x:y•zí˛ xy!¡‘ܲ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ÙôƒÓï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚
x:y•zí˛à%ˆ° Ï y í˛z˲ôÙ≈# Óy ≤â٠•Î˚–

xl%¢#°l# (Exercises)

3.1 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ §%!ÓlƒhflÏ Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛Ó˚ Ù)° !Ó£ÏÎ˚Ó› ܲ#⁄

3.2 ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚˲˛ ˆÜ˛yl à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ôÙ≈!ê˛ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!î !ÓlƒyˆÏ§ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ÓÇ !ï˛!l ܲ# §!ë˛Ü˛
!SȈϰl⁄
3.3 ˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)e ~ÓÇ xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÂô!ï˛àï˛˛ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲ#⁄
3.4 ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ñ ≤ÃÙyî ܲÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ 6¤˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ 32!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° Óï≈˛Ùyl–
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 97

3.5 114 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yl ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛⁄
3.6 ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ܲ ÙyAܲ ˆ°ˆÏáy Îy ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ 17 lÇ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ xÓ!fiÌï˛–
3.7 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ lyÙ myÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yl ˆÜ˛yl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ lyÙܲÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
(i) °ˆÏÓ˚™ ÓyܲˆÏ° ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚
(ii) !§Óà§≈ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ⁄
3.8 ~ܲ•z @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ•z ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
3.9 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚!lÎ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ Ó°ˆÏï˛ xy§ˆÏ° ï%˛!Ù Ü˛# Ó%V˛⁄
3.10 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ âˆÏê˛⁄ ï%˛!Ù Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
3.11 §Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚l Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ lyÙ ˆ°ˆÏáy Îy !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyˆÏÎ˚lÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛–
– +
(i) F (ii) Ar (iii) Mg2+ (iv) Rb
3.12 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
N , O , F , Na , Mg ~ÓÇ Al
3– 2– – + 2+ 3+

(a) ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ# !Ù° xyˆÏSÈ⁄

(b) xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ í˛zÂô≈Ü ˛Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §yçyG–
3.13 ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ~Ó˚ Ù)° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ «%˛oï˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ~Ó˚ Ù)° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó,•_Ó˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄ Óƒyáƒy
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
3.14 xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ §K˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !Ó!FSÈߨ àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ ¢∑à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ï˛yͲõÎ≈ ܲ#⁄ •z!Aàï˛ ı ï%˛°lyÓ˚ í˛zˆÏjˆÏ¢ƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl–
3.15 ~ܲ!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflψÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ –2.18×10–18J– J mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– •z!Aàï˛ ı ˆÙy° ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ ï˛_¥ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
3.16 !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne •ˆÏ° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ í˛z!=˛à%ˆÏ°y
Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚yÈüüüÈ
(i) Be ~Ó˚ ∆i H ~Ó˚ Ùyl B ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢–
(ii) O ~Ó˚ ∆i H ~Ó˚ Ùyl N ~ÓÇ F ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù–
3.17 ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓñ Na ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ Mg ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù !ܲv ~Ó˚ åNaä !mï˛#Î˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ
Mg ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢⁄
3.18 ܲ# ܲ# !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl @˝Ã%˛õ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ Ù)° @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ •ˆÏï˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ •…y§
˛õyÎ˚⁄
3.19 @˝Ã%˛õ 13 ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl (kJ mol–1˛) !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ ı
B Al Ga In Tl
801 577 579 558 589
ï%˛!Ù Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ §yôyÓ˚î Ü ˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ⁄
3.20 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ }îydܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ˆÓ!¢È⁄
(i) O xÌÓy F (ii) F xÌÓy Cl
3.21 ï%˛!Ù !ܲ ÙˆÏl ܲˆÏÓ˚y x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ !mï˛#Î˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ≤Ã̈ÏÙÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ôlydܲñ x!ôܲ }îydܲ Óy Ü˛Ù }îydܲ⁄
ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ fl∫˛õˆÏ«˛ Î%!=˛ òyG–
3.22 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲ#⁄
98 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

3.23 §Ó ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ˆÎÔˆÏàñ ˛õyí˛z!°Ç ˆfl҈ϰ NÈüÈ~Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl 3.0ñ ~•z Ó=˛Óƒ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ï%˛!Ù Ü˛# Ùï˛ ˆ˛õy£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚y⁄
3.24 ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Óƒy§yˆÏô≈Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ï˛_¥!ê˛ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
(a) ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î–
(b) ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l–
3.25 ï%˛!Ù !ܲ ÙˆÏl ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ܲ•z ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ~ܲ•z Óy !˲ߨ⁄ í˛z_ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ fl∫˛õˆÏ«˛
Î%!=˛ òyG–
3.26 ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ xôyï%˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ù%რ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒà%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ܲ#⁄
3.27 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚ òyG–
(a) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ÎyÓ˚ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ 5!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ–
(b) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ÎyÓ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y xyˆÏSÈ–
(c) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÙÔ° !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ÎyÓ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y xyˆÏSÈ–
(d) ~ܲ!ê˛ @˝Ã%˛õ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ôyï%˛ñ xôyï%˛ §yôyÓ˚î ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° ~Ùl !ܲ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl–
3.28 @˝Ã%˛õÈüÈ1 ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ í˛zÂô≈Ü ˛Ù •ˆÏ°y Li < Na < K < Rb <Cs Î!òG @˝Ã%˛õ 17 ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚
Ü ˛Ù F > CI > Br > I. Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
3.29 s, p, d ~ÓÇ f ÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
3.30 ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ÈüüüÈ
(i) ns2np4, ˆÎáyˆÏl n=3 (ii) (n-1)d2ns2 ˆÎáyˆÏl n=4, ~ÓÇ (iii) (n-2) f 7 (n-1)d1ns2 ˆÎáyˆÏl n=6.
3.31 !ܲS%È ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ (∆iH1) ~ÓÇ !mï˛#Î˚ (∆iH2) xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ (kJ mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ) ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ
(∆egH) (kJ mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ) l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°ÈüüüÈ
ˆÙÔ° ∆H1 ∆H2 ∆egH
I 520 7300 –60
II 419 3051 –48
III 1681 3374 –328
IV 1008 1846 –295
V 2372 5251 +48
VI 738 1451 –40
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛ :
(a) Ü˛Ù §!Ü ˛Î˚ ˆÙÔ°–
(b) §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §!Ü ˛Î˚ ôyï%˛–
(c) §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ §!Ü ˛Î˚ xôyï%˛–
(d) §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù §!Ü ˛Î˚ xôyï%˛–
(e) ôyï%˛ Îy §%!fiÌï˛ ˜mï˛ •ƒy°y•zí˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ MX2(X= •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl).
(f) ôyï%˛ Îy ≤Ãôylï˛ MX §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ §%!fiÌï˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# •ƒy°y•zí˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ (X= •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl)?
3.32 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÙÔ° ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyˆÏà à!ë˛ï˛ §%!fiÌï˛ ˜mï˛ ˆÎÔàà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(a) !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ åLiä ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl åOä– (b) ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ åMgä ~ÓÇ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl åNä–
(c) xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ åAiä ~ÓÇ xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l åIä– (d) !§!°Ü˛l åSiä ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl åOä–
(e) Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ åPä ~ÓÇ Êœ%˛!Ó˚l åFä– (f) 71 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÙÔ° ~ÓÇ Êœ%˛!Ó˚l åFä–
3.33 xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÎ Ùyl!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚È ï˛y •ˆÏ°y üüüÈ
(a) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲ–
(b) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚–
ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆ◊!î!Ó˲yà ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÓ,!_ 99

(c) Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy–

(d) ˆàÔî ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy–
3.34 xyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !ÓÓ,!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ lÎ˚⁄
(a) p-ÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ 6!ê˛ @˝Ã%˛õ xyˆÏSÈ Ü˛yÓ˚î p- í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl §Óà%ˆÏ°y ܲ«˛Ü˛ åorbitalä §Ó≈y!ôܲ 6!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(b) d-ÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ 8!ê˛ @˝Ã%˛õ xyˆÏSÈ Ü˛yÓ˚î dÈüÈ í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl §Óà%ˆÏ°y ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ §Ó≈y!ôܲ 8!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(c) ≤Ã!ï˛ ÓœˆÏܲÓ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl @˝Ã%ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Çáƒy ˙ í˛z˛õܲ«˛ ˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
(d) §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï í˛z˛õܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ çlƒ ÓœÜ˛!ê˛ ˆàÔî åazimuthalä ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ùyl !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ àë˛ˆÏl
ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy–
3.35 ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚l ôÙ≈ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •ˆÏÓ– !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ly⁄
(a) ˆÎyçܲ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy (n)–
(b) !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl (Z )–
(c) !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ˲Ó˚–
(d) xhs˝/•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy–
3.36 §Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ F –, Ne ~ÓÇ Na+ ~Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ÈüüüÈ
(a) !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyôyl (Z )
(b) ˆÎyçܲ Ù%რˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒy (n)
(c) §Ó≈Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lÈüÈ•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Óܲ£Ï≈î–
(d) ˆÜ˛yl ܲyÓ˚î•z lÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ~ܲ•z–
3.37 xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ åionization enthalpyä §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl‰ !ÓÓ,!ï˛!ê˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ lÎ˚⁄
(a) ≤Ã!ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
(b) ˆlyˆÏÓ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xhs˝fiÌ°#Î˚ !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ xyÎ˚ll ¢!=˛ xl%%Ë˛Ó •Î˚–
(c) ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ¢£Ï xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ Óí˛¸ ÓƒÓôyl myÓ˚y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
(d) !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó•lܲyÓ˚# ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l ܲÓ˚y í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ n ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó•lܲyÓ˚# ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚
§•çï˛Ó˚–
3.38 B, Al, Mg ~ÓÇ K ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ
(a) B > Al > Mg > K (b) Al > Mg > B > K
(c) Mg > Al > K > B (d) K > Mg > Al > B
3.39 B, C, N, F ~ÓÇ Si ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xôyï˛Ó ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ
(a) B > C > Si > N > F (b) Si > C > B > N > F
(c) F > N > C > B > Si (d) F > N > C > Si > B
3.40 F, Cl, O ~ÓÇ N ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ çyÓ˚î ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ
(a) F > Cl > O > N (b) F > O > Cl > N
(c) Cl > F > O > N (d) O > F > N > Cl

—v —
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Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l
åCHEMICAL BONDING AND
MOLECULAR STRUCTUREä
í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ åObjectivesä
~•z xôƒyÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ï%˛!Ù Îy Îy çylˆÏÓ
ï˛y •°ÈüüüÈ
• Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏl ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§‰°ÈüÈ°%•z§ ˛õrÌy
• xT˛Ü˛ §)e ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛yÓ˚ Óƒyáƒyñ
§Ó˚° xî%Ó˚ °%•z§ àë˛l xÑyܲyÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛
• !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy
• VSEPR ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ Óî≈ly ~ÓÇ §Ó˚° xî%Ó˚
çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy
• ˛§ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Ë˛ƒyˆÏ°™ Óu˛
(valence bond) ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy
• §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !ò܉˛ !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ ôÙ≈
• s, p~ÓÇ d ܲ«˛Ü˛ Î%=˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ~ÓÇ §Ó˚° §ÙˆÏÎyç#
xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy
• ˛fl∫çy!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ Î%=˛ !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚
(Homonuclear diatomic molecules)
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy
• ˛•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xôƒyÎ˚ 4
(UNIT 4)
!ÓK˛yl#Ó˚y ≤Ã!ï˛!lÎ˚ï˛ lï%˛l ˆÎÔà xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°ˆÏSÈlñ ~ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
ï˛Ìƒà%!° Ü ˛Ùyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §y!çˆÏÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl K˛yˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈlñ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ Ùï˛yÙï˛ §ÇˆÏ¢yôl Óy lï%˛l xy!Ó‹,Òï˛ âê˛lyà%!°
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ lï%˛l ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ !Óܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl–
˛õòyÌ≈ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ ˆÙÔ° myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛– fl∫y˲y!Óܲ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% fl∫yô#l
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ lyÈüüüÈ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù !l!‹;˛Î˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%– ï˛y §ˆÏ_¥G xˆÏlܲà%!° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
~ܲˆÏe Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï ã˛y!Ó˚!eܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ Î%=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%˛õ%O myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ•z Ó°y •Î˚ xî%– xî%ÙôƒfiÌ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
Ó° ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!° ~ܲˆÏe ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° myÓ˚y !Ó!˲ߨ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ xî%ˆÏï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyl å˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xyÎ˚l •zï˛ƒy!òä à%!° ~ܲˆÏe xÓfiÌyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ•z Ó°y •Î˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl– !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ Î%=˛
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ӈϰ !ܲS%È ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ §¡ø%á#l •ˆÏï˛ •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
§ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄ ˆÜ˛l !ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ §Ùß∫Î˚ §Ω˛Ó⁄ ˆÜ˛l !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒÓ˚y •Î˚ ly⁄ ˆÜ˛l xî%à%!°Ó˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ⁄ ~•z§Ó ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚
˛õyGÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛_¥ G !Ó!˲ߨ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ xÓï˛yÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
~•zà%!° •° Kossel-Lewis åˆÜ˛yˆÏ§°ÈüÈ°%•z§ä ôyÓ˚îyñ ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆçyí˛¸yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ï˛_¥ (VSEPR Theory)ñ ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ñ xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥ •zï˛ƒy!ò– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ àë˛lñ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚
§yÓ˚î#Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ !ÓÓï≈˛l ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚
Óƒyáƒy à˲#Ó˚˲yˆÏÓ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ï˛sf•z x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ §%!fiÌï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ã˛yÎ˚ñ Órôl•z
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛àï˛ í˛z˛õyÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ¢!=˛ •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛sf!ê˛ §%!fiÌï˛ •Î˚–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 101

4.1 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§°ÈüÈ°%•z§ ˛õrÌy ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ◊!îàï˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y °%•z§ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ í˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ §Ùyl
(KOSSEL-LEWIS APPROACH TO •Î˚ xÌÓy í˛ê˛ §Çáƒy Óy ˆÎyçܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ 8 ˆÌˆÏܲ
CHEMICAL BONDING) !ÓˆÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚–
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ˆòÓyÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%!°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
xˆÏlܲÓyÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°ñ !ܲv 1916 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§° G °%•§z •zñ ò, ! T˛˛õyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏ Ó ˚ l (Kossel, in relation to chemical
~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫yô#l §ˆÏhs˝y£Ïçlܲ Óƒyáƒy !òˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈ •l– ï˛yÓ˚y•z §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ bonding, drew attention to the following facts) ı
!l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§à%!°Ó˚ !l!‹;Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
• ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó 
Î%!=˛@˝Ãy•ƒ Óƒyáƒy ˆòl–
ï˛!í˛¸Í ôlydܲ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ôyï%˛à%ˆÏ°y !l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
~ܲ!ê˛ ôlydܲ xyôylÓy•# ܲyˆÏl° ≈ (Kernel) åxhs˝/fiÌ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
˛õ,Ìܲ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Î%=˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ä ~ÓÇ Ó!•/fiÌ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ xyê˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ÌyܲˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ °%•z§ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ !ã˛!eï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l– !ï˛!l xyÓ˚G • •ƒyˆÏ°yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ }îydܲ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ôyï˛Ó
ôyÓ˚îy ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎ ~•z xyê˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ!ê˛ âlˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ôîydܲ xyÎ˚l àë˛l •Î˚ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ myÓ˚y
!Ó®%ˆÏï˛ x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ Îy ܲyˆÏl≈° (Kernel) ˆÜ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓT˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î Óy Óç≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ–
ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ §Ó≈Ó!fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛ Ìyܲy ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l • ~•z˲yˆÏÓ à!ë˛ï˛ }îydܲ Óy ôlydܲ xyÎ˚lñ !l!‹;˛Î˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
âlˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ !Ó®% òᰠܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎáyˆÏl !l!‹;Î˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y §%!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !l!‹;˛Î˚ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
xyê˛!ê˛ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ !Ó®%•z x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z xT˛Ü˛ åÓƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù !•!°Î˚yÙ ~Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲä Ó!•fiÌ Ü˛ˆÏ«˛ xyê˛!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §%!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §IyˆÏܲ §)!ã˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– °%•zˆÏ§Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §%!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ
fl∫#ܲyÎ≈ !SÈ° ˆÎ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!° ~!ê˛ •° ns2np6–
§%!fiÌï˛ xT˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚ Óy xT˛Ü˛ ˛õ)!ï≈˛ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– • }îydܲ G ôlydܲ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í xyܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §%!fiÌï˛ •Î˚–
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Na+ ~ÓÇ Cl– xyÎ˚l àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚
í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ G ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyˆÏà ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ
~ê˛y âê˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xlƒylƒ xî% ˆÎÙl Cl2, H2, F2, •zï˛y!òÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ àë˛lˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly xl%ÎyÎ˚# Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ xÇ¢#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Órôl
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ÈüüüÈ
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ó!•/fiÌ Ü˛«˛Ü˛!ê˛ §%!fiÌï˛ –
Na → Na+ + e
xT˛Ü˛ ≤ÃyÆ •Î˚–
[Ne] 3s1 [Ne]
°%•z§ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ (Lewis Symbols)ı xî% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢%ô%Ùye
Cl + e– → Cl–
Ó!•/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%!° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
[Ne] 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]
~à%%!° ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ –
Na+ + Cl– → NaCl or Na+Cl
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%!° ΈÏÌT˛ §%Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚
xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~ܲçl xyˆÏÙ!Ó˚ܲyl Ó˚y§yÎ˚l!Óò ˆç ~l °%•z§ñ ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ CaF2 ~Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
–
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%!°ˆÏܲ §)!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ §Ó˚° Ca → Ca2+ + 2e
[Ar]4s2 [Ar]
≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃÓï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ~•z ≤Ãï˛#ܲà%!°ˆÏܲ °%•z§ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ G ӈϰ– – –
í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%!°Ó˚ °%•z§ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ F +e → F
ÙˆÏï˛y •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ [He] 2s2 2p5 [He] 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
– –
Ca2+ + 2F → CaF2 or Ca2+(F )2
ôlydܲ G }îydܲ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í xyܲ£Ï≈î
°%•z§ ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ (Significance of Lewis Symbols) ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ ˆÎ Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎÔç# Órôl lyÙ
ı ≤Ãï˛#ˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ !Ó®% åí˛ê˛äà%!° ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ°– ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆÎyçƒï˛yñ xyÎ˚ˆlÏ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ~ܲܲ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚
§ÇáƒyˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ˆÎyçܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z §Çáƒy ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl– ï˛y•z ܲƒy°!§Î˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ôlydܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆÎyçƒï˛y 2 ~ÓÇ
Óy ˆ◊!îàï˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y (group valence) !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ }îydܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆÎyçƒï˛y 1 !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
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ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈àˆ% °
Ï y •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xyÎ˚l
àë˛l ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÜ˛°y§ ˆÎÔà àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyô%!lܲ ôyÓ˚îy ≤Ãòyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚SÈ°– xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔàà%!°ˆÏܲ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ G ≤Ãîy°#ÓÂô ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
ï˛yÓ˚ Ùï˛yÙï˛à%ˆÏ°y á%Ó•z Ù)°ƒÓyl– ~ܲ•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !ï˛!l ~ê˛yG °«˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ˆÎ ~ܲê˛y !Ó¢y° §ÇáƒÜ˛ xî%Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# ï˛yÓ˚
Ùï˛yÙˆÏï˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ áy˛õ áyÎ˚ ly–
4.1.1 xT˛Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ù (Octet Rule) ı
1916 §yˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§° ~ÓÇ °%•z§ñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏÎyà §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xÓï˛yÓ˚îy
ܲˆÏÓ˚l Îy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ ï˛_¥ lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~•z Ùï˛Óyò xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ å@˝Ã•î Óy
Óç≈lä Óy ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛ xyê˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎyçƒï˛y
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˛õÙyî%à%ˆÏ°y Î%=˛ •Î˚– ~!ê˛
xT˛Ü˛ §)e lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
4.1.2 §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl (Covalent Bond) ı
1919 §yˆÏ° °ƒy.Ù%ƒÓ˚ xT˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° âlܲ#Î˚ ÓƒÓfiÌyÓ˚
ôyÓ˚î!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ï˛ƒyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl ¢∑!ê˛ˆÏܲ Î%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚
°%•zˆÏ§Ó˚ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈à%ˆÏ°y xyÓ˚G í˛zß¨ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l– ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xî%Ó˚ Cl2
àë˛lˆÏܲ !Óã˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ˆÏl °%•z§ÈüÈ°ƒy.Ù%Ó˚ ï˛_¥!ê˛ Ë˛yˆÏ°y ˆÓyV˛y
ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° [Ne]3s2 3p5
ˆ§áyˆÏl xyà≈ˆÏlÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ 1!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ܲÙ
ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚
˲yà#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xî% Cl2 à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˲yà#òy!Ó˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆçyí˛¸y!ê˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ò%!ê˛ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%•z !lܲê˛ï˛Ù
!l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§ åˆÎÙlñ xyà≈lä ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Ó!•/fiÌ Ü˛«˛˛õˆÏÌ xT˛Ü˛
°y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
or Cl – Cl
ò%!ê˛ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!Ó®%àˆ% °Ï y åí˛ê˛ä •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yˆÏFSÈ– ~•z àë˛là%ˆ°
Ï y °%•§z
í˛ê˛ àë˛l lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
~ܲ•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy !˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xî%
àë˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°G °%•z§ í˛ê˛ àë˛l!ê˛ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚– ~áyˆÏl à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈
¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y •°ÈüüüÈ
• ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ë˛yà#òy!Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
• ˲yà#òyÓ˚ ˆçyÓ˚y!ê˛ àë˛l ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
Ü˛Ù˛õˆÏ«˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l òyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xÇ¢#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ Óy ˲yà#òy!Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §ÇˆÏÎyàܲyÓ˚#
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÙyî% ˆ¢£Ï ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ !l!‹;Î˚ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!Ólƒy§ ≤ÃyÆ •ˆÏÓ–
ï˛y•z çˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˆê˛ê˛∆yˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚
àë˛l ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ÈüüüÈ
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% 2!ê˛ ~ÓÇ
x!:ˆÏçl xyê˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l
≤ÃyÆ •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ xyê˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ≤ÃyÆ •Î˚
ï˛y•zñ Îál ò%ˆêÏ ˛y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° xÇ¢#òy!Ó˚c
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál Ó°y •Î˚ ˆÎ ï˛yÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xˆÏlܲ ˆÎÔˆÏà xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲy!ôܲ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
Órôl ˛õy•z– ~ܲy!ôܲ Órôl àë˛lˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲy!ôܲ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ˲yà#òy!Ó˚c !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Î!òG
ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ˲yà#òy!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ à!ë˛ï˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôlˆÏܲ !mÓrôl ӈϰ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ
ܲyÓ≈lí˛y•z x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ xî%ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
xyÙÓ˚y !mÓrôl ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z– ~!ܲ˲yˆÏÓñ •z!Ìl xî%ˆïÏ ˛ñ ò%!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ܲ!ê˛ !mÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Î%=˛ •Î˚–
CO2 xî%ˆÏï˛ !mÓrôl
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l
C2H4 xî%
Îál §ÇˆÏÎyà xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% ° Ï y !ï˛l!ê˛ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l
ˆçyí˛¸yÓ˚ ˲yà#òyÓ˚ •Î˚ ï˛ál ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ò!% ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !eÓrôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ˆÎÙl ò%!ê˛ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !lˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl xî% ~ÓÇ
ò%!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !lˆÏÎ˚ •zÌy•zl xî%Ó˚ àë˛ˆÏl !eÓrôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚–
N2 xî%
C2H2 xî%
4.1.3 §Ó˚° xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe °%•z§ ≤ÃhflÏyÓly å°%•z§ àë˛lä Lewis
Representation of Simple Molecules (the
Lewis Structures)
˲yà#òy!Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ~ÓÇ xT˛Ü˛ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ °%•z§
í˛ê˛ àë˛l å!ã˛eäñ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% G xyÎ˚l§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !ã˛e
≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z !ã˛e §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÓrôlˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚îˆÏܲ
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ï˛ˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ ôÙ≈
!Óhfl,Ïï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y•z xî%à%!°Ó˚ °%•z§ í˛ê˛
àë˛l í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl á%Ó ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xl%§Ó˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ °%•z§ í˛ê˛ àë˛l ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
• ~•z àë˛l!ê˛ ˆ°áyÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy
§ÇˆÏÎyàܲyÓ˚# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°Ó˚ (Combining atoms) ˆÎyçƒï˛y
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ !ÙˆÏÌl (CH4) xî%ˆÏï˛ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ xyê˛!ê˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ å~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ~ÓÇ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ
ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ä–
• xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ~ܲ!ê˛ }îydܲ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ xÌ≈ •° ~ܲ!ê˛
103
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ •GÎ˚y– ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ôlydܲ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚
xÌ≈ •° ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yà •GÎ˚y–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓñ CO2–3 xyÎ˚ˆÏl ò%!ê˛ }îydܲ xyôyl ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚
ˆÎñ !lhflÏ!í˛¸Í ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!° myÓ˚y ≤Ãò_ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– NH+4 xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˆÎñ !lhflÏ!í˛¸Í ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°Ó˚ ò° ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
• §ÇˆÏÎyàܲyÓ˚# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à!% °Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !ã˛•´ ˆçˆÏl ~ÓÇ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚
àë˛l!ã˛e §¡õˆÏܲ≈ ôyÓ˚îy !lˆÏÎ˚ åˆçˆÏl Óy Ó%!Âô !òˆÏÎ˚ ܲ“ly ܲˆÏÓä˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl%˛õyˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà#òy!Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó^˝ê˛l ܲÓ˚y §•ç •Î˚–
• §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî% Óy
xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !ë˛Ü˛ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ NF3È ~ÓÇ CO2–3
üÈ~ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l xî%Ó˚ ÙôƒË˛yˆÏà ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆÎáyˆÏl
ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚l ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl ≤Ãyhs˝#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏl ÌyˆÏܲ–
• ~ܲ ÓrôˆÏl ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ Ë˛yà#òyÓ˚ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸yà%ˆ°Ï y xÇ¢@˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚
˛õÓ˚ xÓ!¢T˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸yà%ˆÏ°y Ó•% Órôl àë˛ˆÏl ÓƒÓ•,ï˛
•Î˚ Óy !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ù)° í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ
•° ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ÓrôlܲyÓ˚# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xT˛Ü˛ ˛õ)!ï≈˛ •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
ï˛y!°Ü˛y 4.1 ~ °%•z§ ≤ÃhflÏyÓlyÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ xî% ~ÓÇ
xyÎ˚l ˆòGÎ˚y •°ÈüüüÈ
ï˛y!°Ü˛y 4.1 °%•z§ ≤ÃhflÏy!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ xî%
xî%‡xyÎ˚l °%•§z í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !•!°Î˚yÙ å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l mÎ˚# dupletä
~Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ ≤ÃyÆ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
104 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ 4.1 å~ܲ!ê˛ Ë˛yà#òyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ä xÑyˆÏܲy– ~!ê˛

CO xî%Ó˚ °%•z§ í˛ê˛ àë˛l ˆ°ˆÏáy– ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xT˛Ü˛ §¡õ)î≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– Î!ò ly Óy!ܲ ò%!ê˛
§Ùyôyl ı •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ˆÏï˛ !l/§Aà Î%à° ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ôy˛õÈüÈ1 ı ܲyÓ≈l G x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ÙÙyî%Ó˚ §Ó≈ˆÏÙyê˛
ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Çáƒy à%ˆÏl lyG– ܲyÓ≈l G
x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Ó≈Ó!•/fiÌ åˆÎyçƒï˛yä ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 2s2 2p2 ~ÓÇ 2s2 2p4– ï˛y•z xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛
≤ÃyÆ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l •° 4 + 6 =10. x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲy!ôܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
ôy˛õÈüÈ2 ı ܲyÓ≈l ÙˆÏly:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ àë˛l !ã˛e (Skeletal ˛õ%l!Ó≈lƒy§ å~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !mÓrôlä ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ~ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y
structure) ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ C O. l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y °%•z§ í˛ê˛ àë˛l ˛õyÓÈüüüÈ
ôy˛õÈüÈ3 ı ܲyÓ≈l G x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲ Órôl
xÑyˆÏܲy å~ܲ!ê˛ Ë˛yà#òyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ !òˆÏÎ˚ä ~ÓÇ
x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xT˛Ü˛ ˛õ)î≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– Óy!ܲ ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ !l/§Aà Î%à° •ˆÏÓ– Óy
Óy Óy

~ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ xT˛Ü˛ ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚!l– ï˛y•z xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l

G x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲy!ôܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §IyÎ˚ ˆÎˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ 4.1.4 ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl (Formal Charge)
å~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !eÓrôlä– ~!ê˛ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xT˛Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ù §¡õ)î≈ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ñ °%•z§ !Ó®% àë˛l §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ xî%Ó˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
ˆÙyê˛ xyôyl!ê˛ •° §Ù@˝Ã xyÎ˚l!ê˛Ó˚ xyôylñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
Óy ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ lÎ˚– ï˛ˆÏÓ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl (Formal
charge) ÓÓ˚yj ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó– Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆl Ï
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ 4.2 í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôylˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎÈ̊üüüÈ
ly•zê˛∆y•zê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ NO2– ~Ó˚ °%•z§ àë˛l ˆ°ˆÏáy– ˙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ù%=˛ Óy !Ó!FSÈߨ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛
§Ùyôyl ı •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ °%•z§ àë˛ˆÏl ÓÓ˚yj •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚
ôy˛õÈüÈ1 ı ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl G x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ myÓ˚y–
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ~ܲܲ }îydܲ xyôyl å~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùylä §• ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy àîly °%•z§ àë˛ˆÏl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
=
ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl
N(2s2 2p3), O (2s2 2p4)
5 + (2 × 6) +1 = 18 !ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Ù%=˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛yܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ !l/§Aà ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛
—
ôy˛õÈüÈ2 ı NO2 ~Ó˚ àë˛l !ã˛e (Skeletal structure)!ê˛
–
ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy
ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ O N O
Órê˛l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸ ˲yà#òyÓ˚
ôy˛õÈüÈ3 ı ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ x!:ˆÏ ç ˆÏ l Ó˚ xT˛Ü˛ ˛õ) î ≈ ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ ñ — (1/2)
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl G x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲÓrôl
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 105

xî% ÙôƒfiÌ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ°ñ 4.1.5 xT˛Ü˛ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛y (Limitations of the
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ë˛yà#òyÓ˚ ˆçyyí˛¸y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ Octet Rule)

!l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˲Î˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lˆÏܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– xT˛Ü˛ §)eñ Î!òG ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ñ !ܲv §Ó≈çl#l lÎ˚– ~!ê˛
~ˆÏ§y xyÙÓ˚y GˆÏçyl (O3) xî%ˆÜÏ ˛ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚– GˆÏçyl (O3) ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà ˜çÓˆÏÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ àë˛l xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ÎˆÏÌT˛ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# ~ÓÇ
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚î#Ó˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%!°Ó˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏÎy烖
xî%Ó˚ °%•z§ àë˛l xÑyܲy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ
xT˛Ü˛ §)ˆÏe !ï˛l ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ x§¡õ)î≈ xT˛Ü˛ (The incomplete octet
of the central atom)
!ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˆÎÔˆÏà ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ !âˆÏÓ˚ Ìyܲy‡xyˆÏÓT˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚
Ìyܲy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy xyê˛ å8ä ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù– !ӈϢ£Ïï˛ñ ˆÎ §Ü˛°
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°ˆÏܲ 1, 2 ~ÓÇ 3 myÓ˚y §Çáƒy!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°– ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy ã˛yÓ˚ å4ä ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl ı ˆ«˛ˆÏe–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛y•zí˛ (LiCl)ñ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yÙ
• 1 !ã˛!•´ï˛ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ‘O’ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
•y•zí»˛y•zí˛ (BeH2) ~ÓÇ ˆÓyÓ˚l ê˛∆y•zˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ (BCl3)–
1
6 − 2 − (6) = +1
2
• 2 !ã˛!•´ï˛ ≤Ãyhs˝#Î˚ ‘O’ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
1 !°!ÌÎ˚yÙñ ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yÙñ ˆÓyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy
6 − 4 − ( 4) = 0 ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 1, 2, 3. xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ (AlCl3)ñ ˆÓyÓ˚l
2
• 3 !ã˛!•´ï˛ ≤Ãyhs˝#Î˚ ‘O’ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ê˛∆y•zÊœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ (BF3) ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚y !ܲS%È ˆÎÔà–
1 !ÓˆÏçyí˛¸ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xî% (Odd-electron molecules)
6 − 6 − ( 2) = 1 ly•z!ê˛∆ܲ x:y•zí˛ (NO)ñ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ (NO2)ÈüÈ~Ó˚
2
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl§• O3 xî%ˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°–˛ ÙˆÏï˛y !ÓˆÏçyí˛¸ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛
xT˛Ü˛˛õ)!ï≈˛ •Î˚ ly–

≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ xT˛Ü˛ (The expanded octet)

xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ xÓ¢ƒ•z Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôylñ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ#ܲÓ˚î !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– °%•z§ àë˛ˆÏl xî%Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ xyôyl !lˆÏò≈!¢ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§!ê˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%!°ˆÏܲ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒ xˆÏlܲà%!°
°%•z§ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùôƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ àë˛l!ê˛ˆÏܲ !lÓ≈yã˛l
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ñ §Ó≈!l¡¨ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ àë˛l ˆ§!ê˛•z •ˆÏÓñ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
x!ôܲ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ܲÙ
ÌyܲˆÏÓ–
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôyl •° ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ ÎyÓ˚ !˲!_ •°ñ §¡õ)î≈ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
Órôl ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸yà%ˆ°
Ï y ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ¢# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
§Ù˲yˆÏÓ Ë˛yà#òy!Ó˚ •Î˚–
˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ° ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
ˆÙÔ°à%!°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe 3sñ 3p ܲ«˛Ü˛ SÈyí˛¸yG 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚
çlƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
~§Ó ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÓ¢ !ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ xyˆÏê˛Ó˚ å8ä ˆÓ!¢ ˆÎyçܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ– ~ˆÏܲ ≤çyÓ˚ܲ
xT˛Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ù !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ x!˲!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~§Ó ˆ«˛eà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏï˛ xÓ¢ƒ•z
xT˛Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ù ≤ÈÎÏ yçƒ •Î˚ ly– ~ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ xyÓ˚G !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î
•ˆÏ°yÈüüüÈ PF5, SF6, H2SO4 ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È x§ÙˆÏÎyç# ˆÎÔà–
P ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ S ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ S ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢
10!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 12!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 12!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
106 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

ÙçyÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ •°ñ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ ~Ùl ˆÎÔàG àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól §Ó≈òy•z ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#– •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
xT˛Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ù!ê˛ Ùylƒ •Î˚– §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ í˛y•zˆÜÏ ˛œ yÓ˚y•zˆíÏ ˛ §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xy§!=˛ (Electron affinity) •° •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ¢!=˛Ó˚
ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ xyê˛!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ }îydܲ Ùyl–
fl∫˲yÓï˛•zñ ˆÎ §Ü˛° ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l
Óy !ÓË˛Ó Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ xƒylyÎ˚l àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛
xT˛Ü˛ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xlƒylƒ e%!ê˛ (Other drawbacks of the octet ˆÓ!¢ñ ï˛yÓ˚y•z §•ˆÏç xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
theory ) ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔˆÏà ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ôyï˛Ó
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ xƒylyÎ˚l ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ xôyï˛Ó ˆÙÔ° ˆÌˆÏܲ–
• flõT˛ï˛ !l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !l!‹;Îï˚ ˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚lñ NH+4 åò%ˆÏê˛y xôyï˛Ó ˆÙÔ° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ä
ܲˆÏÓ˚•z xT˛Ü˛ §)e!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛– ï˛ˆÏÓ !ܲS%È !l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§ åˆÎÙl
~ܲ!ê˛ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù–
ˆçll ~ÓÇ !Ü ˛≤Wzlä x!:ˆÏçl ~ÓÇ ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Î%=˛
ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ìyܲy xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔàà%!°ñ Ü%˛°¡∫#Î˚
•ˆÏÎ˚ !ܲS%È ˆÎÔà àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎÙlÈüüüÈ XeF2, KrF2, XeOF2
¢!=˛myÓ˚y xyÓÂô ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l G xƒylyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢,C!°ï˛ !eÙy!eܲ
•zï˛ƒy!ò–
§IyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓlƒhflÏ
• ~•z ï˛_¥!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôyÓ˚îy ˆòÎ˚ ly–
•ÓyÓ˚ ôÓ˚l ~ÓÇ xyÓ˚G !ܲS%È !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
• ï˛_¥!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ¢!=˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ˆòÎ˚ ly ӈϰñ xî%Ó˚
ˆÎÔàà%ˆ° Ï y ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˆÜ˛°y§yܲyÓ˚ àë˛l í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ fiÌy!Î˚ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óƒyáƒy !òˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ NaCl ~Ó˚ ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ àë˛l!ê˛ l#ˆÏã˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
4.2 xyÎ˚ l #Î˚ Óy ï˛!í˛¸ Í ˆÏ Î yç# Órôl (Ionic or !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ˆòGÎ˚y •°ÈüüüÈ
Electrovalent Bond)
xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Órôl §,!T˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§° ~ÓÇ °%•z§ ~Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
ˆÎ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ˆ§!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔà àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y •°ÈüüüÈ
• !lhflÏ!í˛¸ï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ôlydܲ G }îydܲ xyÎ˚l í˛zͲõߨ
•ÓyÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y
• ܲ!ë˛l ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ ˆÎÔˆÏà ôlydܲ G }îydܲ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
!Ólƒy§ Óy ˆÜ˛°y§ çy°Ü˛ àë˛l–
xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ xyÎ˚l àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ܲ!ê˛
!lhflÏ!í˛¸ï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óç≈l •ˆÏÎ˚
ôlydܲ xyÎ˚l ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •GÎ˚y ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !lhflÏ!í˛¸ï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Ó˚ܲ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ àë˛l
~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ }îydܲ xyÎ˚l àë˛l •GÎ˚y– xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ñ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ~l̃°!˛õ
–
M(g) → M+(g) + e ;
åxyÎ˚l#˲Ól ~l̃y°!˛õä ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃°!˛õÓ˚ §Ù!T˛ ôlydܲ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ
(Ionization enthalpy ) !ܲv ˆÜ˛°y§ çy°Ü˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !ܲS%È ¢!=˛ Ù%=˛ •Î˚
– –
X(g) + e → X (g) ; ӈϰ ˆÜ˛°y§!ê˛ˆÏܲ §%!fiÌï˛ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ Na(g)
å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õä ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Na+(g) àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ~l̃y°!˛õ
(Electron gain enthalpy)
– 495.8 kJ mol–1 ˆÎáyˆÏl Cl(g) + e–→ Cl– (g) ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl
M+(g) + X (g) → MX(s)
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ – 348.7 kJ mol–1– ~•z ò%•z ~Ó˚
àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ•z §Ù!T˛ 147.1 kJ mol-1– ~!ê˛ NaCl(s) ~Ó˚ çy°Ü˛ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ ∆egH Ó°y •Î˚ [xôƒyÎ˚ 3]– çlƒ Óƒ!Î˚ï˛ ¢!=˛ (–788 kJ mol–1) ~Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢–
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚ ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛!ê˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# Óy ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# ò%•z•z ~çlƒ ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 107

˛õ!Ó˚ Ù yî ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ – ï˛y•z ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÎ˚ l #Î˚ ˆÎÔˆÏ à Ó˚

!fiÌ!ï˛¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ à%îàï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚ °ƒy!ê˛§ àë˛l
~l̃y°!˛õ myÓ˚y !l!Ù≈ï˛ •Î˚ñ ¢%ô%Ùye àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚–
xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xT˛Ü˛ ≤Ãy!ÆÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ lÎ˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ xyÎ˚l#Î˚
ˆÎÔà àë˛ˆÏl çy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ (lattice enthalpy) ~Ó˚ !ӈϢ£Ï
Ë)˛!Ùܲy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛y•z ~ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylyÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
4.2.1 çy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛‡°ƒy!ê˛§ ~l̃y°!˛õ (Lattice Enthalpy)
~ܲ ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲ!ë˛l xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔàˆÏܲ §¡õ)îË≈ ˛yˆÏÓ àƒy§#Î˚
í˛z˛õyòyˆÏl xy°yòy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ ˙ ܲ!ë˛l xyÎ˚l#Î˚
ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ °ƒy!ê˛§ ¢!=˛ (lattice enthalpy) Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
•Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓñ NaClÈüÈ~Ó˚ °ƒy!ê˛§ ~l̃y°!˛õ 788 kJ !ã˛e 4.1 ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# xî% AB-~Ó˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ R = rA + rB (R •°
mol–1 ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏ°y ~ܲ ˆÙy° ܲ!ë˛l NaCl ˆÜ˛ ~ܲ ˆÙy° Na+ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ rA, rB •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ A ~ÓÇ B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
(g) ~ÓÇ ~ܲ ˆÙy° Cl– (g) ~ x§#Ù ò)Ó˚ˆÏc xy°yòy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ 788 Óƒy§yô≈)
kJ ¢!=˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ôÙ≈# xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆË˛u˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Óƒy§yô≈ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Órôl ly ܲÓ˚y xÓfiÌyÎ˚
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° G §Ùçyï˛#Î˚ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ò%•zÈüÈ•z ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÎyçܲ ܲ«˛§• §!ë˛Ü˛ xyܲyÓ˚ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚ •Î˚– ܲ!ë˛l ˆÜ˛°y§à%ˆÏ°y !eÙy!eܲ •GÎ˚yˆÏï˛ xyܲ£Ï≈î G ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xy°yòy xy°yòy !Ó!˲ߨ xî%à%!°Ó˚ ~ܲ•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
!Óܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ °ƒy!ê˛§ ~l̃y°!˛õ !lî≈Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Óˆ˚ cÏ Ó˚ xˆÏôÜ≈ ˛ˆÏܲ ˆË˛u˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Óƒy§yô≈
ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó •Î˚ ly– ˆÜ˛°y§l çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ (The vander Waals radius) ӈϰ– ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ~ÓÇ
!Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲG Î%=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ˆË˛u˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Óƒy§yô≈à%!° !ã˛e lÇ 4.2 ˆï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
4.3 Órôl !fiÌ!ï˛Ùy˛õ§Ù)• (Bond Parameters)
19
rc = 99 pm
8
4.3.1 Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ (Bond Length) pm

~ܲ!ê˛ xî%ˆïÏ ˛ Órôl myÓ˚y Î%=˛ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆ°

Ï yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÎ ò)Ó˚c ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ myÓ˚y Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒˆÏܲ
§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– ˆflõˆÏQ…yˆÏflÒy!˛õñ XÈüÈÓ˚!Ÿ¬ x˛õÓï≈˛lñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
x˛õÓï≈˛l •zï˛ƒy!ò ˆÜ˛Ô¢ˆÏ°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
r vd

~ˆÏòÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ çylˆÏÓ– Órôl ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ

w
=
18

xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏçyí˛¸y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xÓòyl ÌyˆÏܲ– §ÙˆÏÎyç#

0
pm

ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xÓòylˆÏܲ G•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç#

pm
0

Óƒy§yô≈ ӈϰ–
36

§ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏl xyÓÂô ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Îál !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ flõ¢≈

ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ál flõ¢≈ï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛wˆÏܲÓ˚
l)ƒlï˛Ù ò%Ó˚c myÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛Ó˚ xyl%Ùy!lܲ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Óƒy§yô≈
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– §ÙôÙ≈# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ xî%ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ ò)Ó˚cˆÏܲ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
Óƒy§yô≈ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚–
!ã˛e 4.2 ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xî%Ó˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ~ÓÇ ˆË˛u˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Óƒy§yô≈– !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ó,_à%ˆÏ°y ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yˆÏFSÈ– å rvdw ~ÓÇ rc ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ˆË˛u˛yÓ˚
GÎ˚y° ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Óƒy§yô≈à%ˆÏ°y ˆÓyV˛yˆÏFSÈ–ä
!ܲS%˛ xyò¢≈ ~ܲÓrôlñ !mÓrôl G !eÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ §yÓ˚!î
4.2 ~ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È x!ï˛˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ §yÓ˚!î 4.3 ~
108 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

ˆòGÎ˚y •°– ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Óƒy§yô≈ §yÓ˚!î 4.3.2 Órôl ˆÜ˛yî (Bond Angle)
4.4 ~ ï˛y!°Ü˛y ÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •°–
~ܲ!ê˛ xî% Óy ç!ê˛° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ Órôl
§yÓ˚!î 4.2 ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲñ !m G !eÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ
§«˛Ù •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à°§• ˆÎ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏSÈñ ˆ§ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈
(Bond Type) (pm)
ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yîˆÏܲ Órôl ˆÜ˛yî ӈϰ– Órôl ˆÜ˛yîˆÏܲ !í˛!@˝Ã ~ܲˆÏܲ
O–H 96
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ÎyˆÏܲ ˆflõܲˆÏê˛∆yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
C–H 107 !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xî% Óy ç!ê˛° xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
N–O 136
C–O 143 ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Órôl ÓƒÓfiÌy §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !ܲS%È ôyÓ˚îy ˆòÎ˚–
C–N 143 Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~!ê˛ ~Ó˚ xyܲyÓ˚ !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î
C–C 154
C=O 121 !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ çˆÏ°Ó˚ H–O–H Órôl ˆÜ˛yî l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl
N=O 122
C=C 133
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
C=N 138
C≡N 116
C≡C 120
§yÓ˚î# 4.3 ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ xî%Ó˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ
xî% Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ
(Bond Type) (pm) 4.3.3 Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ‡Órôl ¢!=˛ (Bond Enthalpy)
H2 (H – H) 74 àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ xî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ò%!ê˛
F2 (F – F) 144 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ÓrôlˆÏܲ ˲y.ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ
Cl2 (Cl – Cl) 199
Br2 (Br – Br) 228
§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ‡Órôl ¢!=˛Ó˚ ~ܲܲ •° kJ
I2 (I – I) 267 mol–1– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî%Ó˚ H – H Órôl ¢!=˛
N2 (N ≡ N) 109 •° 435.8 kJ mol–1–
O2 (O = O) 121 V
HF (H – F) 92 H2(g) → H(g) + H(g); ∆aH = 435.8 kJ mol–1
HCl (H – Cl) 127
HBr (H – Br) 141
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ ~ܲy!ôܲ ÓrôlÎ%=˛ ˆÎÙl O2 ~ÓÇ N2 xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
HI (H – I) 160 Órôl ¢!=˛‡Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ (Bond Enthalpy) l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛yÈüüüÈ
§yÓ˚î# 4.4 §ÙˆÏÎyç# Óƒy§yô≈ *rcov/(pm) O2 (O = O) (g) → O(g) + O(g);
V
∆aH = 498 kJ mol–1

N2 (N ≡ N) (g) → N(g) + N(g);

V
∆aH = 946.0 kJ mol–1

~ê˛y à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˆÎñ Órôl !Ó˲yçl ¢!=˛ ˆÓ!¢ ÙyˆÏl•z xî%ˆÏï˛

Órôl ¢!=˛¢y°# •GÎ˚y– HClÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Ó•% !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ Î%=˛
!m˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xî%ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ
V
HCl (g) → H(g) + Cl (g); ∆aH = 431.0 kJ mol–1

Ó•% ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Órôl ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ˆÓ¢

* ≤ÃÌÙ Órôl#ˆÏï˛ !lˆÏò≈!¢ï˛ •Î˚!lñ ~Ó˚)˛õ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ç!ê˛°– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ò%!ê˛ O – H ÓrôlˆÏܲ
~ܲÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ åxôƒyÎ˚ È3üÈÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ ≤ÃÓlï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù!ê˛ ˆòˆÏáyä– Ë˛yAàˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ܲ lÎ˚–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 109

H2O(g) → H(g) + OH(g); ∆aH1 = 502 kJ mol–1

V
ΈÏÌT˛ lÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õñ GˆÏçylñ O3 xî%ˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ I lÇ
V
OH(g) → H(g) + O(g); ∆aH2 = 427 kJ mol–1 ~ÓÇ II lÇ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
∆ aH ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ
V

˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ !ܲS%È Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ !mï˛#Î˚ O – H

Órôl!ê˛ˆÏï˛ !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z C2H5OH
å•zÌyl°ä ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y !ܲS%È xî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù O – H
ÓrôˆÏl !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢!=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛y•z Ó•%˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xî%Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe àí˛¸ Órôl ¢!=˛ (mean or average bond enthalpy)
¢∑!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
ˆÙyê˛ Órôl !Ó˲yçl ¢!=˛ˆÏܲñ (Total bond dissociation
enthalpy) Îï˛à%ˆÏ°y Órôl ˆË˛ˆÏ.ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ §Çáƒy !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚
àí˛¸ Órôl ¢!=˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎÙl çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ
502 + 427
àí˛¸ Órôl ¢!=˛ (Average bond enthalpy) = 2 §Çflõ®lä
= 464.5 kJ mol–1
4.3.4 Órôl Ü ˛Ù (Bond Order)
°%•zÙ Ó!î≈ï˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Órôl Ü ˛Ù ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓñ
H2 å~ܲˆÏçyí˛¸y ˲yà#òyÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l §•äñ O2 åò%•z ˆçyí˛¸y ˲yà#òyÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §•äñ N2 å!ï˛l ˆçyí˛¸y ˲yà#òyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §•ä Órôl
Ü ˛Ù •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 1, 2 ~ÓÇ 3– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ CO ˆï˛ åC ~ÓÇ
OÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ï˛lˆÏçyí˛¸y ˲yà#òyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lä ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù •° 3–
N2ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù •° 3 ~ÓÇ ∆ a H V •° 946 kJ mol–1ñ
!m˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~!ê˛•z •° §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ Órôl ¢!=˛
(Bond enthalpy molecules)–
§Ù§ÇáƒÜ˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ xy•zˆÏ§y•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆!lܲ xî%
(Isoelectronic molecules) ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù
x!˲ߨ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ F2 ~ÓÇ O2– 2 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù 1;
N2, CO ~ÓÇ NO ~Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù 3 •Î˚– xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ fiÌy!Î˚c
+
ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ §yôyÓ˚î xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ
•…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
4.3.5 §Çflõ®l àë˛l‡ˆÓ˚ˆÏçyˆÏl™ àë˛l (Resonance
Structures)
~ê˛y ≤ÃyÎ˚•z °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ °%•z§
àë˛l!ã˛eñ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ó•% ôÙ≈ˆÏܲ ÎÌyÎÌ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
!ã˛e 4.3 O3 xî%Ó˚ §Çflõ®l åI ~ÓÇ II lÇ àë˛l!ê˛ O3 xî%Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ §Ω˛yÓƒ
xyܲyÓ˚ (canonical form) !ܲv III lÇ àë˛l!ê˛ ~Ó˚ §AܲÓ˚yÎ˚î
ò%!ê˛ àë˛ˆÏl•z xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ O – O ~ܲ Órôl G ~ܲ!ê˛ O =
O !mÓrôl ˛õy•z– O – O ~ÓÇ O = O ~Ó˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ Órôl
˜òâ≈ƒ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 148 pm ~ÓÇ 121 pm– ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~!ê˛
!lî≈#ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ O3 xî%ˆÏï˛ x!:ˆÏçlÈüÈx!:ˆÏçl Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ
§Ùyl (128 pm)– ï˛y•z O3 xî%ˆÏï˛ x!:ˆÏçlÈüÈx!:ˆÏçl Órôl!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !mÓrôl G ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ xhs˝Óï≈˛#– ï˛y•z ~!ê˛ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚
Ó!î≈ï˛ °%•z§ àë˛là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢%ô%Ùye ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ àë˛l
myÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– O3ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛
àë˛l!ã˛e í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ í˛zq(ï˛ §Ù§ƒy §ÙyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y
ˆÌˆÏܲ•z §Çflõ®l ~Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §Çflõ®ˆÏlÓ˚
ôyÓ˚îyÎ˚ñ Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ °%•z§ àë˛l!ã˛e ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî%Ó˚ àë˛lˆÏܲ
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ï˛ál ~ܲ•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ¢!=˛ñ
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xÓfiÌylñ ÓrôˆÏl Î%=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l (bonding
electron) Óy ÓrôˆÏl Î%=˛ lÎ˚ ~Ùl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l (non bonding
electrons pairs) Óy •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à°ˆÏܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲy!ôܲ
ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° ˆçyí˛¸‡xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §AܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ àë˛l!ã˛e ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚–
Îy xî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– GˆÏçyl O3ÈüÈ~Ó˚
çlƒ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáyˆÏly (I, II)ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ §Ω˛yÓƒ àë˛l– III lÇ
àë˛l!ã˛e!ê˛ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ àë˛lñ Îy O3 xî%Ó˚ àë˛lˆÏܲ x!ôܲ
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ˆÏܲ §Çflõ®l §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î xÓfiÌy
(resonance hybrid) ӈϰ–È §Çflõ®lˆÏܲ ò%•z!òˆÏܲ ò%ˆÏê˛y
Ù%á!Ó!¢T˛ !ï˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ åfä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
110
ˆÓ˚ˆÏçyˆÏl™ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyÓ˚G !ܲS%È í˛zòy•Ó˚î •° ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ xyÎ˚l
~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈lí˛y•z x:y•zí˛ xî%Ó˚ àë˛lÈüüüÈ
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ4.3
CO2– 3 xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçyˆÏl™ àë˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y– xÌÓy
ˆÓ˚ˆç
Ï yˆÏl™ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ CO2–3 xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àë˛l Óƒyáƒy
ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§Ùyôyl
ܲyÓ≈l ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò%!ê˛ ~ܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ
~ܲ!ê˛ !mÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye
~ܲ!ê˛ °%•z§ àë˛l myÓ˚y CO2–3 xyÎ˚l!ê˛ˆÏܲ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î ~!ê˛ x§ÙÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛
!lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ܲv ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛° xl%ÎyÎ˚# CO2–3 xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
§Óà%!° ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈx!:ˆÏçl Órôl §Ùï%˛°ƒ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Ü˛yˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛
xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚)˛õ I, II ~ÓÇ III myÓ˚y ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™
•y•z!Ó í˛ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ ˲y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
!ã˛e 4.4 CO2–3 xî%Ó˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçyˆÏl™ å§Çflõ®lä Iñ II & III •°
!ï˛l!ê˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚)˛õ–
§Ù§ƒyÈüÈ4.4
CO2 xî%Ó˚ àë˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§Ùyôyl
˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ ˆÎ CO2 xî%ˆïÏ ˛ ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈx!:ˆÏçl
Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ 115 Pm. §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈lÈüÈx!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#
!mÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ ~ÓÇ !eÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
121 Pm ~ÓÇ 110 Pm. CO2 xî%ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈lÈüÈx!:ˆÏçl
Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ 115 Pm Îyy ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈx!:ˆÏçl !mÓrôl G
!eÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛#– flõT˛ï˛ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye °%•z§ àë˛l ~•z
xÓfiÌy!ê˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ôܲ °%•z§
àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ï˛y ˆòáy ˆòÎ˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° CO2 ~Ó˚
àë˛lˆÏܲ ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° àë˛l I, II, III ~Ó˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™
•y•z!Ó í˛ ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!ã˛e 4.5 CO3 xî%Ó˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™ I, II, III ܲƒyˆÏly≈!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚)˛õ
myÓ˚y í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ~ê˛y Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ
• ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™ñ xî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™
•y•z!Ó ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù–
• ˆÓ˚ˆÏçƒylƒy™ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ !Ó!¢T˛ƒ ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y•z O3 ~Ó˚ I ~ÓÇ II ò%!ê˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ å!ã˛e
4.3ä ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™ •y•z!Ó ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ ܲÙ
•Î˚–
ˆÓ˚ˆç
Ï ylƒy™ §¡õÜ≈˛#Î˚ xˆÏlܲ ºyhs˝ ôyÓ˚îy xyˆÏSÈ ˆ§à%!°ˆÏܲG
~ܲ•z §ˆÏAà ò)Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ˆÎñ
• ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ÓyhflÏÓ x!hflÏc ˆl•z–
• xî%!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ÓƒÓôyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛
ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° àë˛ˆÏl ÌyˆÏܲ lyñ xyÓyÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ !l!ò≈T˛ ÓƒÓôyˆÏl xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ°
àë˛ˆÏl !ÓòƒÙyl ÌyˆÏܲ ly–
• ê˛ˆÏê˛yÙy!Ó˚çˆÏÙ !ܲˆÏê˛y ~ÓÇ •zl° ê˛ˆÏê˛yÙy!Ó˚ܲ Ó˚˛) õà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !ÓòƒÙylñ !ܲv ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ°
Ó˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~Ùl ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
ÌyˆÏܲ ly–
• xî%Ó˚ ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛Ùye àë˛l
myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™ •y•z!Ó í˛ ÓˆÏ°
~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚˛) õà%!°ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye °%•§z àë˛l
myÓ˚y !ã˛!eï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
4.3.6 ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛y (Polarity of Bonds)
~ܲ¢ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óy §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ x!hflÏc ~ܲ!ê˛
xyò¢≈ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓyhflψÏÓ ~Ùl ˆÜ˛yl ˆÎÔà Óy Órôl
ˆl•z Îy §¡õ)îÓ≈ ˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óy §ÙˆÏÎyç#– ~Ùl!ܲ ò%!ê˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ à!ë˛ï˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlG !ܲS%Èê˛y xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ã˛!Ó˚e
ÌyˆÏܲ–
ò%!ê˛ ~ܲ•z ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% myÓ˚y Îál §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
fl∫Ó˚˛) õ H2, O2, Cl2, N2 Óy F2 ï˛ál ˲yà#òyÓ˚# •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ (shared
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 111

pair of electrons) G˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §Ùyl xyܲ£Ï≈î ÌyˆÏܲ–
Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à°ñ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ
!ë˛Ü˛ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# fiÌyˆÏl xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ í˛zͲõߨ ÓrôlˆÏܲ
xô %Ó#Î˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl ӈϰ– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛ !˲ߨôÙ≈# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
Î%=˛ xî% ˆÎÙl HF ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲yà#òy!Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ó˚î x!ôܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ •Î˚ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛
ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y åxôƒyÎ˚Èü3Èä •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xˆÏ˛õ«˛y
xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢– ≤ÃyÆ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl!ê˛ ô %Ó#Î˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl
•Î˚– ô %ÓyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xî%!ê˛ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚# •Î˚ ål#ˆÏã˛
Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ ¢%ô%Ùye ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛
Órôl ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ xî%Ó˚ !eÙy!eܲ àë˛l
!ÓlƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚G !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~§Ó ˆ«˛ˆÏe xî%Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ
•ˆÏÓ !Ó!˲ߨ Órôl ºyÙܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆË˛QˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛°– í˛zòy•Ó˚î
fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%ñ ÎyÓ˚ àë˛l ˆÓ^˝ê˛ (Bent) àë˛lyÜ,˛!ï˛ ï˛Ìy V
xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ò%!ê˛ O–H Órôl 104.50 ˆÜ˛yˆÏî !ÓlƒhflÏ
ÌyˆÏܲ– ò%!ê˛ O–H ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ °!kô •° ˆÙyê˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
ºyÙܲ– ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl •°
6.17 × 10–30 C m (1D = 3.33564 × 10–30 C m)

Ó!î≈ï˛≈˛xyˆÏSÈä ÎyˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ôlydܲ G }îydܲ

xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Ó˚c ~ÓÇ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ à%îÊ˛°
myÓ˚y– ~ˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !@˝ÃܲÓî≈ ‘µ’ myÓ˚y §)!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~Ó˚
ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛ !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õÈüüüÈ
!mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ (µ) = xyôyl (Q) × xyôylà%!°Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% Órôl °!∑ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ
ò)Ó˚c (r) ˆÙyê˛ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲñ µ = 1.85 D
!mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !í˛Óy•z (D) ~ܲܲ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ = 1.85 × 3.33564 × 10
–30
Cm
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ à%îܲ!ê˛ •°ñ 1 D = 3.33564 × 10–30 Cm –30
= 6.17 ×10 C m
ˆÎáyˆÏl ‘C’ •° Ü%˛°¡∫ ~ÓÇ m •° !Ùê˛yÓ˚– xyÓ˚G ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ BeF2 xî%!ê˛Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl ¢)lƒ– ܲyÓ˚î ò%!ê˛ §Ùyl
ï˛Ìƒ •°ñ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆË˛QÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢ ~ÓÇ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ Ó˚#!ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% Órôl !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ x˛õÓ˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ ≤â!Ùï˛
xl%ÎyÎ˚# ~ˆÏܲ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y !ï˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y ˆòáyˆÏly •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚–
ˆ¢£Ï˲yà!ê˛ ˆlˆÏà!ê˛Ë˛ ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ §yÙˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢!ê˛ ˛õ!ç!ê˛Ë˛
ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ÌyˆÏܲ– !ܲv Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlñ xî%Ó˚ °%•z§ àë˛ˆÏl !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
BeF2 xî%ˆÏï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% Órôl BeF2 xî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÙyê˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ
ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ åÜ ˛§ä‡˛õyŸª≈ !ï˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´ ( )
ã˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ xî%ñ ˆÎÙl BF3 xî%Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚
myÓ˚y– åÜ ˛§ä‡˛õyŸª≈ xÇ¢!ê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ôlydܲ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ !ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ùyl ¢)lƒ– Î!òG B – F Órôlà%ˆÏ°y ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §!•ï˛ 120o
ÙyÌy!ê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ }îydܲ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ HF ~Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
ˆÜ˛yˆÏî !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ– !ܲv !ï˛l!ê˛ Órôl ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÎyàÊ˛°
ºyÙܲ!ê˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı ¢)lƒñ ܲyÓ˚î ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ò%!ê˛ B – F ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ °!kô ï,˛ï˛#Î˚!ê˛Ó˚ §Ùyl
~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ •Î˚–
H F
~•z !ï˛Ó˚ !ã˛•´!ê˛ xî% ÙôƒfiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l âlˆÏcÓ˚ (electron
density) fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎñ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛
Ó˚#!ï˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# Ü ˛§‡˛õyŸª≈ !ï˛Ó˚ !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ !òܲ !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛!ê˛ ˆË˛QÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ !ò܉˛ !lˆÏò≈¢ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛–
í˛ƒy!l¢ Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò‰ !˛õê˛yÓ˚ !í˛Óy•z X-Ó˚!Ÿ¬ BF3 (a) xî%Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% Órôl (b) ˆÙyê˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚
!ÓãS%ÈÓ˚î ~ÓÇ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §Ê˛° NH3 ~ÓÇ NF3 xî%ˆïÏ ˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙçyòyÓ˚‡xyܲ£Ïî≈ #Î˚ âê˛ly xôƒÎ˚l
ܲyˆÏçÓ˚ çlƒ 1936 !á / ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ó˚flÒyÓ˚ ˛õyl– ܲÓ˚y Îy܉˛– í˛z˲Î˚ xî%!ê˛•z !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛yÜ,˛!ï˛ ˆÎáyˆÏl ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl xî%ˆïÏ ˛
í˛zlyÓ˚ §¡øylyˆÏÌ≈ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !í˛Óy•z !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° Óï≈˛Ùyl– Î!òG ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚l ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ˆÌˆÏܲ
~ܲܲ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÓ!¢ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ï˛y §ˆÏ_¥G NH3 xî%Ó˚ °!kô !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ
112 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

(4.90 × 10–30 C m) ˆÌˆÏܲ NF3 °!kô !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ (0.8 × §ÙˆÏÎyç# ã˛!Ó˚e Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚–
10–30 C m) ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ܲyÓ˚îñ NH3 xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l • ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏl ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y •ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ
Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ °!kô ~ÓÇ !ï˛l!ê˛ N – H ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ÓˆÏí˛¸y •ˆÏ°ñ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ã˛!Ó˚e ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ–
!mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ °!kô ºyÙܲ ~Ó˚ !ò܉˛ ~ܲ•z !òˆÏܲ •Î˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl • ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏl ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ° §ÙˆÏÎyç#
NF3 xî%ˆÏï˛ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ ã˛!Ó˚e ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ–
~Ó˚ °!kô ~ÓÇ !ï˛l!ê˛ N – F ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl ºyÙܲà%!°Ó˚ °!kô • ~ܲ•z xyܲyÓ˚ G §Ù xyôyl Î%=˛ ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒñ (n-1)dnnso
ºyÙܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ •Î˚– !l/§Aà •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ çlƒ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy Î%=˛ xyò¢≈ §!rôàï˛ ôyï%˛Ó˚ ô %ÓyÎ˚l
ºyÙܲ!ê˛ñ N – F ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ °!kô ºyÙܲˆÏܲ •…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ «˛Ùï˛y !l!‹;˛Î˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy ns2 np6 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
NF3 ~Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ Îy l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°– Î%=˛ «˛yÓ˚ ôyï%˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ Ù,!_ܲy ôyï%˛Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢– ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôylˆÏܲ !lˆÏçÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆê˛ˆÏl !lˆÏÎ˚ xƒylyÎ˚lˆÏܲ
ô Ó% y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ò%!ê˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ âlc Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!ë˛Ü˛ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏl àˆÏí˛¸ GˆÏë˛ xÌ≈yÍ ò%!ê˛
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ âlc ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ÓrôˆÏl §ÙˆÏÎyç# ã˛!Ó˚ˆeÏ Ó˚ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y Ùyey ˆÎ !Ó£ÏÎà˚ ˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y •° ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ô %ÓyÎ˚l «˛Ùï˛y–
xƒylyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ô Ó% y!Î˚ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ~ÓÇ xƒylyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ !ÓÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
NF3 xî%Ó˚ °!kô !mˆÏÙÓ˚% NF3 xî%Ó˚ °!kô !mˆÏÙÓ˚% åô %Óy!Î˚ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ä !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚–
ºyÙܲ = 4.90 × 10 –30
Cm ºyÙܲ = 0.8 × 10–30 C m
4.4 ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ï˛_¥
4.5 §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ !ܲS%È xî%Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !°!˛õÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •°– (VSEPR) (The Valence Shell Electron Pair
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎÙl xyÇ!¢Ü˛ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ã˛!Ó˚e ÌyˆÏܲñ Repulsion Theory)
ˆï˛Ù!l xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ÓrôˆÏlG xyÇ!¢Ü˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ã˛!Ó˚e ÌyˆÏܲ– Ê˛yçyl xyˆÏà•z Ó°y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ °%•zˆÏ§Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óƒyáƒy
(Fajan) !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !lÎ˚Ù xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ §ÙÌ≈ •Î˚!l– ~•z ï˛_¥!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˛õ)Óy≈ ˲yˆÏ§Ó˚
§yÓ˚î#ˆÏï˛ 4.5 !lÓ≈y!ã˛ï˛ xî%Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ
xî%Ó˚ ôÓ˚î í˛zòy•Ó˚î !mˆÏÙÓ˚% çƒy!Ù!ï˛
ºyÙܲ, µ(D)
xî% (AB) HF 1.78 §Ó˚° ˜Ó˚!áܲ
HCl 1.07 §Ó˚° ˜Ó˚!áܲ
HBr 0.79 §Ó˚° ˜Ó˚!áܲ
HI 0.38 §Ó˚° ˜Ó˚!áܲ
H2 0 §Ó˚° ˜Ó˚!áܲ
xî% (AB2) H2O 1.85 ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
H 2S 0.95 ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
CO2 0 §Ó˚° ˜Ó˚!áܲ
xî% (AB3) NH3 1.47 !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚
NF3 0.23 !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚
BF3 0 !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ §Ùï˛°#Î˚
xî% (AB4) CH4 0 ã˛ï%˛fiÌ°Ü˛#Î˚
CHCl3 1.04 ã˛ï%˛fiÌ°Ü˛#Î˚
CCl4 0 ã˛ï%˛fiÌ°Ü˛#Î˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l
~ܲ!ê˛ §•ç ˛õÂô!ï˛ ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !§í‰˛í˛z•zܲ ~ÓÇ ˛õyGˆÏÎ˚° 1940
!á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛ xÓ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
!Óܲ£Ï≈î ç!lï˛ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚° ï˛_¥ ˆòl–
1957 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ÓK˛yl# !àˆÏ°§!˛õ ~ÓÇ ly•z•°‰Ù ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ í˛zߨ!ï˛
§yôl ܲˆÏÓ˚l ~ÓÇ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l–
VSEPR ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ≤Ãôyl fl∫#ܲyÎ≈à%!° !lˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •° ı
• ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ G•z xî%!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçl
ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ §Çáƒy åˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ Órôl
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ~ÓÇ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸äÈüÈ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
• •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÙâ }îydܲ xyôyl@˝ÃhflÏ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸à%!° ~ˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
• ~•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸à%!° ¢)ˆÏlƒ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ ÎyˆÏï˛
!Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° §Ó≈!l¡¨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
• ˆÎyçl ܲ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ ˆày°Ü˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚ˆÏ°ñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸à%!°
ˆày°ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈y!ôܲ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc xÓfiÌyl
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
• Ó•% ÓrôlˆÏܲ Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° Ó•% ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ò%•z Óy !ï˛l!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛
§%˛õyÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚–
• ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%ˆÏܲ Îál ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçyˆÏl™ àë˛l myÓ˚y
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ VSEPR ï˛_¥!ê˛
≤ÈÏÎy烖
•z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ ˆçyí˛¸ à % ! °Ó˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ !Óܲ£Ï ≈ î ÓˆÏ ° Ó˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚ y Ó˚
(Interaction) xô/Ü ˛Ù •°ÈüüüÈ
!l/§Aà ˆçyí˛¸ÈüüüÈ!l/§Aà ˆçyí˛¸ (lp – lp)
> !l/§Aà ˆçyí˛¸ÈüüüÈÓrôl ˆçyí˛¸ (lp – bp)
> Órôl ˆçyí˛¸ÈüüüÈÓrôl ˆçyí˛¸ (bp – bp)
1957 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ly•z•Ù ~ÓÇ !àˆÏ°§!˛õ Órôl ˆçyí˛¸ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
~ÓÇ !l/§Aà •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
çlƒ VSEPR ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyç≈l Óy §ÇˆÏ¢yôl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !l/
§Aà ˆçyí˛¸ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ Órôl
ˆçyí˛¸ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ xî%ˆÏï˛ !l/§Aà
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ Órôl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ x!ôܲ fiÌyl
òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# !Óܲ£Ï≈î
Ó° ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !l/§Aà ˆçyí˛¸ÈüüüÈ Órôl ˆçyí˛¸ ~ÓÇ Órôl
ˆçyí˛¸ÈüüüÈ Órôl ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ~•z !Óܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ
xî%Ó˚ §%£ÏÙ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ §yÙylƒ !ÓÜ,˛!ï˛ âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚
Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚–
113
VSEPR ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•y΃ !lˆÏÎ˚ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
˛õ)Óy≈ ˲yˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ xî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ §%!Óôyçlܲ ˲yˆÏà !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚–
(i) ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ xî%Ó˚ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸
ˆl•z–
(ii) ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
Î%=˛ xî%–
!l/§Aà •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸!Ó•#l ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ‘A’ ~Ó˚ ã˛y!Ó˚˛õyˆÏ¢
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ AB ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ܲS%È xî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óy §yÓ˚!î 4.6 ~ˆÏï˛ å˛õ,¤˛yÈüÈ110ä ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
§yÓ˚î# 4.7 å˛õ,¤˛yÈüÈ111ä ~ !ܲS%È §Ó˚° xî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛
í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ
!l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ Óï≈˛Ùyl–
§yÓ˚!î 4.8 å˛õ,¤˛yÈüÈ)ä~ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ !ÓÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
AB2, AB3, AB4, AB5 ~ÓÇ AB6 ˆÎÔàà%!°ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
A ~Ó˚ ã˛y!Ó˚˛õyˆÏ¢ B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
§Ó˚°˜ÏÓ˚!áܲñ !eˆÏܲyî §yÙï˛!°Ü˛ñ ã˛ï%˛/hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ñ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚
!m!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛yÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ xT˛Ü˛ï˛°#Î˚ Îy•y 4.6 §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ Ó!î≈ï˛ xyˆÏSÈ–
~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ólƒy§Î%=˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°y •° BF3(AB3), CH4(AB4)
~ÓÇ PCl5(AB5) Îy•y !lˆÏã˛ Ó° ~ÓÇ °y!ë˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y !ã˛!eï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!ã˛e 4.6 !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸!Ó•#l ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Î%=˛ xî%Ó˚
xyÜ,˛!ï˛–
VSEPR ï˛_¥!ê˛ x!ôܲ §ÇáƒÜ˛ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
˛õ)Ó≈y˲y£Ï !òˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ P ÓœÜ˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÎÔà§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚–
§Ω˛yÓƒ xyÜ,˛!ï˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏ°G á%Ó §Ê˛° G
ÎÌyÎÌ˲yˆÏÓ•z çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ myÓ˚y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
xyî!Óܲ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈îç!lï˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ VSEPR ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ !˲!_!ê˛ flõT˛ lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ !Óï˛ˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
114 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§yÓ˚î#ˆÏï˛ 4.6 ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ !Ó•#l ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛

•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l xyî!Óܲ
í˛zòy•Ó˚î
ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ §Çáƒy ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !Ólƒy§ xyÜ,˛!ï˛

˜Ó˚!áܲ ˜Ó˚!áܲ

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ §yÙï˛!°Ü˛ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ §yÙï˛!°Ü˛

ã˛ï%˛hfl°
Ï Ü˛#Î˚ ã˛ï%˛hfl°
Ï Ü˛#Î˚

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !m!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !m!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚

xT˛ï˛°Ü˛#Î˚ xT˛ï˛°Ü˛#Î˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 115

§yÓ˚î#ˆÏï˛ 4.7 ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏî ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ !Ó!¢T˛ !ܲS%È §Ó˚° xî%Ó˚ àë˛l xyÜ,˛!ï˛

xî%Ó˚ Órôl ˆçyí˛¸ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚

•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l xyÜ,˛!ï˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
ôÓ˚l˛ §Çáƒy !Ólƒy§
ˆçyí˛¸ §Çáƒy

ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ §yÙï˛!°Ü˛

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚

ã˛ï%˛fiÌ°Ü˛#Î˚

ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ

ã˛ï%˛fiÌ°Ü˛#Î˚

See-saw Óy ˆì˛!ܲÓ˚
lƒyÎ˚
!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !mÈüÈ!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚

T- xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !mÈüÈ!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚

Óà≈yܲyÓ˚ !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚
(Square pyramid)
xT˛ï˛°Ü˛#Î˚

§yÙï˛!°Ü˛ !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚
(Square planar)
xT˛ï˛°Ü˛#Î˚
116 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§yÓ˚î#ˆÏï˛ 4.8 Órôl Î%à° ~ÓÇ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° !Ó!¢T˛ xî%§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛
xî%Ó˚ Órôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ !l/§Aà
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Iy xyÜ,˛!ï˛ x!ç≈ï˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˆË˛ò §Çáƒy Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ §Çáƒy
AB2E 4 1 ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ ï˛y!_¥ Ü ˛Ë˛yˆÏ Ó xyÜ, ˛ !ï˛!ê˛ !eˆÏ Ü ˛yî#Î˚
(Bent) §yÙï˛y!°Ü˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲÌy !ܲv ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛
~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ Óy V xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– Órôl
Î%à°ÈÈüüüÈÓrôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î
Ó° !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚
Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ӈϰ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚– ï˛y•z Órôl ˆÜ˛yî
120o ˆÌˆÏܲ •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ 119.5o •Î˚–

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !l/§Aà Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ Î!ò Órôl

AB3E 3 1
!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚ Î%à° ÌyÜ˛ï˛ ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyÜ,˛!ï˛!ê˛ ã˛ï%˛/hfl°Ï ܲ#Î˚
(Trigonal •ï˛ñ !ܲv !l/§Aà Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚
pyramidal) çlƒ !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
!Óܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ çlƒ åÎyÓ˚ Ùyl Órôl
Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôlÎ%à° xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢ä Órôl
Î%à°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yî 109.5°
ˆÌˆÏܲ •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ 107° •Î˚–

ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ Î!ò §Óà%!° Órôl Î%à° •ï˛ ï˛y•ˆÏ°

AB2E2 2 2 (Bent) xyÜ,˛!ï˛!ê˛ §%£ÏÙ ã˛ï%˛/hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ •ï˛ !ܲv ò%!ê˛
!l/§Aà Î% à ˆÏ ° Ó˚ í˛z ˛ õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ
xyÜ,˛!ï˛!ê˛ !ÓÜ,˛ï˛ ã˛ï%˛/hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ Óy ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ
•Î˚– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüüüÈ!l/
§Aà Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° !l/§Aà
Î% à °ÈüüüÈÓrôl Î% à ° ~ÓÇ Órôl
Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î
Ó° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Órôl
ˆÜ˛yî 109.5° ˆÌˆÏܲ •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ 104.5°
•Î˚–
ˆìÑ˛!ܲÓ˚ (a) !ã˛ˆÏe !l/§Aà Î%à°!ê˛ x«˛#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏl
AB4E 4 1 lƒyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ï˛y•z 90° ˆÜ˛yˆÏî !ï˛l!ê˛ !l/§Aà
(See Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÈüüüÈ!Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°
saw) ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– (b) !ã˛ˆÏe !l/§Aà Î%à°!ê˛
!lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏl xyˆÏSÈñ ò%!ê˛ !l/§Aà
Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôl Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°
ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî b xyÜ,˛!ï˛!ê˛ x!ôܲ
§%!fiÌï˛– ˆ§çlƒ b xyÜ,˛!ï˛!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛
!ÓÜ,˛ï˛ ã˛ï%˛/hflÏ°Ü˛ñ ËÑ˛yç ܲÓ˚y Óà≈yÜ,˛!ï˛ Óy
(More stable) ˆìÑ˛!ܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáyÎ˚–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 117

xî%Ó˚ Órôl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆Ïl !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆Ïl

•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §Iy xyÜ,˛!ï˛ x!ç≈ï˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î
≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˆË˛ò Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ §Çáƒy Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ §Çáƒy

AB3E2 3 2 T- xyÜ,˛!ï˛ (a) !ã˛ˆÏ e !l/§Aà Î% à °

!Ó!¢T˛ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ xM˛ˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
(T-shape) Ê˛ˆÏ° xlƒˆÏòÓ˚ ï%˛°lxyÎ˚ !l/
§Aà Î% à °È ü È Ó rôlÎ% à ° ~Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ü˛Ù •Î˚ Îy x«˛#Î˚
xM˛ˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y•z
(a) ~Ó˚ àë˛l!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §%!fiÌï˛
åT xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ä–

4.5 ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ (Valence Bond Theory)
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l °%•z§ ï˛_¥ xî%Ó˚ àë˛l !°áˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ
!ܲv ~!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
ly– H2 ~ÓÇ F2 xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ ˆçyí˛¸y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Ùyl˲yˆÏÓ
˲yày˲y!àÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ à!ë˛ï˛ •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥G °%•z§ ï˛_¥ H2 (435.8 KJ
mol-1, 74 PM) ~ÓÇ F2 (155 kJ mol-1, 144 pm) xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
Órôl !Ó˲yçl ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ Órôl ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~!ê˛ Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ôyÓ˚îy !òˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ VSEPR ï˛_¥ §Ó˚° xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ §¡∫ˆÏrô
ôyÓ˚îy ˆòÎ˚ !ܲv ï˛y!_¥Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚
≤ÈÏÎ˚yàG §#ÙyÓÂô– ~•z §#ÙyÓÂôï˛yˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ
Ó°!ÓòƒyÓ˚ l#!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xÓï˛yÓ˚îy
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~à%!° •° ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ åValence bond
theoryä ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥ åMolecular orbital theoryä–
!ÓK˛yl# ˆ••zê˛°yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ °u˛l (1927) ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl
ï˛_¥ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ˆÏï˛ !ÓK˛yl# ˛õyí˛z!°Ç ~ÓÇ
xlƒylƒÓ˚y ~Ó˚ xyÓ˚G !Óܲy¢ âê˛yl– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ñ ˆÙÔ°
§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ åxôƒyÎ˚ÈüÈ2ä ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!°Ó˚
x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï≈˛ñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î «˛Ùï˛y
~ÓÇ ˜Ó!ã˛eƒ G í˛z˛õ!Ó˚˛õ_ˆÏlÓ˚ l#!ï˛Ó˚ åprinciples of variation
and superpositionä K˛yˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z §ÙhflÏ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%!°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎyçƒï˛y
Órôl ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyë˛ƒ§)!ã˛Ó˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ lÎ˚– ˆ§çlƒ
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ §%!ÓôyÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ˆÏܲ à%îàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ
ày!îï˛#ܲ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà SÈyí˛¸y•z xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤Ã̈ÏÙ §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ
§Ó˚°ï˛Ù xî% •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~Ó˚ àë˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îyܲ–
ôÓ˚y Îy܉˛ ò%!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% A ~ÓÇ B ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏFSÈ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ !lí˛z!Ü ˛Î˚y§ ò%ˆÏê˛yˆÏܲ NA ~ÓÇ NB ~ÓÇ
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ eA ~ÓÇ eB myÓ˚y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •°– Îál ò%ˆÏê˛y
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ ò)ˆÓÏ ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
!ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y åxyܲ£Ï≈î Óy !Óܲ£Ï≈îä ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– Îál ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ ï˛ál lï%˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î ~ÓÇ !Óܲ£Ï≈î
Ó° !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ í˛zqÓ âˆÏê˛ ı
(i) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ !lˆÏçÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ xÌ≈yÍ NA – eA ~ÓÇ NB– eB–
118
(ii) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ~ÓÇ x˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ xÌ≈yÍ NA – eB ~ÓÇ NB– eA–
xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ í˛zqÓ •Î˚ÈüüüÈ
(i) ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎÙl eA – eBñ
(ii) ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ò%ˆÏê˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎÙl NA – NB–
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°à%!° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ò%ˆÏê˛yˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xylˆÏï˛
§y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ xyÓ˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ò%ˆÏê˛yˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ ˆë˛ˆÏ° ˆòÎ˚–
å!ã˛e 4.7ä
˛õ%Ó˚yï˛l Ó°
lï%˛l Ó°
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°
!Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°
!ã˛e 4.7 H2 xî% ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° xyܲ£Ï≈î G !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°–
˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ lï%˛l xyܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ Ùyl lï%˛l
!Óܲ£Ïî≈ ӈϰÓ˚ Ùyl xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆÓ!¢– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ò%ˆêÏ ˛y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !fiÌ!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ •…y§ âˆÏê˛– ˆ¢£Ï ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~Ùl
~ܲ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆÙyê˛ xyܲ£Ïî≈ Ó° ~ÓÇ ˆÙyê˛ !Óܲ£Ïî≈
ӈϰÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Ùï˛yÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛sf!ê˛ åsystemä l)ƒlï˛Ù ¢!=˛
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Órôl àë˛l
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%!fiÌï˛ xî%Ó˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÓ˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ 74 pm •Î˚–
ò%ˆÏê˛y •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
!là≈Ùl âˆÏê˛ñ ˆ§çlƒ Ù%=˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xˆÏ˛õ«˛y •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl
xî% x!ôܲ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° •Î˚– ˆÎ ¢!=˛ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Órôl ¢!=˛
Óy Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰñ ˆÎ!ê˛ 4.8 ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏe l)ƒlï˛Ù !Ó®% !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~ܲ ˆÙy° H2 xî%ˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ 435.8
kJ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl–
H2(g) + 435.8 kJ mol–1 → H(g) + H(g)
¢!=˛ åkJ/molä
Órôl ¢!=˛
435.8
Órê˛l ˜òâ≈ƒ 74pm xyhs˝/ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c
!ã˛e 4.8 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%!°Ó˚ xyhs˝/ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî%Ó˚ !fiÌ!ï˛ ¢!=˛ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛Ó˚ l)ƒlï˛Ù !Ó®% §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ §%!fiÌï˛ H2 xî%ˆÏܲ
!lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
4.5.1 ܲ«˛Ü˛ x!˲ˆÏˆÏ°˛õl ï˛_¥ (Orbital Overlap Concept)
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ï˛ Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§ ˆÎ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!°Ó˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ xhs˝Ó˚ˆÏ˲òl åinterpenetrationä âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ
l)ƒlï˛Ù ¢!=˛Ó˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚# •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ !وϢ ÎyGÎ˚yˆÏܲ
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆçyí˛¸ â!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢
ÙyeyÎ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âˆÏê˛ ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ¢!=˛¢y°# Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˆ§çlƒ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ï˛_¥ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçƒï˛y ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%!° !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# â)î≈l myÓ˚y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 119

4.5.2 ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !òܲ !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲ ôÙ≈ (Directional Properties ôlydܲ Óy §Ùò¢yÓ˚ }îydܲ Óy !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛
of Bonds) x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ò¢yÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl
xyÙÓ˚y ˆòˆÏá!SÈ ˆÎñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
§ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ò%ˆÏê˛y •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 1s
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî% à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî% ˆÎÙl CH4, NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛G ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈
!Ó£ÏÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ CH4 xî% ã˛ï%˛hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ ~ÓÇ H-C-H Órôl
ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyl 109.5° ˆÜ˛l⁄ NH3 xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛yÜ,˛!ï˛ÈüÈ
ˆÜ˛l⁄
x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !l!Ó˚ˆÏá
ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ Ó•%˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî% ˆÎÙl CH4, NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O
•zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ñ àë˛l ~ÓÇ !ò܉˛ò¢≈# ôÙ≈ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚–
4.5.3 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl (Overlapping of
Atomic Orbitals)
Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!° Îál ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ
xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál ¢)ˆÏlƒ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ò¢y å!ã˛e
¢)lƒ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl å!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !eÙy!eܲ !Ólƒy§ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ x@˝ÃàÙˆÏlÓ˚
4.9ä ~ÓÇ !ÓhflÏyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl
x!˲Ù%á ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌylܲyÓ˚# ï˛° ÎÌyÎÌ ly •GÎ˚yÎ˚ä
ôlycܲñ }îycܲ Óy ¢)lƒ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– !ã˛e 4.9 ~ §#Ùyly ˛õ,T˛
!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ôlydܲ ~ÓÇ }îydܲ !ã˛•´ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛
~Ó˚ ò¢y !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG §¡õÜ≈˛
ˆl•z– Órôl àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ò¢y ~ÓÇ ¢)ˆÏlƒ !Ólƒy§
~ܲ•zÓ˚ܲˆÏÙÓ˚ •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ~ˆÏܲ ôlydܲ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ӈϰ– !ã˛e
4.9 ~ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
!m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ Óy Ó•%˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ fl∫çy!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
åHomonuclearä Óy !˲ߨ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ åHeteronuclearä ÙˆÏôƒ !ã˛e 4.9 S G P ܲ«˛˛õˆÏÌ ôlydܲñ }îydܲ ~ÓÇ ¢)lƒ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl–

§ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï≈˛ §%£ÙÏ Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤ÈÎÏ yçƒ
•Î˚– ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xî% ˆÎÙl CH4,
NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O ~Ó˚ àë˛l ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy !òˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ˆÎñ CH4, NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àë˛l ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
ã˛ï%˛hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ñ !˛õÓ˚y!ÙˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ùï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ åBentä xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚–
ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà myÓ˚y ܲ«˛Ü˛ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy ~ܲ!ê˛ xyܲ£Ï≈î#Î˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚–
xyÙÓ˚y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ CH4 xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ çylyÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲ!Ó˚–
ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflÓÏ ˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° [He]2s2 2p2
ˆÎ!ê˛ í˛zˆ_Ï !çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ [He] 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1 ~ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
•Î˚– í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ
ܲyÓ≈l ~Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!°Ó˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏl !là≈ï˛ ¢!=˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ à,•#ï˛ •Î˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ñ 4!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ xô≈˛õ)î≈ 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
§yˆÏÌ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âê˛yÎ˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° 4!ê˛ C-H Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ p ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ 90° ˆÜ˛yî ܲˆÏÓ˚
xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§çlƒ H-C-H Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyl G 90° •ˆÏÓ
xÌ≈yÍ !ï˛l!ê˛ C-H Órôl ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏÌ 90° ˆÜ˛yî ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ 2s ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ 1s ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˆày°Ü˛#Î˚
≤Ã!ï˛§Ùñ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ ˆÜ˛ylG !òˆÏܲ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âê˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˆ§•z ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ
ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ C-H ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !òܲ !lÓ˚˛) õl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~•z Óƒyáƒy!ê˛ ã˛ï%˛hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚
CH4 ~Ó˚ H-C-H Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyl 109.5° ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà áy˛õ áyÎ˚
ly– ~!ê˛ flõT˛ ˆÎ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl myÓ˚y CH4 ~Ó˚
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !òܲ !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
120
~ܲ•z Î%!=˛ˆÏï˛ NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O xî%Ó˚ H-N-H ~ÓÇ H-O-H
Órôl ˆÜ˛yî 90° •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲÌy– !ܲv NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛
Órôl ˆÜ˛yî ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 107° ~ÓÇ 104.5° Îy 90° ˆÌˆÏܲ !˲ߨ–
4.5.4 x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˆË˛ò ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ (Types of Overlapping and Nature of
Covalent Bonds)
x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !l˲≈Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôlˆÏܲ
ò%!ê˛ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ı
(i) !§àÙy (σ) Órôlñ (ii) ˛õy•z (π) Órôl–
(i) !§àÙy (σ) Órôl ı ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚
ÓrôˆÏl xyÓÂô ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!°Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ åÙ%ˆÏáyÙ%!áä
x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ– ~ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ x«˛#Î˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl Óy
Ù%ˆáÏ yÙ%á# x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ §ÇˆÏÎyçˆÏlÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àë˛l l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ âê˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚
• s-s x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ı ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe ò%!ê˛ xô≈˛õ)î≈ s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âˆÏê˛ Îy l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly
•°–
sÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ sÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ sÈüÈsÈx!˲ˆÏ°˛õl˛
• s-p x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ı ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xô≈˛õ)î≈ s ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ x˛õÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xô≈˛õ)î≈ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âˆÏê˛–
sÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ pÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ sÈüÈpÈx!˲ˆÏ°˛õl˛
• p-p x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl ı ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xô≈˛õ)î≈ p ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âˆÏê˛–
pÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ pÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ pÈüÈpÈx!˲ˆÏ°˛õl˛
(ii) ˛õy•z (π) Órôl ı π Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï y
~˲yˆÏ Ó x!˲ˆÏ ° !˛õï˛ •Î˚ ÎyˆÏ ï ˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛à% ˆ Ï ° y xˆÏ « ˛Ó˚
§Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ
ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õyŸª#≈Î˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏl ˆÎ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ˆÙâ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ˆÎï˛ˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ G l#ˆÏã˛ ˆ≤’ê˛ Óy !í˛ˆÏ¢Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y âl#Ë)˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
pÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ pÈüÈܲ«˛Ü˛ pÈüÈpÈx!˲ˆÏ°˛õl˛
4.5.5 !§àÙy G ˛õy•z ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ (Strength of Sigma
and pi Bonds)
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓhflyÏ ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !§àÙy ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ x!˲!°Æ ˆ«˛ˆÏeÓ˚ !ÓhflyÏ Ó˚
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° !§àÙy ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl ¢!=˛ ˛õy•z ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚
ˆÓ!¢ñ ܲyÓ˚î ˛õy•z ÓrôˆÏl ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ ܲÙ
•Î˚– xyÓ˚G ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ï˛Ìƒ •°ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲy!ôܲ Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ !§àÙy ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢
π ÓrôlG à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
4.6 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î (Hybridisation)
Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xî% ˆÎÙl CH4, NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒàï˛ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyí˛z!°Ç
§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˆòl– ï˛ÑyÓ˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyl!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)•
!Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ lï%˛l §Ùï%˛°ƒ ܲï˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy
§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– !Ó¢%Âô ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛
§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ¢!=˛Ó˚ ܲÙ
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyhs˝/ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ%lÓ≈rê˛l
•ˆÏÎ˚ §Ù¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ §Ù xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ӈϰ– ˆÎÙl ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ 2s ~ÓÇ !ï˛l!ê˛
2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° lï%˛l sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
§,!T˛ •Î˚–
§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ åSalient features of
hybridisationä ı §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y l#ˆÏã˛
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°–
1. §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
2. §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï y §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ~ÓÇ §Ù xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛
•Î˚–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 121

3. §%!fiÌï˛ Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ˆÏï˛ !Ó¢%Âô ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚
§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ!¢ ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚#–
4. ~•z §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !òܲñ ¢)ˆÏlƒ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ !lˆÏò≈!¢ï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ ÎyˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ l)ƒlï˛Ù !Óܲ£Ï≈î •Î˚ñ Ê˛ˆÏ°
§%!fiÌï˛ !Ólƒy§ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ xî%Ó˚
çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ àë˛l !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ¢ï≈˛yÓ!° åImportant conditions for
hybridisationä ı
ÎyÓ˚ çlƒ ~!ê˛ !mˆÏÎyç# •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ 2s ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ 2p ܲ«˛Ü˛
§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆîÏ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï y !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ !ÓlƒhflÏ ˆÌˆÏܲ l80o ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚
§,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ‘Cl’ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!˲!°Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ Be-Cl σ
å!§àÙyä Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ã˛e 4.10 ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–

(i) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ •Î˚– Be

(ii) ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î âˆÏê˛–

(iii) ~Ùl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyÓ!¢ƒÜ˛ ¢ï≈˛ ˆl•z ˆÎñ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛¢!=˛ hflψÏÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
(iv) ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye xô≈˛õ)î≈ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y•z §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî xÇ¢@˝Ã•î @˝Ã•î
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ §Ó≈òy §ï˛ƒ lÎ˚– !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚
xî%
˛õ)î≈ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yG §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!ã˛e 4.10 (a) ‘s’ ~ÓÇ ‘p’ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ‘sp’ §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛
4.6.1 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆËÏ ˛ò˛ (Types of Hybridisation) ܲ«˛Ü˛– (b) BeCl2 xî%Ó˚ §Ó˚°˜ÏÓ˚!áܲ àë˛l–
s,p G d ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î •Î˚–
(II) sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ı ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî ~ܲ!ê˛ ‘s’ ܲ«˛Ü˛ G
l#ˆÏã˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
2!ê˛ p ܲ«˛Ü˛ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛
(I) sp §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ı ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî ~ܲ!ê˛ s ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ BCl3 xî%– ˆÓyÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ò%!ê˛ §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° 1s22s22p1– í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ 2s ܲ«˛Ü˛
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– Î!ò §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y z x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l 2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛z!ß¨ï˛ •Î˚ÈüüüÈ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÓyÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál sp §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y •° s ~ÓÇ pz– !ï˛l!ê˛ xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l •Î˚–
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ ‘s’ ã˛!Ó˚e 50% ~ÓÇ p ã˛!Ó˚e
50%– ˆÎ§Ó xî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ ~ÓÇ sp
§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà x˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ Î%=˛
ÌyܲˆÏ° xî%!ê˛ §Ó˚°˜ÏÓ˚!áܲ •Î˚– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ܲî≈
åDiagonalä §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ z x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ ôlydܲ ˆ°yÓ
~ÓÇ á%Ó ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y }îydܲ ˆ°yÓ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ x!˲!«˛Æ ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲ
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl âê˛yÎ˚ñ Ê˛ˆÏ° ¢!=˛¢y°# Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ !ܲS%È xî%Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î åExample of molecule
having sp hybridisationä

BeCl2: Be ~Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° 1s22s2. í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛

xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Be ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ 2s •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l áy!° 2p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛zߨ#ï˛ •Î˚ñ !ã˛e 4.11 sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# ~ÓÇ BCl3 xî%–
122 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

~ܲ!ê˛ ‘2s’ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ 2!ê˛ ‘2p’ ܲ«˛Ü˛ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ sp2 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 1s ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛
§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ í˛zͲõߨ !ï˛l!ê˛ §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ N–H !§àÙy
ܲ«˛Ü˛ !ÓlƒhflÏ •ˆÏÎ˚ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ §yÙï˛!°Ü˛ àë˛l ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – xyÙÓ˚ y çy!l ˆÎñ !l/§Aà •z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ l
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ 2p ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˆÓyÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛Ó˚ Î%à°ÈüüüÈÓrôl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°ñ Órôl
§ˆÏAà x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ B-Cl !§àÙy Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à°ÈÈüüüÈÓrôl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– ~Ó˚
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ BCl3 xî%!ê˛Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ §yÙï˛!°Ü˛ •Î˚ çlƒ xî%!ê˛Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛àï˛ !ܲS%Èê˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ !ÓÜ,˛!ï˛ •Î˚
~ÓÇ Cl-B-Cl Órôl ˆÜ˛yî!ê˛ 120° •Î˚ å!ã˛e 4.11ä–
~ÓÇ Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyl 109.5° ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÙ 107° •Î˚ å!ã˛e
(III) sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ı ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ 4.13ä–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ CH4 xî% ˆlGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ‘C’ ~Ó˚ ˆÎyçl
~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !˛õÓ˚y!ÙˆÏí˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y •Î˚–
ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ p ܲ«˛Ü˛ G ~ܲ!ê˛ ‘s’ ܲ«˛Ü˛ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §Ù¢!=˛ G
§Ù xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲ s ã˛!Ó˚e 25% ~ÓÇ p ã˛!Ó˚e 75%–
sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ §%£ÙÏ ã˛ï%˛/hfl°
Ï ˆÏܲÓ˚
ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ¢#£Ï≈ !Ó®%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x!˲!«˛Æ ÌyˆÏܲ– sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
3
Ï yÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 109°28′ Îy l#ˆÏã˛ 4.12 !ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly
•°–

!ã˛e 4.13 NH3 xî%Ó˚ àë˛l–

H2O xî%ˆÏï˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ 2s G !ï˛l!ê˛ 2p
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
§,!T˛ •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ x˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ò%!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° ÌyˆÏܲ– ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ã˛ï%˛/hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ •Î˚
σ ~ÓÇ ~•z ã˛ï%˛fiÌ°Ü˛#Î˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ˆÜ˛ylyÎ˚ 2!ê˛
σ σ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ x˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ˆÏï˛ 2!ê˛ !l/§Aà •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
Î%à° ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•zˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Órôl ˆÜ˛yî 109.5° ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÙ 105° •Î˚
σ å!ã˛e 4.14Èä ~ÓÇ xî%!ê˛ V xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ Óy ˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛
xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ •Î˚–

!ã˛e 4.12 ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ s , px , py ~ÓÇ pz˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚

§Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ CH4 xî%Ó˚ àë˛l–
NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O xî%Ó˚ àë˛lG sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î myÓ˚y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– NH3 xî%ˆïÏ ˛ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
•° 2s 2 2p 1x 2p y12p z1– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !ï˛l!ê˛ˆÏï˛ !ï˛l!ê˛ xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ ˆÎáyˆÏl ã˛ï%˛Ì≈
ܲ«˛Ü˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l/§Aà •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° ÌyˆÏܲ– !ï˛l!ê˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl !ã˛e 4.14 ç° xî%Ó˚ àë˛l–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l
4.6.2 sp3, sp2 ~ÓÇ sp §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xlƒylƒ í˛zòy•Ó˚î§Ù)•
(Other Examples of sp 3 , sp 2 and sp
Hybridisation )
C2H6 xî%ˆïÏ ˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓy˚ Î˚î ı C2H6 xî%ˆïÏ ˛ í˛z˲Î˚ ܲyÓ≈î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%•z
sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ܲ«˛Ü˛ x˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xlÓ˚˛) õ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ sp3-sp3 !§àÙy Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
x˛õÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §!•ï˛ sp3–s
!§àÙy Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy 4.6.1 (iii) xî%ˆFÏ SȈÏò Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ •zˆÌÏ l xî%ˆïÏ ˛ C–C Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ •Î˚ 154 pm ~ÓÇ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛
C–H Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ •Î˚ 109 pm–
C2H4 xî%ˆÏï˛ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ı C2H4 xî% ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ §ÙÎ˚ñ ܲyÓ≈l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ x˛õÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ C–C !§àÙy Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l
!ã˛e 4.15 •z!Ìl xî%ˆÏï˛ !§àÙy G π Órôl àë˛l ≤Ãîy°#–
123
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ò%!ê˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §!•ï˛ sp2–s !§àÙy Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ x§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ åunhybridised orbitalä
(2px or 2py) x˛õÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ò%Ó≈° π ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l G •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÎ
ï˛ˆÏ° ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !lˆÏã˛ ò%!ê˛ §Ùàyì˛¸c !Ó!¢T˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z˲yˆÏÓ •z!Ìl xî%ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ܲyÓ≈l ÓrôˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ sp2–sp2
!§àÙy Órôl •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎ p ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!° §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚
ly ~à%ˆÏ°y xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ °¡∫˲yˆÏÓ ˆÌˆÏܲ π
Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ó ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈lÈüÈܲyÓ≈l Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ 134 pm •Î˚–
sp2–s §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ C–H σ å!§àÙyä Órôl!ê˛Ó˚ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ 108
pm. H–C–H Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyl •Î˚ 117.6° ˆÎáyˆÏl H–C–H
Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyl •Î˚ 121°É !ã˛e 4.15~ •z!Ìl xî%ˆÏï˛ !§àÙy
~ÓÇ ˛õy•z Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
124 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

C2H2 xî%Ó˚ sp §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ı í˛z˲Î˚ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ sp !ï˛l!ê˛ Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ Îy 4.16 !ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •zÌy•zl xî%!ê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ò%!ê˛ 4.6.3 ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏl d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ xhs˝Ë%≈˛!=˛
x§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ~•zà%ˆÏ°y •° 2py ~ÓÇ 2px– (Hybridisation of Elements involving d-
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ñ Orbitals)
x˛õÓ˚ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ sp §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ñ x«˛ ï,˛ï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏï˛ s G p ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ d ܲ«˛Ü˛G
ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ C–C !§àÙy Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ¢!=˛ 3s G 3p ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ x˛õÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §!•ï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ï%˛°l#Î˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùyl– 3d ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ¢!=˛ 4s ~ÓÇ 4p
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ xô≈˛õ)î≈ ÚsÛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x«˛ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ §!•ï˛G ï%˛°l#Î˚– !ܲv 3p ~ÓÇ 4s ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° ò%!ê˛ σ Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ 3p, 3d ~ÓÇ 4s ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
í˛z˲Î˚ ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ x§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ åunhybridisedä p ÙˆÏôƒ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚–
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ܲyÓ≈l s, p G d ܲ«˛Ü˛à% ˆ Ï ° yÓ˚ §Ùß∫ ˆ Ï Î ˚ í˛z Í ˛õߨ à% Ó ˚ % c ˛õ) î ≈
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò%!ê˛ π Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ò%!ê˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚îà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yÓ˚yÇ¢ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !§àÙy ~ÓÇ ò%!ê˛ ˛õy•z Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
xî%‡xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ í˛zòy•Ó˚î
xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛§Ù)•
§yÙï˛!°Ü˛ dsp 2 d+s+p(2) [Ni(CN)4]2–,
Óà≈yܲyÓ˚ [Pt(Cl)4]2–

!eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ sp 3 d s+p(3)+d PF5, PCl5

!m!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚
Óà≈yܲyÓ˚ !˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚ sp 3d 2 s+p(3)+d(2) BrF5

xT˛Ü˛ï˛°#Î˚ sp 3d 2 s+p(3)+d(2) SF6, [CrF6]3–

d 2sp 3 d(2)+s+p(3) [Co(NH3)6]3+

(i) PCl5 ~Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# åsp3d §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚îä ı p(Z=15) ~Ó˚

Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ Ó!•/fiÌ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ l#ˆÏã˛
ˆòGÎ˚y •°–

P åË)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌyä

P åí˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyä

PCl5

˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ òyl ܲÓ˚y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lÎ%à° ˛õ)î≈ sp3d

!ã˛e 4.16 •zÌy•zl xî%ˆÏï˛ !§àÙy ~ÓÇ ˛õy•z Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ !ã˛e– §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ܲ«˛î–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 125

~álñ ~ܲ!ê˛ s, !ï˛l!ê˛ p ~ÓÇ 1!ê˛ d ~•z ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆîÏ
xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ §Ùï%˛°ƒ §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ sp3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !m!˛õÓ˚y!ÙˆÏí˛Ó˚ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛
¢#£Ï≈!Ó®%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ !Óhfl,Ïï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ Îy 4.17 !ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~•z SÈÎ˚!ê˛ sp3d2 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° SÈÎ!˚ ê˛ S-F !§àÙy
Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~•z˲yˆÏÓ SF6 xî%!ê˛ §%£ÏÙ xT˛ï˛°#Î˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ Îy !ã˛e 4.18 ~
ˆòáyˆÏly •°–

Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚

í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌy

sp3d2 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î (hybridisation)

!ã˛e 4.17 PCl5 xî%Ó˚ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !m!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛#Î˚ àë˛l–

~!ê˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ˆÎñ !eˆÏܲyî#Î˚ !m!˛õÓ˚y!Ùí˛ !Ó!¢T˛

çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyˆÏï˛ Órôl ˆÜ˛yîà%ˆÏ°y §Ùï%˛°ƒ lÎ˚– PCl5 xî%ˆÏï˛
‘p’ ~Ó˚ 5!ê˛ sp3d ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ Cl ~Ó˚ 1!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l x!ôÜ,˛ï˛
p ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°Ï y x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ 5!ê˛ P-Cl !§àÙy Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚
!ï˛l!ê˛ P-Cl Órôl ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚Ó˚ §!•ï˛ 120° ˆÜ˛yî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ܲ•z ï˛ˆÏ° xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z Órôlà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Órôl
Ó°y •Î˚– xÓ!¢T˛ ò%!ê˛ P-Cl Órôl !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ G !ã˛e 4.18 SF6 xî%Ó˚ xT˛ï˛°Ü˛#Î˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛–

!lˆÏã˛ 90° ˆÜ˛yî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z Órôlà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ x«˛#Î˚
Órôl– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ x«˛#Î˚ Órôl Î%à°à%ˆÏ°y !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Órôl Î%à°à%ˆÏ°y
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛y•z x«˛#Î˚ Órôlà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
˜òâ≈ƒ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Órôlà%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ x«˛#Î˚ Órôlà%ˆÏ°y
ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ò%Ó≈° •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° PCl5 xî%!ê˛ á%Ó §!Ü ˛Î˚ •Î˚–
(ii) SF6 xî%Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# åsp3d2 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚îä ı SF6 xî%ˆÏï˛
ˆÜ˛w#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §y°Ê˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflÓÏ ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° 3s23p4–
í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ SÈÎ˚!ê˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛ §•ˆÏç•z ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
~ܲ!ê˛ sñ !ï˛l!ê˛ p G 2!ê˛ d ܲ«˛Ü˛ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏî xÇ¢ @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ lï%˛l SÈÎ˚!ê˛ sp3d2
§ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y SF6 xî%Ó˚ §%£ÏÙ
xQyˆÏ•í»˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Óy xT˛ï˛°Ü˛#Î˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ SÈÎ!˚ ê˛ ¢#£Ï!≈ Ó®% !ÓhflïÏ, ˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
4.7 xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥ (MOLECULAR ORBITAL
THEORY)
1932 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ÓK˛yl# ~Ê˛É •%u˛ (F. Hund) ~ÓÇ xyÓ˚É~§É
Ù%!°Ü˛yl (R.S. Mulliken) xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥!ê˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
~•z ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ °«˛ƒî#Î˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y •° Óy Ù)° ≤Ã!ï˛˛õyòƒ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y
•°ÈüüüÈ
(i) ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y ˆÎÙl !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
ÌyˆÏܲ ˆï˛Ù!l xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y !Ó!˲ߨ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
ÌyˆÏܲ–
(ii) ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù ~ÓÇ §Ù¢!=˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
!Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
(iii) ˆÎáyˆÏl ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ܲ!ê˛
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ myÓ˚y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§áyˆÏl xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ~!ê˛
xî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ myÓ˚y
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≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ñ ~ܲ ˆÜ˛!wܲ
•Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ Ó•%ˆÏܲ!wܲ •Î˚–
(iv) §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ à!ë˛ï˛ xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy §Ùyl •Î˚– ò%!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° ò%!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •°
xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ (Bonding M.O) ˆÎáyˆÏl xlƒ!ê˛
•° xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ (Antibonding M.O) ܲ«˛Ü˛–
(v) xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ (Antibonding molecular
orbital) ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ (Bonding
molecular orbital) ¢!=˛ Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° x!ôܲ §%!fiÌï˛
•Î˚–
(vi) !ë˛Ü˛ ˆÎÙl ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚
§Ω˛yÓƒ !Óï˛Ó˚î ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ myÓ˚y ˆÓyV˛yˆÏly •Î˚
ˆï˛Ù!l xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚
§Ω˛yÓƒ !Óï˛Ó˚î ~ܲ!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ myÓ˚y ˆÓyV˛yˆÏly •Î˚–
(vii) xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xÊ˛Óyí˛z
l#!ï˛ñ ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ ~ÓÇ •%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ •Î˚–
4.7.1 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫Î˚ÈüÈ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ àë˛l (Formation of Molecular
Orbitals Linear Combination of Atomic
Orbitals [LCAO]) :
ï˛Ó˚Aà Ó°!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛
(ψ ’s) myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ Îy•y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ï˛Ó˚ˆÏAàÓ˚ !ÓhflÏyÓ˚ˆÏܲ
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˆflÀy!˲OyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §Ùyôyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ï˛Ó˚Aà
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Ùyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛Ó˚Aà §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ~ï˛•z ç!ê˛°
≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ˆÎ ~ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ôܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%=˛ ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ åsystemä çlƒ
§Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– ˆï˛Ù!l xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛
G ï˛Ó˚Aà §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §Ùyôyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– ~•z §Ù§ƒyˆÏܲ
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Óܲ“ xyl%Ùy!lܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È Îy•y ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫Î˚ (LCAO)
˛õÂô!ï˛ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ã˛ˆÏ°yñ xyÙÓ˚y !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xî%Ó˚ fl∫çy!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
mˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ åHomonuclearä ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲ!Ó˚– ôˆÏÓ˚y
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xî%ˆïÏ ˛ A ~ÓÇ B ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyˆÏSÈ– Ë)˛!ÙhflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ψA
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
~ÓÇ ψB myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ
§Ùß∫Î˚ ò%˲yˆÏÓ xÌ≈yÍ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛
ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ à
ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ψMO = ψA ± ψB
ò%!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ σ ~ÓÇ σ* à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
σ = ψA + ψB
σ* = ψA – ψB
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ σ
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ xl%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
åBonding molecular orbitalä ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ σ* xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ xll%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ åAntibonding
molecular orbitalä ӈϰñ Îy•y 4.19 !ã˛ˆÏe ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚
¢!=˛§¡õߨ xlî%Órô# ܲ«˛Ü˛
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
¢!=˛Ó˚ |ôÁ≈ï˛l Ü ˛Ù
σ* = ψA – ψB
ܲ«˛Ü˛
ψA ψB
σ = ψA + ψB
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛§¡õߨ
xl%Órô# ܲ«˛Ü˛ (Bonding orbital)
!ã˛e 4.19 A G B ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ψA ~ÓÇ ψB ~Ó˚
˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫Î˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ xî%Órô# (σ) ~ÓÇ xlî%Órô#
(σ*) xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°#–
à%îàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ï˛Ó˚ˆAÏ àÓ˚ àë˛lÙ)°Ü˛ Óy ôÁǧydܲ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ÓrôˆÏl xyÓÂô ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ò%!ê˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ•z ò¢y
!Ó!¢T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ àë˛lÙ)°Ü˛ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §!•ï˛
¢!=˛¢y°# xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚
!˲ߨ ò¢y !Ó!¢T˛ ï˛Ó˚Aàà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ôÁǧydܲ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xlî%Órô#
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z ôÁǧydܲ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l
ò%!ê˛ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ ≤â!Ùï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ–˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ xl%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
Órôl# ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ò%%!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ӈϰ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ mˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° á%Ó Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ
ˆÎáyˆÏl xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§
ò%!ê˛ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# fiÌyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ ò%!ê˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
~ܲ!ê˛ !l/flõ® ï˛° (nodal plane) [ˆÎáyˆÏl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c
¢)lƒ] ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ò%!ê˛ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó° §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛
•Î˚– xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°y
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§mÎ˚ˆÜÏ ˛ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá ~ÓÇ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ xî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#° ܲˆÏÓ–˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ ˆÎ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ù°ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚
¢!=˛ §¡õߨ •Î˚– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛ xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
§Ç!Ÿ’T˛ xî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ ò%/!fiÌï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~•z xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
•zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !Óܲ£Ïî≈ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
xyܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚G ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ñ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚–
~!ê˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˆÎ xlî%Órô# ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ÓrôˆÏl xÇ¢
@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# Ù)° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
xl%Órô# ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ÓrôˆÏl xÇ¢ @˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# Ù)° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚– ï˛ˆÏÓ ò%!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛
¢!=˛ ò%!ê˛ Ù)° ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
4.7.2 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ¢ï≈˛yÓ!°
(Conditions for the Combination of Atomic
Orbitals)
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ Î!ò !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ¢ï≈˛yÓ!° !§Âô •Î˚–
1. §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ §Ùyl Óy ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùyl
•ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ 1s ܲ«˛Ü˛ñ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ 1s
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÓ !ܲv 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ •ˆÏÓ lyñ
ܲyÓ˚î 2s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛ 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢– !˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~!ê˛ §ï˛ƒ lÎ˚–
2. §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y xyî!Óܲ x«˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
xÓ¢ƒ•z ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ Ó˚#!ï˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# z x«˛ˆÏܲ
xyî!Óܲ x«˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ï˛Ìƒ •° ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù ly
•ˆÏ°ñ §Ù¢!=˛ Óy ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ù¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ù°l
§Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2pz ܲ«˛Ü˛ x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
127
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2pz ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ•z !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÓ– !ܲv !˲ߨ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù
!Ó!¢T˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛ 2px Óy 2py ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ù!°ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ly–
3. §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y xÓ¢ƒ•z ˆÓ!¢ ÙyeyÎ˚
x!˲ˆÏ°!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÓ– x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ âlc ï˛ï˛
ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ–
4.7.3 xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆËÏ ˛ò (Types of Molecular
Orbitals)
!m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)•ˆÏܲ σ (sigma), π
(pi), δ (delta) •zï˛ƒy!ò §yLjÏܲ!ï˛Ü˛ !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
~•z lyÙܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ Óy ~•z §yLjÏܲ!ï˛Ü˛ !ã˛•´ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ σ
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï y Órôl xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl
π xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •Î˚ ly– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ 1s
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˆÜ˛ˆÏwÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫ˆÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ò%!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ Îy Órôl xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ã˛y!Ó˚!òˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •Î˚– ~•z
ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y σ å!§àÙyä ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ σ1s
G σ*1s [!ã˛e 4.20(a)] myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
Î!ò z x«˛ˆÏܲ xyhs˝/ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚ x«˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ°
ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2pz ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ σ2pz ~ÓÇ σ*2pz myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚– [!ã˛e 4.20(b)]
2px ~ÓÇ 2py ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ à!ë˛ï˛ xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y Órôl xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ ã˛yÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •Î˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î xyî!Óܲ
xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ G !lˆÏã˛ ôlydܲ ~ÓÇ }îydܲ ˆ°yÓ‰ ålobeä à%ˆÏ°y
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ π ~ÓÇ π* [!ã˛e
4.20(c)] myÓ˚y !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ π xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
åπ MOä •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l âlc xyhs˝/ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ G l#ˆÏã˛
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– π* xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ åAntibonding MOä
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ò%!ê˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆly퉲 å!l/flõ®ä Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ–
4.7.4 xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ïܲà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢!=˛hflˆÏ ÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ !ã˛e (Energy
Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals)
xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚!SÈ ò%!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ σ1s ~ÓÇ σ*1s
à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 1s ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ– ~ܲ•z í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 2s ~ÓÇ 2p ~Ó˚ xyê˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyê˛!ê˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
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xlî%Órô# !§àÙy
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛
¢!=˛

xî%Órô# !§àÙy
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛

xlî%Órô# !§àÙy
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ ܲ«˛Ü˛
xî%Órô# !§àÙy
¢!=˛

xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛

xlî%Órô# ˛õy•z
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛
ܲ«˛Ü˛
¢!=˛

xî%Órô# ˛õy•z
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛

!ã˛e 4.20 (a) ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ (b) 2pz ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ (c) 2px ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ xî%Órô# ~ÓÇ xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛hflÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛e–
xlî%Órô# åAntibondingä xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)•ÈüüüÈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ ~ܲ•z
σ∗2s σ∗2p, π *2px π *2py !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ Î%=˛ !mÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
xî%Órô# (Bonding) xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)•ÈüüüÈ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô˲yˆÏÓ ˆflõܲˆÏê˛∆yflÒ!˛õܲ ï˛Ìƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ
σ2s σ2p, π 2px π 2py. !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– O 2 ~ÓÇ F2 xî%Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xyî!Óܲ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°ÈüüüÈ
σ1s < σ * 1s < σ 2s < σ * 2s < σ 2 p z < ( π 2 p x = π 2 p y )
< ( π * 2 p x = π * 2 p y ) < σ * 2 pz
ï˛ˆÏÓ xÓ!¢T˛ Li2, Be2, B2, C2, N2 xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ çlƒ xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ~•z ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ü ˛Ù !ë˛Ü˛ lÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ
˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎ B2, C2, N2
•zï˛ƒy!ò xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!˲ߨ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù •°ÈüüüÈ
σ1s < σ * 1s < σ 2s < σ * 2s < ( π 2 p x = π 2 p y )
< σ2 pz < ( π * 2 p x = π * 2 p y ) < σ * 2 pz
~•z Ü ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ã˛y!Ó˚!eܲ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ •° ˆÎ σ2pz xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ùyey π 2px ~ÓÇ π 2py ~Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚
¢!=˛ÙyeyÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢–
4.7.5 xyî!Óܲ xyã˛Ó˚ î ~ÓÇ •z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ l !Ólƒy§
(Electronic Configuration and Molecular
Behaviour)
!Ó!˲ߨ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à% ˆ Ï ° yÓ˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ •z ˆ Ï ° ܲê˛∆ ˆ Ï l Ó˚
!Óï˛Ó˚îˆÏܲ•z Ó°y •Î˚ xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§– xî%§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ï˛Ìƒ xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Îy
l#ˆÏã˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°–
xî% Ó ˚ fiÌy!Î˚ c Óy xî% Ó ˚ §% ! fiÌÓ˚ ï ˛y å Stability of
Moleculesä ı xl%Órô# ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ Nb
myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ xlî%Órô# ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ Na myÓ˚y
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ
(i) xî%!ê˛ §%!fiÌï˛ •ˆÏÓ Î!ò Nb ~Ó˚ Ùyl Na ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚–
(ii) xî% ò%/!fiÌï˛ •ˆÏÓ– Î!ò Nb ~Ó˚ Ùyl Na ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
≤ÃÌÙ ˆ«˛ˆÏe x!ôà,•#ï˛ xî%Órô# ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ°
Órôl!ê˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ §%!fiÌï˛ xî% ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
!mï˛#Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xlî%Órô# ≤Ã˲yÓ ¢!=˛¢y°# •GÎ˚yÎ˚ xî%!ê˛ ò%/!fiÌï˛
•Î˚–
Órôl Ü  ˛ Ù å Bond order ä ı xî% Ó rô# ~ÓÇ xlî% Ó rô#
ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚
x!ôܲyÇ¢ˆÏܲ•z Ó°y •Î˚ Órôl Ü ˛Ù–
Órôl Ü ˛Ù (B.O.) = ½ (Nb–Na)
129
xî%Ó˚ fiÌy!Î˚c §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó!î≈ï˛ !lÎ˚Ùà%ˆÏ°y Órôl Ü ˛Ù
xl%ÎyÎ˚# !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ lï%˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó°y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ôlydܲ
Órôl Ü ˛Ù •ˆÏ° åxÌ≈yÍ Nb > Naä xî%!ê˛ fiÌyÎ˚# •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl
}îydܲ åxÌ≈yÍ Nb<Naä Óy ¢)lƒ åxÌ≈yÍ Nb = Naä Órôl Ü ˛Ù
•ˆÏ° xî%!ê˛ ò%/!fiÌï˛ •Î˚–
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ åNature of the bondä ı §lyï˛l ôyÓ˚îy
xl%ÎyÎ˚# xá[˛ Órôl Ü ˛Ù 1, 2 Óy 3 ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ~ܲ Órôlñ !mÓrôl
G !eÓrôlˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ åBond-lengthä ı ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ Órôl Ü ˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ Órôl ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ xyî%Ùy!lܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
˛õyGÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Órôl Ü ˛Ù Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏ° Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ •…y§
˛õyÎ˚–
ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ åMagnetic natureä ı ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ §Óà%ˆÏ°y
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ Î!ò ò%!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ
ï˛y•ˆÏ° xî%!ê˛ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ åˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛e myÓ˚y !Óܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚ä
•ˆÏÓ– ï˛ˆÏÓ ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!òܲ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
myÓ˚y x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ° xî%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚yŸã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ åˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ˆ«˛e
myÓ˚y xyܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚ä •ˆÏÓ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î •° O2 xî%–
4.8 !ܲS%È !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ fl∫çy!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚
Órôl (BONDING IN SOME HOMONUCLEAR
DIATOMIC MOLECULES)
~•z xl%ˆFÏ SȈòÏ xyÙÓ˚y !ܲS%È fl∫çy!ï˛ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§Î%=˛ !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ
xî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ Órôl !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
1. •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî% (H2) ı ò%!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% !Ù!°ï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ~!ê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 1s ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xî%ˆïÏ ˛ §Ó≈ˆÙÏ yê˛
ò%!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ Îy σ1s xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛– xï˛~Ó
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§!ê˛ •°ÈüüüÈ
H2 : (σ1s)2
H2 xî%Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Nb − Na 2 − 0
Órôl Ü ˛Ù = 2
=
2
=1
~Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÙˆÏÎyç# ~ܲ
Órôl myÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
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xî%Ó˚ Órôl !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ùyl 438 kJ mol ~ÓÇ Órôl
˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ 74 pm ~Ó˚ §Ùyl– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆl•zñ ï˛y•z ~!ê˛ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ •Î˚–
2. !•!°Î˚yÙ xî% (He2) ı !•!°Î˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
•° 1s2– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ !•!°Î˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ 2!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ He2 xî%ˆÏï˛ 4!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– ~•z •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
σ1s ~ÓÇ σ*1s xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ fiÌyl ˆòGÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!Ólƒy§ •Î˚ÈüüüÈ
He2 : (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2
He2 xî%!ê˛Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù •° = ½(2 – 2) = 0
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ He2 xî%!ê˛ ò%/!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ x!hflÏc ˆl•z– xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õñ
Be2 xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s) 2
(σ*2s)2, §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Be2 xî%!ê˛Ó˚G ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!hflÏc ˆl•z–
3. !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ xî% (Li2) ı !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
•° 1s2 2s1 Li2 xî%ˆÏï˛ SÈÎ˚!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Li2 xî%Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •°ÈüüüÈ
2
Li2 : (σ1s) (σ*1s) (σ2s) 2 2
í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§!ê˛ˆÏܲ KK(σ2s)2 Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õG ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚
ˆÎáyˆÏl ÓÂô K ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ àë˛l σ1s2 σ*1s2 ˆÜ˛ KK myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
Li2 xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ flõT˛ ˆÎñ xî%ÓÓrô#
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
ò%•z!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Óï≈˛Ùyl– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ~Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù •° ½ (4 – 2)
= 1É ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ Li2 xî%!ê˛ §%!fiÌï˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xÎ%@¬
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ly ÌyܲyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xî%!ê˛ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ •Î˚– ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛
Li2 xî%!ê˛ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ •ˆÏ°G Óy‹õ#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ ~Ó˚ x!hflÏc xyˆÏSÈ–
4. ܲyÓ≈l xî% (C2) ı ܲyÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •° 1s2
2s2 2p2ñ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ C2 xî%ˆÏï˛ ˆÙyê˛ 12 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– xï˛~Ó
C2 xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •°ÈüüüÈ
C2 : (σ 1s ) (σ *1s ) (σ * 2 s ) (σ 2 s ) (π 2 px2 = π 2 p y2 )
2 2 2 2
or KK(σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2 (π2p2x = π2p2y)
C2 xî%Ó˚ Órôl Ü ˛Ù •° ½ (8 – 4) = 2 ~ÓÇ C2 xî%!ê˛
!ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ •GÎ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ñ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ܲyÓ≈l
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Óy‹õ#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ ¢ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈
oT˛Óƒ •° ˆÎ C2 xî%Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ π xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ 4!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
ÌyˆÏܲñ Ê˛ˆÏ° C2 xî%Ó˚ Órôl ò%!ê˛ í˛z˲ˆÏΕ˚ z π Órôl •Î˚– ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà
xlƒylƒ xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ σ å!§àÙyä Órôl G ~ܲ!ê˛ π å˛õy•zä
Órôl myÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !mÓrôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– N2 xî%Ó˚ Órôl ~˲yˆÏÓ
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
5. x!:ˆÏçl xî% (O2) ı x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§
•° 1s2 2s2 2p4– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ 8!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
xyˆÏSÈñ Ê˛ˆÏ° O2 xî%ˆÏï˛ 16!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyˆÏSÈ– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ O2 xî%Ó˚
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ •°ÈüüüÈ
O2 : (σ1s ) 2 (σ *1s ) 2 (σ2s ) 2 (σ * 2s ) 2 (σ2 pz ) 2
( π2 p x
2
= π2 p y 2 ) ( π * 2 px1 = π * 2 p y1 )
O2 :  KK (σ2 s ) 2 (σ * 2 s ) 2 (σ2 pz ) 2 
 
( π2 p x = π2 p y ) , ( π * 2 px = π * 2 p y ) 
2 2 1 1
O2 xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ flõT˛ ˆÎ xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ xyˆÏSÈ ò¢!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~ÓÇ xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ
xyˆÏSÈ SÈÎ˚!ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ~Ó˚ ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù •°ñ
1 1
Órôl Ü ˛Ù = [ Nb − N a ] = [10 − 6] = 2
2 2
ï˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl xî%ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y !mÓrôl myÓ˚y Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
xyˆÏÓ˚y Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ π * 2px ~ÓÇ π * 2py xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛
xÎ%@¬ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ÌyܲyÎ˚ O2 xî%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚yŸã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ •GÎ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛
ӈϰ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ê˛°yÊ˛° ~•z ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚
§ˆÏAà §Aà!ï˛˛õ)î≈–
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ ~•z ï˛_¥!ê˛ x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚yŸã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛
§Ê˛°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õñ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ !mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ xlƒylƒ fl∫çy!ï˛
!lí˛z!Ü ˛Î˚y§ Î%=˛ åHomonuclearä !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
!Ólƒy§ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚– !ã˛e 4.21~ ˆÓyÓ˚l åB2ä ˆÌˆÏܲ !lÎ˚l åNe2ä
xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ô@˝Ã•î ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆòGÎ˚y •°– xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù ˆòáyˆÏly •°– xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ¢!=˛ÙyeyÓ˚ !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Órôl ¢!=˛ñ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒñ Órôl Ü ˛Ùñ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ôÙ≈yÓ!°
~ÓÇ ˆÎyçl ܲˆÏ«˛Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 131

2s-2p x!˲ˆÏ°˛õlÎ%=˛ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ 2s-2p x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl•#l xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛

¢!=˛
Órôl ¢!=˛ kJ/mol-1

Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ/pm
ÓrôlÜ ˛Ù
˛õÓ˚yã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚yã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !ï˛Ó˚Ÿã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚
ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ôÙ≈
ˆÎyçl
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§

!ã˛e 4.21 B2 ˆÌˆÏܲ Ne2 ~Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ô@˝Ã•î ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ôÙ≈yÓ°#–

4.9 •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl Órôl (HYDROGEN BONDING):
ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçlñ x!:ˆÏçl ~ÓÇ ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚l ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ° Ï y •° ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í
}îydܲ ˆÙÔ°– ~•z ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y Îál •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ âˆÏê˛–
Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ôlydܲ xyôyl@˝ÃhflÏ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛#Ó  HÈüÈӈϰ–
ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z Órôl!ê˛
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl ˆÌˆÏܲ
ò%Ó≈° Órôl– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ HF xî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ HF xî%Ó˚
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ HF xî%Ó˚ ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚î ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy l#ˆÏã˛ !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
− − − H δ+ F δ − − − − H δ+ F δ− − − − H δ+
~áyˆÏl •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl Órôl ò%!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ§ï%˛Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ–˚
Îy §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
ÓrôlˆÏܲ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˲@¿ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎáyˆÏl xá[˛
ˆÓ˚áy §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôlˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ˆÎ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ x˛õÓ˚ xî%Ó˚ ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏܲ åF, O xÌÓy Nä ˆÓшÏô Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ §«˛Ùñ ï˛yˆÏܲ•z Órôl
4.9.1 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î (Cause of
Formation of Hydrogen Bond)
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Îál ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˆÙÔ° ‘X’ ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲yà#òy!Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° x˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
F δ− ‘X’ ~Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ í˛zFã˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í ôlydܲ •Î˚–
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ó˚î ‘X’ ~Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ (δ +) ôlydܲ xyôyl@˝ÃhflÏ •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ‘X’ xyÇ!¢Ü˛
132 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

(δ–) }îydܲ xyôyl@˝ÃhflÏ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ô Ó

% #Î˚ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛!í˛¸Í Órôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ HF xî%ñ xƒy°ˆÏܲy•° Óy ç° xî%
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ Îy l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°ÈüüüÈ •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ HÈüÈÓrôl–
Hδ+ − X δ− − − − Hδ+ − X δ− − − − Hδ+ − X δ− (2) xhs˝/ xyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl åIntramolecular

ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ H-ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– hydrogen bondä ı ~ܲ•z xî%Ó˚ HÈüÈ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ ò%!ê˛ ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í

ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ï˛y §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §Ó≈!l¡¨ •Î˚– }îydܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% (F, O, N) ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl à!ë˛ï˛
ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ôÙ≈yÓ°# ~ÓÇ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ xˆÏÌ≈yÈüÈly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏÊ˛lˆÏ° ò%!ê˛ x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚
≤Ã˲yÓ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ÙˆÏôƒ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xÓfiÌyl
4.9.2 HÈüÈÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ôÓ˚l (Types of H-Bonds)
H-Órôl ò%•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ÈüüüÈ
(i) xyhs˝/ xyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl åIntermolecular
hydrogen bondä
(ii) xyhs˝/ xyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl åIntramolecular
hydrogen bondä
(1) xyhs˝/ xyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl åIntermolecular
hydrogen bondäı ò%!ê˛ ~ܲ•z Óy !˲ߨ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ã˛e 4.22 xˆÏÌ≈y ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏÊ˛lˆÏ° xhs˝È/ xyî!Óܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl–

§yÓ˚yÇ¢

ˆÜ˛yˆÏ§ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)-ò,!T˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# ï˛!í˛¸Í ôlydܲ ~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ xyÎ˚î àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛Ô¢°ñ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ xyÎ˚là%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
!l!‹;Î˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy °yˆÏ˲Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛– xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ fiÌy!Î˚ˆÏcÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í
ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°– ~!ê˛•z ï˛!í˛¸Í ˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˆòÎ˚–
°%•z§ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ˲yày˲y!àÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ˆòl ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ˲yày˲y!àÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ•z !l!‹;Î˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚– °%•z§ í˛ê‰˛ §yLjÏܲ!ï˛Ü˛ !ã˛•´ ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎyçl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy ˆòáyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ °%•z§ í˛ê‰˛ àë˛l!ê˛ •° xî%Ó˚ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §!ã˛e í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl–
xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔà àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l ~ÓÇ xƒylyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ Î%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ §%!l!ò≈T˛ !eÙy!eܲ àë˛l !Ó!¢T˛ ܲ!ë˛l
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ӈϰ ˆÜ˛°y§ çy°Ü˛ Óy crystal lattice– ˆÜ˛°y!§ï˛ ܲ!ë˛ˆÏl ôîydܲ xyÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ xyôyl }îydܲ
xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôylˆÏܲ ≤â!Ùï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚– çy°Ü˛ åLatticeä àë˛ˆÏl ¢!=˛ !là≈ÙˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ•z ˆÜ˛°y§ çy°Ü˛!ê˛ §%!fiÌï˛ •Î˚–
ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲˆÏçyí˛¸y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲yày˲y!àÓ˚ åsharingä Ê˛ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl ò%•z
ˆçyí˛¸y Óy !ï˛l ˆçyí˛¸y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲yày˲y!àÓ˚ åsharingä Ê˛ˆÏ° Ó•% Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– ÓrôˆÏl xyÓÂô !ܲS%È ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛
x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° ÌyˆÏܲ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ÓrôˆÏl xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~•zà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à°–
~ܲ!ê˛ °%•z§ í˛ê‰˛ àë˛l ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ G Órôl# •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ !Ólƒy§
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏl §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !fiÌ!ï˛Ùy˛õà%ˆÏ°y åParameterä •°ÈüüüÈ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒñ Órôl Ü ˛Ù ~ÓÇ
Órôl ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛yñ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~ܲy!ôܲ xî% ~ÓÇ Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye °%•§z àë˛l myÓ˚y !lË%˛≈ °Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly ~ÓÇ ~ܲ•z
ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xˆÏlܲà%ˆ°
Ï y àë˛l xÑyܲy ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z àë˛là%ˆ° Ï y ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ xî% Óy xyÎ˚l!ê˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ á%Ó à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈ ~ÓÇ Ó•%°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ ôyÓ˚îy ÎyˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚ˆç
Ï ylƒy™ Óy §Çflõ®l Ó°y •Î˚– xÓòylܲyÓ˚# ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy
Óy ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° Ó˚˛) õà%ˆ°
Ï y ~ܲ§ˆÏAà !وϰ ˆÓ˚ˆç Ï ylƒy™ •y•z!Ó í˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îy xî% Óy xyÎ˚l!ê˛ˆÏܲ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ–˚
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 133

•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆçyí˛¸ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Îï˛ê˛y §Ω˛Ó ò)ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ã˛yÎ˚ ~•z ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚•z VSEPR
ï˛_¥!ê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆÎ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy !òˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ï˛_¥ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüÈ
!l/§Aà Î%à°ñ !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüÈÓrôl Î%à° ~ÓÇ Órôl Î%à°ÈüÈÓrôl Î%à° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î myÓ˚y xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛
xyÜ,˛!ï˛ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~•zà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ Ü ˛Ù •°ÈüüüÈ !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüÈ!l/§Aà Î%à° > !l/§Aà Î%à°ÈüÈÓrôl Î%à°È >
Órôl Î%à°ÈÈüÈÓrôl Î%à° ålp-lp > lp-bp > bp-bpä–
ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl åvalence bondä ï˛_¥ Ù)°Ü˛ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó^˝ê˛l !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ˛õyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
ˆÎáyˆÏl °%•§z ~ÓÇ VSEPR ÙˆÏí˛° ~ !ӣψÎÏ ˚ l#Ó˚Ó Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Ù)°ï˛ ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚
myÓ˚y Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Óî≈ly ˆòÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ò%!ê˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ 1s ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚
x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xî% à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°y Îál ~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ
xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál ï˛sf!ê˛Ó˚ !fiÌ!ï˛¢!=˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyhs˝/ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc åÓrôl ò)Ó˚cä ¢!=˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ò%!ê˛ˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G ܲyˆÏSÈ xylˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° ¢!=˛ •ë˛yÍ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xî%!ê˛ˆÏܲ xfiÌyÎ˚# ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚– ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l àyì˛¸c ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ÎyÎ˚ Îy ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ò%!ê˛ˆÏܲ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§–
Î!òG °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Órôl ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ Órôl ˜òâ≈ƒ !lî≈ˆÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye x!˲ˆÏ°˛õl•z ~ܲÙye ã˛°Ó˚y!¢
lÎ˚ñ xlƒylƒ ã˛°Ó˚y!¢à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲG àîlyÎ˚ xylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– Ó•% ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî%Ó˚ !ӈϢ£Ï xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õyí˛z!°Ç ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ
ܲ«˛Ü˛ §Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy l!ÌË%˛=˛ ܲˆÏÓl˚ – BeCl2, BCl3, CH4, NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O xî%Ó˚ àë˛l ≤Ãîy°# ~ÓÇ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛
xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Be, B,C, N ~ÓÇ O ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%!°Ó˚ sp,sp2, sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓl˚ –
sp,sp2 §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆî Ï Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ C2H2 ~ÓÇ C2H4 xî%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ Ó•% Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ˆòGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ (MO) ï˛_¥ñ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !Ólƒy§ ~ÓÇ §ÇˆÏÎyçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ àë˛l ~ÓÇ
§y!Ó≈ܲ˲yˆÏÓ xî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ˆòÎ˚– xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒy àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl
•Î˚– xî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ åBonding molecular orbitalsä !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
fl∫ï˛sf ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲG Ü˛Ù ¢!=˛Ó˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚# •Î˚– xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ åAntibonding molecular
orbitalsä !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢)lƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xM˛° ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ fl∫ï˛sf ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y
ˆÌˆÏܲG ˆÓ!¢ ¢!=˛Ó˚ x!ôܲyÓ˚# •Î˚– xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù xl%ÎyÎ˚# xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ ˆ°áy •Î˚–
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ùï˛ñ xyl!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l myÓ˚y ˛õ)!ï≈˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛ ~ÓÇ •%ˆÏu˛Ó˚ §)e ≤ÈÏÎy烖
~ܲ!ê˛ xî% §%!fiÌï˛ •ˆÏÓ Î!ò xl%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy xlî%Órô# xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇáƒyÓ˚
ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚–
ò%!ê˛ ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÎÙl F, O ~ÓÇ N ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Îál •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ÌyܲˆÏÓ ï˛ál•z •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl Órôl à!ë˛ï˛
•ˆÏÓ– ~!ê˛ xyhs˝/ xyî!Óܲ åò%!ê˛ Óy ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢ ~ܲ•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ xî% Óy !˲ߨ ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ä Óy xyhs˝/ xyî!Óܲ
å~ܲ•z xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óï≈˛Ùylä í˛z˲Î˚•z •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ xˆÏlܲ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ôÙ≈yÓ!° ~ÓÇ àë˛ˆÏl •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ xlfl∫#ܲyÎ≈–

xî%¢#°l#

4.1 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy òyG–

4.2 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÙÔ°§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ °%•z§ í˛ê‰˛ !ã˛•´ ˆ°ˆÏáy ı
Mg, Na, B, O, N, Br.
4.3 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ °%•z§ !ã˛•´ ˆ°ˆÏáy ı
S ~ÓÇ S2–ñ Al ~ÓÇ Al3+ñ H ~ÓÇ H–
4.4 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ xî% ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ °%•z§ àë˛l xÑyˆÏܲy ı
H2S, SiCl4, BeF2, CO2−
3
, HCOOH
134 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

4.5 xT˛Ü˛ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ §ÇK˛y òyG– ~Ó˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ ~ÓÇ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛y ˆ°ˆÏáy–
4.6 xyÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ï˛Ìy ï˛!í˛¸ÍˆÏÎyç# Órôl ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆ°ˆÏáy–
4.7 VSEPR ÙˆÏí˛° ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
BeCl2, BCl3, SiCl4, AsF5, H2S, PH3
4.8 NH3 ~ÓÇ H2O xî%Ó˚ çƒy!Ù!ï˛Ü˛ àë˛l !ÓÜ,˛ï˛ ã˛ï%˛/hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥Gñ ç° xî%Ó˚ Órôl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y
ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù– xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
4.9 Órôl Ü ˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˆÌˆÏܲ Órôl ¢!=˛ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
4.10 Órôl ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §ÇK˛y òyG–
4.11 CO2− 3 xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ §Çflõ®l åResonanceä ~Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !òܲà%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
4.12 !lˆÏã˛ H3PO3 ~Ó˚ àë˛l 1 G 2 myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •°– ~•z ò%!ê˛ àë˛lˆÏܲ H3PO3 ~Ó˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏçylƒy™ •y•z!Ó ˆÏí˛Ó˚
ܲƒyˆÏly!lˆÏܲ° àë˛l !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ !ܲ⁄ Î!ò ly •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ fl∫˛õˆÏ«˛ ܲyÓ˚î ò¢≈yG–

4.13 SO3, NO2 ~ÓÇ NO3− ~Ó˚ §Çflõ®l åResonanceä àë˛là%ˆÏ°y xÑyˆÏܲy–
4.14 °%•z§ §yLjÏܲ!ï˛Ü˛ !ã˛•´ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ü˛ƒyê˛yÎ˚l G
xƒylyÎ˚l àë˛l ˆòáyG ı (a) K ~ÓÇ S (b) Ca ~ÓÇ O (c) Al ~ÓÇ N.
4.15 CO2 ~ÓÇ H2O í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚•z !e˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xî% •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥G ç° xî%Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ bent åÓÑyܲyä !ܲv CO2 xî%!ê˛
§Ó˚°˜ÏÓ˚!áܲ– !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ~Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy òyG–
4.16 !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈‡≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ˆ°ˆÏáy–
4.17 ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛yÓ˚ §ÇK˛y òyG– •z•y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ åelectron gain enthalpyä ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ !˲ߨ⁄
4.18 í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î myÓ˚y ô %Ó#Î˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy òyG–
4.19 LiF, K2O, N2, SO2 ~ÓÇ ClF3 xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÓrôlˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ã˛!Ó˚ˆÏeÓ˚ |ôÁ≈Ü ˛Ù xÙ%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yçyG–
4.20 CH3COOH ~Ó˚ àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy!ê˛ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •° !ܲv !ܲS%È Órôl Ë%˛° ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚
§!ë˛Ü˛ °%•z§ àë˛l!ê˛ ˆ°ˆÏáy–

4.21 ã˛ï%˛hflÏ°Ü˛#Î˚ àë˛l SÈyí˛¸yG CH4 ~Ó˚ §Ùï˛°#Î˚ Óà≈yܲyÓ˚ àë˛l §Ω˛Ó ˆ§áyˆÏl 4!ê˛ H ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óà≈yÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ¢#£Ï≈ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛
~ÓÇ C ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%!ê˛ ˆÜ˛ˆÏw ÌyܲˆÏÓ– !ܲv CH4 §Ùï˛°#Î˚ Óà≈yܲyÓ˚ lÎ˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
4.22 Î!òG Be–H Órôlà%ˆÏ°y ô %Ó#Î˚ ï˛Ìy!˛õ BeH2 xî%!ê˛Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ ¢)lƒ •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
4.23 NH3 ~ÓÇ NF3 xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÓ!¢ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛l⁄
4.24 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄ sp, sp2 ~ÓÇ sp3 §ÇܲÓ˚y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓy˚ –
4.25 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Al ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l åÎ!ò •ˆÏÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲä Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
AlCl3 + Cl − → AlCl 4−
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Órôl ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ àë˛l 135

4.26 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó˚yy§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ B G N ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ !ܲ⁄
BF3 + NH3 → F3B.NH3
4.27 C2H4 ~ÓÇ C2H2 xî%ˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ !mÓrôl ~ÓÇ !eÓrôl à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛y !ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
ˆòáyG–
4.28 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !§àÙy G ˛õy•z ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy ܲï˛⁄
(a) C2H2 (b) C2H4
4.29 x x«˛ˆÏܲ xyhs˝/ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x«˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆÜ˛yl ˆ«˛ˆÏe !§àÙy Órôl àë˛l
§Ω˛Ó lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛l⁄
(a) 1s ~ÓÇ 1s (b) 1s ~ÓÇ 2px (c) 2py ~ÓÇ 2py (d) 1s ~ÓÇ 2s.
4.30 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇܲÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ Ü˛«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
(a) CH3–CH3 (b) CH3–CH=CH2 (c) CH3-CH2-OH (d) CH3-CHO (e) CH3COOH
4.31 •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Órôl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° ~ÓÇ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚⁄ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
í˛zòy•Ó˚î myÓ˚y !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y–
4.32 !§àÙy G ˛õy•z ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
4.33 ˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ åValence bond theoryä xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ H2 xî%Ó˚ àë˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
4.34 ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y
ˆ°ˆÏáy–
4.35 xyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ˆÜ˛l Be2 xî%!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!hflÏc ˆl•z–
4.36 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ åSpeciesä à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ fiÌy!Î˚c ~ÓÇ ˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ ôÙ≈ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
O2 , O2+ , O2− å§%˛õyÓ˚ x:y•zí˛ä O2−
2
å˛õyÓ˚x:y•zí˛ä
4.37 ܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õlyÎ˚ ˆÎ ôlydܲ å+ä ~ÓÇ }îydܲ å−ä !ã˛•´ ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ ˆ°ˆÏáy–
4.38 PCl5 xî%!ê˛Ó˚ §ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚î Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– !lÓ˚«˛#Î˚ Órôl åequatorial bondsä à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ x«˛#Î˚ Órôl åaxial
bondsä à%ˆÏ°y ò#â≈ •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
4.39 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇK˛y òyG– ˲ƒyu˛yÓ˚GÎ˚y° Ó° ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ ò%Ó≈° ly ¢!=˛¢y°#⁄
4.40 Órôl Ü ˛Ù Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˆÓyV˛⁄ N2, O2, O2+ ~ÓÇ O2– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Órôl Ü ˛Ù àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
136
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy
(STATES OF MATTER)
í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ ı
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y §«˛Ù •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
• ˛õòyˆÏ Ì ≈ Ó ˚ ܲîyà% ˆ Ï ° yÓ˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ í˛z ˛ õ!fiÌï˛
xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ¢!=˛Ó˚
˲yÓ˚§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ
xÓfiÌyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ x!hflÏc Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î !lÎ˚sfîܲyÓ˚# §)eà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
Óƒyáy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÓyhflÏÓ ç#ÓˆÏl !Ó!˲ߨ
˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ÓyhflÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˛àƒyˆÏ § Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚ ° #ܲÓ˚ ˆ Ï î Ó˚ çlƒ ≤ÃˆÏ Î ˚ y çl#Î˚
¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ
!lÓ˚Ó!FSÈߨï˛y Óï≈˛Ùyl ï˛y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛–
• àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy ~ÓÇ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
ôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
˛õM˛Ù xôƒyÎ˚
(UNIT 5)
The snowflake falls, yet lays not long
Its feath’ry grasp on Mother Earth
Ere Sun returns it to the vapors Whence it came,
Or to waters tumbling down the rocky slope.
Rod O’ Connor
Ë)˛!Ùܲy (INTRODUCTION)
˛õ)Ó≈Óï≈˛# xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ܲîyÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ôÙ≈§Ù)• ˆÎÙl
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xyܲyÓ˚ñ xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ~lÌy°!˛õñ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ xyôyl âlcñ xyî!Óܲ xyÜ,˛!ï˛
~ÓÇ ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛y •zï˛ƒy!ò §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆçˆÏl!SÈ– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ åï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ä ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î#Î˚
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ñ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ åBulkä ôÙ≈
xÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ §Ü˛° ôÙ≈ !Ó¢y° §ÇáƒÜ˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xyÎ˚l Óy xî% §Ù!T˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ÈüüüÈ
ï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ fl≥%˛ê˛l •Î˚ ly
ÓÓ˚Ç §Ù@˝Ã ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚•z fl≥%˛ê˛l âˆÏê˛– çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%§Ù!T˛Ó˚ ôÙ≈ •° xyo≈ ܲÓ˚y– ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õ,Ìܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî% xyo≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ç° Ü˛!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ !•§yˆÏÓ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
~!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚G ÌyˆÏܲ Óy àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyñ ˆÎÙl ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ Óy fiê˛#Ù !•§yˆÏÓG
ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ÓÓ˚Ê˛ñ ç° ~ÓÇ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°y xy°yòy •Î˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛
xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛•z ~Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ ~ܲ•z xÌ≈yÍ H2O– çˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z !ï˛l!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÎ˲yˆÏÓ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!eï˛ •Î˚
ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ xlƒylƒ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ §ï˛ƒ–
ˆË˛Ôï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly– !ܲv Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– xˆÏlܲ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ ≤ÃyÆ Ê˛°yÊ˛° àîlyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚
xÓfiÌy §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚– ˆ§çlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚§yÎ˚l!ÓˆÏòÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!˲ߨ
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î !lÎ˚sfîܲyÓ˚# ˆË˛Ôï˛ §)eà%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çyly ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚–
~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ӈϢ£Ï ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚°
G àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ çylˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚Ó– xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 137

˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ ӈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ñ xyî!Óܲ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ xÓ!fiÌï˛ [!ã˛e 5.1(a)]– ~Ùl •ˆÏï˛
!Ü ˛Î˚yÈüÈ≤Ã!ï˛!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ˆÏï˛ñ ô!Ó˚ AÈüȈï˛
§¡õˆÏܲ≈ çyly ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ܲyÓ˚î ~•z §ÙhflÏ !ӣψÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ ï˛yÍ«˛!îܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ !Ólƒy§ ˛x≤Ã!ï˛§Ù •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ
˲yÓ˚§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyôyl ˆÙâ åcharge cloudä ~ܲ ˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ xlƒ˛õyˆÏ¢ ˆÓ!¢
5.1 xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó° §Ù)• (INTERMOLECULAR •Î˚ [!ã˛e 5.1(b) ~ÓÇ (c)]– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° A ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆïÏ ˛ ï˛yÍ«˛!îܲ˲yˆÏÓ
FORCES) í˛zͲõߨ ï˛yÍ«˛!îܲ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% x!ï˛!lܲˆÏê˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% BÈüÈ~Ó˚
˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ܲîy§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ åxî% G ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ä ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l âlcˆÏܲ !ÓÜ,˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
xyܲ£Ï≈î G !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°ˆÏܲ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó° ӈϰ– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy !mˆÏÙÓ˚% xy!•ï˛ •Î˚–
!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ôÙ≈# xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í Ó° ~ÓÇ §ÙˆÏÎyç# A ~ÓÇ B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ í˛zͲõߨ ~•z xfiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ˚%mÎ˚
Órôl Îy xî%ÙôƒfiÌ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏáñ ~•z ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ˆÏܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ xlƒ xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛G xfiÌyÎ˚#
˛õ!Ó˚˲y£ÏyˆÏï˛ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ •Î˚!l– !mˆÏÙÓ˚% §,!T˛ •Î˚– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈ Ó° §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ çyÙ≈yl ˛õòyÌ≈!Óò
xyhs˝Óy˚ î!Óܲ xyܲ£Ïî≈ Ó°ˆÏܲ í˛yã˛ !ÓK˛yl# ˆçyˆÏ•™ ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚ !Ê ˛ç °u˛l ≤ÃhflÏyÓ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ӈϰ ï˛yÍ«˛!îܲ˲yˆÏÓ §,T˛ ò%!ê˛
GÎ˚y° å1837 !á É ÈüÈ 1923 !á Éä ~Ó˚ §¡øylyˆÏÌ≈ ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y°§‰ í˛y•zˆÏ˛õyˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~•z xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°ˆÏܲ °u˛l Ó° ӈϰ– ~•z ӈϰÓ˚
Ó° Ó°y •Î˚– ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° ÓyhflÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ
!Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ ~•z §ÙhflÏ ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SȈ°Ï l–
~•z !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ xyÙÓ˚y ~•z xl%ˆFÏ SȈòÏ Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# xLjϢ çylÓ– ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚
GÎ˚y° Ó°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙyˆÏl xˆÏlܲ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ !í˛§˛õyÓ˚¢yl
Ó° åDispersion forcesä Óy °u˛l Ó° åLondon forcesäñ
A ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
!mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó° åDipole-Dipole forcesä ~ÓÇ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xyôyl ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù !Ólƒy§
xyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ%̊ Ó°à%ˆ° Ï yG åDipole induced-Dipole forcesä
~Ó˚ xhs˝àï≈ ˛– ¢!=˛¢y°# !mˆÏÙÓ˚È%üÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï í˛zòy•Ó˚î
•°ÈüüüÈ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl– ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye !ܲS%È ˆÙÔ°•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
Órôl àë˛ˆÏl xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§çlƒ ~ˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ~•z !ӣψÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z
ˆçˆÏl!SÈ–
~áyˆÏl ~!ê˛ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ ï˛yÍ«˛!îܲ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% §• A xy!•ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xyÎ˚l !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ Ó° lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ Îy ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l âlc §Ù!ß∫ï˛ B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
í˛yl!òˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢
GÎ˚y° Ó° lÎ˚– xyÙÓ˚y ~ÓyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ˲ƒylí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Ó°
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylÓ–
5.1.1 !í˛§˛õyÓ˚¢yl Ó° Óy °u˛l Ó° (Dispersion Forces
or London Forces)
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xô %Ó#Î˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤Ã!ï˛§Ù åelectrically
symmetricalä •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ ådipole
A ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÓyÈüÈ!òˆÏܲ
xy!•ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ åí˛y•zˆÏ˛õy°ä
momentä ÌyˆÏܲ ly– ܲyÓ˚îñ ï˛!í˛¸Í xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙâ åelectronic •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l âlc ˆÓ!¢ §Ù!ß∫ï˛ B ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
charge cloudä!ê˛ §%£ÏÙ˲yˆÏÓ !ÓlƒhflÏ ÌyˆÏܲ– !ܲv ï˛yÍ«˛y!îܲ˲yˆÏÓ
~•z xî% ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ˆÏï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%Ó˚ í˛zͲõ!_ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ !ã˛e 5.1 ı ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §,T˛ !í˛§˛õyÓ˚¢yl Ó° Óy °u˛l Ó°
!l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ñ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% A G B §Ù)•–
138 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

xlƒ lyÙ !í˛§˛õyÓ˚¢yl åDispersionä Ó°– ~•z Ó°à%ˆÏ°y §Ó≈òy xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
1
~Ó˚ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl r •° ô Ó#Î˚
xyܲ£Ï≈îôÙ≈# Ó° •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z xyhs˝!Ü ˛Î˚yç!lï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ùyl ò%!ê˛ r6
xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ò)Ó˚c– !mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õy¢y˛õy!¢ ô %Ó#Î˚
!Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ܲîyÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ £Ï¤˛âyˆÏï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ÓƒyhflÏyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛
1 xî%à%ˆÏ°y °u˛l ӈϰÓ˚ myÓ˚yG !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y•z ~•z §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ
•Î˚ åxÌ≈yÍ ˆÎáyˆÏl r •° ò%!ê˛ Ü˛îyÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ò)Ó˚cä– ~•z ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ ӈϰÓ˚ Ùyl
r6
Ó°à%ˆ°
Ï y á%Ó Ü˛Ù ò)Óc˚ å~500 pmä ˛õÎ≈hs˝•z ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
Ùyl ܲîyÓ˚ ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– 5.1.3 !mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈxy!ÓT˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó° (Dipole–Induced
5.1.2 !mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó° (Dipole - Dipole Forces) Dipole Forces)
ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ fiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ˚% åDipoleä Óï≈˛Ùyl ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° fiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ §¡õߨ ô %Ó#Î˚ xî% ~ÓÇ fiÌyÎ˚#
ÙˆÏôƒ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó° åDipole-Dipole forcesä !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚– !mˆÏÙÓ˚% !Ó•#l xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%Ó˚ fiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ˚%!ê˛
!mˆÏÙÓ%̊Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ ≤ÃyˆÏhs˝ ÚxyÇ!¢Ü˛ xyôylÛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~•z xyôylà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ !lhflÏ!í˛¸Í xî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÙâˆÏܲ !ÓÜ,˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%ˆÏܲ •z•yˆÏï˛
!@˝Ãܲ åGreekä ¢∑ ˆí˛ÏŒê˛y åδä myÓ˚y ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– xyÇ!¢Ü˛ xyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ å!ã˛e 5.3ä– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ xlƒ xî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xy!ÓT˛
xyôyl §Ó≈òy ~ܲܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l#Î˚ xyôyl å1.6×10–19 Cä ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù !mˆÏÙÓ˚%Ó˚ í˛zqÓ •Î˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeG xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ¢!=˛
1
~Ó˚
•Î˚– ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ˛õyŸª≈Óï˛≈# xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ã˛e r6
5.2 (a) •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ˆï Ï ˛ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– ˆÎáyˆÏl r ò%!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Ó˚cˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ !ã˛e 5.2 (b)ÈüÈ~ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲñ !fiÌÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% §¡õߨ xî%ˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛
ò% ! ê˛ xî% Ó ˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ !mˆÏ Ù Ó˚ % È ü È ! mˆÏ Ù Ó˚ % !Ü  ˛ Î˚ y å Dipole-Dipole !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ºyÙܲ ~ÓÇ !lhflÏ!í˛¸Í xî%Ó˚ ô %Ó#Î˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ «˛Ùï˛yÓ˚
interactionäˆÜ˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ~•z !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ùyl °u˛l Ó° xˆÏ˛õ«˛y åpolarisabilityä í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyÙÓ˚y ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏà•z
¢!=˛¢y°# !ܲv xyÎ˚lÈüÈxyÎ˚l !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ùyl xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ò%Ó° ≈ ñ ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏï˛ ˆçˆÏl!SÈ ˆÎ Ó,•Í xî%àˆ% ° Ï yˆÏܲ §•ˆÏç•z ô Ó% #Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zFã˛ô Ó% #Î˚ï˛y
¢%ô%Ùye xyÇ!¢Ü˛ xyôyl !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° !mˆÏÙÓ˚%Ó˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ò)Óc˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeG
!Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ¢!=˛ ò%!ê˛ ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%Ó˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ÓƒhflÏyl%˛õy!ï˛ •Î˚–
!mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ fiÌyÎ˚# ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛y !Ó!¢T˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
1 fiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ˚% xô %Ó#Î˚ xî%
åܲ!ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ä ÙˆÏôƒ ~Ó˚ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ â)î≈l¢#° ô %Ó#Î˚
r3 å~ܲ!ê˛ ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%ä

fiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ~ܲ!ê˛ xô %Ó#Î˚ xî%ˆÏï˛

ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ å~ܲ!ê˛ ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%ä xyˆÏÓ¢!ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ˆÓ!¢ ÌyˆÏܲ !ã˛e 5.3 ı fiÌyÎ˚# !mˆÏÙÓ˚% ~ÓÇ xyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%
xyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% !Ü ˛Î˚y–
~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏeG !í˛§˛õyÓ˚¢yl Ó° ~ÓÇ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ xyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ%̊
ӈϰÓ˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Óï≈˛Ùyl–
5.1.4 •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl (Hydrogen bond)
!ã˛e 5.2 (a) ô %Ó#Î˚ HCl xî%ˆÏï˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛lñ (b) ò%!ê˛ xl%ˆÏFSÈò å5.1äÈüÈ~ xyˆÏà•z í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ˆÎ ~!ê˛
HCl xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% !Ü ˛Î˚y åDipole-dipole !mˆÏÙÓ%̊ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ%̊ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï í˛zòy•Ó˚î– xyÙÓ˚y ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚
interactionä– xyˆÏà•z ~ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆçˆÏl!SÈ– ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ xî%ˆÏï˛ í˛zFã˛ ô %Ó#Î˚ N–H,
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy
O–H Óy H–F Órôl Óï≈˛Ùylñ ˆ§ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ~!ê˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– Î!òG
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ÓrôlˆÏܲ N, O ~ÓÇ FÈüÈ~ §#ÙyÓÂô ӈϰ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ !ܲv ÈCl ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% G •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ÓrôˆÏl xÇ¢@˝Ã•î
ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ 10 ˆÌˆÏܲ 100 kJ mol–1
~Ó˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ~Ü˛ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ ÙyeyÓ˚ ¢!=˛– ˆ§çlƒ xˆÏlܲ
ˆÎÔà ˆÎÙl ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛l ~ÓÇ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ àë˛l ~ÓÇ ôÙ≈yÓ!°
!lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# Ó° Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚
§ˆÏAà xlƒ xî%Ó˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ñ Ü%˛°¡∫#Î˚ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !ã˛e!ê˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl
ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àë˛l ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
δ+ δ− δ+ δ−
H − F ....... H − F
Îï˛à%ˆÏ°y xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó° xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •° §Óà%ˆÏ°y•z
xyܲ£Ï≈îç!lï˛ Ó°– xî%à%ˆÏ°y ~ˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Óܲ£Ï≈îG ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Îál ò%!ê˛ xî% ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ á%Ó !lܲˆÏê˛ xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál ò%!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
ˆÙˆÏâÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ÓÇ ò%!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°
ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ò%!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ò)Ó˚c Îï˛ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ !Óܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚
Ùyl ï˛ï˛ o%ï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ Ü˛!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ
§•ˆÏç §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~•z xÓfiÌyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°y
~Ù!lˆÏï˛•z á%Ó !lܲˆÏê˛ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§çlƒ ~à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ%l/
§ÇˆÏܲyã˛lˆÏܲ Óyôy ˆòÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏï˛ !Óܲ£Ï≈î !Ü ˛Î˚y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
5.2 ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ (Thermal Energy)
xî% Óy ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z Ó›ˆÏï˛ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ í˛zqÓ •Î˚–
~!ê˛ Ó›Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ùyî%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– ~!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
àí˛¸ à!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ~ÓÇ ˆ§•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~!ê˛ Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛Ó˚
çlƒ òyÎ˚#– ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~•z ã˛°yã˛°ˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ à!ï˛ ÓˆÏ°–
5.3 xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó° ÓlyÙ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y (Intermolecular
Forces vs Thermal Interactions)
xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z ˆçˆÏl!SÈ ˆÎ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
~ܲˆÏe Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ܲv ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚
§!Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ xÓfiÌy xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ
˲yÓ˚§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ Ê˛°–
139
Îál xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° á%Ó ò%Ó≈° •Î˚ ï˛ál í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
•…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ùyl •…y§ ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!eï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
ï˛Ó˚° Óy ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌy §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– àƒy§ˆÏܲ ¢%ôÙ% ye ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ ˆÏà
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyñ Î!òG ~ˆÏï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ á%Ó
ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§ ~ÓÇ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°G §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– x!ôܲv Îál í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y •…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ
•…y§ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál àƒy§ˆÏܲ §•ˆÏç ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !ï˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ G
xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ãyôylƒï˛yÓ˚ !ã˛e l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •°–
àƒy§ ï˛Ó˚° ܲ!ë˛l
xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤Ãyôylƒï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
àƒy§ ï˛Ó˚° ܲ!ë˛l
ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤Ãyôylƒï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ !ï˛l xÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚îà%ˆ°
Ï y
ˆçˆÏl!SÈ– ~ál xyÙÓ˚y àƒy§#Î˚ G ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌy ~ÓÇ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~•z
xÓfiÌyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyã˛Ó˚î !lÎ˚sfîܲyÓ˚# §)eyÓ!° §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ !Ó¢ò˲yˆÏÓ
çylÓ– myò¢ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌy §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
çylÓ–
5.4 àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy (The Gaseous State)
~!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ §Ó˚°ï˛Ù xÓfiÌy– §yÓ˚yç#Ól ôˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ÓyÎ˚Ó% ˚ §Ù%ˆoÏ
í%˛ˆÏÓ Ìy!ܲ ˆÎ!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ù◊î– ê˛∆ˆÏ˛õy!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ lyˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎ!ê˛ x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç ӈϰÓ˚
≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ Ë)˛ÈüÈ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲyˆÏSÈ ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆ§áyˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
ç#Ól x!ï˛Óy!•ï˛ ܲ!Ó˚– ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~•z ˛õyï˛°y hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– ~!ê˛ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ «˛!ï˛Ü˛yÓ˚ܲ !Ó!ܲÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ
Ó˚«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏï˛ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçlñ í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçlñ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z
x:y•zí˛ñ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ •zï˛ƒy!ò ÌyˆÏܲ– ã˛°ñ ~ál xyÙÓ˚y §yôyÓ˚î
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ ˛õòyÌ≈ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚
xyã˛Ó˚î !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yܲ˛õyï˛ Ü˛!Ó˚–
140 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

ˆ◊!î åAnglo-Irishä !ÓK˛yl# Ó˚Óyê≈˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚° åRobert Boyleä §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ

§Çáƒy
1662 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!lÓ˚#«˛y
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ï˛!l ˆÎ §)e!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛˛õyòl ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆ§!ê˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e ӈϰ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# §ÙˆÏÎ˚ í˛z_Æ ÓyÎ˚˛% õ)î≈ ˆÓ°%ˆlÏ Ó˚ åhot air balloonä
§y•yˆÏ΃ xyܲˆÏ¢ í˛zí˛¸yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏã˛T˛y !ÓK˛yl# ˆçܲ§‰ ã˛yÓ˚°§‰ åJaccques
Charlesä ~ÓÇ ˆçyˆÏ§Ê˛ °%•z§ ˆà °%§yܲ åJoseph Lewis Gay
LussacäˆÜ˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xlƒylƒ §)eà%ˆÏ°y xy!Ó‹ÒyˆÏÓ˚ í˛zm%Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ !ÓK˛yl#ˆÏòÓ˚ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° àƒy§#Î˚
xÓfiÌy §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xˆÏlܲ ï˛Ìƒ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
5.5.1 ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)e åã˛y˛õÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛l §¡õÜ≈˛ä Boyle’s Law
!ã˛e 5.4 ı àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~Ùl 11!ê˛ ˆÙÔ°– (Pressure - Volume Relationship)

˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!î °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye 11!ê˛ Ó˚Óyê≈˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚° ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~•z !§ÂôyˆÏhs˝ í˛z˛õl#ï˛
ˆÙÔ°•z §yôyÓ˚î ¢ˆÏï≈˛ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ å!ã˛e 5.4ä– •° ˆÎñ Ú!fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî åxÌ≈yÍ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
nä àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õñ G•z àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ÓƒhflÏyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛Û–
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°y àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§)ã˛Ü˛
~!ê˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)e lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ày!î!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ˆÏܲ
ôÙ≈–
!l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
• àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y á%Ó•z §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°–
1
• àƒy§ §Ó!òˆÏܲ §Ù˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚– p ∝ (ˆÎáyˆÏl T ~ÓÇ n !fiÌÓ˚) ...(5.1)
V
• ܲ!ë˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
1
• àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ xyܲyÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ lÎ˚– ˆÎ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ⇒ p = k1 ...(5.2)
V
~Ó˚y ˆ§•z ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l G xyܲyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆÎáyˆÏl k1 •° §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ ô %Óܲ– k1 ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
• àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Îy!sfܲ §•ˆÏÎy!àï˛y SÈyí˛¸y•z ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ˆÎ ~ܲˆÏܲ p G V ˆÜ˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚
xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ñ §Ù˲yˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !Ù!◊ï˛ •Î˚–
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ó˚° xyã˛Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •°ñ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
xyhs˝/!Ü ˛Î˚yç!lï˛ Ó° làlƒ •Î˚– àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÎ §Ü˛° §)eà%ˆ° Ï y §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.2äˆÜ˛ ˛õ)î≈!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•z
myÓ˚y !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚ ˆ§à%ˆ°Ï yˆÏܲ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y !lÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚
pV = k1 ...(5.3)
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xy!Ó‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ~•z §)eà%ˆ°Ï y àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏÎyàƒ
~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •° !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ܲS%È !ܲS%È Ó˚y!¢ ˆÎÙl ã˛y˛õñ
xyÎ˚ï˛lñ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ܲyÓ˚î ~•z §ÙhflÏ ã˛y˛õ G xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ à%îÊ˛° ô %Óܲ–
Ó˚y!¢à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyhs˝/§¡õÜ≈˛•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÓfiÌy Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒy§ñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y T
~•z Ó˚y!¢à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ xyhs˝/!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛yÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ •ˆÏï˛•z àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eyÓ!° ˆï˛ p1 ã˛yˆÏ˛õ V1 xyÎ˚ï˛l òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛
àë˛l ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏFSȈÏò xyÙÓ˚y àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eyÓ!° •Î˚ ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ p2 ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l V2 ˆï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ÓˆÏΈ˚ ° Ï Ó˚
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylÓ– §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚
5.5 àƒy§#Î˚ §)eyÓ!° (The Gas Laws) p V = p V = ô %Óܲ ...(5.4)
1 1 2 2

àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ¢ï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ p1 V2

≤ÃyÆ §)eà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y ~ÓyÓ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚Ó– xƒyAàˆÏ°yÈüÈxy•z!Ó˚¢ ⇒ =
p2 V1 ...(5.5)
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 141

!ã˛e 5.5 ÓˆÏΈ˚ °

Ï Ó˚ §)eˆÏܲ ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏe §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛
˛õÂô!ï˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ã˛e 5.5(a) !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
È(5.3)üÈ~Ó˚ ˆ°á!ã˛e ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe k1
~Ó˚ Ùyl !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyÓ˚î ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ~!ê˛
ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓá˚ y !Ó!˲ߨ
!fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚y §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ÓÜ ˛ å!fiÌÓ˚
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yˆÏ°áä lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– í˛zFã˛ ÓÜ ˛à%ˆÏ°y í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛– ~ê˛y °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ Î!ò ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ xˆÏô≈ܲ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
ï˛ál xyÎ˚ï˛l !mà%î •Î˚– §yÓ˚!î 5.1ÈüÈ~ 300 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 0.09
ˆÙÔ° CO2 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
1
!ã˛e 5.5 (b)ñ p ÓlyÙ V
ˆ°á!ã˛eˆÏܲ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–

!ã˛e 5.5 ı (a) !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ (p) ÓlyÙ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù)°!Ó®%àyÙ# §Ó˚°ˆÏÓá˚ y– Î!òG í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒy§ ÓˆÏΈ˚ °
Ï Ó˚
(V) ˆ°á!ã˛e– §)e ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˙ ¢ˆÏï˛≈˛ ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛ §Ó˚°Ó˚!áܲ •Î˚
ly– ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!lÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚
≤ÃÙy!îï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎ àƒy§ x!ï˛ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#° ܲyÓ˚î Îál ~ܲ!ê˛
≤Ãò_ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àƒy§ˆÏܲ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál ~ܲ•z §ÇáƒÜ˛ xî%
xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ fl∫“ fiÌyl òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)e ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §ÇK˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ âlc ÚdÛ
!lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ë˛Ó˚ ÚmÛ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l ÚVÛÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
m
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ÈÈüüüÈ d = – Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
V
§)ˆÏeÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î •ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃyÆ ÚVÛÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó§y•z ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛
xyÎ˚ï˛l åI/Vä
1 xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zÈüüüÈ
!ã˛e 5.5ı (b) àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ (p) ÓlyÙ  
V 
~Ó˚ ˆ°á!ã˛e

§yÓ˚!î 5.1 ı 300 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 0.09 ˆÙy° CO2 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ–
ã˛y˛õ/104 Pa xyÎ˚ï˛l/10–3 m3 (1/V )/m–3 pV/102 Pa m3

2.0 112.0 8.90 22.40

2.5 89.2 11.2 22.30
3.5 64.2 15.6 22.47
4.0 56.3 17.7 22.50
6.0 37.4 26.7 22.44
8.0 28.1 35.6 22.48
10.0 22.4 44.6 22.40
142 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

m  273.15 + t 
d =   p = k′ p ⇒ Vt = V0   ...(5.6)
 k1   273.15 

xÌ≈yÍ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ xyÙÓ˚y í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ˆflÒ° !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛
ã˛y˛õ âlˆÏcÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– ܲ!Ó˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl t °C ˆÜ˛ lï%˛l ˆfl҈ϰ T = 273.15 + t ~ÓÇ 0 °C ˆÜ˛
T0 = 273.15 !•§yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– í˛z£ï Ï÷ ˛yÓ˚ ~•z lï%˛l ˆflÒ°!ê˛ˆÏܲ
§Ù§ƒy 5.1 ˆÜ˛°!˲l í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˆflÒ° Óy ˛õÓ˚Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˆflÒ° ӈϰ–
âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÓ°%l •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒy§ myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈– ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ ˆfl҈ϰÓ˚ 0 °C ˛õÓ˚Ù ˆfl҈ϰÓ˚ 273.15
ã˛y˛õ 0.2 barÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ° ˆÓ°%l!ê˛ ˆÊ˛ˆÏê˛ ÎyˆÏÓ– Î!ò 1 K-~Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ ˛õÓ˚Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆfl҈ϰ Óy ˆÜ˛°!˲l
barÈ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒy§ 2.27 L xyÎ˚ï˛l òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÓ°%l!ê˛ˆÏܲ
ˆfl҈ϰ !í˛!@˝Ã !ã˛•´!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ly– í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°!˲l ˆflÒ°ˆÏܲ
Ü˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyˆÏÓ⁄
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ ˆflÒ°G Ó°y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §ÙhflÏ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ àîlyÎ˚
§Ùyôyl ~!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–
ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ p1V1 = p2V2
~˲yˆÏÓñ xyÙÓ˚y ˆ§°!§Î˚y§ ˆfl҈ϰÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏë˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
Î!ò p1 = 1 bar •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ V1 = 2.27 L •ˆÏÓ
273 å§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ 273.15ä ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°!˲l ˆfl҈ϰÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
Î!ò p2 = 0.2 bar •Î˚ñ ï˛ál V2 = p1V1 ˛õy•z– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y Tt = 273.15 + t ~ÓÇ T0 = 273.15 ˆ°!á–
p2
ï˛ˆÏÓ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.6ä ˆÌˆÏܲ !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ˛õy•zñ
1bar × 2.27 L
⇒V2 = =11.35 L T 
0.2 bar Vt = V0  t 
 T0 
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˆÓ°%l!ê˛ 0.2 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÊ˛ˆÏê˛ ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆ§çlƒ ˆÓ°%ˆÏlÓ˚
xyÎ˚ï˛l 11.35 L ~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ Vt Tt
⇒ = ...(5.7)
V0 T0
5.5.2 ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)e åí˛z£÷Ïï˛yÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛l §¡õÜ≈˛ä [Charles’ Law
(Temperature - Volume Relationship)] ~˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆ°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
ã˛y°≈§ ~ÓÇ ˆàÈüÈ°%§yܲ í˛z£÷Ï ÓyÎ˚%˛õ)î≈ ˆÓ°%l åhot air balloonä V2 T
= 2 ...(5.8)
≤ÃÎ%!=˛Ó˚ í˛zߨ!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y V1 T1
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ àˆÏÓ£ÏîyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° çyly ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ !l!ò≈T˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ V1 V2
!l!ò≈T˛ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà xyÎ˚ï˛l ⇒ =
T1 T2
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà xyÎ˚ï˛l •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ï˛yÓ˚y
°«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°l ˆÎ ≤Ã!ï˛!í˛!@˝Ã í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l 0 °C V
⇒ = ô %ÓÜ = k 2 ...(5.9)
T
1
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆÎ xyÎ˚ï˛l !SÈ° ï˛yÓ˚ ˲yà Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~˲yˆÏÓñ xÌ≈yÍ V = k2 T ...(5.10)
273.15
ô %Óܲ k2 ~Ó˚ Ùyl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õñ ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ÓÇ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
Î!ò 0 °C ~ÓÇ t °C í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ V0 ~ÓÇ Vt •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ xyÎ˚ï˛l (V), ˆÎ ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !lî≈Î˚
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
t
Vt = V0 + V0 §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.10ä ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õñ ˆÎ!ê˛
273.15
!l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛
 t 
⇒ Vt = V0  1+  ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ ˛˛õÓ˚Ù í˛z£ï÷Ï ˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛–
 273.15 
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 143

!ÓK˛yl# ã˛y°≈§ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õˆÏ°l §Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ˆÎ

˲yÓ˚ï˛ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyˆÏÓ ˆ§áyˆÏl í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 26.1°C ï˛ál
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ãò_ ã˛yˆÏ˛õñ xyÎ˚ï˛l ÓlyÙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 刧°!§Î˚y§ ˆfl҈ϰä
˙ ˆÓ°%l!ê˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
ˆ°á!ã˛e ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚°˜ÏÓ!˚ áܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ§!ê˛ˆÏܲ ¢)lƒ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ
Ó!ô≈ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏ°ñ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓ˚áy – 273.15 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y §Ùyôyl
x«˛ˆÏܲ ˆSÈò ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓá˚ yà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ à!ï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ •ˆÏ°G V1 = 2 L T2 = (26.1 + 273)K
¢)lƒ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áy í˛z£÷Ïï˛y x«˛ˆÏܲ – 273.15 °C (!ã˛e T1 = (23.4 + 273) K = 299.1 K
5.6) í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆSÈò ܲˆÏÓ˚– = 296.4 K
xyÎ˚ï˛l ÓlyÙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áyˆÏܲ §Ùã˛y˛õ#Î˚ ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)e •ˆÏï˛ñ
ˆ°á åisobarä ӈϰ–
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V1T2
⇒ V2 =
T1
2 L × 299.1 K
⇒ V2 =
296.4 K

= 2L × 1.009
= 2.018 L

5.5.3 ˆà °%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ §)e åã˛y˛õÈüÈí˛z£÷Ïï˛y §¡õÜ≈˛ä [Gay Lussac’s

!ã˛e 5.6 ı xyÎ˚ï˛l ÓlyÙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ å°Cä ˆ°á!ã˛e–
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.6äÈüÈ~ tÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl – 273.15 °C Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ !ÓK˛yl#
ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ– xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z –
273.15 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ¢)lƒ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ – 273.15
°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly x!hflÏc ÌyܲˆÏÓ ly– ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ §Ü˛°
àƒy§•z ~•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÓ˚ xyˆÏà•z ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚–
!l¡¨ï˛Ù ˆÎ ܲy“!lܲ Óy ≤Ãܲ!“ï˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ¢)lƒ •Î˚ñ
ï˛yˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Ù¢)lƒ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ӈϰ–
§Ü˛° àƒy§ x!ï˛!l¡¨ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)e
ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ°–
§Ù§ƒy 5.2
≤âyhs˝ Ù•y§yàˆÏÓ˚ xÓfiÌylÓ˚ï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly çy•yˆÏç ˆÎáyˆÏl í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y
23.4°Cñ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÓ°%ˆlÏ 2 L ÓyÎ%̊ ˲!ï≈˛ xyˆÏSÈ– çy•yç!ê˛ Îál
Law (Pressure- Temperature Relationship)]
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !fl≥˛ï˛ ÎylÓy•ˆÏlÓ˚ ê˛yÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ ≤ÃyÎ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
!ܲv ï˛Æ àÓ˚ˆÏÙÓ˚ !òˆÏl ~!ê˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Î!ò ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
!lÎ˚sfî ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆ§!ê˛ ˆÊ˛ˆÏê˛G ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ¢#ï˛Ü˛yˆÏ°Ó˚
¢#ï˛° §Ü˛y°ˆÏÓ°yÎ˚ ÎylÓy•ˆÏlÓ˚ ê˛yÎ˚yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
Ü˛Ù •Î˚– ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ !ÓK˛yl# ˆçyˆÏ§Ê˛
ˆàÈüÈ°%§yܲ åJoseph Gay Lussacä ≤Ã!ï˛˛õyòl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ÓÇ
ˆ§!ê˛ ˆà °%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ §)e lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~•z §)eyl%§yˆÏÓñ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆlÏ
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛–
ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
p ∝T
p
⇒ = ô %ÓÜ = k3
T
~•z §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ÓˆÏÎ˚° ~ÓÇ ã˛y°≈ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e ˆÌˆÏܲG ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– !fiÌÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y åˆÜ˛°!˲lä ˆ°á!ã˛e
!ã˛e 5.7 ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÓ˚áyˆÏܲ
§ÙˆÏÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆ°á ӈϰ–
144 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§ˆÏAà §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ó ≤ÃÙyî ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ åSTPä* ~ܲ ˆÙy°

˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l §Ùyl– ≤ÃÙyî ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
åSTPä Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ó%V˛yÎ˚ 273.15 K (0°C) í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 1 bar
å§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏ Ó 10 5 pascal ä ã˛y˛õ– ~•z Ùylà% ˆ Ï ° y çˆÏ ° Ó˚
ܲ!ë˛l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ §Ù%o˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚
§Ùyl– STP ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Óy xyò¢≈ àƒy§à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
§Ç!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl 22.71098 L mol–1–
ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l §yÓ˚!î 5.2ÈüÈ~ ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈ–

§yÓ˚!î 5.2 ı 273.15 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 1 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ åSTPä

≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÙy° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !°ê˛yÓ˚ ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ ˆÙy°yÓ˚
xyÎ˚ï˛l–
xyà≈l 22.37
!ã˛e 5.7 ı àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ åKä ˆ°á!ã˛e åxy•zˆÏ§yˆÏܲyÓ˚ä– Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ 22.54

5.5.4 xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí˛» y §)e åxyÎ˚ï˛lÈüÈ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §¡õÜ≈˛ä [Avogadro í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl 22.69

Law (Volume - Amount Relationship)] í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl 22.69

1811 §yˆÏ° •zï˛y°#Î˚ !ÓK˛yl# xƒyÙ!í˛G xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛yñ í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl 22.72

˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Óyò ~ÓÇ ˆà °%§yˆÏܲÓ˚ àƒy§ xyÎ˚ï˛l §)ˆÏeÓ˚ å≤ÃÌÙ xôƒyÎ˚ä xyò¢≈ àƒy§ 22.71

§Ùß∫Î˚ §yôyl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ ˆÎ!ê˛ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §)e

lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ~•z §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ܲ•z ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §ÙxyÎ˚ï˛l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
§Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§ §Ù§ÇáƒÜ˛ xî% Óï≈˛Ùyl– xÌ≈yÍ !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G ã˛yˆÏ˛õ m
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%§Çáƒy Óy xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° n= .... (5.12)
M
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y ˆ°áˆÏï˛ ˆÎáyˆÏl m = ˛õÓ˚#«˛yô#l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˲Ó˚
˛õy!Ó˚ÈüüüÈ M = ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚
V ∝ n ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl n •° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ
⇒ V = k4 n ...(5.11)
V = k4 m .... (5.13)
M
~ܲ ˆÙy° àƒyˆÏ§ 6.022 ×10 §ÇáƒÜ˛ xî% !lî≈#ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
23

•ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ Èñ ˆÎ!ê˛ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí˛» y ô Ó% ܲ lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛– ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î (5.13) ˆÜ˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ%l!Ó≈lƒy§ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
ˆÎ ~!ê˛ ˆ§•z §Çáƒy ÎyˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y ÚˆÙyˆÏ°Ó˚Û §ÇK˛y xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ m
M = k4 = k4d .... (5.14)
§ÙÎ˚ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ!˚ SÈ å≤ÃÌÙ xôƒyÎ˚ä– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyÓ˚ V

* ˛õ%Ó˚yˆÏly ˛≤ÃyÙyîƒ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y xyçG ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛ˆÏ̃Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ ò¢Ü˛ ôˆÏÓ˚•z ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏFSÈ– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe STP Ó°ˆÏï˛ 0°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ å273.15 Kä
§Ùyl í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 1 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ å101.325 kPaä ~Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §yÙylƒ x!ôܲ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ~ܲ ˆÙy° ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒy§ Óy àƒy§ §Ù)• STP ˆï˛ 22.413996 L xyÎ˚ï˛l
òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚–
≤ÃÙyî ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!ŸªÜ≈ ˛ í˛£z ïÏ÷ ˛y ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õ åStandard ambient temperature and pressureä (SATP) ~Ó˚ ¢ï≈˛àˆ% °Ï y Ó°ˆÏï˛ !ܲSÈ% ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ܲyˆÏçG ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– SATPÈüÈ~Ó˚ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆ°Ï y
Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ó%V˛yÎ˚ 298.15 K í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y ~ÓÇ 1 bar åxÌ≈yÍ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ 105 Paä ã˛y˛õ– SATPÈüÈˆï˛ å1 bar ~ÓÇ 298.15 Kä xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l 24.789 L mol–1.
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 145

~áyˆÏl ÚdÛ •° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc– xyÙÓ˚y §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.14ä ˆÌˆÏܲ T ˆÎ ~ܲˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò
!§Âôyhs˝ !lˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !ï˛l!ê˛ ã˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl çyly ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ ã˛ï%˛Ì≈ ã˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚
§Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î •ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•zñ
ˆÎ àƒy§ ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)eñ ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)e ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛yÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ n ˆÙy° ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l §Ùyl
§)e ÎÌyÎÌ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ xyò¢≈ àƒy§ ӈϰ– nRT
•ˆÏÓñ ܲyÓ˚î V = p ~ÓÇ n,R,T ~ÓÇ p •° ô %Óܲ– ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ
~Ùl ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àƒy§ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ ܲy“!lܲ– ~!ê˛ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ ˆÎñ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyhs˝Óy˚ î!Óܲ xyܲ£Ïî≈ ¢ˆÏï≈˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y •Î˚ ï˛ál ~•z
Ó° ÌyˆÏܲ ly– Îál xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ÓyhflψÏÓ á%Ó•z làîƒ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˙ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏÎyçƒ •ˆÏÓ– 1 ˆÙy° xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
•Î˚ñ ï˛ál ÓyhflÓÏ àƒy§ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï ¢ˆÏï˛≈ !ӈϢ£Ï Ù%•ˆ) ïÏ ˛≈ xyÎ˚ï˛l STP ¢ˆÏï≈˛ å273.15 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 1 bar ã˛y˛õä
22.710981 L mol–1 – 1 ˆÙy° xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe R ~Ó˚ Ùyl
~•z §)eà%ˆÏ°y ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ°– xlƒylƒ §Ü˛° ˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~Ó˚y xyò¢≈
xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ~ܲˆÏܲ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~•z !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ~•z §Ü˛° ¢ˆÏï≈˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ı
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ çylˆÏÓ– (105 Pa)( 22.71× 10−3 m 3 )
R=
(1mol )(273.15K )
5.6 xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î (IDEAL GAS EQUATION) –1 –1
= 8.314 Pa m3 K mol
xyÙÓ˚y ~ál ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÎ !ï˛l!ê˛ §)e §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆçˆÏl!SÈñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ = 8.314 × 10–2 bar L K mol
–1 –1

§ÇÎ%=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùye §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ –1 –1

= 8.314 J K mol
ï˛yˆÏܲ xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ–
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ STP ¢ˆÏï≈˛ å 0 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 1 atm ã˛yˆÏ˛õäñ
1 R ~Ó˚ Ùyl 8.20578 × 10–2 L atm K–1 mol–1 –
Îál T ~ÓÇ n !fiÌÓ˚; V ∝ p [ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)e]
xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ •° ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ã˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ
Îál p ~ÓÇ n !fiÌÓ˚; V ∝ T [ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)e] §¡õÜ≈˛ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§çlƒ ~ˆÏܲ
Îál p ~ÓÇ T !fiÌÓ˚; V ∝ n [xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §)e] xÓfiÌy §Ùܲ#Ó˚îG ӈϰ–
xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ Îy•z– ~!ê˛
nT
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ V ∝ p (5.15) ã˛°Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Î%à˛õÍ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛– Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yñ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õ T1, V1, p1
nT
⇒ V =R (5.16) ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ T2, V2 ~ÓÇ p2 •ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛
p
˛õy!Ó˚ñ
ˆÎáyˆÏl R •° §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ ô %Óܲ– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.16äˆÏܲ
˛õ%l/!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ p1V1 p2V2
= nR ~ÓÇ = nR
pV = n RT (5.17) T1 T2

pV p1V1 pV
⇒ R= (5.18) ⇒ = 2 2 (5.19)
nT T1 T2

RˆÜ˛ àƒy§ ô %Óܲ Ó°y •Î˚– §Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ ~Ó˚ Ùyl §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.19ä ~ܲ!ê˛ á%Ó•z í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# §Ù#ܲÓ˚î– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
§Ùyl •Î˚– ˆ§•z çlƒ ~!ê˛ˆÏܲ §yÓ≈çl#l àƒy§ ô Ó% ܲG ӈϰ– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.19ä ~Ó˚ SÈÎ˚!ê˛ ã˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Î!ò ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ã˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl çyly
å5.17ä ˆÜ˛ xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ– ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ˆÏÓ xK˛yï˛ ã˛°Ü˛!ê˛Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.18ä ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ R ~Ó˚ Ùyl p, V ~ÓÇ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)e lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
146 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù§ƒy 5.3 §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù àƒy§ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚
25°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 760 mm Hg ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§ 600 ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ í˛z˛õyòyl àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛Ó˚ xÇ¢ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
mL xyÎ˚ï˛l òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚– ~Ùl í˛zFã˛ï˛yÎ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ•z xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 10°C ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛l 640 mLñ ˆ§áyˆÏl àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏ° ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÎyàÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyl •Î˚– àƒy§ !Ù◊ˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ í˛z˛õyòyl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !lçfl∫ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ
§Ùyôyl xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ ӈϰ– à!î!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓñ
p1 = 760 mm Hg, V1= 600 mL
pˆÙyê˛ = p1+p2+p3+......(Îál T, V !fiÌÓ˚) (5.23)
T1 = (25 + 273)K = 298 K
V2 = 640 mL ~ÓÇ T2 = (10 + 273)K = 283 K ˆÎáyˆÏl pˆÙyê˛ •° àƒy§ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ p1, p2 ñ p3
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ •zï˛ƒy!ò •° í˛z˛õyòyl àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ–
p1V1 pV àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §Ç@˝Ã• ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
= 2 2
T1 T2
p1V1T2
ˆ§çlƒ ~Ó˚y xyo≈ ÌyˆÏܲ– ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ !Ù!◊ï˛ xyo àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛
⇒ p2 =
T1V2 ã˛y˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õã˛y˛õˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ¢%‹Ò àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ àîly
( 760 mm Hg ) × ( 600 mL ) × ( 283 K ) ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §¡õ,=˛ ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ç°#Î˚
⇒ p2 =
( 640 mL ) × ( 298 K ) ê˛yl åAqueous tensionä ӈϰ– !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ç°#Î˚ ê˛yl ~Ó˚
= 676.6 mm Hg
§yÓ˚!î 5.3 ~ ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈ–
5.6.1 àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ âlc ~ÓÇ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ Gçl (Density p¢%‹Ò àƒy§ = pˆÙyê˛ – ç°#Î˚ ê˛yl (5.24)
and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance)
xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õ%l!Ó≈lƒy§ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ §yÓ˚!î 5.3 ı í˛z£÷Ïï˛y xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ç°#Î˚ ê˛yl åÓy‹õ
ã˛y˛õä
n p
= í˛z£÷ïÏ ˛y‡K ã˛y˛õ‡bar í˛z£÷ïÏ ˛y‡K ã˛y˛õ‡bar
V RT
273.15 0.0060 295.15 0.0260
m
n ˆÜ˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy•zñ 283.15 0.0121 297.15 0.0295
M
288.15 0.0186 299.15 0.0331
m p
= (5.20) 291.15 0.0204 301.15 0.0372
M V RT
293.15 0.0230 303.15 0.0418
d p
=
M RT (ˆÎáyˆÏl d •° âlc) (5.21) ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ åPartial pressure in
terms of mole fractionä
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.21äˆÜ˛ ˛õ%l!Ó≈lƒy§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚
ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ñ T í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ V xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl xyÓÂô !ï˛l!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ
Gçl àîly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ˛õy•zñ
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ p1, p2 ~ÓÇ p3 – ï˛y•ˆÏ°ÈüüüÈ
d RT
M= (5.22) n1 RT
p p1 = (5.25)
V
5.6.2 í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ §)e (Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures) n2 RT
p2 = (5.26)
V
1801 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ çl í˛y°ê˛l ~•z §)e!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛˛õyòl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ~•z
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 147

n3 RT
p3 = (5.27) =
167.5 g
V !lÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy 20 g mol −1
ˆÎáyˆÏl n1 n2 ~ÓÇ n3 •° àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy– ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆÙyê˛ = 8.375 mol
ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° •ˆÏÓ
pˆÙyê˛ = p1 + p2 + p3 2.21
í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ =
2.21 + 8.375
RT RT RT 2.21
= n1 + n2 + n3 =
V V V 10.585
RT = 0.21
= (n1 + n2 + n3) (5.28)
V
p1 ˆÜ˛ pˆÙyê˛ myÓ˚y ˲yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ 8.375
!lÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ =
2.21 + 8.375
p1  n1  RTV
=  = 0.79
ptotal
ˆÙyê˛  n1 + n2 + n3  RTV
xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ !lÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ = 1– 0.21 = 0.79
n1 n
= = 1 = x1 ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ = ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ × ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ
n1 + n2 + n3 n
ˆÎáyˆÏl n = n1+n2+n3ñ ⇒ í˛y•zx!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ = 0.21 × (25 bar)

x1 •° ≤ÃÌÙ àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢– = 5.25 bar

§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ p1 = x1 pˆÙyê˛ ⇒ !lÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ = 0.79 × (25 bar)

~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ xlƒ ò%!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG xyÙÓ˚y ˆ°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ = 19.75 bar
p2 = x2 pˆÙyê˛ ~ÓÇ p3 = x3 pˆÙyê˛
~˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆ°áy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ 5.7 à!ï˛¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ xî%Ó˚ ˆÓà åKINETIC ENERGY
pi = xi pˆÙyê˛ (5.29) AND MOLECULAR SPEEDS ä

ˆÎáyˆÏl pi ~ÓÇ xi •° i lÇ àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ˆÙy° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% °Ï y §Ó≈òy à!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– à!ï˛¢#° xÓfiÌyÎ˚
˲@¿yÇ¢– Î!ò àƒy§ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ çyly ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ° å5.29ä àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ÓÇ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
§Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !lçfl∫ ã˛y˛õ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ– §ÇâˆÏ£Ï≈ !°Æ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚Ó^˝ê˛l âˆÏê˛– ï˛y•z §ÙhflÏ xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ˆÓà ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
§ÙÎ˚•z §Ùyl •Î˚ ly– xÌ≈yÍ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˆÎ Ùyl xyÙÓ˚y
§Ù§ƒy 5.4 ˛õy•z ï˛y ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ˛õˆÏ«˛ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àí˛¸ Ùyl– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ lÙ%ly Î!ò n
!lÎ˚l G í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ù◊ˆÏî 70.6 g í˛y•z §ÇáƒÜ˛ xî% ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˆÓà Î!ò u1, u2......un •Î˚ñ
x!:ˆÏçl ~ÓÇ 167.5 g !lÎ˚l àƒy§ xyˆÏSÈ– Î!ò !§!°u˛yˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àí˛¸ ˆÓà åu àí˛¸ä l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ àîly
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ àƒy§ !Ù◊l!ê˛Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ 25 bar •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ !Ù◊ˆÏî í˛y•z ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
x!:ˆÏçl G !lÎ˚l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
u1 + u 2 + .........un
§Ùyôyl u àí˛¸ =
n
70.6 g Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚° ~ÓÇ ˆÓy°ÍçÙƒyl ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy =
32 g mol -1
xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ≤Ãܲ, ï˛ Ó^˝ê˛l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y ~ÓÇ xyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
= 2.21 mol G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÓৡõߨ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
148 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

çlƒ Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚° ~ܲ!ê˛ §)e ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ã˛e A(1) ÈüÈ~ ò%!ê˛ !˲ߨ

xî%§Çáƒy
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y T1 ~ÓÇ T2 (T2 ~Ó˚ Ùyl T1 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢) ˆï˛ xî%§Çáƒy
u§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ÓlyÙ xyî!Óܲ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áy ˆ°á ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆ°á!ê˛ˆÏï˛ u§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ˆÓà Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ !ã˛e ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ï˛yˆÏܲ•z Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚°
ˆÓy°ÍçÙƒyl ˆÓà Ó^˝ê˛l Ó°y •Î˚–
T 2 >T 1
900

àí˛¸ ˆÓà åuàí˛¸ä

§Ω˛yÓƒï˛ÙˆÏÓˆÏà xyl!Óܲ ˆÓà
800 351.3 K
308 K 349.7 K 373 K
760

700
åu§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ùä àí˛¸ Óà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù° )
xî%§Çáƒy

åuÓà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù)°ä
600

u§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù u
!ã˛e A (2) ı 300 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ~ÓÇ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ
T 1È ü È ~
500 àí˛¸ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l
ÓÜ ˛ï˛y
400 uÓà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù)°
300

T2ÈüÈ~ ÓÜ ˛ï˛y
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲîyÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÓ˚
§y•y΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
200

100
60

0
1
à!ï˛¢!=˛ = mu 2
298 K
273 293 313 333 353 373

ˆÓà
2
!ã˛e A (1) Ùƒy:GˆÏÎ˚° ˆÓy°ÍçÙƒyl ˆÓà Ó^˝ê˛l xÌ≈yÍ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓ˚áyÓ˚ à!ï˛¢#° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒy§#Î˚ ܲîyÓ˚ ã˛°ˆÏlÓ˚
1
ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛ ˆòˆÏá ˆÓyV˛y ÎyˆÏFSÈ á%Ó í˛zFã˛ ˆÓৡõߨ ~ÓÇ á%Ó çlƒ àí˛¸ à!ï˛¢!=˛ å mu 2 ä ~Ó˚ Ùyl çylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
2
!l¡¨ˆÏÓà §¡õߨ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ– x!ôܲyÇ¢
§ÙhflÏ Ü˛îyÓ˚ àí˛¸ Óà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Ùyl çylˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛
§ÙˆÏÓৡõߨ xî%Ó˚ §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áy!ê˛Ó˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ !Ó®%!ê˛ myÓ˚y •° ı
ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ˆÓàˆÏܲ•z §Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ˆÓàñ u§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù Ó°y •Î˚–
u12 + u 22 + .........u 2n
ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àí˛¸ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ •Î˚– í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô u2 =
n
ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ˆÓà Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~SÈyí˛¸yG í˛zFã˛
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ àí˛¸ à!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ•z •° àí˛¸
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ˆÓàÓ^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áy!ê˛ ≤âhflÏ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áy!ê˛Ó˚
Óà≈ˆÏÓà– ~ál xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò Óà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ àí˛¸ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ Óà≈ ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ°
≤âhflÏ •GÎ˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ x!ôܲ ˆÓˆÏà à!ï˛¢#° xî%Ó˚
ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ~Ùl ~ܲê˛y Ùyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Îy §Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ˆÓà ~ÓÇ àí˛¸
§Çáƒy Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚G ˆÓàÓ^˝ê˛l !lË≈˛Ó˚
ˆÓà ˆÌˆÏܲ xy°yòy •Î˚– ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ~•z ÙylˆÏܲ•z àí˛¸ Óà≈ˆÓÏ ˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù°
)
ܲˆÏÓ˚– !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ x!ôܲ ˲Ó˚Î%=˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ˆÓà !l¡¨Ë˛Ó˚Î%=˛
ӈϰ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛ •° ı
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ˆÓà ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ §Ùí˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˲yÓ˚#
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xî% ˆÌˆÏܲ •yÕÒy ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl xî%Ó˚ ˆÓà ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ– ï˛y•z uÓà≈ˆÓÏ ˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù°) = u 2
ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ §Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ˆÓà ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l àí˛¸ Óà≈ˆÓÏ ˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù°
) ñ àí˛¸ˆÓÏ à ~ÓÇ §Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ– §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •° ı
uÓà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù)° > uàí˛¸ > u§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù
!ã˛e A (2) ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyî!Óܲ ˆÓà
Ó^˝ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓÜ ˛ˆÏÓ˚áyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ °«˛ƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~•z !ï˛lôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛!ê˛ •° ı
Î!òG ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ !lçfl∫ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ !ܲv ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ u§Ω˛yÓƒï˛Ù : uàí˛¸ : uÓà≈ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ Óà≈Ù)° = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224
Ó^˝ê˛l ~ܲ•z ÌyˆÏܲ–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy
5.8 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ï˛_¥ (Kinetic Molecular Theory of
Gases)
~ál ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÎ §)eà%ˆ° Ï y åˆÎÙl ÓˆÏΈ˚ °
Ï Ó˚ §)eñ ã˛y°≈ˆ§Ï Ó˚ §)e •zï˛ƒy!òä
xyÙÓ˚y ˆçˆÏl!SÈ ˆ§à%ˆ° Ï y ˜ÓK˛y!lܲàˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
!lÓ˚#«˛yÎ˚ ≤ÃyÆ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ç!«˛Æ Óî≈ly Ùye– ˜ÓK˛yl#ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈ !òܲ •° §ï˛Ü≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!lÓ˚#«˛y ܲÓ˚y ~ÓÇ !Ó!˲ߨ
¢ˆÏï≈˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛sf åSystemä ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
flõT˛ ôyÓ˚îy ˆòGÎ˚y– Îál ˛õÓ˚#«˛y °kô ï˛Ìƒà%ˆ° Ï y ~ܲÓyÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛
•Î˚ ï˛ál ~ܲçl !ÓK˛yl# çylˆÏï˛ xy@˝Ã•# •l ˆÜ˛l ï˛sf!ê˛ ~•zÓ˚)˛õ
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eyÓ!°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ xyÙÓ˚y
xyˆÏà ˆÌˆÏܲ•z Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ Îál àƒy§ˆÏܲ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
ï˛ál àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– !ܲv xyÙÓ˚y çylˆÏï˛ ã˛y•z àƒy§ˆÏܲ
§ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ° xyî!Óܲ hflψÏÓ˚ ܲ# âê˛ly âˆÏê˛⁄ ~•z ≤ß¿à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
í˛z_Ó˚ ˆòGÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ•z ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛_¥ àë˛l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛_¥ ~ܲ!ê˛
ÙˆÏí˛° åxÌ≈yÍ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!§Ü˛ !ã˛eä ˆÎ!ê˛ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛îà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ
˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎ ï˛_¥ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚îˆÏܲ
flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ ï˛_¥ ӈϰ–
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy Óy fl∫#ܲyÎ≈ !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y
l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z fl∫#ܲyÎ≈à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% G xî% ˆÎà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ly ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ñ ˆ§çlƒ ~!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
xyî%Ó#«˛!îܲ ÙˆÏí˛° !•§yˆÏÓ àîƒ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚–
• àƒy§ §Ù)• ~ܲ•z ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !Ó¢y° §ÇáƒÜ˛ ܲîy åxî% G ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ä
!lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛– ~•z ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ~ï˛•z «%˛o ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àí˛¸ ò)Ó˚c
~ï˛•z ˆÓ!¢ ˆÎ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙôƒÓï≈˛# ÊÑ˛yܲy fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ xî%àˆ% °Ï yÓ˚
≤Ãܲ, ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l làlƒ •Î˚– àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% °Ï yˆÏܲ !Ó®%˲Ó˚ !•§yˆÏÓ
ôÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z fl∫#ܲyÎ≈!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ x!ï˛ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°ï˛yˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
• §yôyÓ˚î í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ÌyˆÏܲ ly– ~•z fl∫#ܲyÎ≈!ê˛Ó˚ fl∫˛õˆÏ«˛ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ
àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ §Ù@˝Ã xy§Ó˚ òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚–
• àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y x!ÓÓ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ !Ó¢,C°Ë˛yˆÏÓ à!ï˛¢#°– Î!ò
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y !lŸã˛° ÌyÜ˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ !l!ò≈T˛ fiÌyl òᰠܲÓ˚ï˛ ï˛ál
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyܲyÓ˚ Ìyܲï˛ñ ˆÎ!ê˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
• àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆ°
Ï y §Ó!òˆÏܲ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓá˚ yÎ˚ à!ï˛¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ– ~˲yˆÏÓ
149
!Ó¢,C°Ë˛yˆÏÓ à!ï˛¢#° ÌyܲyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï y !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
~ÓÇ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ôyE˛y áyÎ˚– ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚
§ˆÏAà ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~•z §ÇâˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°•z àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ §,!T˛ •Î˚–
• àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ~•z §Çâ£Ï≈ §¡õ)îË≈ ˛yˆÏÓ !fiÌ!ï˛fiÌy˛õܲ xÌ≈yÍ
§ÇâˆÏ£Ï≈Ó˚ xyˆÏà ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛ ~ܲ•z ÌyˆÏܲ–
§Çâ£Ï≈ܲyÓ˚# xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢!=˛Ó˚ xyòyl≤Ãòyl •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ
~ˆÏòÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ¢!=˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛
¢!=˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– à!ï˛¢!=˛ •y!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÊ˛°ˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛
ˆÌˆÏÙ ÎyˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% ° Ï y !Ì!ï˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õí˛¸ˆÓÏ !ܲv ÓyhflˆÏ ÓÏ
xyÙÓ˚y Îy °«˛ ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛y ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !˲ߨ–
• ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲîyÎ˚ ˆÓà !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
ˆ§çlƒ à!ï˛¢!=˛G !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚– ~•z fl∫#ܲyÎ≈!ê˛ Î%!=˛Î%=˛ ӈϰ
ÙˆÏl •Î˚– ܲyÓ˚î Î!ò ܲîy§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §Çâ£Ï≈ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál xyÙÓ˚y
ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ ܲîy§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆÓà ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ˆÓà §Ùyl ӈϰ ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚ ï˛álG xyî!Óܲ
§Çâ£Ï≈ ~•z x!˲ߨï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛SÈlSÈ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
ˆÓà ˛õÓ˚«˛ˆÏî•z xy°yòy •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ã˛°ˆÏï˛•z
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~!ê˛ ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ Î!òG ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !lçfl∫ ˆÓà
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ Ó^˝ê˛l
!fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
• Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ xî%Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !Ó!˲ߨ Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚ ï˛ál ~Ó˚
à!ï˛¢!=˛G !Ó!˲ߨ •ˆÏÓ– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ≤Ã!«˛ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye
àí˛¸ à!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ܲÌy•z !ã˛hs˝y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ ï˛_¥
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ àí˛¸ à!ï˛¢!=˛ ˛õÓ˚Ù í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
˛§Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– ~ê˛y °«˛ ܲÓ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
àƒy§ˆÏܲ í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– àƒy§ˆÏܲ í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏ°
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛îyà%ˆÏ°y ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚
ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xyÓ˚G ˆÓ!¢ §ÇáƒyÎ˚ ÓyÓ˚ÇÓyÓ˚ xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÓ˚G ˆÓ!¢ ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚–
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ï˛_¥ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ xl%ˆÏFSȈÏò xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
§)eyÓ!°à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛y_¥#ܲ˲yˆÏÓ í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ_Ó¥ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ àîly ~ÓÇ Ë˛!ӣσï˛Óyî#
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˲yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ !وϰ
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛Ó˚ @˝Ã•îˆÏÎyàƒï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
150
5.9 ÓyhflÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ı xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ
!Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ (Behaviour of real gases: Deviation
from ideal gas behaviour)
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ï˛ˆÏ_Ó¥ ˚ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ ÙˆÏí˛°!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛îà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚
§ˆÏAà §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ §Aà!ï˛˛õ)î≈– §Ù§ƒy ï˛ál•z ˆòáy ˆòÎ˚ñ Îál
xyÙÓ˚y çylˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲ!Ó˚ ˆÎ ܲï˛ò)Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ pV = nRT §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛
§!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛lÈüÈï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
§Çà!ï˛˛õ)î–≈ ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ xyÙÓ˚y àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ pV ÓlyÙ
p ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛ xAܲl ܲ!Ó˚– ܲyÓ˚î !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ pV ô %Óܲ åÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
§)eä •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ pV ÓlyÙ p ˆ°á!ê˛ §Ü˛° ã˛yˆÏ˛õ x xˆÏ«˛Ó˚ §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°
§Ó˚°ˆÏÓ˚áy •ˆÏÓ– !ã˛e 5.10 ÈüÈ~ 273 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ï˛Ìƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆ°á!ã˛e ˆÌˆÏܲ §•ˆÏç ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ÓyhflÏÓ
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe pV ÓlyÙ p ˆ°á!ê˛ §Ó˚°˜ÏÓ!˚ áܲ lÎ˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl xyò¢≈
!ã˛e 5.10 ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§ ~ÓÇ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ pV ÓlyÙ p ˆ°á!ã˛e–
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ò%•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
ˆÓ˚áy ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ !•!°Î˚yÙ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ã˛y˛õ
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà pV ~Ó˚ ÙylG Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– !mï˛#Î˚ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy ܲyÓ≈l
ÙˆÏly:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xlƒylƒ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áyÎ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚
}îydܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˆòáyÎ˚ñ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà pV ~Ó˚ Ùyl •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ó≈!l¡¨ ÙyˆÏl ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚
pV ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ ˆÓ˚áy!ê˛ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓá
˚ yˆÏܲ
x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ ôlydܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˆòáyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§ §Ù)• §Ü˛° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyò¢≈ àƒy§
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ° ly–
xyò¢≈ àƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏeG
˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚˲yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚– ÓyhflÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô ï˛Ìƒ
~ÓÇ ÓˆÏΈ˚ °Ï Ó˚ §)ˆeÏ Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ï˛y_¥#ܲ àîly ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ xyÎ˚ï˛lˆÏ°á ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆ§à%ˆ° Ï y §Ùy˛õ!ï˛ï˛
•GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲÌy– !ã˛e 5.11ÈüÈ~ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ°á!ã˛e ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆ°á!ã˛e ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ ˆÎ á%Ó•z í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ !lî≈#ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ àîlyÎ˚
≤ÃyÆ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢– !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õ !lî≈#ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ àîlyÎ˚
≤ÃyÆ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ •Î˚–
ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§
xyò¢≈ àƒy§
ã˛y˛õ
0
xyÎ˚ï˛l
!ã˛e 5.11 ı ÓyhflÓÏ àƒy§ ~ÓÇ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆ°á!ã˛e–
ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§ §Ü˛° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ
ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)eñ ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈ §)e ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí˛» y §)e ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ° ly–
~ál ò%!ê˛ ≤ß¿ í˛zq(ï˛ •Î˚ÈüüüÈ
(i) àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛l xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛
•Î˚ ⁄
(ii) ܲ# ܲ# ¢ˆÏï≈˛ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚⁄
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy
Î!ò àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ à!ï˛ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈à%ˆÏ°y ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ~ܲÓyÓ˚ °«˛
ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÃÌÙ ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÓ– xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛
˛õyÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈ §!ë˛Ü˛ lÎ˚– ˆ§à%!° •°ÈüüüÈ
(a) àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ˆl•z–
(b) àƒy§ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xyÎ˚ï˛l òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l á%Ó•z làlƒ–
Î!ò (a) fl∫#ܲyÎ≈!ê˛ §!ë˛Ü˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ܲálG ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°
˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly– x!ôܲv xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z àƒy§ˆÏܲ ë˛yu˛y
G §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛zͲõߨ ï˛Ó˚° §Ù)•ˆÏܲ
§ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y á%Ó•z ܲT˛§yôƒ– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛Ù xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl !Óܲ£Ï≈î
Ó°à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ Ùyl ΈÏÌT˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xl%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ ˛õ%l/§ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏl
Óyôy ˆòÎ˚– Î!ò fl∫#ܲyÎ≈ åbä §!ë˛Ü˛ •ï˛ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô ï˛Ìƒ åÓyhflÏÓ
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeä ~ÓÇ ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)e •ˆÏï˛ ï˛y!_¥Ü˛ àîlyÎ˚ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛Ìƒ
åxyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeä ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆ°á!ã˛e
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y §Ùy˛õ!ï˛ï˛ •ï˛–
ÓyhflÓÏ àƒy§à%ˆ° Ï y xyò≈¢ àƒy§ §)e ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˆòáyÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î
xî%àˆ% °Ï y ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ–˚ í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%àˆ% °
Ï y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛ál xyî!Óܲ Ó°§Ù)• !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚%
ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ xî%à%ˆÏ°y §¡õ)î≈ ¢!=˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ xyâyï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î xlƒylƒ xî%Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ïî≈
Ó° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ˛õSÈl !òˆÏܲ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚
ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y ≤ÃÎ%=˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ
!ÓhflÏyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§ ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y
xyò¢≈ àƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
an 2
påxyò¢≈ä = påÓyhflÏÓä + (5.30)
V2
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ã˛y˛õ §ÇˆÏ¢y!ôï˛ ˛õò
~áyˆÏl a •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ô %Óܲ– ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Óܲ£Ï≈î Ó°G
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ GˆÏ벖 !Óܲ£Ï≈î !Ü ˛Î˚y á%Ó Ü˛Ù ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §!Ü ˛Î˚ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ •Î˚ Îál xî%à%ˆÏ°y ≤ÃyÎ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§–
í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~•z xÓfiÌyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚– !Óܲ£Ïî≈ Ó° ç!lï˛ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆîÏ xî%àˆ% ° Ï y
«%˛o !ܲv xˆÏ˲òƒ ˆày°Ü˛ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ myÓ˚y
x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛lˆÏܲ ~ál xyÓ˚ x@˝Ãy•ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î ~ál
xî%à%ˆÏ°y V xyÎ˚ï˛l ~Ó˚ ÓòˆÏ° åV–nbä xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˆSÈyê˛yS%È!ê˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛
Óyôƒ •Î˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl nb •° xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ myÓ˚y x!ôÜ,˛ï˛ ˆÙyê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l–
151
~áyˆÏl b •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ô %Óܲ– ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇˆÏ¢yôlˆÏܲ @˝Ã•î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y å5.17ä §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !l¡¨!°!ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆ°áˆÏï˛
˛õy!Ó˚ÈüüüÈ
 an2 
 p + 2  (V − nb ) = nRT (5.31)
 V 
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.31äˆÜ˛ ˆË˛lí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y°§‰ åvander Waalsä
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ– ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî n •° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy– ô %Óܲ
a ~ÓÇ b ˆÜ˛ ˆË˛lí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° ô Ó % ܲ ӈϰ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ Ùyl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ô %Óܲ a ~Ó˚ Ùyl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î
ӈϰÓ˚ ÙyeyˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ~!ê˛ ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°
lÎ˚–
á%Ó•z !l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó°à%ˆÏ°y ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ •Î˚–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°y !l¡¨ àí˛¸ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà !lˆÏÎ˚ ã˛°yã˛° ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛y•z ~ˆÏܲ
x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° myÓ˚y xyܲ!£Ï≈ï˛ •Î˚– ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ï˛ál•z
xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îál ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~Ùl •Î˚ ˆÎ
xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó°à%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚îï˛ làlƒ •Î˚– Îál ã˛y˛õ ~Ó˚ Ùyl
¢)lƒ ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ xyˆÏ§ ï˛ál ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ˆÏܲ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°ï˛y
à%îܲ Z ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎ!ê˛ pV ~ÓÇ nRTÈüÈÓ˚
xl%˛õyï˛ ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ày!î!ï˛Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓñ
Z =
pV
(5.32)
n RT
xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ü˛° í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ G ã˛yˆÏ˛õ Z = 1ñ ܲyÓ˚î pV =
n RT – Z ÓlyÙ p ~Ó˚ ˆ°á ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ó˚°ˆÏÓ˚áy •ˆÏÓ Îy ã˛y˛õ xˆÏ«˛Ó˚
å!ã˛e 5.12ä §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°– ˆÎ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛
•Î˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Z ~Ó˚ Ùyl 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒï˛ •Î˚– á%Ó•z !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õ
§ÙhflÏ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y Z ≈1 ˆòáyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚y xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Z > 1 •Î˚– ~•z àƒy§à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
§ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y á%Ó•z ܲ!ë˛l– ÙyV˛yÙy!V˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe Z < 1 §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ï˛ál•z xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ Îál
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ï˛•z ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ˆÎ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~•z
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ í˛zˆÏ˛õ!«˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
xyã˛Ó˚î xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ï˛ál•z •Î˚ Îál ã˛y˛õ á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
àƒy§ ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ ã˛y˛õ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˆÙˆÏl ã˛°ˆÏÓ
152 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å5.34ä ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ flõT˛ ˆÎ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°ï˛y à%îܲ

1.8 ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ ~ܲ•z ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ
1.6
N2 ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˙ àƒy§!ê˛ Î!ò xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚
H2 xl%˛õyï˛–
1.4 O2 CH
4
CO2 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆFÏ SȈòÏ xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ ˆÎ ≤Ãܲ, ï˛ ˛õˆÏ«˛ àƒy§#Î˚
Z= pV/nRT

1.2

1.0
xyò¢≈ àƒy§
0.8
0.6
0.4
0 200 400 600 800 1000
p/bar
!ã˛e 5.12 ı !ܲS%È !ܲS%È àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°ï˛y à%îˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
ˆ§!ê˛ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §#Ùy ˛õÎ≈hs˝ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
§)e ˆÙˆÏl ã˛ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ ÓˆÏÎ˚° í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Óy ÓˆÏÎ˚° !Ó®% ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÓˆÏÎ˚° !Ó®% àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !l˲≈Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓˆÏÎ˚°
!Ó®%Ó˚ |ˆÏôÁ≈ ÓyhflÓÏ àƒy§ xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ ôlydܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˆòáyÎ˚
~ÓÇ Z ~Ó˚ Ùyl 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyܲ£Ï≈î
ӈϰÓ˚ Ùyl á%Ó•z ò%Ó≈° •Î˚– ÓˆÏÎ˚° í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§
≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Z ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ xÓlÙl ˆòáyÎ˚
~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ l)ƒlï˛Ù ÙyˆÏl ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#ˆÏï˛ ã˛y˛õ xyÓ˚G Ó,!Âô
ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° Z ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy
xÓfiÌy ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl §#ÙyÓÂô ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ xyî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î !Ó!¢T˛
àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÓ˚•z ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ï˛y !•§yˆÏÓ ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xyÙÓ˚y xyÓ˚G
ˆòáÓ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ˆ°áˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˙
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚°#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y §¡õˆÏܲ≈ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
5.10 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚°#ܲÓ˚î (Liquifaction of Gases)
!ÓK˛yl# ÌÙy§ xƒy!u»˛ˆÏÎ˚yç åThomas Andrewsä §Ó≈ ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛yÓ≈l
í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àƒy§#Î˚
G ï˛Ó˚° í˛z˲Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ ã˛y˛õÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ §¡∫!ß∫ï˛
ï˛Ìƒ í˛z˛õfiÌy˛õl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– !ï˛!l !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z
x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷ψϰá xAܲl ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl å!ã˛e 5.13ä– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
§ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆòáy !àˆÏÎ˚!SÈ° ˆÎ ÓyhflÏÓ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏï˛y•z xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– xƒy!u»˛ˆÏÎ˚yç °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚l í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï
ˆ°áà%ˆÏ°y xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆòáˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ àƒy§ˆÏܲ x!ï˛
í˛zFã˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õG ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– ~ÓyÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ܲÙyˆÏ°
ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÆ ï˛ˆÏ̃ xyò¢≈
xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚°!«˛ï˛ •Î˚–
30.98°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ 73 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ ˛õÎ≈hs˝

ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ !l¡¨ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒy§à%ˆÏ°y àƒy§ !•§yˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲ– å!ã˛e 5.13 ÈüÈ~ E !Ó®%ä– 73 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y !Ó!˲ߨ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ˆÏܲ ≤ÃÌÙï˛ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚– 30.98°C í˛z£ï Ï÷ ˛yˆÏܲ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y åTCä ӈϰ–
~!ê˛ •° §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yñ ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ˆòáy
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ §)- ò,!T˛ˆÏï˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ÚZÛ ~Ó˚ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ |ˆÏôÁ≈ ~!ê˛ àƒy§ !•§yˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲ– §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ xyÓ˚G x!ôܲ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ÈüüüÈ 1 ˆÙy° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛lˆÏܲ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l åVCä ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ
pVÓyhflÏÓ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ ã˛y˛õ åpCä ӈϰ– §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yñ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ §Çܲê˛
Z = (5.33)
n RT xyÎ˚ï˛lˆÏܲ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ ô %Óܲ ӈϰ– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ï˛Ó˚°
n RT ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ xyÓ˚G §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ°á!ã˛e!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
Î!ò àƒy§ xyò¢≈ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛álÈüüüÈ Vxyò¢≈ = p §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°ï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– áyí˛¸yˆÏ°á!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï
nRT VÓyhflÏÓ
ˆ°áˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– áy!lܲê˛y §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlñ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xï˛ƒ!ôܲ Ó,!Âô
~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õy•z Z = (5.34) âê˛yÎ˚ Îy ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l¡¨ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l¢#°ï˛yˆÏܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– 30.90°C
p Vxyò¢≈
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 153

í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §Ü˛°

G
àƒy§•z §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏl 姈ÏÙy£÷Ï §ÇˆÏܲyã˛lä ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y
H
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°
50 °C ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛ •ˆÏ° §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •ˆÏÓ– §Çܲê˛
p3
D í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •° §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒy§ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
31.1 °C
•ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó%˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ï˛Ìyܲ!Ìï˛ fiÌyÎ˚# àƒy§à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ åxÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ àƒy§à%ˆ° Ï y
!lÓ˚!Ó!FSÈß˨ ˛yˆÏÓ ZÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl ôlydܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ˆòáyÎ˚ä ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
73
ã˛y˛õ

(pc) E ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •ˆÏ° ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ë˛yˆÏ°y˲yˆÏÓ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛G ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛
30.98 °C
C 21.5 °C (TC (
p2 B ~ÓÇ ¢#ï˛°ï˛yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
F
13.1 °C
p1
A
V3 V2 Vc V1
xyÎ˚ï˛l
!ã˛e 5.13 ı !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ˆ°á–
~Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ≤ÃyÎ˚ !˲ߨ– 21.5 °C
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ B !Ó®% ˛õÎ≈hs˝ àƒy§ !•§yˆÏÓ•z ÌyˆÏܲ– B
!Ó®%ˆÏï˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l !Ó!¢T˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ xy!ÓË≈˛yÓ âˆÏê˛– xyÓ˚G
§ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆ° Ï ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly– ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚
ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚
ã˛y˛õ xyÓ˚G Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° àƒy§ xyÓ˚G âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ Îï˛«˛î
ly ˛õÎ≈hs C˝ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚– C˝ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ §ÙhflÏ àƒy§ âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õ xyÓ˚G Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yÙylƒ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l âˆÏê˛
ˆÎê˛y áyí˛¸y ˆÓ˚áyÎ˚ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– V2 xyÎ˚ï˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ V3 xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl
áy!lܲê˛y §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ p2 ˆÌˆÏܲ p3 ˆï˛ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚
å!ã˛e 5.13ä– 30.98 °C å§ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yä ~Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˆ°á
~ܲ•z ≤ÃÓîï˛y ˆòáyÎ˚– !l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ¢%ô% xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ ˜òâ≈ƒ
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– §ÇÜ˛ê˛ !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ xl%Ë)˛!Ùܲ xÇ¢!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
!Ó®%ˆÏï˛ !Ù!°ï˛ •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z ˆÎñ !ã˛e 5.13ÈüÈ~
A !Ó®% àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– D !Ó®% ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ
ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ à¡∫%ç xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ xÇ¢!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚ ܲyÓ≈l
•ˆÏÓ– §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°y á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§
xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ !Ü ˛Î˚y ~•z ô#Ó˚ à!ï˛¢#° G ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛ySÈyܲy!SÈ
Ìyܲy xî%àˆ% ° Ï yˆÏܲ ~ܲ §yˆÏÌ xyÓÂô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ àƒy§ ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y Óy ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ
àƒyˆÏ§ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ï˛ál•z §Ω˛Ó •Î˚ Îál §Ó≈òy ~ܲò¢y Óï≈˛Ùyl–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ !ã˛e 5.13ÈüÈ~ñ xyÙÓ˚y í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ A !Ó®% ˆÌˆÏܲ
F !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ í˛z°¡∫˲yˆÏÓ ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
å31.1°CÈüÈ~ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ïä àƒy§ˆÏܲ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y G !Ó®% ˛õÎ≈hs˝
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏÓ– ~ál xyÙÓ˚y í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
•…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛zÕ‘¡∫˲yˆÏÓ l#ˆÏã˛ DÈüÈ~Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ lyÙˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ˆÎ•z Ùye
xyÙÓ˚y §ÇÜ˛ê˛ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ H !Ó®%ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲ!Ó˚ xyÙÓ˚y ï˛Ó˚°
xÓfiÌy ˛õy•z– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ôyÓ˚yÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ܲálG ˆ°á!ã˛ˆÏe
!mÈüÈò¢y Î%=˛ xM˛° ˛õy•z ly– Î!ò §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡õߨ
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál ˛õòyÌ≈ §Ó≈òy ~ܲ•z ò¢yÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z˲yˆÏÓ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
!lÓ˚Ó!FSÈߨï˛y Óï≈˛Ùyl– ≤ÃÓy•# ¢∑!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚° Óy àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z
!lÓ˚!Ó!FSÈßï¨ ˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛•z ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ
á%Ó•z àyì˛¸ àƒy§ !•§yˆÏÓ ˆòáy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ï˛Ó˚° G àƒy§ˆÏܲ ï˛ál•z
˛õ,Ìܲ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ Îál í˛z£÷Ïï˛y §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ
G xyÎ˚ï˛l à¡∫%ˆÏçÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ܲyÓ˚î ˙ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° G àƒy§
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ò%!ê˛ ò¢yˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛°
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ˛õ,ÌܲܲyÓ˚# ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ò%!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆl•z– §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yˆÏï˛
ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌy àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ xò,¢ƒÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ~ÓÇ !lÓ˚Ó!FSÈߨ˲yˆÏÓ
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ ò¢yÓ˚ ˛õ,ÌܲܲyÓ˚#
154
ï˛° !Ó°%Æ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ åxl%ˆÏFSÈò 5.11.1ä ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§ˆÏܲ §Çܲê˛
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ã˛y˛õ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏà ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ ˙
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Óy‹õ ӈϰ– ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Îál ~Ó˚
§ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ï˛ál ~ˆÏܲ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ Óy‹õ ӈϰ–
!ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl §yÓ˚!î 5.4ÈüÈ~ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
5.11 ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌy åLiquid Stateä
ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲï˛y Ó° àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢
ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xî%à%ˆÏ°y ~ï˛•z ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyˆÏܲ ˆÎ ~ˆÏòÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ÊÑ˛yܲy fiÌyl á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ~ÓÇ §yôyÓ˚î xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲ âl •Î˚–
§yÓ˚!î 5.4 ı !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ ô %Óܲ§Ù)•
˛õòyÌ≈
§Ù§ƒy 5.5
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ
ӈϰÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒÙ)°Ü˛ §Çܲê˛
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y ~ÓÇ Ü˛yÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ §Çܲê˛
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 405.5 K ~ÓÇ 304.10 K– 500 K ˆÌˆÏܲ
ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyܲˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
àƒy§!ê˛ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyôyl
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •ˆÏÓ Ü˛yÓ˚î ~Ó˚ §Çܲê˛
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ xy§ˆÏÓ– CO2 ÈüÈ~Ó˚
ï˛Ó˚°#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî x!ôܲ ¢#ï˛°ï˛yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ–
xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲ
§yˆÏÌ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l ÌyˆÏܲ ܲyÓ˚î xî%à%ˆÏ°y
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
~ˆÏܲ x˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xy°yòy ÌyˆÏܲ ly– Î!òG ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y
fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ~ˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ àí˛¸yˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛Ó˚°
≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ ì˛y°y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ˆ§•z ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚
ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z xl%ˆÏFSȈÏò xyÙÓ˚y ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !ܲS%È ˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈ ˆÎÙl
Óy‹õã˛y˛õñ ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl ~ÓÇ §yrô ï˛y !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚Ó–
5.11.1 Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ åVapour Pressureä
Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly áy!° ˛õyˆÏe !ܲS%Èê˛y ï˛Ó˚° ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˙ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
!ܲS%Èê˛y xÇ¢ Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ xÓ!¢T˛ çyÎ˚ày ˲Ó˚yê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
ˆÊ˛ˆÏ°– ≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚° Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚yˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ åÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ã˛y˛õä Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° ò¢y G Óy‹õò¢yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ Óy‹õã˛y˛õ Óy
§¡õ,=˛ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ ӈϰ– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ˆ§ˆÏ•ï%˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õã˛y˛õ í˛zˆÏÕ‘ˆÏáÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
xÓ¢ƒ•z í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ ˆáy°y ˛õyˆÏe ˆÓ˚ˆÏá í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚
ï˛ál ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ Óy‹õ#˲Ól âˆÏê˛– ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
Óy‹õã˛y˛õ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ï˛ál ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ù@˝Ã xÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ
Óy‹õ#˲Ól •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Óy‹õ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ã˛y!Ó˚˛õyˆÏ¢ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚
˛õˆÏí˛¸– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ù@˝Ã xÇ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù%=˛ Óy‹õ#˲ÓlˆÏܲ fl≥%˛ê˛l ӈϰ–
ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õã˛y˛õ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˙
ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˙ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ ӈϰ– !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î
ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï Ó˚ Óy‹õã˛y˛õˆÏܲ !ã˛e 5.14ÈüÈ~ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– 1 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚
ã˛yˆÏ˛õ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚î fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ ӈϰ– Î!ò ã˛y˛õ 1 ÓyÓ˚ •Î˚
ï˛ál fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ ӈϰ– ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî
fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ §yôyÓ˚î fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ áy!lܲê˛y Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î 1 ÓyÓ˚
ã˛y˛õ– xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y !ܲS%Èê˛y Ü˛Ù– çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ
100 °C (373 K)ñ ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÙyî fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ 99.6 °C (372.6 K)–
í˛zÑã%˛fiÌyˆÏl ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛Ù •Î˚– ˆ§çlƒ í˛zÑã%˛fiÌyˆÏl
ï˛Ó˚°ñ §Ù%o ˛õ,ˆÏ¤˛Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÊÑ˛yˆÏê˛– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸
ç° Ü˛Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÊÑ˛yˆÏê˛ ˆ§çlƒ ˆ≤çyÓ˚ Ü%˛Ü˛yÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
Ó˚yߨy ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 155

5.11.2 ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl åSurface Tensionä

900
~!ê˛ §Ü˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ çyly ï˛Ó˚° ˆÎ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚î
§yôyÓ˚î
351.3 K
ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y•ˆÏ° ÙyÜ≈˛y!Ó˚Ó˚ ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆSÈyˆÏê˛y ˆÊÑ˛yê˛y ˆÜ˛yly ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° ly
800
fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ 308 K 349.7 K 373 K
SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ !Ó®%Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄ lò#Ó˚ ï˛°yÎ˚
760

700
Ùy!ê˛Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ï%˛ˆÏ° xylˆÏ° ~ܲ
z° •zÌyÓ˚

§yˆÏÌ ˆ°ˆÏà ÌyˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛l⁄ Îál•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÜ˛Ô!¢Ü˛ l° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚

˛õ,¤˛ï˛° flõ¢≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ï˛Ó˚° l° ˆÓˆÏÎ˚ áy!lܲê˛y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏë˛
í˛y•z •zÌy•

y•zí˛

600
ÎyÎ˚ Óy ˆlˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄ ~•z §Ü˛° âê˛lyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛y•zx:
Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ åmm Hgä

500
~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï ôÙ≈ ÌyˆÏܲ ÎyˆÏܲ ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl ӈϰ– ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xÓ!fiÌï˛
ܲyÓ≈l

ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî% §Ó!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ùyl xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xl%˲Ó

ç°

400 ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§ çlƒ ˙ xx% ˆÜ˛yˆÏly °!kô Ó° xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ly– !ܲv
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî% ~Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ xÓ!fiÌï˛
˛y•°

xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆË˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ °!kô xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°

ƒy°ˆÏÜ

300

xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ å!ã˛e 5.15äñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˙ xî%Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly

z° x

xî% ÌyˆÏܲ ly–

•zÌy•

200

ï˛Ó˚° ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛e Ê˛°ˆÏܲ •…y§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚–

100
60
0
273 293
298 K
313 333
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y åKä
!ã˛e 5.14 ı !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õã˛y˛õ ÓlyÙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˆ°á–
•y§˛õyï˛yˆÏ° xˆÏflÀy˛õã˛yˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ Îsf˛õy!ï˛ˆÏܲ xˆÏê˛yˆÏÜœ˛Ë˛ ΈÏsf
ç#Óyî%Ù%=˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl ˆË˛rê˛ ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Gçl ã˛y!˛õˆÏÎ˚
!Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛zˆÏôÁ≈ !lˆÏÎ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚
çˆÏ°Ó˚ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ÓÂô˛õyˆÏe ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏ° fl≥%˛ê˛l •Î˚ ly– Ü ˛Ùyàï˛
í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyܲˆÏ° Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ≤ÃÌÙ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚°
ò¢y ~ÓÇ Óy‹õ ò¢yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ §#Ùy ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ï˛Ó˚°
Óy‹õ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ àyì˛¸ •Î˚– í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ x!ôܲ
§ÇáƒÜ˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°y Óy‹õò¢yÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– ~ܲ•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– xî%à%ˆÏ°y ã˛°yã˛°
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~!ê˛ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– Îál ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ àyì˛¸c
~ܲ•z •Î˚ ï˛ál ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ flõT˛ §#ÙyˆÏÓ˚áy !SÈ°
ˆ§!ê˛ xò,¢ƒ •Î˚– ~•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yˆÏܲ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ӈϰ ÎyÓ˚ §¡∫ˆÏrô
xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏà•z 5.10 xl%ˆÏFSȈÏò xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ–
˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° xÓ!fiÌï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ °!kô Ó° xl%Ë˛Ó Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ¢!=˛G ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚
353 373 ܲyÓ˚îñ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly °!kô Ó° ܲyç
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ˆ§çlƒ ï˛Ó˚° ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° l)ƒlï˛Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛ xî% Ó˚yáˆÏï˛
ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Î!ò ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï Ó˚ !˲ï˛Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî%ˆÜÏ ˛ ˆê˛ˆÏl í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
ï˛ˆÏ° ~ˆÏl ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛° Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ
~•z xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚ çlƒ ¢!=˛ áÓ˚ˆÏã˛Ó˚
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •ˆÏÓ– ï˛Ó˚ˆ°Ï Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛° ~ܲ ~ܲܲ Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛
ˆÎ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ï˛yˆÏܲ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛°#Î˚ ¢!=˛ ӈϰ–
˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%ı °!kô xyܲ£Ï≈î
Ó° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚
xÓ!fiÌï˛ xî%ı
§Ó!òˆÏܲ §Ùyl
Ó° myÓ˚y xyÜ,˛T˛
•Î˚–
!ã˛e 5.15 ı ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° ~ÓÇ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚ xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xî%Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° Ó°–
156 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

~Ó˚ Ùyey J m–2 – ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ x!AÜ˛ï˛ ˆÓ˚áyÓ˚ °¡∫ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál fiÌyÎ˚# ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ !ë˛Ü˛ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ Ìyܲy ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y
≤Ã!ï˛ ~ܲܲ ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ ˆÎ Ó° ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl ӈϰ– fiÌyÎ˚# •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– fiÌyÎ˚#ï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚c Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
~ˆÏܲ !@˝Ãܲ x«˛Ó˚ γ åGammaä myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~Ó˚ Ùyey hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓàG ï˛ï˛ˆÏÓ!¢ •Î˚– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy• ˆÎáyˆÏl
•° kg s–2 ~ÓÇ SI ~ܲˆÏܲ N m–1 ~ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# hflψÏÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ Ó,!Âô âˆÏê˛
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛° l)ƒlï˛Ù •Î˚ ï˛ál ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛G l)ƒlï˛Ù ï˛yˆÏܲ hflÏÓ˚#Î˚ ≤ÃÓy• ålaminar flowä ӈϰ– Î!ò !ã˛e 5.16 ~Ó˚
•Î˚– ˆày°Ü˛yÜ,˛!ï˛ ~•z ¢ï≈˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ)Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆ§çlƒ•z ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏòÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚ˆÏܲ ô!Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~•z hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
ˆÊÑ˛yê˛yà%ˆÏ°y ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ÜÑ˛yˆÏã˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚yˆÏ°y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ ~•z hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏܲ cÓ˚y!ß∫ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
ôyÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ í˛z_y˛õ !òˆÏÎ˚ Ù§,î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– í˛z_yˆÏ˛õ ܲyã˛ àˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚!ê˛ ~•z à!ï˛ˆÏܲ Óyôy ˆòÎ˚–
~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛° ôyÓ˚ ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò dz ò)Ó˚ˆÏc xÓ!fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà du Ùyl
ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ôyÓ˚à%ˆÏ°y Ù§,î •Î˚– ~ˆÏܲ ÜÑ˛yˆÏã˛Ó˚ xyà%l ˛õy!°¢ ӈϰ
du
åFire polishingä– myÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ l!ï˛ÙyeyˆÏܲ dz
myÓ˚y
˛õ,¤˛ê˛yˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ•z ˆÜ˛Ô!¢Ü˛ lˆÏ° ï˛Ó˚° í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ í˛zë˛ˆÏï˛
åÓy l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ lyÙˆÏï˛ä ˆã˛T˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛Ó˚° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó›ˆÏܲ xyo≈ u + du
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ï˛Ó˚° ˙ Ó›Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ ~ˆÏ° ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ A hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
Area = A u
SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyï˛°y xyhflÏÓ˚î ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !˲çy Ùy!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛°
u - du
ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ ˆ°ˆÏà ÌyˆÏܲ ܲyÓ˚î ˙ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õyï˛°y
dz
˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛°!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚– ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl•z •° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
dz
≤çyÓ˚î ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î– §Ùï˛ˆÏ° Ó˚yáy ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó®%à%ˆÏ°y x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç
ӈϰÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓ !ܲS%Èê˛y ˆã˛≤Wzy •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ !ܲv x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç ӈϰÓ˚
≤Ã˲yÓÙ%=˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ !Ó®%à%ˆÏ°y §¡õî≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ •Î˚– !ã˛e 5.16 ı hflÏÓ˚#Î˚ ≤ÃÓyˆÏ• l!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ í˛zߨÎ˚l

ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛Ó˚ˆ°
Ï Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl xî%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ xyܲ£Ïî≈ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ~•z ≤ÃÓy•ˆÏܲ ÓçyÎ˚ Ó˚yáyÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
ӈϰÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Îál xyܲ£Ïî≈ Ó° ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ï˛ál ˛õ,¤˛ê˛ylG ӈϰÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ~•z Ó°ñ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ flõ¢≈ ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛° ~ÓÇ
ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚– í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ l!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ à!ï˛ÙyeyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ñ xÌ≈yÍÈüüüÈ
ܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyhs˝Óy˚ î!Óܲ xyܲ£Ïî≈ Ó° •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ˆ§çlƒ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛
F ∝ A (A •° ï˛Ó˚° hflÏÓ˚ ò%!ê˛Ó˚ flõ¢≈ ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛°)
˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
du du
5.11.3 ˛§ywï˛y åViscosityä F ∝ A. (ˆÎáyˆÏl •° hflÏÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚
dz dz
~!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ– Îál ï˛Ó˚° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚ñ l!ï˛Ùyeyñ Îy ò)Ó˚ˆÏcÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚)
ï˛ál ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy¢ !òˆÏÎ˚ à!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚
du
ÙˆÏôƒ â£Ï≈ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ≤ÃÓyˆÏ•Ó˚ !ÓÓ˚%ˆÏÂô ˆÎ ÓyôyÓ˚ §,!T˛ •Î˚ §ywï˛y F ∝ A.
dz
ï˛yÓ˚•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ– xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ¢!=˛¢y°# xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó°
du
xî%%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲ§yˆÏÌ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ⇒ F =η A
dz
xlƒ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ à!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yˆÏܲ Óyôy ˆòÎ˚– η•° §Ùyl% ˛ õy!ï˛Ü˛ ô  % Ó Ü˛– ~ˆÏ Ü ˛ §ywï˛y à% î yAܲ
Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌyÎ˚# ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ åcoefficient of viscosityä ӈϰ– §ywï˛y à%îyAܲ •° ˆ§•z
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 157

Ó° Îál ò%!ê˛ à!ï˛ˆÏÓˆÏàÓ˚ à!ï˛Ùyey 1 ~ÓÇ flõ¢≈ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛°
~ܲܲ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ η •° §ywï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ– §ywï˛y à%îyˆÏAܲÓ˚ SI
~ܲܲ •° !lí˛zê˛l ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ Óà≈!Ùê˛yÓ˚ åN s m–2ä Óy ˛õyflÒy°
ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ åPa s = 1kg m–1s–1ä– cgs !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ §ywï˛y à%îyˆÏAܲÓ˚
~ܲܲ •° ˛õˆÏÎ˚§ åpoiseä å!Óáƒyï˛ !ÓK˛yl# !çl °%•z§ ˛õÎ˚§%!°Ó˚
lyÙyl%§yˆÏÓä˚
1 poise = 1 g cm–1s–1 = 10–1kg m–1s–1
§ywï˛y Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ï˛Ó˚° ï˛ï˛ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÓy•#ï˛ •Î˚– í˛zFã˛
§ywï˛y §,!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôl ~ÓÇ ˆË˛lí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Ó°
ΈÏÌT˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# •Î˚– ܲyã˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ x!ï˛ §yw ï˛Ó˚°– ~!ê˛ ~ï˛•z
§ywï˛yÎ%=˛ ˆÎ ܲyˆÏã˛Ó˚ ôÙ≈ ܲ!ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !وϰ ÎyÎ˚– ˛õ%Óy˚ ˆÏly !Ó!”˛Ç
~Ó˚ çyly°yÓ˚ ܲyˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÓô ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲyˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy•# ôÙ≈ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y
ÎyÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲÓ˚ ܲyˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÓô ˆÓ!¢ ˆÙyê˛y
•Î˚–
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §ywï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î
í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y í˛zFã˛ à!ï˛¢!=˛ §¡õߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó°ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ hflÏÓ˚ x˛õÓ˚!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚
à!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°–

§yÓ˚yÇ¢

xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z Ó°à%ˆÏ°y ò%!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ôÙ≈# xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óï≈˛Ùyl !Ó¢%Âô
!fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í ÓˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !˲ߨ •Î˚– xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÎ Ó°à%ˆÏ°y §ÙˆÏÎyç# ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §ÙˆÏÎyç# xî%Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ~ܲˆÏe
ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏáñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y ~áyˆÏl §ÇˆÏÎy!çï˛ •Î˚!l– ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÎy!àï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §y!Ó≈ܲ ôÙ≈Ó!° ˆÎÙl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚îñ ܲ!ë˛l G ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ôÙ≈§Ù)• ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ xÓfiÌy ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ lyñ !ܲv §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
àƒy§#Î˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyhs˝/xyî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ Ùyl làlƒ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°
lÎ˚– !ܲv !ܲS%È °«˛ƒî#Î˚ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛y ˆÎÙl ã˛y˛õñ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ Ë˛Ó˚ •zï˛ƒy!ò àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
!lÓ˚#«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃyÆ àƒy§#Î˚ §)eà%ˆÏ°y àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ ï˛yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà ÓƒyhflÏyl%˛õyï˛#ܲ– ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)e •° §Ù ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛–
~•z §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §Ùyl%˛õyï˛#ܲ åV ∝ Tä– Î!ò àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ p1, V1 ~ÓÇ T1 !òˆÏÎ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ p2, V2 ~ÓÇ T2 xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ò%!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
p1V1 p2V2
§¡õÜ≈˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)e myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl = – xlƒ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ã˛°ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl çyly ÌyܲˆÏ° xK˛yï˛
T1 T2

ã˛°Ü˛!ê˛Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛yÓ˚ §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ•z ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §Ù xyÎ˚ï˛l §Ü˛° àƒyˆÏ§ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛
xî% Óï≈˛Ùyl– í˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly ~Ùl àƒy§ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ í˛z˛õyòyl àƒy§§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚
≤ÈÏï˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÎyà Ê˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùylñ xÌ≈yÍ p = p1+p2+p3+ ... – àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õñ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ ˙ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÓfiÌy Óî≈ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏܲ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÓfiÌy §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ– xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xÓfiÌy §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛
•° pV=nRTñ ˆÎáyˆÏl R •° àƒy§ ô %Óܲ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl ã˛y˛õñ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ à,•#ï˛ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
í˛zFã˛ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xyhs˝/xyî!Óܲ Ó° ¢!=˛¢y°# •ˆÏÎ˚ í˛zˆÏë˛ Ü˛yÓ˚î àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
xî%à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ á%Ó Ü˛SÈyܲy!SÈ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§– í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛Ó˚°ˆÏܲ á%Ó
Ü˛Ù xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ x!ï˛ ¢!=˛¢y°# xyhs˝yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° §Ù!ß∫ï˛ àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÓ˚•z !Óhfl,Ï!ï˛ Î%=˛ xM˛° !•§yˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ôÙ≈ ˆÎÙl ˛õ,¤˛ê˛yl ~ÓÇ §ywï˛y ¢!=˛¢y°# xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
158 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

xl%¢#°l#

5.1 30°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 500 dm3 xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ 1 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §ÇÓ˚!«˛ï˛ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏܲ 200 dm3 xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ l)ƒlï˛Ù ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
5.2 35 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 1.2 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 120 ml xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyˆÏe !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒy§ xyˆÏSÈ– ~•z àƒy§ˆÏܲ 35 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 180
ml xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyˆÏe fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°– àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
5.3 PV=nRT xÓfiÌy §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáyG ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£ï
Ï÷ ˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ PÈüÈ~Ó˚ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛–
5.4 0°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ 2 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ âlc 5 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ âlˆÏcÓ˚ §Ùyl– x:y•zí˛!ê˛Ó˚
xyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ܲï˛⁄
5.5 27 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 g ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒy§ AÈüÈ~Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ 2 bar– ~ܲ•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Îál 2 g ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyò¢≈ àƒy§ B
ˆÜ˛ ˙ ˛õyˆÏe !Ù!◊ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yˆÏly •° ï˛ál ã˛y˛õ ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ 3 bar •°– àƒy§ ò%!ê˛Ó˚ xyî!Óܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
5.6 ˆí»˛l ˛õ!Ó˚‹ÒyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆí»˛ˆÏlˆÏ: §)-ÙyeyÎ˚ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ ÌyˆÏܲ ˆÎ!ê˛ Ü˛!fiê˛Ü˛ ˆ§yí˛y oÓˆÏîÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚– Î!ò 0.15g xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ 20 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ 1 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ Ü˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl
àƒy§ !là≈ï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
5.7 27 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 9 dm3 xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Êœ˛yˆÏ: Ó˚!«˛ï˛ 3.2 g !ÙˆÏÌl ~ÓÇ 4.4 g ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
5.8 Î!ò 0.8 ÓyÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 0.5 L í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ 0.7 ÓyÓ˚ (Bar) ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 2.0 L í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ !Ù◊î Î!ò 27°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 L
˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˙ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
5.9 27 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 2 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc 5.46 g/dm3ñ STPˆï˛ ˙ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ âlc Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄

5.10 546 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ 0.1 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 34.05 ml Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 0.0625 g – Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ ܲï˛⁄
5.11 ˆÜ˛yˆÏly SÈye 27 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆày°ï˛° Êœ˛yˆÏ: !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ !Ù◊î Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ Ë%˛ˆÏ° !àˆÏÎ˚ Êœ˛y:!ê˛ˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ !¢áyÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá
ˆòÎ˚– !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ ˆ§ ï˛yÓ˚ Ë%˛° Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õy•zˆÏÓ˚y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyÎ˚ ˆÎ Êœ˛yˆÏ:Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
477 °C •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆàˆÏSÈ– ï˛y•ˆÏ° Êœ˛y: ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛ï˛ Ë˛@¿yÇ¢ ÓyÎ˚% !là≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆà°⁄
5.12 4.0 mol ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒy§ 3.32 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 5 dm3 xyÎ˚ï˛l òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚– àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– (R = 0.083 bar dm3
K–1 mol–1).
5.13 1.4 g í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §Çáƒy àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
5.14 Î!ò ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛ 1010 !ê˛ àˆÏÙÓ˚ òyly Ó^˝ê˛l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~ܲ xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §ÇáƒÜ˛ àˆÏÙÓ˚ òylyˆÏܲ Ó^˝ê˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛ï˛ §ÙÎ˚
°yàˆÏÓ⁄
5.15 8 g í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl ~ÓÇ 4 g í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlˆÏܲ Î!ò 27°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 dm3 xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˙ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛
ã˛y˛õ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– (R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1)
5.16 ˆÓ°%ˆÏlÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ ÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒˆÏܲ ˆ˛õÈüȈ°yí˛ åPay loadä Ó°y •Î˚– Îál 10 m Óƒy§yô≈Î%=˛ 100 kg
˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÓ°%lˆÏܲ 27°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1.66 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ !•!°Î˚yÙ àƒy§ myÓ˚y ˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆ˛õ ˆ°yí˛ åPay loadä àîly
ܲˆÏÓ˚y– åÓyÎ˚%Ó˚ âlc 1.2 kg m–3 ~ÓÇ R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1).
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xÓfiÌy 159

5.17 31.1°C í˛z£ï

Ï÷ ˛y ~ÓÇ 1 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 8.8 g CO2 àƒy§ Ü˛ï˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l fiÌyl òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛y àîly ܲˆÏÓy˚ (R = 0.083 bar L K–1 mol–1)
5.18 ~ܲ•z ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 95 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 2.9 g ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒy§ 17 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 0.184 g í˛y•z•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~Ó˚ §Ùyl xyÎ˚ï˛l òᰠܲˆÏÓ˚–
àƒy§!ê˛Ó˚ xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
5.19 í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ù◊ˆÏî 1 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ Gçl !•§yˆÏÓ 20% í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyˆÏSÈ– í˛y•z
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
5.20 Ó˚y!¢ pV 2T 2/nÈüÈ~Ó˚ SI ~ܲܲ ܲ# •ˆÏÓ⁄
5.21 –273 °C í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˆÜ˛l l)ƒlï˛Ù §Ω˛yÓƒ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yñ ˆÎ!ê˛ ã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
5.22 ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•zx:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ §ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 31.1 °C ~ÓÇ −81.9 °C– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó°
¢!=˛¢y°# ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛l⁄
5.23 ˆË˛lí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° ˛õƒyÓ˚y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ åô %Óܲä à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ï˛yͲõÎ≈ƒ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
160 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

£Ï¤˛ xôƒyÎ˚
(UNIT - 6)

ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy
(THERMODYNAMICS)

It is the only physical theory of universal content concerning

í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ which I am convinced that, within the framework of the
applicability of its basic concepts, it will never be overthrown.
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y !l¡¨!°!áï˛
!Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y çylˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈ •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
• !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïyà%ˆÏ°y Albert Einstein
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ÓÂô !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù (Close System)ñ Ù%=˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù
(Open System) ~ÓÇ !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
(Isolated System) ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lÓ˚%˛õl
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– !ÙˆÏÌlñ Ó˚yߨyÓ˚ àƒy§ xÌÓy ܲÎ˚°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y çµy°yl#ˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏ° ï˛y˛õ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚
• xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ñ ܲyÎ≈ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– xÌ≈yÍ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ xl%ܲï≈,˛Ü˛ §!M˛ï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ¢!=˛ ï˛y˛õ !•§yˆÏÓ !là≈ï˛
• ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)e !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly •z!OˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ çµy°yl#ˆÏܲ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏly •Î˚ xÌÓy àƒy°Ë˛y!lܲ
~ˆÏܲ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ Óƒ=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ñ
• Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ Ü˛yÎ≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y !lç≈° ˆÜ˛yˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛!í˛¸Í¢!=˛ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál Îy!sfܲ ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚
~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xÓòyl àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ñ çlƒ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !l!ò≈T˛ ¢ˆÏï≈˛Ó˚ xô#ˆÏl ¢!=˛Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚)˛õà%ˆÏ°y
• xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ U, H ˆÜ˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ∆U ~ÓÇ ∆H ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lÓ˚%˛õl ˛õyÓ˚flõ!Ó˚ܲ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y ~ܲÓ˚)˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝Ó˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ ~•z xôƒÎ˚l•z ï˛y˛õà!ï˛ !ÓòƒyÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎÓ˚ › àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚
• ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ∆U ~ÓÇ ∆H ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ñ §)eà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ Ü˛Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛ xl% §Ù!ß∫ï˛ Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ó•% §ÇáƒÜ˛
• ∆HÈüÈ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §ÇAày!Î˚ï˛ xl% §Ù!rôï˛ ÙƒyˆÏÜ ˛yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛l §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚ ˆ Ï l Ó˚ !Ó!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ Ü˛# •yˆÏÓ˚ âˆÏê˛ ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy ï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ lÎ˚ ÓÓ˚Ç
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ~ÓÇ x!hs˝Ù xÓfiÌyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
• !fiÌÓ˚ï˛y˛õ§Ù!T˛ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)ˆÏeÓ˚
Óî≈ly ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏïñ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù Îál §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ xÌÓy ~ܲ §yÙƒÓfiÌy ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛
• ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌyàï˛ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •Î˚ ï˛ál•z ˆÜ˛Ó° ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ §)eà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lÓ˚%˛õl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ñ
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ÙƒyˆÏܲ  yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ ôÙ≈ ˆÎÙl ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ §ˆÏAà x˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ–
• fl∫ ï ˛/fl≥% ˛ ï≈ ˛ ~ÓÇ xfl∫ ï ˛/fl≥% ï ≈ ˛ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y ˆÏ Ü ˛
§ÇAày!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ñ ~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ü˛ï˛à%ˆÏ°y à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ≤Èϟ¿Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ !òˆÏï˛
• ~lê˛∆!˛õˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ xÓfiÌy xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ã˛y•z– ˆÎÙlÈüüüÈ
!•§yÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ fl∫ï˛/fl≥%˛ï≈˛yÓ˚ çlƒ
~Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÓÏ y⁄ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
• !àÓ§ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy (∆G)
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛– xyˆÏòÔ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓñ !ܲ •ˆÏÓ ly⁄
• ∆G G fl∫ï˛/fl≥%˛ï≈˛ï˛y ~ÓÇ ∆G G §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛y°Ü˛ ¢!=˛ !ܲ⁄
ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲï˛ò)Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
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6.1 ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy (THERMODYNAMIC TERMS) ï˛yˆÏܲ §#Ùyly (boundary) ӈϰ– ~!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ
xyÙÓ˚y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Óy !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛Ó˚ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
!lˆÏÎ˚ xy@˝Ã•#– ï˛yÓ˚çlƒ ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !lÎ˚sfî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ àë˛l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
çyly òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚– ~•zà%ˆÏ°y l#ˆÏã˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y– 6.1.2 !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ≤ÃòyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò (Types of the System)

6.1.1 !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ (The System and the !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù G ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õòyÌ≈ (matter) ~ÓÇ ¢!=˛Ó˚
(energy) xyòyl ≤ÃòyˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚
Surroundings)
ˆ◊!îË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚–
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ ˆÎ xÇ¢!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yô#l 1. Ù%=˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù (Open System)
~ÓÇ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ xÇ¢!ê˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y •ˆÏ°y ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ–
Ù%=˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢!=˛ G
!§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ Óyò !òˆÏÎ˚ !ӈϟªÓ˚ Óyܲ# §Ó!ܲS%È•z ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ xhs˝Ë˛) =≈ ˛–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl âˆÏê˛– [!ã˛e 6.2(a)] ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆáy°y !ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚
!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ~ܲ§ˆÏAà !وϰ !ÓŸªÓ ·yu˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù%=˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– ~áyˆÏl
!ÓŸª Ó ·y[˛ = !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù + ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ §#Ùy •ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛y“!lܲ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛° Îy !ÓܲyÓ˚ G !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲˆÏܲ ˆâÓ˚yG
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï˛≈l §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏ°ñ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù Óƒï˛#ï˛ Óyܲ# ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏá–
˛xÇ¢ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ ly– xï˛~Óñ §Ó ÓƒÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ í˛zˆj Ï ˆÏ¢ƒñ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!ŸªÜ≈ ˛
•ˆÏ°y Óyܲ# !ÓŸªÓ ·yˆÏu˛Ó˚ ˙ xÇ¢ ÎyÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚y
•Î˚– §yôyÓ˚îï˛ñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xy¢˛õy¢ ~°yܲyÓ˚ xÇ¢ !lˆÏÎ˚ ~Ó˚
˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ !ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ò%!ê˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ A ~ÓÇ
B ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xôƒÎ˚l ܲ!Ó˚ñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊l ôyÓ˚îܲyÓ˚#
!ÓܲyÓ˚!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˆÎ ܲˆÏ«˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ó˚yáy xyˆÏSÈ ˆ§•z
ܲ«˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ– å!ã˛e ı 6.1ä
ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ ˆË˛Ô!ï˛Ü˛
˛õ!Ó˚§#Ùy myÓ˚yñ ˆÎÙlÈÈüüüÈ!ÓܲyÓ˚ xÌÓy ˛õÓ˚#«˛yl°ñ xÌÓy !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ

!ã˛e ı 6.2 Ù%=˛ñ ÓÂô ~ÓÇ !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù

!ã˛e ı 6.1 !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ
2. ÓÂô !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù (Closed System)
ܲyˆÏê≈˛!§Î˚yl fiÌylyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ§ê˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÓÂô !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù G ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
fiÌyl í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲˆÏÓ˚ §•ˆÏç•z §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~ê˛y çyly ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyÓ˚)˛õ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– !ܲv ¢!=˛Ó˚ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎ §#ÙyˆÏÓ˚áy •Î˚ [!ã˛e 6.2 (b)]– ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎÙl ï˛yÙy ~ÓÇ fiê˛#° !òˆÏÎ˚
!òˆÏÎ˚ xy°yòy ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ˆ§!ê˛ ÓyhflÏÓ Óy ܲy“!lܲ ò%•z•z •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˜ï˛Ó˚# ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô xyôyˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô
ˆÎ ˆòGÎ˚y°!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ xy°yòy ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yˆÏáñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
* xyÙÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ•z ¢%ô%Ùye !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù !•§yˆÏÓ àlƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ ˆ§ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆòGÎ˚y°!ê˛ §#Ùyly !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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3. !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù (Isolated System)
!l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ¢!=˛
G ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly!ê˛Ó˚•z ˛xyòyl ≤Ãòyl •Î˚ ly [!ã˛e 6.2 (c)].–
ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÊœ˛y: xÌÓy ÓÂô xhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚!«˛ï˛ !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ •ˆÏ°y !l/
§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
6.1.3 !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌy (The State of the System) :
ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ÓƒÓ•y!Ó˚ܲ àîlyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xÓ¢ƒ•z !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ôÙ≈ ˆÎÙl ã˛y˛õ (p)ñ xyÎ˚ï˛l (V) G í˛z£÷Ïï˛y (T) ~ÓÇ
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ˆÏܲG ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
˛õ!Ó˚ÓÏï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏà ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– ï%˛!Ù ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ˛õyë˛ƒ§)ã˛# ˆÌˆÏܲ fløÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚
ˆòˆÏáy ˆÎ Ó°!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌy ˆÜ˛ylG !l!ò¤˛ Ù%•ˆ) ïÏ ˛≈
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ë˛Ó˚!Ó®%Ó˚ xÓfiÌyl ~ÓÇ ˆÓˆÏàÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
§¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !l!òT˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌy §¡∫ˆrÏ ô ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛sf ~ÓÇ §•çï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚îy ≤ÃÓï≈˛l
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ Ü˛îyÓ˚ à!ï˛Ó˚ !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛ K˛yl ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl
•Î˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î ~áyˆÏl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏÎyàƒ ôÙ≈à%!°Ó˚ àí˛¸ !lˆÏÎ˚
ܲyç ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y xÓfiÌyàï˛
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ Óy xÓfiÌyàï˛ ã˛°Ó˚y!¢ Óy xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ myÓ˚y í˛zˆÕÏ á‘
ܲ!Ó˚–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏÎyàƒ Óy ÙƒyˆÏÜ ˛yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ å!Ó¢y°
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xl%§Ù!T˛ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ä ôÙ≈ myÓ˚y ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ Óî≈ly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÜ˛yl àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y
ã˛y˛õ (p), xyÎ˚ï˛l (V)ñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y (T)ñ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî (n) •zï˛ƒy!ò myÓ˚y
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– P, V, T ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~•z ã˛°Ó˚y!¢à%!°ˆÏܲ•z xÓfiÌy
ã˛°Ó˚y!¢ Óy xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ӈϰ– ܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ Ü˛#˲yˆÏÓ ~•z
xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSÈy° ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ §¡õ)îÓ≈ ˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛˛ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ •ˆÏ° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ ôÙ≈ˆÜÏ ˛
§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y xyÓ¢ƒÜ˛ lÎ˚ñ ܲyÓ˚l ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye !l!ò≈T˛ !ܲS%È ôÙ≈•z
fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° ôˆÏÙÓ≈ ˚
§Çáƒy !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ãܲ, !ï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !l˲≈Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~ܲÓyÓ˚ Î!ò ~•z «%˛o
§ÇáƒÜ˛ ÙyˆÏÜ ˛yˆÏflÒy!˛õܲ ôÙ≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ (fixed) ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ xlƒôÙ≈à%!° fl∫Î˚Ç!Ü ˛Î˚˲yˆÏÓ !l!ò≈T˛ Ùyl xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ xÓfiÌy ܲáˆÏly•z §¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
lyó ˆ§Ô˲yàƒÓ¢ï˛ı ï˛y˛õà!ï˛ !ÓòƒyÎ˚ ~ê˛y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçlG •Î˚ ly–
6.1.4 xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ !•§yˆÏÓ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ (The Internal
Energy as a State Function)
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ ¢!=˛Ó˚ @˝Ã•î Óy ¢!=˛Ó˚ Óç≈l §¡∫ˆrÏ ô
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏÎyàƒ Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ≤ÃÓï≈˛l
ܲÓ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl Îy !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z ¢!=˛
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲñ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ñ Îy!sfܲ Óy xlƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚
~•z§Ó ¢!=˛Ó˚ §Ù!T˛•z •° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛ !ÓòƒyÎ˚
~ˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛ (U) Ó!°ñ Îy ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÎÙlÈüüüÈ
§ ï˛y˛õ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù x!˲Ù%á# xÌÓy !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó!•Ù%≈á# •Î˚ñ
§ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Óy !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ myÓ˚y ܲyÎ≈§¡õߨ •Î˚ñ
§ ˛õòyÌ≈ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ ≤ÃˆÓ Ï ¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÌÓy !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ Óy•zˆÓÏ ˚ !là≈ï˛
•Î˚– ~•z !§ˆÏfiê˛Ùà%!°ˆÏܲ xl%ˆFÏ SÈò 6.1.2. ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ◊l#
!Ó˲yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ Îy ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y •z!ï˛ÙˆÏôƒ•z ˛õˆÏí˛¸ˆÏSÈy–
(a) ܲyÎ≈ (Work)
~ál ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ü,˛ï˛ ܲyˆÏÎÓ≈ ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
x˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#l ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õÓ˚#«˛y ܲ!Ó˚– xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù
!l°yÙ ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÊœ˛y: xÌÓy ~ܲ!ê˛ xhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ !ÓܲyˆÏÓ˚
!ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç° Ó˚yáy xyˆÏSÈ– ~!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §#ÙyˆÏÓ˚áy !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl âê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆòÎ˚
ly ~ÓÇ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù Ó!Ï°–
ˆÎ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ– Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y •°
~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ÎyˆÏï˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyòyl ≤Ãòyl •Î˚ ly– ~áyˆÏl ˆÎ ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ÙˆÏܲ
˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ,Ìܲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ӈϰ å!ã˛e
ı 6.3ä–
!ã˛e ı 6.3 ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù Îy §#ÙyˆÏÓ˚áy ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyòyl ≤ÃòyˆÏl Óyôy §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲyÎ≈
§¡õߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲ!Ó˚– ô!Ó˚ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ xÓfiÌy A ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •ˆÏ°y TA – ô!Ó˚ñ A
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 163

xÓfiÌyÎ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛ •ˆÏ°y UA– xyÙÓ˚y !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ%Ü%˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛lG ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ñ ܲyÓ˚î çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
≤ÃÌÙ ˛õÂô!ï˛ / ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ ˆ§ê˛ ˆSÈyê˛ ˛õƒyˆÏu˛°ˆÏܲ â)î≈l ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ï˛yˆÏï˛ ç°Ë˛!ï≈˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly–
ܲˆÏÓ˚ 1 !ܲˆÏ°yç%° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Îy!sfܲ ܲyÎ≈ ܲ!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y ç°ˆÏܲ ˛õ%Ü%˛Ó˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ Ó,!T˛Ó˚ ç° myÓ˚y Óy l°Ü)˛ˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ç° myÓ˚y Óy í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
xyˆÏ°y!í˛¸ï˛ Ü˛!Ó˚– ô!Ó˚ lï%˛l xÓfiÌy!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y B ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÎ˲yˆÏÓ•z ˲!ï≈˛ ܲÓ˚y •í˛zܲ ly ˆÜ˛lñ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
•ˆÏ°y TB– ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ TB > TA •Î˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏ°y ~ܲ•z •Î˚–
˛∆T = TB–TA– ô!Ó˚ B xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ •ˆÏ°y UB ~ÓÇ xyhs˝Ó˚ (b) ï˛y˛õ (Heat)
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏ°yñ ˛∆U =UB– UA.
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈ §¡õߨ ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù G ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚
!mï˛#Î˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ / xyÙÓ˚y ~ál §Ù˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî åxÌ≈yÍ 1 !ܲˆÏ°yç%°ä ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyòyl ≤ÃòyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚
˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ ܲyç ~ܲ!ê˛ •zÙyÓ˚¢yl Ó˚ˆÏí˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §¡õߨ ܲ!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ¢!=˛Ó˚ ~•z !Ó!lÙÎ˚ñ Îy ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚
í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !°!˛õÓÂô ܲ!Ó˚– xyÙÓ˚y °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚°yÙ ˆÎñ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ Ê˛°ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õ q Ó°y •Î˚– ã˛ˆÏ°yñ xyÙÓ˚y ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ≤ÃÌÙ ÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùï˛ xÌ≈yÍ TB – TA–
!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚ñ ÎyˆÏï˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xl%ˆÏFSÈò 6.1.4
≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ ˆçÉ!˛õÉç%° 1840–
(a) ˆï˛ Ó!î≈ï˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~ܲ•z Ó˚Ü˛Ù •Î˚– ÎyˆÏï˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
50 §y° ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ÓÇ !ï˛!l ≤ÃÙyî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §ÙÌ≈
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ G ã)˛í˛¸yhs˝ xÓfiÌy ~ܲ •ˆÏ°G Ó˚Â) ôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï˛≈
•l ˆÎñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲyÎ≈ƒ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°ñ ˆÎ
ï˛y˛õ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ ˆlÎ˚y •Î˚– ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛•z ܲyÎ≈ƒ!ê˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆ•yܲ ly ˆÜ˛l å˛õÌ !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ä xÓfiÌyÓ˚˚
•Î˚–
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §Ùyl •Î˚ñ Îy !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓÏï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°–
ï˛y•z xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ åUä lyÙܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚y!¢ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚
ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛y Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§)ã˛Ü˛
•Î˚– xyÓyÓ˚ xÓfiÌy ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ܲyÎ≈
åWadä ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏà ~ÓÇ ˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ åUä
ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ˆÏܲƒÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ ∆U ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
∆U = U 2 − U 1 = wad
~ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛ U ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ •Î˚– !ã˛e ı 6.4 ~ܲ!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ÎyÓ˚ ≤Ãyã˛#ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ ï˛y˛õ
ôlydܲ !ã˛•´ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ wad ~Ó˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ xÌ≈yÍ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚–
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ Î!ò !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï≈,˛Ü˛
ܲyÎ≈ §¡õy!òï˛ •Î˚ñ wad }îydܲ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ •ˆÏÓ– xyÙÓ˚yñ ï˛y˛õ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚Î%=˛ ï˛yÙyÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏe TA ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
ï%˛!Ù !ܲ xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ lyÙ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ç° !l•z ~ÓÇ ˛õye!ê˛ˆÏܲ TB ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢y° ï˛y˛õ˲yu˛yˆÏÓ˚
˛õyÓ˚⁄ xlƒylƒ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ •ˆÏ°y V, P Ó˚y!á– !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù åç°ä myÓ˚y à,•#ï˛ ï˛y˛õ q, !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚
~ÓÇ T– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ TB – TAÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
Î!ò 25°C ˆÌˆÏܲ 35°C ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛∆U= q ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl
35°C–25°C = +10°C – xyÙÓ˚y §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ 35°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ly–
ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏ°G ï˛y•z •ˆÏÓñ xyÓyÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ !í˛@˝Ã# ë˛yu˛y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ ˆÌˆÏܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ¢!=˛Ó˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ •ˆÏ° q ~Ó˚
˛õÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ˆÏܲ x!hs˝Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ xy§ˆÏ°G ï˛y•z •ˆÏÓ– Ùyl ôlydܲ ~ÓÇ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢ ï˛y˛õ¢!=˛ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛
~ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ •ˆÏ° q ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl }îydܲ •Î˚–
* ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ §¡õߨ •ˆÏ° }îydܲ !ã˛•´ ~ÓÇ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï≈,˛Ü˛ ܲyÎ≈ §¡õߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ ôlydܲ !ã˛•´ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ï˛– ~!ê˛ ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÓ˚
˛õyë˛ƒõ%hflψÏܲ ~álG xl%§Ó˚î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ Î!òG IUPAC lï%˛l !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏܲ•z §%˛õy!Ó˚¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
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(c) §yôyÓ˚î í˛zòy•Ó˚î (The general case) §Ùyôyl :

ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y ~Ùl §yôyÓ˚î âê˛ly !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl xÓfiÌyÓ˚ (i) ˛∆U = w ad, ˛≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê˛ Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ ܲyÎ≈ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ í˛z˲Î˚ í˛z˛õyˆÏÎ˚•z §¡õyòl (ii) ∆ U = – q, ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê ï˛y˛õ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•#
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ !°!á ı (iii) ∆ U = q – w, ÓÂô !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù–
˛∆U = q + w (6.1) 6.2 ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà (Applications)
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ q ~ÓÇ w ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó•% Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y àƒy§ í˛zͲõyòˆÏl §«˛Ùñ ÎyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– Î!òG Îy!sfܲ ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ï˛y˛õ
xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛∆U = q + w ~Ó˚ Ùyl ¢%ô%Ùye !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛zͲõyòˆÏl §«˛Ù– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y ~ÓÇ
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ G x!hs˝Ù xÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛ fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈–
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– Î!ò ï˛y˛õ xÌÓy ܲyÎ≈ ã˛ˆÏ°y ˆò!á ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y ~à%ˆÏ°y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
6.2.1 ܲyÎ≈ (Work)
!•§yˆÏÓ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ ly •Î˚ åˆÎÙl !lı§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙä
≤ÃÌÙï˛ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù !ܲ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚
xÌ≈yÍ Î!ò w = 0 ~ÓÇ q = 0 •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ˛∆ U = 0.
í˛z˛õÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ÙˆÏly!lˆÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy– xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye Îy!sfܲ ܲyÎ≈
6.1 §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ñ xÌ≈yÍ ˛∆U = q + w •° ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚
Óy ã˛y˛õÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚–
≤ÃÌÙ §)ˆÏeÓ˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õ– ~•z §)eyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !lı§Aà ã˛y˛õÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛l ܲyÎ≈ xl%ôyÓl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ â£Ïî≈ •#l !˛õT˛l
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •° ô Ó% ܲ– ~ˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Î%=˛ !§!°u˛yˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ ˆÙy° xyò¢≈àƒy§ ˆl•z– xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛
§ÇÓ˚«˛î §)e !•§yˆÏÓ !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ ¢!=˛ §,!T˛ Óy ôÁǧ xyÎ˚ï˛l •° Vi ~ÓÇ !§!°u˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ x˲ƒhs˝ˆÓÏ ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ •° p Î!ò
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ã˛y˛õ pex •Î˚ Îy pÈüÈ~Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ˆÓ¢#ñ ï˛ál !˛õT˛l!ê˛ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
oT˛Óƒ ı ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ ôÙ≈ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Îy!sfܲ ôÙ≈ñ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ §Ó˚yˆÏly •° Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Óy!•≈ƒÜ˛ ã˛y˛õ pex
ÙˆÏôƒ ΈÏÌT˛ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !l!ò≈T˛ xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ~Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙylˆÏܲ flõT˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ å˛õÓ˚ÙÙyl !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓä í˛zˆÕÏ á‘
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ !ܲv xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ÙylˆÏܲ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚
ly– ï˛ˆÏÓñ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙylˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§Ù§ƒy ı 6.1
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y Îál
(i) ˛!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚
lyñ !ܲv !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ !ܲ
ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ xyˆÏSÈ⁄
(ii) !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y •° lyñ !ܲv q
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y •° ~ÓÇ
˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÜÏ ˛ ≤Ãòyl ܲÓ˚y •°– !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚
≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ xyˆÏSÈ⁄
(iii) !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï≈,˛Ü˛ w ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲyÎ≈ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !ã˛e ı 6.5(a) !§!°u˛yˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚!«˛ï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyò¢≈ àƒy§ˆÏܲ !fiÌÓ˚
Óy!•ƒÜ˛ã˛y˛õñ pex å~ܲ!ê˛ ôyˆÏ˛õä myÓ˚y §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
q ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~!ê˛
Ê˛ˆÏ° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî SÈyÎ˚yÙÎ˚
ˆÜ˛yl‰ ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù •ˆÏÓ⁄ xM˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy
ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ñ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ܲ!ê˛Ùye ôyˆÏ˛õ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ
x!hs˝Ù xyÎ˚ï˛l •° Vf ñ ~•z §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ñ ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ !˛õT˛l!ê˛
l ò)Ó˚c x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !˛õT˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃfïÏFSȈÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛eÊ˛° •° A
[!ãeı 6.5(a)].
ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l l × A = ∆V = (Vf – Vi )
Ó°
˛xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ ã˛y˛õ = ˆ«˛eÊ˛°
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ !˛õT˛ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÎ%=˛ Ó° = pex . A
Î!ò !˛õT˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ã˛°yã˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ w ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
ï˛y•ˆÏ°ñ
w = Ó° × ò)Ó˚c = pex . A .l
= pex . (–∆V) = – pex ∆V = – pex (Vf – Vi ) (6.2)
~•z x!Ë˛Óƒ!=˛Ó˚ }îydܲ !ã˛•´!ê˛ W ~Ó˚ ≤Ãã˛y!°ï˛ !ã˛•´ ˆÓÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ Îy ôlydܲ •ˆÏÓ– ~!ê˛ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲyÎ≈ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~áyˆÏl (Vf – Vi ) }îydܲ
•ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ }îycܲˆÏܲ }îycܲ !òˆÏÎ˚ à%î ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ~!ê˛ ôlydܲ •ˆÏÓ–
xï˛~Ó Ü˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ çlƒ ≤ÃyÆ ≤Ãï˛#ܲ ôlydܲ •ˆÏÓ–
§ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ Î!ò ã˛y˛õ !l!ò≈T˛ ly ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv !l!ò≈T˛
§ÇáƒÜ˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §¡õߨ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ü,˛ï˛ ܲyÎ≈
§ÙhflÏ ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ Ü,˛ï˛Ü˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ §Ù!T˛Ó˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ï˛y •ˆÏÓ
− ∑ p ∆V ~Ó˚ §Ùyl [!ã˛eı6.5 (b)]
!ã˛eı 6.5(b) pV-ˆ°á!ã˛eñ Îál ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ xyÎ˚ï˛l Vi •ˆÏï˛ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° x!hs˝Ù xyÎ˚ï˛l Vf ˆï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ã˛y˛õ !fiÌÓ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ ly ~ÓÇ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÇáƒÜ˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §¡õߨ •Î˚– àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ü,˛ï˛Ü˛yÎ≈ SÈyÎ˚yÎ%=˛ xM˛° myÓ˚y ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
165
Î!ò ã˛y˛õ !l!ò≈T˛ ly ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ã˛°yܲy°#l §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ
§)«˛ §)«˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎl Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ã˛y˛õ §Ó≈òy àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ
ˆÌˆÏܲ §)- ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˆÓ¢# ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l á%Ó•z §)- ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ dv ܲˆÏÓ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
~•z ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyÙÓ˚y àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ Ü,˛ï˛Ü˛yÎ≈ àîly ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛
!lˆÏã˛Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚ñ
Vf
w=− ∫p
Vi
ex dV ( 6.3)
~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe §ÇˆÏܲyã˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎ˚ pex (pin + dp) ~Ó˚
§Ùyl [!ã˛e 6.5(c)]– xl%Ó˚)˛õ˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ•z ¢ˆÏï≈˛ §¡±§yÓ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ ã˛y˛õ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xhs˝Ó˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ Ü˛Ù xÌ≈yÍ
pex (pin – dp) ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ !lÎ˚Ù xl%ÎyÎ˚# ~ˆÏܲ ˆ°áy •Î˚ñ
pex = (pin ± dp). ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ–
Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Óy ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ «%˛oy!ï˛«%˛o ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l myÓ˚y•z ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá ã˛y!°ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál ˆ§•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Ó°y •Î˚– ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y x!ï˛
ÙrÌÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ ~Ùl ܲï˛à%ˆ° Ï y §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚
ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ §Ó≈òy
˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ°Ï y SÈyí˛¸y xlƒylƒ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ x˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ–
!ã˛eı 6.5(c) pV-ˆ°á Îál ã˛y˛õ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ly ~ÓÇ x§#Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛
ôyˆÏ˛õ å˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ¢ˆÏï≈˛ä §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l myÓ˚y ˛≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ xyÎ˚ï˛l
Vi ˆÌˆÏܲ x!hs˝Ù xyÎ˚ï˛l Vf ~ §ÇˆÏܲyã˛l âˆÏê˛– SÈyÎ˚yÎ%=˛
xM˛° myÓ˚y àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ G˛õ˛Ó˚ Ü,˛ï˛Ü˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
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Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y ˆÎ §Ü˛° §Ù§ƒyÓ˚ §¡ø%á#l ••zñ ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ~ÓÇ Ù%=˛ §¡±§yÓ˚î (Isothermal and free
expansion of an ideal gas) ~ܲ!ê˛ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÓyÎ˚%
§Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ܲyÎ≈lyÙܲ˛ õò!ê˛ˆÏܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
¢)lƒfiÌyˆÏl §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï (T = ô %ÓÜ ) §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ w = 0 ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛
xy˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#l ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ܲ!Ó˚– ˛õÓ˚yÓï˛≈ ¢ˆÏï≈˛ ܲyÎ≈ˆÏܲ
Pex = 0ñ ç%° ~SÈyí˛¸yG ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎ q = 0;
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xy˲ƒhs˝Ó˚#î ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ∆U = 0
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.3 ˆÜ˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.1, ∆U = q + w ˆÜ˛ xˆÏÙy£÷Ï x˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ G ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛
Vf Vf
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
w rev = − ∫p
Vi
ex dV = − ∫ (p
Vi
in ± dp ) dV
1. §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï x˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
q = – w = pex (Vf – Vi )
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ dp × dV x!ï˛«%˛oñ ˆ§çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚
2. §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
Vf
Vf
w rev = − ∫ pin dV (6.4) q = – w = nRT ln
Vi Vi

~álñ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ åpin ˆÜ˛ p !•§yˆÏÓ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ä Vf

= 2.303 nRT log
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– Vi

n ˆÙy° xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ çlƒ pV =nRT 3. Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ q = 0,

nRT ∆U = wad
⇒p =
V
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ å§Ùï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ä §Ù§ƒy ı 6.2
Vf ÓyÎ˚Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛y˛õ 10 atm ÈüÈ~ Ó˚!«˛ï˛ 2 !°ê˛yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
dV Vf
w rev = − ∫ nRT = −nRT ln xyò¢≈ àƒy§ˆÏܲ ÓyÎ˚% ¢)lƒfiÌyˆÏl §¡±§y!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ 10 !°ê˛yÓ˚
Vi
V Vi
Vf xyÎ˚ï˛l xç≈l ܲÓ˚ˆ° Ï y– ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl !ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛
= – 2.303 nRT log
V (6.5) •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏî Ü,˛ï˛Ü˛yˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲï˛⁄
i

Ù%=˛ §¡±§yÓ˚î (Free Expansion) : §Ùyôyl ı

ÓyÎ˚¢% l% ƒ fiÌyˆÏl (pex = 0) àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §¡±§yÓ˚îˆÏܲ Ù%=˛ §¡±§yÓ˚î ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe q = – w = pex (10 – 2) = 0(8) = 0
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈ §¡õߨ •Î˚ ly ~ÓÇ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ ly–
ӈϰ– ~ܲ!ê˛ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ù%=˛ §¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈
§¡õߨ •Î˚ lyñ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ xÌÓy x˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛ Îy•z ˆ•yܲ ly §Ù§ƒy ı 6.3
ˆÜ˛l å§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.2 ~ÓÇ 6.3ä– ~ÓyÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ Óy!•Ü˛ƒ ã˛y˛õ 1 atm ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
~ál xyÙÓ˚y 6.1 §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲñ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ §¡±§yÓ˚îˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
•Î˚ ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲy!ôܲ ˲yˆÏÓ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– §Ùyôyl ı
~ál xyÙÓ˚y w = – pex∆V (§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.2) ˆÜ˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ q = – w = pex (8) = 8 litre-atm
6.1 ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy•zñ §Ù§ƒy ı 6.4
∆U = q – Pex∆V ~ÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ•z §¡±§yÓ˚îˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ ˆÎáyˆÏl àƒy§!ê˛
Î!ò ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl (∆V = 0) §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ˛õÓ˚yÓï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l 10 !°ê˛yÓ˚ •Î˚–
∆U = qv §Ùyôyl ı
qv ˆï˛ §yÓ!fl;≤Wz V Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ ˆÎ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ï˛y˛õ 10
xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ q = – w = 2.303 log =16.1 litre-atm
≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– 2
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy
6.2.2 ~l̃y°!˛õ (Enthalpy, H)
(a) ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# lï%˛l xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ (A Useful New
State Function)
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ˆÎñ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛y˛õ •° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
xyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl xÌ≈yÍ ∆U = qV˛– !ܲv x!ôܲyÇ¢
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ lyñ !ܲv Êœ˛yˆÏflÒ
xÌÓy ˛õÓ˚#«˛ylˆÏ° !fiÌÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
x˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ!ê˛ ~•z
¢ï≈˛ à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ í˛z˛õÎ%=˛–
xyÙÓ˚y !fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î (6.1) ˆÜ˛ ∆U = qp – p∆V
!•§yˆÏÓ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl qp ˛•° !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï≈,˛Ü˛ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛y˛õ
~ÓÇ –p ∆V •° !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï≈,˛Ü˛ §¡±§yÓ˚î ܲyÎ≈–
xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ §yÓ!fl;≤Wz 1 ~ÓÇ x!hs˝Ù xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ
2 !òˆÏÎ˚ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲ!Ó˚– xyÙÓ˚y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !°áˆÏï˛
˛õy!Ó˚
U2–U1 = qp – p (V2 – V1)
˛õ%l!Ó≈lƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ
qp = (U2 + pV2) – (U1 + pV1) (6.6)
~ál xyÙÓ˚y ~l̃y°!˛õ (H)[@˝Ã#ܲ ¢∑ ~l̃y°!˛õÎ˚l ÈüÈ~Ó˚ xÌ≈
í˛z_ÆܲÓ˚î Óy ï˛y˛õyˆÏôÎ˚] lyÙܲ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ ˛ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛
!lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ~l̃y°!˛õÎ˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ ~l̃y°!˛õ ¢∑!ê˛Ó˚
í˛zͲõ!_– ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õ •° /
H = U + pV (6.7)
ï˛y•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î È(6.6)üÈ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛ •°
qp= H2 – H1 = ∆H
qÈüÈ˛õÌ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ •ˆÏ°Gñ H !ܲv xÓfiÌyÓ˚
xyˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛– ܲyÓ˚î ~!ê˛ U, p ~ÓÇ V ÈüÈ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ñ ÎyÓ˚y
≤ÈÏï˛ƒˆÏܲ•z xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ñ ï˛y•z ∆H ˛õÌ !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛–
xÌ≈yÍ qp xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛!ê˛G ˛õÌ !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛–
!fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.7 ˆÜ˛
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
∆H = ∆U + ∆pV
q üÈô %Óܲ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚–
∆H = ∆U + p∆V (6.8)
~ê˛y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ˆÎñ !fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù
Îál ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y£Ïl ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛ál ÓyhflψÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y !ܲv !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲ!Ó˚–
ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏÓñ !fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛y˛õ
167
Î!ò qp •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ∆H = qp •ˆÏÓ–
ˆÎ §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ï˛y˛õ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆HüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl }îydܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎ §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢
ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆HÈüÈ~Ó˚
Ùyl ôlydܲ •Î˚–
ï˛y•z 6.8 §Ù#ܲÓ˚l!ê˛ !l¡¨Ó˚)˛õ •Î˚ ∆H = ∆U = qV
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆ° Ï y ˆÜ˛Ó° ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ Óy ï˛Ó˚°
˛õòyÌ≈ •ˆÏ° ∆H ~ÓÇ ∆U ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ ÓƒÓôyl ÌyˆÏܲ
ly– ï˛y˛õ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ ˆÏà ܲ!ë˛l Óy ï˛Ó˚ˆ°
Ï Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚G ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly– !ܲv àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z ÓƒÓôylà%ˆÏ°y
á%Ó•z ï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈– ÙˆÏl ܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ G !fiÌÓ˚
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ÎyÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°y àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyÌ≈
~ÓÇ VA •° §ÙhflÏ àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ VB •°
§ÙhflÏ àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ nA •° §ÙhflÏ
àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy°§Çáƒyñ nB •° §ÙhflÏ àƒy§#Î˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy°§Çáƒy– ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyò¢≈ àƒy§
§Ù#ܲÓ˚˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚# xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ
pVA = nART ˛ ~ÓÇ pVB = nBRT
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ pVB – pVA = nBRT – nART = (nB–nA)RT
Óyñ˛ p (VB – VA) = (nB – nA) RT
Óyñ˛ p ∆V = ∆ngRT (6.9)
~áyˆÏl ∆ng •° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˆÙyê ˆÙy°§Çáƒy
~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy°§ÇáƒyÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yàÊ˛°–
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.9 ˆÌˆÏܲ p∆VÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.8 ÈüÈ~ Ó§yˆÏ°
6.10È §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
∆H = ∆U + ∆ngRT (6.10)
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.10ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ∆U ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ∆HÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl
xÌÓy ∆HÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ∆UÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl §•ˆÏç•z !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
§Ù§ƒy ı 6.5
Î!ò ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyò¢≈ àƒy§ !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛“ly ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ 1(bar) ã˛yˆÏ˛õ G 100°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 (mol) çˆÏ°Ó˚
Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏl ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l 41(kJ mol–1)
•Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ÎálÈüüüÈ
(i) ˛1 ˆÙy° ç°ˆÏܲ 1 ÓyÓ˚ (bar) ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ 100°C
ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •°–
(ii) 1 ˆÙy° ç°ˆÏܲ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°–
168 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ùyôyl ı
(i) ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛ •ˆÏ°yñ H2O (l ) → H2O ( g )

∆H = ∆U + ∆ng RT
Óyñ ∆U = ∆H – ∆ng RT
≤Ãò_ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õy•zñ !ã˛e ı 6.6(a) xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ V ~ÓÇ T ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy àƒy§
∆U = 41.00 kJ mol -1 - 1
× 8.3 J mol -1 K -1 × 373 K
= 41.00 kJ mol-1 – 3.096 kJ mol-1
= 37.904 kJ mol–1
(ii) ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛ •ˆÏ°yñ H 2 O (l ) → H 2 O ( g )
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l làlƒ •Î˚– !ã˛e ı 6.6 (b) !Ó˲yçlñ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ xLjϢ Ù)° xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe p∆V = ∆ng RT ≈ 0 ˆ°áy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àƒy§ xyˆÏSÈ–
ÎyÎ˚– ˆÌˆÏܲ flõT˛ ˆÎ xyÎ˚ï˛l •ˆÏ°y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ ï˛y˛õÙyey •ˆÏ°y
∆H ≅ ∆U
xÓfiÌyàï˛ ôÙ≈–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ∆U = 41.00 kJ mol–1
(c) ˛ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛y (Heat Capacity)
(b) ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌyàï˛ ôÙ≈ §Ù)• (Extensive and
Intensive Properties) ~•z í˛z˛õÈüÈ!Ó˲yà!ê˛ˆÏï˛ (Sub-Section) ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ˆòˆÏá !l•z
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ G xÓfiÌyàï˛ ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xl%≤ÈÏÓ¢ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÎ§Ó ôÙ≈ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ~•z ï˛y˛õ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
Óy xyܲyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Ó°y •Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ Óy Ó,!Âô Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚–
˲Ó˚§yˆÏ˛õ«˛ ôÙ≈– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˲Ó˚ñ xyÎ˚ï˛lñ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ~•z Ó,!Âô §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y•Ü,˛ï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ •Î˚–
~l̃y°!˛õñ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛y •zï˛ƒy!ò •° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈–
q = coeff × ∆T
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÎ§Ó ôÙ≈ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Óy
xyܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xÓfiÌyàï˛ Óy ˲Ó˚ !lÓ˚ˆ˛Ï õ«˛ ~•z à%lyAܲ!ê˛Ó˚ (coefficient) Ùyl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyܲyÓ˚ñ §ÇÎ%!ï˛
ôÙ≈ ӈϰ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ âlcñ ã˛y˛õ •zï˛ƒy!ò •ˆÏ°y ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ q = C ∆T Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õG
xÓfiÌyàï˛ ôÙ≈– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚– ~•z à%lyAܲñ C ˆÜ˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛y ӈϰ–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈ (χ)ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙylˆÏܲ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ôÙ≈ (χm) ӈϰ–
~˲yˆÏÓ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛yÓ˚ lyÙ çyly ÌyܲˆÏ° í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î
χ
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî n •ˆÏ°ñ χm = ˆÎ!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y•Ü,˛ï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
n
G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° lÎ˚– xlƒylƒ í˛zòy•Ó˚îà%ˆ° Ï y •ˆÏ°y ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l C ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ÓˆÏí˛¸y •ˆÏ° §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y•Ü,˛ï˛ ï˛y˛õ Ü˛Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô
Vm ~ÓÇ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛y Cm– ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌyàï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˛çˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl á%Ó ˆÓ¢# xÌ≈yÍ çˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
ôˆÏÙ≈Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ !lÓ˚%˛õl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ôˆÏÓ˚ lyG ~ܲ!ê˛ V xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ çlƒ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚–
xyÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe T ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§ Ó˚yáy xyˆÏSÈ [!ã˛e ıÈ 6.6(a)]– Cñ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
˛õye!ê˛ˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ §Ùyl xLjϢ !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y [!ã˛e ı 6.6 (b)]
 C
≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ xLjϢÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ál Ù)° ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ •ˆÏÓ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛y Cm =   Ó°ˆÏï˛ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˙ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚
n
V
xÌ≈yÍ •ˆÏÓñ ï˛y˛õÙyey åTä !ܲv ~ܲ•z ˆÌˆÏܲ ÎyˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛yˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–
2
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 169

1 ˆÙy° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 1°C åÓy 1Kä Ó,,!ÂôÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÎ a) ∆ U ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ (Measurements)
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˙ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛y
ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 1°C åÓy 1Kä Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
çlƒ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˙ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ Ó¡∫ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ΈÏsfÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ [!ã˛e ı 6.7]–
ï˛y˛õ Óy xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛y ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Îsf!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ fiê˛#°ÈüÈ~Ó˚ xyÓÂô ˛õye åÓ¡∫ä ç° àyˆÏ• !lÙ!Iï˛
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ çlƒ !ܲ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ (q) ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ï˛y çylyÓ˚ çlƒ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy •Î˚– §Ù@˝Ã Îsf!ê˛ˆÏܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚– ï˛y˛õ
xyÙÓ˚y ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛Ó˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ï˛y˛õˆÏܲ (c) ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ (m) ~ÓÇ ÎyˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˚ lT˛˛ •ˆÏï˛ ly ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§çlƒ•z fiê˛#ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õye!ê˛ˆÏܲ
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (∆T) myÓ˚y à%î ܲ!Ó˚– ˆÎÙlÈüüüÈ ç° !lÙ!Iï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy •Î˚– fiê˛#ˆÏ°Ó˚ ӈϡ∫Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚yáy òy•ƒ
q = c × m × ∆T = C ∆T (6.11)
˛õÓ˚#«˛yô#l ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ !Ó¢%Âô í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ (O2) í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛
(d) xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Ȉ«˛ˆÏe (Cp ) ~ÓÇ (CV )üÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛
(The Relationship between Cp and CV for an Ideal Gas)
!fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛y (C) ˆÜ˛ CV myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ã˛y˛õ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyܲˆÏ° Cp myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ã˛ˆÏ°y Cp ~ÓÇ CV ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lÓ˚%˛õl ܲ!Ó˚– xyÙÓ˚y
!fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚˛(q) ˛§Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ
!°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ qV = CV ∆T = ∆U ~ÓÇ !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ (q)
§Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ qp = C p ∆T = ∆H É
xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Cp ~ÓÇ CVÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÓƒÓôyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚–
1 ˆÙy° xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ∆H = ∆U + ∆(pV )
= ∆U + ∆(RT )
= ∆U + R∆T
∴ ∆H = ∆U + R ∆T ...........................(6.12)
∆H ~ÓÇ ∆UÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ó§yˆÏ° §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ •Î˚
Óyñ CP ∆T = CV ∆T + R∆T
Óyñ Cp = CV + R
Óyñ Cp – CV = R ............................ (6.13) !ã˛e ı 6.7 Ó¡∫ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚
6.3 ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ù!ï˛Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ∆ U ~ÓÇ ∆ HÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈Î˚
ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏly •Î˚– ò•ˆÏl í˛zͲõߨ ï˛y˛õ ӈϡÓ∫ ˚ ã˛yÓ˚˛õyˆÏ¢Ó˚ çˆÏ° SÈ!í˛¸ˆÎÏ ˛˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚
(MEASUREMENT OF ∆ U AND ∆
∆H : CALORIMETRY)
~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛î ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Ó¡∫ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚!ê˛ xyÓÂô
ˆË˛Ôï˛ Óy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛ •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly xÌ≈yÍ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ˆÜ˛Ô¢ˆÏ°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ù!ï˛ ÓˆÏ°– §yˆÏÌ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ù!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ Ü˛ƒyÏ°!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚ lyÙܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÓÂô
Ó¡∫ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÎ˚
˛õyˆÏe §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎ!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° §¡õ)î≈
!lÙ!Iï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÎ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚!ê˛ !lÙ!Iï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈ §¡õy!òï˛ •Î˚!l–
ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛y ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒy°!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ Ó˚ ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛y çyly ÌyܲˆÏ° í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y àƒy§#Î˚ •ˆÏ°G ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲyÎ≈
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛zq$ï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §¡õy!òï˛ •ˆÏÓ ly ܲyÓ˚î ∆V = 0 •Î˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ï ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ!ê˛ ò%!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ¢ˆÏï≈˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛yÓ˚
i) !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlñ qV K˛yï˛ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6.11ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl í˛zqï$ ˛
ii) !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õñ qp ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî qV !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
170
(b) ∆ H ˛˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ (Measurements)
!fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ å§yôyÓ˚îï˛ ÓyÎ%̊Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õä §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !ã˛e ı 6.8 ÈüÈ~ ≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ΈÏsfÓ˚
§y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xyÙÓ˚y çy!l !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ∆H = qp•Î˚–
!fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ í˛zq$ï˛ Óy ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ~•z ï˛y˛õˆÏܲ•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yï˛y˛õ Óy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
~l̃y°!˛õ Ó°y •Î˚ å∆rHä– ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù
ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zq$Âô ï˛y˛õ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ lT˛ •Î˚– ï˛y•z qpÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl
}îydܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ∆rHÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙylG }îydܲ •Î˚– xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ ӈϰ qpÈüÈ ~Ó˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ •Î˚
~ÓÇ ∆rHÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙylG ôlydܲ •Î˚–
!ã˛e ı 6.8 !fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ åÓyÎ%̊Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õä ï˛y˛õÈüÈ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
çlƒ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ Ü˛ƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚–
§Ù§ƒy ı 6.2
298K ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ 1 ÓyÎ˚%Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 1 @˝ÃyÙ @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ˆÏܲ
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚# Ó¡∫ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚ x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛
x!Ï:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ˛õyí˛¸yˆÏly •°–
C å@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ä + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y 298K ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó,!Âô
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ 299K •°– Î!ò ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl
20.7 kJ/K •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 ÓyÎ˚%Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyôyl ı
ô!Ó˚ñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊î ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zͲõߨ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî q ~ÓÇ
ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl CV – §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ Ü˛ƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚
myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî–
q = CV × ∆T
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîñ ܲƒyˆÏ°y!Ó˚!Ùê˛yÓ˚
myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ӈϰ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° í˛zͲõߨ
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyl qÈüÈ~Ó˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓñ !ܲv !ã˛•´ •ˆÏÓ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛–
q = −CV ×∆T = −20.7 kJ / K × ( 299 − 298)K
= – 20.7kJ
[~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ôlydܲ !ã˛•´ myÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆÎ ï˛y˛õí˛zͲõyò# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ï˛y ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚]
xÌ≈yÍ 1 @˝ÃyÙ @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zˆÏê˛Ó˚ ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ∆UÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl
= – 20.7 kJK–1
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ 1 ˆÙy° @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zˆÏê˛Ó˚ ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ∆UÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl
12.0 g mol−1 × ( −20.7 kJ )
=
1g
= – 2.48 × 102 kJ mol–1 ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ∆ ng = 0,
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ∆ H = ∆ U = – 2.48 ×102 kJ mol–1
6.4˛˛Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lÈüÈ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y l¡∫Ó˚
(ENTHALPY CHANGE, ∆rH OF A REACTION –
REACTION ENTHALPY)
ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ •Î˚–
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ → !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈
˛ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÈüÈ
~l̃y°!˛õ Ó°y •Î˚– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ∆rH myÓ˚y §)!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy
∆r H = å!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ –È !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛
õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ~l̃y°!˛õä
= ∑ ai H − ∑ bi H
i
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈
i
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ∑ å!§àÙyä !ã˛•´!ê˛ ˆÎyàÊ˛° ˆÓyV˛yˆÏlyÓ˚ çlƒ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ai G bi •ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ fiê˛Î˚!§_ˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ à%îyAܲ–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õñ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
∆r H = ∑ ai H −∑ bi H
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ˛õòyÌ≈
i i
= [Hm (CO2 ,g) + 2Hm (H2O, l)]– [Hm (CH4 , g)
+ 2Hm (O2, g)]
~áyˆÏl Hm •ˆÏ°y ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ–
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Ó˚y!¢– !¢“ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe !fiÌÓ˚
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sfî ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛
í˛z_Æ#ܲÓ˚î Óy ¢#ï˛!°Ü˛Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çlñ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ܲ“ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §¡∫ˆÏrô §ÙƒÜ˛ ôyÓ˚ly Ìyܲy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl– í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚
G˛õÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛y àîly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒG ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚–
(a)˛˛≤ÃÙyî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~l̃y°!˛õ (Standard enthalpy of
reactions)˛
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ü˛# ܲ# ¢ˆÏï˛≈ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
•ˆÏFSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ~çlƒ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ≤ÃyÙyîƒ ¢ˆÏï˛≈ Ó˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl
•Î˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# §ÙhflÏ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y
Îál ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ≤ÃÙyî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰ–
!l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 ÓyÓ˚ (bar) ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî
xÓfiÌy•z •ˆÏ°y ˙ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !Ó¢%Âô Ó˚)˛õ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ 298 K
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 ÓyÓ˚ (bar) ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ï˛Ó˚° •zÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌy•z •ˆÏ°y
!Ó¢%Âô ï˛Ó˚° •zÌyl°– xyÓyÓ˚ 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 ÓyÓ˚ (bar) ã˛yˆÏ˛õ
ܲ!ë˛l xyÎ˚Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌy•z •ˆÏ°y !Ó¢%Âô xyÎ˚Ó˚l–
∆H !ã˛•´!ê˛ˆÏï˛ §%˛õyÓ˚!fl;≤Wz ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyl xÓfiÌy !lˆÏò≈¢
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÎÙlñ ∆Hθ–
(b)˛ ò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆl Ï ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (Enthalph changes
during phase transformations)˛
171
ò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%!°ˆÏï˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚–
ˆÎÙl ÓÓ˚Ê˛ à°ˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚– à°l §yôyÓ˚îï˛
!fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ åÓyÎ%̊Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õä §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
(6.14)
§ÙÎ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y !fiÌÓ˚ å273 Kä ÌyˆÏܲ–
H2O(s) → H2O(l); ∆fusH θ = 6.00 kJ moI–1
∆fusH θ •ˆÏ°y à°ˆÏlÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ– ç° Îál ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚lï˛
•Î˚ ï˛ál !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §Ù ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ
!là≈ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈ SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õˆÏí˛¸–
!fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ܲ @˝ÃyÙ xl% ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚
à°lyˆÏAܲ˛ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ í˛z=˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ à°ˆÏlÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ Óy
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ à°l ~l̃y°!˛õ ∆fusH θ ӈϰ–
à°l ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yñ ï˛y•z §Ü˛° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ à°ˆÏlÓ˚
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ •Î˚– çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •Î˚– !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ G çˆÏ°Ó˚ fl≥%˛ê˛lyˆÏAܲÓ˚ (Tb) !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ñ
H2O(l) → H2O(g); ∆vapHθ = + 40.79 kJ moI–1
~áyˆÏlñ ∆vapH θ •° ≤ÃÙyî Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ–
!fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ (1 bar) ~ܲ @˝ÃyÙ xl% ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛
ï˛yÓ˚ fl≥%˛ê˛lyˆÏAܲ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÓyˆÏ‹õ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ í˛z=˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
~l̃y°!˛õ Óy ˆÙy°yÓ˚ Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~l̃y°!˛õ ∆vapH θ ӈϰ–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Óyflõ#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚
Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •GÎ˚yˆÏܲ í˛zôÁ≈˛õyï˛l ӈϰ– ܲ!ë˛l CO2 Óy Ú¢%‹Ò ÓÓ˚Ê˛Û
195 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ í˛zôÁ≈˛õy!ï˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ∆subH θ=25.2 kJ mol–1
•Î˚– lƒy˛õÌy!°l ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ í˛zôÁ≈˛õy!ï˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ çˆÏlƒ
∆sub H θ= 73.0 kJ mol–1 È •Î˚–
!fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 1 (bar) G í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ@˝ÃyÙ xl% ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õ)îÓ≈ ˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ Óy‹õ#Î˚ò¢yÎ˚ Ó˚˛) õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛
ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ í˛z=˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî
í˛zôÁ≈˛õyï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ∆sub H θ ӈϰ–
ˆÎ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏFSÈ ˆ§!ê˛Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚yl!Óܲ xyܲ£Ï≈l
Ó° ܲï˛ê˛y ¢!=˛¢y°#ñ ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl !lË≈˛Ó˚
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%àˆ% °
Ï y ¢!=˛¢y°# •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl Órôl
myÓ˚y ï˛Ó˚° ò¢yÎ˚ ~ܲ!eï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– xƒy!§ˆÏê˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y §ÙˆÏÎyç#
ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xl%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ !mˆÏÙÓ˚%Èüü!mˆÏÙÓ˚% xyܲ£Ï≈l Ó°
á%Ó•z ò)Ó≈° •Î˚–
172
§yÓ˚!î 6.1 ≤ÃÙyî à°l ~ÓÇ Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
åTf ~ÓÇ Tb •ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ à°lyAܲ ~ÓÇ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲä
~ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî 1 ˆÙy° çˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ 1 ˆÙy° xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ylˆÏܲ
§¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Óy‹õ#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ xˆÏlܲ Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ï˛y˛õ °yˆÏà– 6.1 §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ !ܲS%È ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ à°l ~ÓÇ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
çlƒ ≤ÃÙyî ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y–
§Ù§ƒy 6.7
§%•z!ÙÇ ˛õ%° ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏë˛ xy§yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~ܲçl §yï˛yÓ%̊Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ
¢Ó˚#ˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ç° ˆ°ˆÏà!SÈ° ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî 1.8 @˝ÃyÙ– 298
K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §Ù@˝Ã ç° ÓyˆÏflõ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ !ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ
§Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ 100C0 í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈñ
373K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ∆vap H θ= 40.66 kJ mol–1
§Ùyôyl
Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı
Óy‹õ#˲Ól
18g H 2O(1) ........................
 →18 g H 2 O( g )
18 g
18 @˝ÃyÙ çˆÏ°Ó˚ (l) ˆÙy° §Çáƒy = = 18 g mol −1 = 1 mol
∆ vapU = ∆ vap H θ − p∆V = ∆ vap H θ − ∆ng RT
åôˆÏÓ˚ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xyã˛Ó˚î
ܲˆÏÓä˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
∆ vap H Θ − ∆ng RT = 40.66 kJ mol −1
− (1)(8.314 JK −1mol −1 )(373K ) (10−3 kJ J −1 )
∆ vap U Θ = 40.66 kJ mol −1 − 3.10 kJ mol −1
= 37.56kJ mol −1
(c) ˛˛≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ (Standard enthalpy of
farmating)˛
1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yl ˆÎÔˆÏà ï˛yÓ˚ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# §Ó≈y!ôܲ fiÌyÎ˚# xÓfiÌyÓ˚
åÎyˆÏܲ ˆÓ˚Ê˛yˆÏÓ˚™ ˆfiê˛ê˛ ӈϰä í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚
à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏ° ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚
≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛ÓˆÏ°– ˆÜ˛yl ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyl àë˛l
~l̃y°!˛õˆÏܲ ∆f H θ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl §yÓ!fl;≤Wz ‘f ’
!lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ 1 ˆÙy° §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ˆÎÔà!ê˛ ï˛yÓ˚
àë˛lܲyÓ˚# §Ó≈y!ôܲ fiÌyÎ˚# í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ˆÜ˛yl ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆÓ˚Ê˛yˆÏÓ˚™ ˆfiê˛ê˛ Ó°ˆÏï˛ 25°C G 1 ÓyÓ˚ (bar)
ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÙÔ°!ê˛Ó˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ fiÌyÎ˚# xÓfiÌyˆÏܲ Ó%V˛yÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ §Ó≈y!ôܲ fiÌyÎ˚# xÓfiÌy •ˆÏ°y H2 àƒy§ ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçlñ
ܲyÓ≈l G §y°Ê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ó≈y!ôܲ fiÌyÎ˚# xÓfiÌy •ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
O2 àƒy§ñ C @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ G SÓ˚!¡∫ܲ˛– ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y ı
H2(g) + ½O2 (g) → H2O(1);
∆f H θ = –285.8 kJ mol–1
C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛, s) + 2H2(g) → CH4 (g);
∆f Hθ= –74.81 kJ mol–1
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy
§yÓ˚!î 6.2 : 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ !lÓ≈y!ã˛ï˛ õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ Ùyl (∆ f H θ)
2C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ê˛, s)+3H2 (g)+ ½O2(g) → C2H5OH(1)
∆f Hθ= –277.7 kJ mol–1
~ê˛y ˆçˆÏl Ó˚yáy ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl ˆÎ ≤ÃÙyî ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õñ
∆f H θ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ∆rH θñ Îál 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ˆÎÔà ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˜ï˛Ó˚# •Î˚ñ ˆÎÙlê˛y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
!ï˛l!ê˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È ˆÎáyˆÏl 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ç°ñ !ÙˆÏÌl ~ÓÇ •zÌyl° ˜ï˛Ó˚# •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l /
CaO(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s);
∆rHθ = – 178.3kJ mol–1
ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlˆÏê˛Ó˚ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ lyñ ܲyÓ˚î
173
ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆÏlê˛ !lˆÏçÓ˚ í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˜ï˛Ó˚# ly •ˆÏÎ˚
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe xlƒylƒ ˆÎÔà ˆÌˆÏܲ ˜ï˛Ó˚# •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
HBr(g) ≤Û!ï˛Ó˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl §Ùyl •Î˚ ly–
H2(g) + Br2(l) → 2HBr(g);
∆r Hθ = – 72.8 kJ mol–1
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe í˛z˛õyòyl ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ܲ xl%Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ ò%•z
xl% !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xÌ≈yÍ
∆r Hθ = 2∆f Hθ
ï˛y•z §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ §•àˆÏܲ 2 myÓ˚y ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚
HBr(g) ≤Û!ï˛Ó˚ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !lî≈ˆÎ Ï Ó˚ ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚–
174 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

½H2(g) + ½Br2(1) → HBr(g);
∆f H = – 36.4 kJ mol
θ –1
!ܲS%È !ܲS%È ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl 6.2 §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛
ˆòÎ˚y •°–
≤ÃÌy xl%ÎyÎ˚# ˆÓ˚Ê˛yˆÏÓ˚™ ˆfiê˛ê˛ÈüÈ~ åxÌ≈yÍ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ fiÌyÎ˚#
xÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏÜ˛ä ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ñ ∆f H θ
ÙylˆÏܲ ¢)lƒ (zero) ôÓ˚y •Î˚–
ôˆÏÓ˚ lyG ï%˛!Ù ~ܲçl ˆÜ˛!ÙˆÏܲ° •z!Ol#Î˚Ó˚ ~ÓÇ çylˆÏï˛ ã˛y•zSÈ
ܲƒy°!¢Î˚ y Ù Ü˛yÓ≈ ˆ Ï l ê˛ˆÏ Ü ˛ !ÓˆÏ Î ˚ y !çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏ Ó ˚ ˆ˛õyí˛¸ y ã% ˛ l G
ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈí»˛y•zÈüÈx:y•zí˛ àƒyˆÏ§ ˛õ!Ó˚lï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çlñ ˆÎáyˆÏl §ÙhflÏ ˛˛˛õòyÌ≈ à%ˆ°Ï y ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g); ∆r Hθ = ?
≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ó– ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l àîly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î §Ù#ܲÓ˚l!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
∆rH θ= ∑ ai ∆f H θ(!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈) – ∑ bi ∆f H θ(!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈)
i i
ӈϰ– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ò¢y å~Ùl !ܲ
Ó˚)˛õˆÏ˲ˆÏòÓ˚ lyÙGä xyÙÓ˚y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲ!Ó˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ı
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l);
∆rH θ = – 1367 kJ mol–1
G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˆòˆÏá ˆÓyV˛y ÎyˆÏFSÈ ï˛Ó˚° •zÌylˆÏ°Ó˚ ò•l
!l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
}îydܲ Ùyl!ê˛ ˆòˆÏá ˆÓyV˛y ÎyˆÏFSÈ ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ï˛y˛õòyÎ˚#
(Exothermic) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y–
ï˛y˛õÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ !lˆÏ¡¨ í˛zˆÏÕ‘!áï˛ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛
!lÎ˚Ùà%ˆÏ°y ˆçˆÏl Ó˚yáy òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚–
1. §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ ï˛y˛õ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §•à à%ˆÏ°y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ xl% §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ
lÎ˚–
2. ∆rH θ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §Çáƒy Ùyl (Numerical Value) myÓ˚y í˛zˆÏÕ‘!áï˛
§Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ≤ÃÙyî
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ å∆rH θä ~ܲܲ kJ mol–1 •Î˚–
ôyÓ˚îy!ê˛ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y

(6.15) ï˛y˛õ àîly ܲ!Ó˚ /

ˆÎáyˆÏl a ~ÓÇ b •ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî Fe2 O3 ( s ) + 3H 2 ( g ) → 2 Fe ( s ) + 3H 2 O (l ) ,
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% °Ï yÓ˚ §•à – ܲƒy°!¢Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆlÏ ˆÏê˛Ó˚ 6.2 ȧÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ å∆rH θä Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ
!ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à xyÙÓ˚y çylˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ
ܲ!Ó˚– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe a G b í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §•à •ˆÏFSÈ 1. ∆f H θ (H2O,l) = –285.83 kJ mol–1;
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ∆f H θ (Fe2O3,s) = – 824.2 kJ mol–1;
∆ rH θ = ∆ f H θ
[CaO(s)]+ ∆f H θ[CO2(g)]
ï˛ySÈyí˛¸y ≤ÃÌyàï˛ !lÎ˚Ù xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ
– ∆f H θ [CaCO3(s)]
∆f H θ (Fe, s) = 0 ~ÓÇ
=1 (–635.1 kJ mol–1) + 1(–393.5 kJ mol–1)
∆f H θ (H2, g) = 0
–1
–1(–1206.9 kJ mol )
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ
–1
= 178.3 kJ mol ∆rH 1θ = 3(–285.83 kJ mol–1)
xÌ≈yÍ CaCO3(s)ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ – 1(– 824.2 kJ mol–1)
í˛zj#T˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° ˆï˛yÙyˆÏܲ CaCO3(s) ˆÜ˛ = (–857.5 + 824.2) kJ mol–1
í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ–
= –33.3 kJ mol–1
(d)˛˛ï˛y˛õÈüÈÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §Ù)• (Thermochemical
°«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚ àîly!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ §Ü˛° à%îyAܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ
equations)˛
ï˛yÓ˚y §Ü˛ˆÏ°•z !Ó¢%Âô §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ Ùyl ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ
ˆÎ §Ü˛° Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆlÏ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ à%lyˆÏAܲÓ˚ §Ùyl– ∆r H θ ~Ó˚ ~ܲܲ kJ mol–1 ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ ≤Ã!ï˛
§ˆÏAà ∆rH ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆòÎ˚y ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆÙy°ÈüÈ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ í˛zͲõߨ ï˛y˛õ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 175

!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ ܲ!Ó˚ñ ï˛ál ~!ê˛ myÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚–
ˆÙy° §Çáƒy ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ §Ùï˛yÎ%=˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲÌy•z ôÓ˚y Îyܲ–
ˆÎÙlÈüüüÈ
1
1 3 3 C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛,s) + O (g) → CO (g); ∆r H θ = ?
Fe2O3 ( s ) + H 2 ( g ) → Fe ( s) + H 2O (l ) 2 2
2 2 2
~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y•z •ˆÏ°y 1 ˆÙy°ÈüÈ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ï˛ál È∆r H θ È~Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Ù)რ!Ó !Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ CO(g) !ܲv !ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî CO2
Ùyl •Î˚ÈüüüÈ àƒy§G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– ï˛y•z §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ
3 ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– !ܲv §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y
∆r H 2θ = (–285.83 kJ mol–1)
2 §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~Ùl !ܲS%È !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl
–
1
(–824.2 kJ mol–1)
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ
2
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
= (– 428.7 + 412.1) kJ mol–1
= –16.6 kJ mol–1 = ½ ∆r H θ1 ˆÎÙl §Ç!Ÿ’T˛ !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ à%ˆ°
Ï y myÓ˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ~Ùl ò%!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y •ˆÏ°yı
~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈ C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛,s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g); (i)
(Extensive Property)– ∆r H θ = – 393.5 kJ mol–1
3. ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏŒê˛y˲yˆÏÓ !°áˆÏ° ∆r H θÈüÈ~Ó˚
1
Ùyl !ë˛Ü˛ ÌyܲˆÏ°G !ã˛•´ ˛õyˆÏŒê˛ ÎyÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õÈüÈ CO (g) + O (g) → CO2 (g) (ii)
N2(g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g); 2 2
∆r H θ = – 283.0 kJ mol–1
∆r H θ = – 91.8 kJ. mol–1
2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2 (g); ~ál !Ó !Ü ˛Î˚yò%!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ!eï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓñ ÎyˆÏï˛ G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
∆r H = + 91.8 kJ mol
θ –1
í˛z!jT˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛yl !òˆÏܲ 1 ˆÙy° CO(g) ˆ˛õˆÏï˛
•ˆÏ° xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ (ii) lÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙ !°áˆÏï˛ ˛•ˆÏÓ
(e)˛˛ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÈüȧÙ!T˛Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)e (Hess’s Law of
~ÓÇ ï˛ál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛zqÓ ly •ˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆ¢y£Ïl âê˛ˆÏÓ–
Constant Heat Summation)˛
ï˛y•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆rH θ Ùyl §Ùyl ÌyܲˆÏ°G !ã˛•´ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ •ˆÏÓñ
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ñ ï˛y•z Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ 1
CO2 (g) → CO (g) + O (g); (iii)
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌy å!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ä 2 2
ˆÌˆÏܲ x!hs˝Ù xÓfiÌyÎ˚ å!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ä ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ∆r H θ = + 283.0 kJ mol–1
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y (i) G (ii) §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y í˛z!jT˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˛õyˆÏÓy
~ܲ!ê˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ ôyˆÏ˛õ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏ°G í˛z˲Î˚ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe•z ~ÓÇ ∆rH θ ~Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ó–
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ– ~ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y/ ∆r H θ = (– 393.5 + 283.0) kJ mol–1

!l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷ïÏ ˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ x!hs˝Ù = – 110.5 kJ mol–1

xÓfiÌy x˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ÌyܲˆÏ°ñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ôyˆÏ˛õ §¡õߨ •ˆÏ°
ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ Î!ò !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ~ܲy!ôܲ
ôyˆÏ˛õ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÙyê˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈y=˛
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ–
ã˛ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §)e!ê˛Ó˚ à%Óc%˚ xl%ôyÓl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y
§yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° A ˆÌˆÏܲ B §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°
Î!ò ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ∆rH θ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ A ˆÌˆÏܲ C
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ñ C ˆÌˆÏܲ D ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚ D ˆÌˆÏܲ
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ B ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z !˲ߨ !˲ߨ ôy˛õà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ∆rH1, ∆rH2, ∆rH3..... ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eyl%ÎyÎ˚#
∆rH = ∆rH1 + ∆rH2 + ∆rH3 ... (6.16)
176 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÓ˚áy!ã˛ˆÏeÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°y ܲÓ˚y •°– ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° CO2(g) ~ÓÇ H2O(l) í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏ°y
∆rH ~ÓÇ §ˆÏAà 3267.0 kJ mol–1 ï˛y˛õ !là≈ï˛ •ˆÏ°y– ˆÓ!OˆÏlÓ˚
A B
≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ï˛y˛õ (∆f H θ) àîly ܲˆÏÓy˚ – CO2(g) ~ÓÇ H2O(l)
∆H1 ∆rH3 ÈüÈ ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ï˛y˛õ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ –393.5 kJ mol–1 ~ÓÇ
C D –285.83 kJ mol–1–
∆rH2
§Ùyôyl : 6.8
6.5 È!˲ߨ !˲ߨ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÈüÈ~l̃y°!˛õ (Enthalpies for ˆÓ!Ol àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y
Different Type of Reactions)˛ 6C å@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ä + 3H2(g) → C6H6(1);
≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ ôyÓ˚y xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ôÓ˚l xl%ÎyÎ˚# ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ lyÙyܲÓ˚î ∆f H θ = ? ... (i)
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
1 ˆÙy° ˆÓ!OˆÏlÓ˚ ò•l ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y
(a) ≤ÃÙyî ò•lÈ ü È ~ l̃y°!˛õ (Standard Enthalpy of
15
Combustion (È!ã˛•´ : ∆ cH θ ) C6 H 6 (l ) + O2 → 6CO2 ( g ) + 3H 2 O (l ) ;
2
ò•l ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õòyÎ˚# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– !¢“ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeñ Ó˚ˆÜÏ ˛ê˛ í˛z͈ϫ˛˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ܲyˆÏç ∆C H θ = – 3267 kJ mol–1... (ii)
~ÓÇ ˜òl!®l ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ܲyˆÏç ò•l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ à%Ó˚%c
x˛õ!Ó˚§#Ù– !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ G ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~ܲ ˆÙy° åÓy ~ܲ 1 ˆÙy° CO2(g) ~Ó˚ ò•l ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y
@˝ÃyÙ xl%ä ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §¡õ)î≈ ò•ˆÏl í˛zͲõߨ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g);
˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% °
Ï yG Î!ò G•z ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ò•l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛
ˆÎ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî ò•l ∆f H θ = – 393.5 kJ mol–1... (iii)
~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰ–
1 ˆÙy° H2O(l) ~Ó˚ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y ı
Ó˚yߨyÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !§!°u˛yÓ˚ Ù)°ï˛/ !Óí˛zˆÏê˛l (C4H10) àƒy§ ÌyˆÏܲ– 1
H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → H 2 O (l ) ;
~ܲ ˆÙy° !Óí˛zˆÏê˛l àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §¡õ)î≈ ò•ˆÏl 2658 kJ ï˛y˛õ !là≈ï˛ 2
•Î˚– ~•z ï˛y˛õ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚– ∆fH θ = – 285.83 kJ mol–1... (iv)
13
C4 H10 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 4CO2 ( g ) + 5 H 2O (l );
2 (iii) lÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 6 myÓ˚y ~ÓÇ (iv) lÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ 3 myÓ˚y˛
∆C H θ = – 2658.0 kJ mol–1
à%î ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y ı
xl%Ó˚)˛õ ˲yˆÏÓ @’%ˆÏܲyˆÏçÓ˚ ò•ˆÏl 2802.0 kJ mol–1 ï˛y˛õ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚
6C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g);
~ÓÇ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı
C6 H12 O6 ( g ) + 6O2 ( g ) → 6CO2 ( g ) + 6 H 2 O(l ); ∆f H θ = – 2361 kJ mol–1
∆C H θ = – 2802.0 kJ mol–1 3
3H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 3H 2O (1) ;
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆòˆÏ•G @’%ˆÏܲyˆÏçÓ˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ çyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y áyˆÏòƒÓ˚ 2
çyÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ¢!=˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ñ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe í˛zÍˆÏ§ã˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ∆f H θ = – 857.49 kJ mol–1

ܲï˛à%ˆ°
Ï y ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ ç!ê˛° ˜çÓÈüÈÓy˚ §yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ò%!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y ı
˛õÓ˚ x!hs˝Ù ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– 15
6C(@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛) +3H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 6CO2 ( g ) + 3H 2 O (l ) ;
§Ù§ƒy 6.8 2

1 xƒyê˛Ù§!Ê˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ 298 K ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ 1 ˆÓ!OlˆÏܲ ò•l ∆f H θ = – 3218.49 kJ mol–1... (v)

ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy
(ii) lÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ü ˛ˆÏÙ ˆ°áy •ˆÏ°y ı
15
6CO2 ( g ) + 3H2 O ( l ) → C6 H6 ( l ) + O2 ;
2
∆f H θ = 3267.0 kJ mol–1... (vi)
(v) ~ÓÇ (vi) lÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°yı
6C (@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛) + 3H2 (g) → C6H2 (1);
∆f H θ = 48.51 kJ mol–1... (iv)
(b) xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ (Enthalpy of atomization
(!ã˛•´˛: ∆ aH 0 )
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xl% ˆÌˆÏܲ ˛õÓ˚Ùyl% àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı
H2(g) → 2H(g); ∆aH θ = 435.0 kJ mol–1
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆòˆÏá ˆÓyV˛y ÎyˆÏFSÈñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xl%ÙôƒfiÌ H–H Órôl!ê˛
!Ó˲y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyl% í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
§Çâ!ë˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ•z xƒy!ê˛Ùy•zˆç
Ï ¢l
~l̃y°!˛õ ∆aH ӈϰ– θ
àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~ܲ ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Órôl §¡õ)î≈ !Ó˲y!çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ
xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰ– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y åG˛õˆÏÓ˚
≤Ãò!¢≈ï˛ä !m˛õÓ˚yÙyî%ܲ xl%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆç
Ï ¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ
Órôl !Ó˲yçl ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ܲ•z •Î˚– xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆç Ï ¢l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
xlƒylƒ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î •ˆÏ°yñ
CH4(g) → C(g) + 4H(g); ∆aH θ = 1665 kJ mol
–1
°«˛ƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ ܲyÓ≈l ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçlÈüÈ~Ó˚
ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ˛õÓ˚Ùyl% í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~ál !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆòá
Na(s) → Na(g) ; ∆aH θ = 108.4 kJ mol
–1
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ í˛zôÁ≈˛õyï˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ
~ܲ•z •Î˚–
(c) Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ (Bond Enthalpy ( !ã•´ : ∆ bondH θ )
Órôl !Ó˲yçl ~ÓÇ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
•Î˚– Órôl !Ó˲y!çï˛ Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Órôl
˜ï˛!Ó˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó˲yçl
~ÓÇ àë˛l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÎ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ÓrôlÈüÈ~Ó˚
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §¡∫rô#Î˚ ò%!ê˛ê˛ !˲ߨ ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£ÏyÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
177
i) Órôl !Ó˲yçl ~l̃y°!˛õ (Bond dissociation Enthalpy)
ii) àí˛¸ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ (Mean Bond Enthalpy)
~•z ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy à%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ §¡∫ˆrÏ ô xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y !m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ
~ÓÇ Ó•%˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xl%Ó˚ §y•y΃ ˆlÓ–
!m˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xl% / ôÓ˚y Îyܲñ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl (H2) àƒyˆÏ§ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ Órôlà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !Ó˲y!çï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y
•ˆÏ°yı
H2(g) → 2H(g) ; ∆H–HH θ = 435.0 kJ mol
–1
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛y H–H Órôl !Ó˲yçl
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yl
§ÙˆÏÎyç# ˆÎÔà ÙôƒfiÌ §ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôlà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !Ó˲y!çï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚
àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ Órôl !Ó˲yçl ~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰ–
°«˛ƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚y •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xl%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Órôl !Ó˲yçl ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ
xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl §Ùyl •Î˚– §ÙhflÏ !m˛õyÓ˚Ùyl%ܲ
xî%Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z ~!ê˛ §!ë˛Ü˛– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ
Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g) ; ∆Cl–ClH θ = 242 kJ mol
–1
O2(g) → 2O(g) ; ∆O=OH θ = 428 kJ mol
–1
Ó•%˛˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xl%àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xl%ÙôƒfiÌ !Ó!˲ߨ Órôlà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ Órôl
!Ó˲yçl ˛¢!=˛ !Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚–
Ó•%˛õyÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ xl% / !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y (CH4) ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó•%˛õyÓ˚Ùyî%ܲ
xl%Ó˚ ܲÌy ˲yÓy Îy܉˛– ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ ï˛y˛õ
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı
CH4(g) → C(g) + 4H (g);
∆a H θ = 1665 kJ mol–1
!ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ (CH4) ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ C – H ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ Órôl¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ Órôl˜Ïòâ≈ƒ
§Ùyl– !ܲv Ü ˛Ùyß∫ˆÎÏ ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ C – H ÓrôlˆÏܲ !Ó˲y!çï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆ°
Ï
≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ C – H Órôl !Ó˲yçl ¢!=˛ ˛§Ùyl •Î˚ lyñ
CH4(g) → CH3(g)+H(g);∆bondHθ = +427 kJ mol–1
CH3(g) → CH2(g)+H(g);∆bond Hθ = +439 kJ mol–1
CH2(g) → CH(g)+H(g);∆bond Hθ = +452 kJ mol–1
CH(g) → C(g)+H(g);∆bond Hθ = +347 kJ mol–1
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ
CH4(g) → C(g)+4H(g);∆a Hθ = 1665 kJ mol–1
~ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyÙÓ˚y C – H ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ Órôl
~l̃y°!˛õ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚–
178 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ CH4 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆C–HH θ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ∆r H θ = ∑ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yܲ
!l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ı
∆C–HH θ = ¼ (∆a Hθ ) = ¼ (1665 kJ mol–1) − ∑ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈
= 416 kJ mol–1
(6.17)**
ˆòáy ˆà° !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ C–H Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl •° 416 ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ àë˛lï˛y˛õ ∆ H θ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl çyly ˆl•z ~Ùl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
f
kJ/mol – !˲ߨ !˲ߨ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z àí˛¸ C–H Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ àîlyÓ˚ ܲyˆÏç ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ á%Ó•z í˛z˛õܲyÓ˚#– ˆÜ˛yl
ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲS%Èê˛y ï˛yÓ˚ï˛Ùƒ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÎÙl CH3CH2Cl,CH3NO2 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ó°ˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ §ÙhflÏ
•zï˛ƒy!ò ˆÎÔˆÏàñ Î!òG ~•z ï˛yÓ˚ï˛ˆÏÙƒÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !Ó¢y° !ܲS%È lÎ˚– * Órôlà%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ ˲yAàyÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– 6.3 ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ Órôlà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˲yAàyÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚
§yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ ~ܲÓrôl ~ÓÇ Ó•%ÓrôlÈüÈ~Ó˚ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yàÊ˛°ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáy òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xyl%Ùy!lܲ
Ùyl ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ Ó˚y!¢ ˆÜ˛lly §¡õÜ≈˛ ~ÓÇ §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y àƒy§#Î˚
˛õ)Óï≈ ˛l ÓrôlÈüÈ~Ó˚ !Ó˲yçl ~ÓÇ lï%˛l ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ ò¢yÎ˚ ÌyܲˆÏ°•z ~•z §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ~!ê˛ ç!í˛¸ï˛– !˲ߨ !˲ߨ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ Ùyl
çyly ÌyܲˆÏ° àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~Ùl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ (d) oÓî ~l̃y°!˛õ (Enthalpy of Solution ( !ã˛•´ ı ∆ solH )
θ

~l̃y°!˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃÙyî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî oyÓˆÏܲ
~l̃y°!˛õ ∆rHθ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ˆ§ê˛y•z •ˆÏ°y
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı ˙ ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛Ó˚ oÓî ~l̃y°!˛õ–˛ õÎ≈yÆ oyÓˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yl oyÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ
§yÓ˚!î 6.3(a) 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ kJ mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ !ܲS%È ~ܲÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl
H C N O F Si P S Cl Br I
435.8 414 389 464 569 293 318 339 431 368 297 H
347 293 351 439 289 264 259 330 276 238 C
159 201 272 - 209 - 201 243 - N
138 184 368 351 - 205 - 201 O
155 540 490 327 255 197 - F
176 213 226 360 289 213 Si
213 230 331 272 213 P
213 251 213 - S
243 218 209 Cl
192 180 Br
151 I

§yÓ˚!î 6.3(a) 298 K ~ÓÇ kJ mol–1 ~ܲˆÏܲ ܲˆÏÎ˚ܲ!ê˛ Ó•% ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ àí˛¸ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl
N=N 418 C=C 611 O = O 498
N≡N 946 C≡ C 837
C=N 615 C=O 741
C≡N 891 C≡O 1070

* °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y Órôl !Ó˲yçl ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ àí˛¸ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ•z !ã˛•´ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
** àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ˆÌˆÏܲ 1 ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Órôl ˜ï˛Ó˚# ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ Órôl àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õˆÏܲ
∆f H θÓrôl §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ∆f H θ = ∑ ∆f H θ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Órôl – ∑ ∆f H θ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Órôl
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 179

oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ x§#Ù Na + Cl - ( s ) → Na + ( g ) + Cl - ( g ) ;

°â%ï˛yÓ˚ ˙ oyÓ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ oÓî ~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰ– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
∆latticeH θ = +788 kJ mol–1
xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ åÓy oyÓÈüÈxl%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ä ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ làlƒ
ôÓ˚y •Î˚– çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õÂô!ï˛ ˆl•z ӈϰ
˛õˆÏÓy˚ «˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ l܉˛¢y ˜ï˛Ó˚# ܲˆÏÓ˚ çy°Ü˛
xyÎ˚ l #Ó˚ ˆÎÔàˆÏ Ü ˛ ˆÜ˛yl oyÓˆÏ Ü ˛ oÓ#Ë) ˛ ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ ˆ Ï ° ~l̃y°!˛õ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z l܉˛¢y!ê˛ˆÏܲ Ól≈ ÈüȈ•ÓyÓ˚ÈüÈã˛Ü ˛ (Born
ˆÜ˛°y§ÈüÈçy°ˆÏܲÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ §Iy ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ Haber Cycle) ӈϰ– ( !ã˛eı 6.9 )
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ã˛°ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– !ܲv ~ܲ•z §yˆÏÌ
~ál xyÙÓ˚y !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Na+cl–(s) xyÎ˚l#Î˚
xyÎ˚là%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ oyÓܲyÎ˚l ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ã˛°ˆÏï˛ åoyÓܲ ç° •ˆÏ° ç°ˆÏÎyçl
ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚ çy°Ü˛ ~lƒÌƒy°!˛õ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy /
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yä ÌyˆÏܲ– AB(s) xyÎ˚l#Ó˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
l܉˛¢yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°yı 1. Na (s ) → Na( g ) , ˛ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ôyï%˛Ó˚ í˛zôÁ≈˛õyï˛l
∆subH θ = 108.4 kJ mol–1
2. Na( g ) → Na + ( g ) + e −1 ( g ) , ˆ§y!í˛Î˚ y Ù ˛õÓ˚ Ù yî% Ó ˚
xyÎ˚l#˲Ólñ xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ
–1
∆iHθ = 496 kJ mol
1
3. Cl2 ( g ) → Cl ( g ) , ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l xî%Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçlñ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
2
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~l̃y°!˛õ Órôl !Ó˲yçl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ •Î˚ñ
1 –1
∆ Hθ = 121 kJ mol
2 bond

çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ AB(s) ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚ oÓl ~l̃y°!˛õ (∆solH θÈ)üÈ~Ó˚

Ùyl !lÓ≈y!ã˛ï˛ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ ∆latticeHθ ~ÓÇ
ç°ˆÏÎyçl ~l̃y°!˛õ ∆hydHθ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
∆sol H θ = ∆latticeH θ + ∆hydH θ
ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆solH θÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ •Î˚
~ÓÇ !Ó˲yçl (dissociation) ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# •Î˚– ~ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §ˆÏAà §ˆÏAà ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà °ÓˆÏîÓ˚•z çˆÏ° oyÓƒï˛y Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÓ¢# •ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yl ˆÎÔàˆÏܲ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛
ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lyG •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˆÓ¢#Ó˚˲yà ˆÊœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ˆÎÔàà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y
xl%Ó˚)˛õ (coresponding) ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ˆÎÔà ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
Órôl ¢!=˛ å~l̃y°!˛õä ~ÓÇ çy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛ å~l̃y°!˛õäÈüÈÓ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓÂô
Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yl ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓˆ˚ ïÏ ˛ ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õÛÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓñ ï˛yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ (Lattic Enthalpy)
~ܲ ˆÙy° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔàˆÏܲ §¡õ)îÓ≈ ˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
≤Ã˲yÓ Ó!ç≈ï˛ àƒy§#Î˚ §Çàë˛Ü˛ xyÎ˚ˆlÏ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ G•z xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ °ƒy!ê˛§ ~l̃y°!˛õ
Óy çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ ӈϰ– !ã˛e ı 6.9 NaclÈüÈ~Ó˚ çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ !lî≈ˆÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ l܉˛¢y–
180 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

4. Cl ( g ) + e −1 ( g ) → Cl ( g ) ñ
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛ 2RT ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ü˛Ù •Î˚ åܲyÓ˚î ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
∆ng = 2ä ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ùyl •Î˚ + 783 kJ mol–1– çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
§ÇˆÏÎyçlñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l §ÇˆÏÎyçl ~l̃y°!˛õñ
Ùyl ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ál xyÙÓ˚y oÓî
∆egHθ = – 348.6 kJ mol –1 .
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ó–
xyÎ˚ll ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛
ˆï˛yÙÓ˚ y ï, ˛ ï˛#Î˚ xôƒyˆÏ Î ˚ ˆçˆÏ l ˆÏ S È y – ≤ÃÜ, ˛ ï˛˛õˆÏ « ˛ ~•z ∆solHθ = ∆latticeHθ + ∆hydHθ
˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ 1 ˆÙy° NaCl(s)ÈüÈ~Ó˚ çy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ= + 788 kJ mol–1
~•z ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ xyÎ˚ll ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
xy§!=˛ Ó°y •ˆÏï˛y– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y ~Ó˚ ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛y ~ÓÇ ∆hydH θ = – 784 kJ mol –1 åoyÓܲyÎ˚l ¢!=˛Ó˚ §yÓ˚î# ˆÌˆÏܲä
Îyã˛y•z ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ– ∆sol H θ = + 788 kJ mol –1 – 784 kJ mol –1
= + 4 kJ mol–1
xyÎ˚ll ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ xÌ≈yÍ Ü˛!ë˛l NaCl(s)È üÈ~Ó˚ oyÓܲyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ §yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
xyÎ˚ll ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ˛õÓ˚Ù ¢)îƒ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚–
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ˆÜ˛lly xlƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
6.6 fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y (Spontaneity) /
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚ˆ° Ï !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ï˛y˛õ @˝Ã•#ï˛yÓ˚
Ùyl àîlyÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)e ˆÌˆÏܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï≈,˛Ü˛ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ
!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù myÓ˚y §¡õy!òï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈ xÌÓy !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ §¡õߨ ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚
M(g) → M+(g) + e– åxyÎ˚lˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒä
ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ çyly ÎyÎ˚– !ܲv ï˛y˛õ ˆÜ˛yl‰ !òˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÓñ ˆ§
M(g) + e– → M –(g) å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒä
§¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ≤ÃÌÙ §)ˆÏe !ܲS%È Ó°y ˆl•z– !ܲv xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚
G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ò%!ê˛Ó˚ T í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y / ≤ÃÓy• §Ó§ÙÎ˚ ~ܲÙ%á#ñ í˛zFã˛ï˛Ó˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ
T ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •Î˚– ÓyhflψÏÓñ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Óy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
θ
∆rH (T ) = ∆rH (0) +θ
∫ ∆ C θ dT
0
r P ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §Ó≈òy ~ܲÙ%á# •Î˚–
G˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yò%!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ çlƒ CpÈüÈ~Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ °Ë˛ƒ (available) xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ)î≈ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
Ùyl •ˆÏÓ 5/2 R (CV = 3/2R) àƒy§ ≤çy!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚ñ ˆÎÙl x!:ˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyÓ≈ˆÏlÓ˚ ò•ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈí˛y•zÈüÈx:y•zí˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ ∆rCpθ = + 5/2 R åxyÎ˚lˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒä
!ܲv ï˛y˛õ !lç ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° Ó› ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z£÷Ï Ó›ˆÏï˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛
∆rCpθ = – 5/2 R å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l @˝Ã•ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒä •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ˛õyeÙôƒfiÌ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly àƒy§ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛
xÌ≈yÍñ ∆rH θ åxyÎ˚lˆÏlÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õä= E0 åxyÎ˚ll ¢!=˛ä+5/2 RT •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜ˛ylyÎ˚ xyÓÂô ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly Óy
ܲyÓ≈lÈüÈí˛y•zÈüÈx:y•zí˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛yÓ≈l G x!:ˆÏçl í˛zͲõߨ
Ï Ü˛ê˛l∆ @Ã̋•î ~l̃y°!˛õä= –Ae å•zˆ°Ï ܲê˛l∆ xy§!=˛ä– 5/2 RT
∆rHθ å•zˆ°
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ~ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y xyˆÏÓ˚y x§Çრfl∫ï˛/
5. Na + ( g ) + Cl - ( g ) → Na + Cl - ( s ) fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l xyˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚y ~ܲÙ%á#– fl∫˲yÓï˛•z xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏl ≤ß¿
Na+Cl (s) àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ôyÓ˚Óy!•Ü˛ ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !ã˛e 6.9ÈüÈ~
–
ˆòáyˆÏly çyˆÏàñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ã˛y°Ü˛ ӈϰÓ˚ myÓ˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛≈ ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛là%ˆ°
Ï y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
•ˆÏFSÈ⁄ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï˛≈l ˆÜ˛yl‰ !òˆÏܲ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y ˆÜ˛ !lî≈Î˚
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ•z ÓîÈ≈ÈüȈ•ÓyÓ˚ÈüÈã˛Ü ˛ ӈϰ– Óî≈ÈüȈ•ÓyÓ˚ÈüÈã˛ˆÏÜ ˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚⁄ ~•z xÇ¢!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y ~Ùl !ܲS%È
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !òܲ •ˆÏ°y ˆÎ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏeG ã˛Ü ˛#Î˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚
¢ˆÏï≈˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚Ó ÎyˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ó ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y
ˆÙyê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ¢)îƒ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– xyˆÏòÔ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓñ ly!ܲ •ˆÏÓ ly–
ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ
ã˛ˆÏ°y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ xyÙÓ˚y ˆçˆÏl !l•z fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
∆latticeHθ = 411.2 + 108.4 + 121 + 496 – 348.6 kJmol–1 Ó°ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# Ó%!V˛⁄ ï%˛!Ù ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ !lçfl∫ §yôyÓ˚î x!˲K˛ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ
∆latticeHθ = + 788kJ ˲yÓˆÏï˛•z ˛õyˆÏÓ˚y ˆÎñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y ˛õÓ˚flõˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈
NaCl(s) → Na+(g) + Cl–(g) xy§yÙye ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ¢%Ó˚% •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y•z fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y–
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 181

•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ x!:ˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyˆÏàÓ˚ ܲÌy•z ôÓ˚y Îyܲ–

àƒy§ò%!ê˛ˆÏܲ âˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ !Ù!◊ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ò#â≈!òl ˆÓ˚ˆáÏ !òˆÏ°G !ӈϢ£Ï
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly–
Î!òG ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈñ !ܲv !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ à!ï˛
á%Ó•z ÙrÌÓ˚ •Î˚– ï˛Ó% ~ˆÏܲ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï˛≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ•z ôÓ˚y •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ
fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yÓ˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏ°yñ ÚÓy!•ƒÜ˛ §y•y΃ SÈyí˛¸y•z ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚
§yÙÌ≈–Û Î!òG ~Ó˚ myÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Óy ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ à!ï˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Óy ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛
!ӈϢ£Ïc •ˆÏ°y !lç ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z §Ü˛° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%á
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– !Ó£ÏÎ!˚ ê˛ˆÏܲ !lˆÏã˛ §Ç!«˛ÆÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ˆ°áy •ˆÏ°y/
!ã˛e ı 6.10 (a) ï˛y˛õòyÎ˚# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ l܉˛¢y
fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y •ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲÙ%á# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ~ܲÙye Óy!•ƒÜ˛
¢ˆÏï≈˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y•z ~Ó˚ !òܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– C(@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛, s) + 2 S(l) → CS2(l);
(a) fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ~l̃y°!˛õ •…y§ ˛õyGÎ˚y xyÓ!¢ƒÜ˛ !ܲly ∆r H θ = +128.5 kJ mol–1
(Is decrease in enthalpy a criterion for spontaneity⁄) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# •ˆÏ°G ~Ó˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
˛õy•yˆÏí˛¸Ó˚ àyÈüȈӈÏÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆlˆÏÙ xy§y çˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÓy• Óy í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ •Î˚– ~l̃y°!˛õ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ~•z âê˛lyˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !ã˛e 6.10(b)ÈüȈï˛
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyÌÓ˚áˆÏu˛Ó˚ Ùy!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õí˛¸yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y âê˛ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y ˆÓyV˛y ~l̃y°!˛õ lܲ¢yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°y /
ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ~§Ü˛° âê˛lyÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá !fiÌ!ï˛¢!=˛Ó˚ •…y§
•ˆÏFSÈ– xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛•z ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎ !l!ò≈T˛ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛lly ï˛y˛õòyÎ˚#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~§Ü˛° ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ¢!=˛Ó˚ •…y§ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ /
1 3
N (g) + H2(g) = NH3(g) ;
2 2 2
∆r Hθ = – 46.1 kJ mol–1
1 1
H2(g) + Cl2(g) = HCl (g) ;
2 2
∆r Hθ = – 92.32 kJ mol–1
1
H2(g) + O (g) → H2O(l) ; !ã˛e ı 6.10 (b) ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ l܉˛¢y
2 2
∆r Hθ = –285.8 kJ mol–1 xÌ≈yÍ ~ê˛y ÙˆÏl •ˆÏï˛•z ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛yÓ˚ çlƒ
ˆÎÈüÈˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛y˛õòyÎ˚# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ •…y§ •GÎ˚y xï˛ƒyÓ¢ƒÜ˛ñ !ܲv §ÙhflÏ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˜ï˛Ó˚# •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ ~•z ~ê˛y §ï˛ƒ lÎ˚–
âê˛ly!ê˛ˆÏܲ !ã˛e 6.10(a)ÈüÈˆï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ lܲ§yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáyˆÏly (b)È ~lê˛∆!˛õ ~ÓÇ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y (Entropy and spontaneity)
•ˆÏ°y– ˛~ál ≤ß¿ •ˆÏ°y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ !òˆÏܲ !ܲˆÏ§Ó˚ myÓ˚y
xÌ≈yÍ ¢!=˛Ó˚ •…y§ •ˆÏ°y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛y°Ü˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î ã˛y!°ï˛ •Î˚⁄ ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛l ܲ!Ó˚ ÎyÓ˚
~•z xÓ!ô xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ~•z fl∫#ܲyÎ≈!ê˛ˆÏܲ Î%!=˛ §Çàï˛ ÓˆÏ° ÙˆÏl ∆ H=0 •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yl
•Î˚– ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly–
~ÓyÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy / ôÓ˚ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!FSÈߨ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~Ùl
1
N (g) + O2(g) → NO2(g); ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe ò%!ê˛ àƒy§ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óƒy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ˆÎÙlê˛y
2 2
∆r Hθ = +33.2 kJ mol–1 !ã˛e È6.11üÈ~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
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!ã˛e È6.11 ò%!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ Óƒy˛õl
ôÓ˚ àƒy§ ò%!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y A ~ÓÇ B– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ Ü˛yˆÏ°y ~ÓÇ
§yòy !Ó®%Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ xfiÌyÓÓ˚ Óy
ã˛°l¢#° ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚ myÓ˚y˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ çyÎ˚àyÎ˚ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– å!ã˛e 6.11(a)–
~ál ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê˛ˆÏܲ §!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ !lˆÏ° àƒy§ ò%!ê˛ !lˆÏçˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óƒy!˛õï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Óƒy˛õl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡õߨ
•ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ–
Óƒy˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ ã˛ˆÏ°y ~ÓyÓ˚ !l!Óí˛¸Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
ܲ!Ó˚– ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê˛ Ìyܲyܲy°#l ÓÑy!òˆÏܲ ˛õye ˆÌˆÏܲ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !ܲS%È xî%ˆÏܲ
Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ï%˛ˆÏ° xy!l ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y !l!Ÿã˛ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ A àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%
•ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ í˛yl!òˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õye ˆÌˆÏܲ !ܲS%È àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî% ï%˛ˆÏ°
xylˆÏ°ñ ˆ§à%ˆÏ°y B àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî% •ˆÏÓ– ≤Ãyã˛#Ó˚!ê˛ §!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ ˆlGÎ˚yÓ˚
˛õÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò !ܲS%È àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî%ˆÏܲ ˛õye ˆÌˆÏܲ ï%˛ˆÏ° xy!lñ ï˛ál
!ܲv !l!Ÿã˛ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó°y ÎyˆÏÓ ly xyÙÓ˚y A àƒy§ ly B àƒy§ñ ˆÜ˛yl‰
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xî% ï%˛ˆÏ°!SÈ– xÌ≈yÍ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ~ál !l!Ÿã˛ï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
!ܲS%È Ó°y ÎyˆÏÓ ly Óy !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛Ó˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛y xyˆÏÓ˚y ˆÓˆÏí˛¸ ˆàˆÏSÈ
ӈϰ ÙˆÏl •Î˚–
~ál xyÙÓ˚y xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ fl∫#ܲyÎ≈ ˜ï˛Ó˚# ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓy– !l/§Aà
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲlyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyey
Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ §Ω˛Óï˛/ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢ï≈˛–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
~ál xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ lyÙܲ xyˆÏÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚
xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ– ~lê˛∆!˛õˆÏܲ ‘S’ myÓ˚y §)!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
G˛õˆÏÓ˚ Ó!î≈ï˛ !Ó¢,C°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ•z ~lê˛∆!˛õ ≤Ã!ï˛Ë˛yï˛ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~lê˛∆!˛õ
§¡∫ˆrÏ ô ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùyl!§Ü˛ !ã˛e àë˛l ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Óƒ!=˛ ˲yÓˆÏï˛•z
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎñ ~lê˛∆!˛õ •ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
!Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ ÙyeyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ– !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚
Ùyey Îï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ñ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG ï˛ï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §Iy
˛õ%l≈!ÓlƒhflÏ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ §Iy
°y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy Î!ò !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy ˆÌˆÏܲ
lí˛¸ÓˆÏí˛¸ (disordered) •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~lê˛∆!˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙy
ˆÌˆÏܲ à%îàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ (qualitatively) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– àë˛l ܲyë˛yˆÏÙyˆÏï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Óy xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ólƒy§
!lÎ˚Ù!l¤˛ ly •ˆÏ° ~lê˛∆!˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ܲ!ë˛l ò¢yÓ˚
ˆÜ˛°y§yܲyÓ˚ Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚ §%¢,C° ӈϰñ ~Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ §ÓˆÏã˛ˆÏÎ˚
Ü˛Ù •Î˚– àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yl ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ §Ó≈y!ôܲ •Î˚–
~ál ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲ!Ó˚–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ xl%àˆ% °Ï yÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyey ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
~ܲê˛y ˛õÂô!ï˛ •ˆÏ°y ˛õ!Ó˚§Çáƒyî ˛õÂô!ï˛ñ !ܲv ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ~•z
˛õÂô!ï˛!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §%ˆÏÎyà ˆl•z– xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ê˛ ˛õÂô!ï˛ •ˆÏ°yñ
!Ó¢,C°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ !lÓ˚%˛õl ܲÓ˚yñ ÎyÓ˚ myÓ˚y ~lê˛∆!˛õ
§ÙˆÏrô ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ ôyÓ˚ly ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ– xlƒylƒ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚
ôÙ≈ ˆÎÙl xyhs˝Ó¢˚ !=˛ (U) ~ÓÇ ~l̃y°!˛õ (H) ÈüÈÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y ~lê˛∆!˛õG
~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ∆S ˛õÌ!lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° lÎ˚–
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚
à!ï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ñ Ê˛ˆÏ° !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
xÌ≈yÍ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ (q) ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
~ÓyÓ˚ !ܲ xyÙÓ˚y ∆S ~ÓÇ q ˆÜ˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚lÓÂô ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚⁄ òyí˛¸yGú
x!˲K˛ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ
≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Órê˛l !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– í˛zFã˛
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ܲlyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !l¡¨
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ¢# •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ í˛z£¯Ïï˛y
•ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ܲîyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àí˛¸ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ–
!l¡¨ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ˛≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚
ܲîyà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛y ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ñ í˛zFã˛ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ §Ù˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à ܲÓ˚ˆ° Ï !Ó¢,C°ï˛y xˆÏlܲ
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 183

Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ii) 0 K í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ àë˛lܲyÓ˚# ܲîyà%ˆ°
Ï y !fiÌÓ˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ÓƒhflyÏ l%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˆ˚ SÏ È– í˛z˲Î˚Ùá% # !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ӈϰ ~lê˛∆!˛õ §Ó≈!l¡¨ •Î˚– í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ 115 K
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆S ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ q ~ÓÇ TÈüÈ~Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı
ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ܲîyà%ˆÏ°y àë˛l çy°ˆÏܲ §yÙƒ xÓfiÌyl ÓçyÎ˚
qrev
∆S = (6.18) ˆÓ˚ˆáÏ à!ï˛¢#° •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ò%°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛y•z !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛Ó˚
T
fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ˆÏܲÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÙyê˛ !Ó¢,C°ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~lê˛∆!˛õG Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (∆Stotal) •ˆÏ°y ı iii) NaHCO3 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l ˛õòyÌ≈ •GÎ˚yÎ˚
∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem + ∆S surr > 0 (6.19) ~lê˛∆!˛õ Ü˛Ù •Î˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈àˆ% °
Ï yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ìyܲyܲy°#l ˆÜ˛yl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ §Ó≈y!ôܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Ü˛!ë˛l ~ÓÇ ò%!ê˛ àƒy§#Î˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ Óï≈˛Ùyl– ï˛y•z
§yÙyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (∆S) = 0 •Î˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˆÓ¢# •ˆÏÓ–
ï˛y•z xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ï˛ï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ iv) ~áyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ xî% ˆÌˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Îï˛«˛î ly ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ xÌ≈yÍ Ü˛îy§Çáƒy Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ¢)îƒ (Zero) •Î˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîG ï˛y•z Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ï˛y•z 2 ˆÙy°
~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyàï˛ ôÙ≈ñ ï˛y•z í˛z˲Ù%á# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ 1 ˆÙy° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xî%Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ¢# •Î˚–
qsys , rev
∆Ssys = §Ù§ƒy 6.10
T
xyÙÓ˚y çy!l §ˆÏÙy£÷Ï xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ~ܲÙ%á# Óy í˛z˲Ù%á# xyÎ˚Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ çyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ñ
§¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ∆U = 0 •Î˚ñ !ܲv í˛z˲Ù%á# §¡±§yˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe 4 Fe ( s ) + 3O2 ( g ) → 2 Fe2O3 ( s )
∆Stotal xÌ≈yÍ (∆S!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù+∆S˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲäÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ¢)îƒ •Î˚ ly– xÌ≈yÍ 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ –549.4 JK–1mol–1–
∆U í˛z˲Î˚Ù%á# ~ÓÇ ~ܲÙ%á# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏ˲ò ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ly ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏ°G ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl }îydܲ •GÎ˚y §ˆÏ_¥G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/
∆S !ܲv ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ !ܲ˲yˆÏÓ⁄
§Ù§ƒy / 6.9 å!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆rH θÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl –1648 × 103 J mol–1È ä
xl%Ùyl ܲˆÏÓ˚y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly âê˛lyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ Ó,!Âô §Ùyôyl /
˛õyÎ˚‡•…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ / ( )
∆Stotal ∆S sys + ∆S surr ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
i) ˛ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyÌ≈ Îál ܲ!ë˛l ˆÜ˛°yˆÏ§ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y §¡∫ˆrÏ ô !§Âôyhs˝ ˆlGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ∆Ssurr ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly
ii) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜ˛°yy§yܲyÓ˚ ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ 0 K ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ myÓ˚y ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ 115 K ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ï˛y˛õ ∆rH θ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ– T í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
iii) 2 NaHCO3 ( s ) → Na2 CO3 ( s ) + •ˆÏÓñ
θ
CO2 ( g ) + H 2O ( g ) ∆Ssurr =
∆H
å!fiÌÓ˚ ã˛y˛ˆÏ˛õä
T
iv) H 2 ( g ) → 2H ( g )
=−
(−1648 × 10 3
J mol −1 )
§Ùyôyl ı 298 K
i) ë˛yu˛yÎ˚ çˆÏÙ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xl%à%ˆÏ°y !lÎ˚!Ùï˛ §Iy = 5530 JK–1mol–1
ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z ~lê˛∆!˛õ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– xÌ≈yÍ ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÙyê ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓñ
184 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

∆ r S total = 5530 JK 1 mol 1 + ~ál xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
( −549.4JK 1
mol 1
) ∆GÈüÈ~Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛ çylyÓ˚ ˆã˛T˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy–

= 4980.6 JK–1 mol–1

xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ
∆Stotal = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y flõT˛
Îál !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓDz˛õ!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸªÓ≈ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ §yÙƒ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛ál !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù
ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y–
~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y §Ùyl •Î˚– xyÓyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ
(C) !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y (Gibbs energy and Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ùyl ~ÓÇ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ •…yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùyl ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ §Ùyl
spontaneity) : •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸª≈Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˛õ!Ó˚«˛yܲy°#l ¢ˆÏï≈˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •ˆÏÓ !ܲ ∆H surr ∆H sys
ly ï˛y ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (∆Stotal ) ˆÌˆÏܲ çyly ∆S surr = =−
T T
ÎyÎ˚– !ܲv ˆÓ¢#Ó˚˲yà Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ÓÂô xÓfiÌy Óy Ù%=˛ xÓfiÌyñ
~•z ò%•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y  ∆H sys 
∆Stotal = ∆Ssys +  −
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ~ÓÇ ~l̃y°!˛õ í˛z˲ˆÏÎÓ˚ •˚ z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l  T 
•Î˚– ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y flõT˛ ˆÎ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ •…y§ Óy G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˛õ%l≈!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚
~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˆÜ˛yl!ê˛•z ~ܲܲ˲yˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yl fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yl‰ T∆Stotal = T∆Ssys – ∆Hsys
!òˆÏܲ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ∆Stotal > 0 •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
~!ê˛ çylyÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛ Óy !àÓ§‰ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ T∆Ssys –∆Hsys > O
lyÙܲ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚– ~ˆÏܲ ‘G’ (
⇒ − ∆H sys − T ∆Ssys > 0 )
myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– TK í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õñ
~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı 6.21 §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ G˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
G = H – TS (6.20)
ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ñ
–∆G > O
!àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ ôÙ≈ ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛–
∆G = ∆H − T ∆S < 0 (6.22)
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ å∆G!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ä !l¡¨Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ
ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ñ ∆Hsys myÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ñ
∆Gsys = ∆H sys − T ∆S sys − S sys ∆T T∆Ssys myÓ˚y ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚ x°Ë˛ƒ ¢!=˛ ÎyˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ˆÎ Ï yàƒ Ü˛yˆÏÎ≈ ˛õ!Ó˚lï˛
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ly– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ∆G •ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ¢!=˛ñ ÎyˆÏܲ
!fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ ∆T = 0 •Î˚
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ˆÏÎyàƒ Ü˛yˆÏÎ≈ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
∴ ∆Gsys = ∆H sys − T ∆S sys
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ (free energy) ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe §ÙhflÏ §yÓ!fl;≤Wzàˆ% °
Ï y !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù •GÎ˚yÎ˚ ~ál xyÓ˚ §yÓ!fl;≤Wz ~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÚÙ%=˛ ¢!=˛Û lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
ˆ°áy •Î˚ ly ~ÓÇ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ §Ó˚°Ó˚)˛õ •ˆÏ°y !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y G !fiÌÓ˚ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y !lî≈ˆÎÏ ˚
∆G = ∆H − T ∆S (6.21) ∆G !lî≈yÎ˚ܲ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xÌ≈yÍ !àÓ‰§ Ù%=˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l = ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l –È í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y i) ∆GÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ •ˆÏ° (< 0) ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
× ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ !àÓ§‰ ~Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚–
Ó°y •Î˚ñ Ó˚§yÎ˚l¢yˆÏflf §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ à%Óc%˚ x˛õ!Ó˚§#Ù– ˛õ)Ó≈ xyˆÏ°yã˛lyÓ˚ ii) ∆GÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl }îydܲ (< 0) •ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
!lˆÏò≈¢ÙˆÏï˛y §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y çylyÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˲yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly–
çlƒ ¢!=˛ å∆H myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ä ~ÓÇ ~lê˛∆!˛õ å∆ Sñ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ !Ó/o/ Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l G ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õä í˛z˲Î˚ˆÏܲ•z ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– Ùyey !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ í˛z˲ˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ ~ÓÇ T∆S ÈüÈ~Ó˚ §ÇáƒÙyl ∆HÈüÈ~Ó˚
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ∆G ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ~ܲܲ ¢!=˛Ó˚ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ∆H ~ÓÇ Τ∆S í˛z˲Î˚•z §yÇáƒÙyl xˆÏ˛õ«˛y xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ¢# •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
¢!=˛Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ T∆S = (K) (J/K) = J. §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚–
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 185

ò%˲yˆÏÓ ~Ó˚Ü˛Ù •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓñ˚ (a) Îál !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ
ôlydܲ Ùyl!ê˛ ˆSÈyê˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ TÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÓ¢# •Î˚– (b) Îál A+B C+D §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ !lî≈Î˚ܲ
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ôlydܲ Ùyl ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ TÈüÈ~Ó˚
¢ï≈˛ •ˆÏ°yñ ∆rG = 0
Ùyl Ü˛Ù •Î˚– ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ•z Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ≤ÃyÎ˚¢ í˛zFã˛
í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– 6.4 §yÓ˚!îˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §ÙhflÏ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚
fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ §Ç!«˛Æ xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáyˆÏly ÌyܲˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ (∆rGθ)
•ˆÏ°y– §yˆÏÌ í˛z=˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y /
0 = ∆rGθ + RT ln K
6.7 !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
(Gibbs energy change and equilibrium) Óy ∆rGθ = – RT ln K
xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õ°yÙñ ˆÜ˛yl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Óy ∆rGθ = – 2.303 RT log K (6.23)
§yÇáƒÙyl ~ÓÇ !ã˛•´ ˆÌˆÏܲÈüüüÈ xyÙÓ˚y ~ê˛yG çy!l ˆÎñ
i) Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛y xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ii) Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ˆÎÏ yàƒ Ü˛yÎ≈ ∆rGθ = ∆rHθ – T∆rSθ = – RT ln K (6.24)
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
í˛zFã˛ÙyeyÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ∆rHθ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl á%Ó ÓˆÏí˛¸y
~ál xÓ!ô xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !ã˛•´ ôlydܲ •Î˚– ~•z §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ KÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl
§¡∫ˆÏrô xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ– ã˛ˆÏ°y ~•z ÓyÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y í˛z˲Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ myÓ˚y §,T˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §¡∫ˆÏrô xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚– ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù •Î˚– ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆rHθ
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ Úí˛z˲Ù%á#Û ¢∑!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl á%Ó ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Î˚ñ !ܲv !ã˛•´ }îydܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ∆rGθÈüÈ~Ó˚
xÓ¢ƒ•z ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ÙylG ï˛y•z ÓˆÏí˛¸y ~ÓÇ }îydܲ •Î˚– ~•z §Ü˛° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ KÈüÈ~Ó˚
~ÓÇ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õyˆÏŸªÓ≈ ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎl !lá%ïÑ ˛˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌy ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ Ùyl 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ ˆÓ¢# •Î˚– xyÙÓ˚y ôˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ x!ôܲÙyeyÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Úí˛z˲Ù%á#Û ¢∑!ê˛ myÓ˚y xyÙÓ˚y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe KÈüÈÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÓ¢ ÓˆÏí˛¸y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛y•z
~ܲ•z§yˆÏÌ ò%!òˆÏܲ•z §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à!ï˛¢#° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ° Ï y ≤ÃyÎ˚ §¡õ)îË≈ ˛yˆÏÓ §¡õߨ •Î˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛zqÓ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl •ˆÏ°y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ò%!òˆÏܲ•z §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ܲÌy !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆ° Ï xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy• ∆rGθ
•ÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ñ !ܲv ~ê˛y x§Ω˛Ó– ~ê˛y ï˛ál•z ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ∆rSθ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°– ܲyÓ˚î ∆rSθÈüÈ~Ó˚ !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚
§Ω˛Ó Îál §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛ G˛õÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ KÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl Óy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ü˛ï˛
§Ó≈!l¡¨ •ˆÏÓ– Î!ò ~ê˛y ly •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ó˚)˛õ ôyÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
§yÓ˚!î 6.4 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ
∆ rH θ ∆ rS θ ∆rG θ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ*

– + – §Ü˛° í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚–

– –
– –
+ +
+ +
+ –
– (!l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚)
+ (í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ )
+ (!l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚)
– (í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ )
+ (ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚)
!l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚–
í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚ ly–
!l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚ ly–
í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚–
ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚–

* í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ !l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ¢∑%à%ˆÏ°y ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛– âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yG ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
186 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§Ù#ܲÓ˚î (6.24) ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ñÈ

i) ∆H θ ~ÓÇ ∆S θ ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ∆G θ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y
(−13.6 × 103 J mol −1 )
2.303(8.314 JK mol ) ( 298 K )
= −1 −1
ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÎˆÏܲyl í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ fl∫“ áÓ˚ˆÏã˛ x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ -K ~Ó˚ = 2.38
Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §Ù§ƒy 6.12
ii) Î!ò KÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ 600C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ í˛y•zly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçlÈüȈê˛ê˛∆y x:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ 50 ¢ï˛yÇ¢
xlƒ ˆÎˆÏܲyl í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ∆G θüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚– ≤Ãò_ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ 1 xƒyê˛Ù§!Ê˛Î˚yÓ˚ (atm)
§Ù§ƒy 6.11 ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ≤ÃÙyî Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓñ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ x!:ˆÏçl ˆÌˆÏܲ GˆÏçylÈüÈ~ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ §Ùyôyl /
≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ∆rG θ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)
3/2 O2(g) → O3(g) 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ N2O4ÈüÈ~Ó˚ 50 ¢ï˛yÇ¢ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ
~•z Ó˚)˛õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ çlƒ KpÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 2.47 × 10 –29 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyy° ˲@¿yÇ¢à%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏ°yñ
§Ùyôyl / 1 − 0.5 2 × 0.5
xN O = : xNO2 =
2 4
1 + 0.5 1 + 0.5
xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ
∆rG θ = – 2.303 RT log Kp ~ÓÇ 0.5 1
pN O = × 1 atm, pNO = × 1 atm.
R = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1 2 1.5
4 2 1.5
xÌ≈yÍ ∆rG θ = – 2.303 (8.314 J K–1 mol–1) × §yÙƒô %Óܲ (Kp) ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl •ˆÏ°y
(298 K) (log 2.47 × 10–29)
(p )
2
= 163000 J mol–1 NO2 1. 5
Kp = =
= 163 kJ mol–1. p N 2 O4 (1.5)2 (0.5)

§Ù§ƒy 6.12 = 1.33 atm.

298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ñ
ܲˆÏÓ˚y / ∆rGθ = –RT ln Kp
2NH3(g) + CO2(G) ⇌ NH2CONH2(aq) + H2O(1) ∆rGθ = (– 8.314 JK–1 mol–1) × (333 K)
≤Ãò_ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ × (2.303) × (0.1239)
∆rG θ Ùyl •ˆÏ°y –13.6 kJ mol–1
= – 763.8 kJ mol–1
§Ùyôyl /
−∆ r G θ
xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ log K =
2.303RT
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 187

§yÓ˚§ÇˆÏ«˛ õ (SUMMARY)

ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Óy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ •Î˚ ï˛y xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
à%!° ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛là%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏòÔ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ !ܲly ï˛yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÎ˚ Ù•y!ÓŸªˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ xLjϢ !Ó˲=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ xÇ¢à%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏ°y !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ~ÓDz˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ– ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ í˛zq$ï˛ Óy ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xÇ¢ˆÏܲ ܲyˆÏÎ≈ (w) Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)eÈüÈ~Ó˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚)˛õñ
∆U = q + w myÓ˚y ~•z ˛õò Óy Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (∆U) ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ ~ÓÇ
x!hs˝Ù xÓfiÌyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ñ Î!òG q ~ÓÇ w ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ~ÓÇ xÓfiÌy
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ lÎ˚ñ q ~ÓÇ w ˆÜ˛ Îál !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál ~ˆÏòÓ˚ !ã˛•´ ôlydܲ •Î˚– ˆÎ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ~ܲ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ˆÌˆÏܲ xlƒ !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙ Ü˛# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ §M˛y!°ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yl ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛yÓ˚ (c) G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ à,•#ï˛ Óy Ó!ç≈ï˛ ï˛y˛õ q = C∆T •Î˚– àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
§¡±§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ w = –pex∆V myÓ˚y ܲyˆÏÎ≈Ó˚ (w) ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– í˛z˲Ù%á# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Pex = P, «%˛oy!ï˛«%˛o xyÎ˚ï˛l
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÎ w˛õÓ˚yÓ≈ï˛ Ü˛yÎ≈ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ wrev = – p dV– ~•z ¢ˆÏï≈˛ xyÙÓ˚y àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îñ pV = nRT ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õy!Ó˚–
!fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl w = 0 •Î˚– ï˛ál ∆U = qV å!fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ ï˛y˛õä •Î˚– !ܲv Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ ã˛y˛õ
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ !fiÌÓ˚˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~çlƒ ~l̃y°!˛õ˛ lyˆÏÙ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lñ ∆H
= ∆U + ∆ngRT !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ∆H = qp ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y §Ω˛Ó–
~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ôÓ˚î Óï≈˛Ùyl– ò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆÎÙl à°lñ Óy‹õ#˲Ól ~ÓÇ |ô≈˛õyï˛l §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~§ÓˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyî §Ó§ÙÎ˚ ôlydܲ •Î˚– àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õñ ò•l ~l̃y°!˛õ ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ
~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl ˆ•ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)e ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
(
∆ r H = ∑ ai ∆ f H
f !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ) ∑i ( i f !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈
− b∆ H )
myÓ˚y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ
∆rH θ = Σ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ– Σ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õ myÓ˚y àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)e ̈Ïܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yl‰ !òˆÏܲ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏFSÈ xÌ≈yÍ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛y°Ü˛¢!=˛ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ˆÜ˛yl
ôyÓ˚ly ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ lyñ !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆U = 0 •Î˚– !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y ~lê˛∆!˛õ lyÙܲ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚
xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚Ó– ~lê˛∆!˛õ •ˆÏ°y ˆÜ˛yl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ܲîyà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ !Ó¢,C°ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ– fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ •Î˚– !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆U = 0 ~ÓÇ ∆S > 0 xÌ≈yÍ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆÜ˛yl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ !ܲlyñ ï˛y çyly ÎyÎ˚ñ !ܲv ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛y çyly ÎyÎ˚ ly– í˛z˲Ù%á# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
q q
ˆ«˛ˆÏe ∆S = Trev §Ù#ܲÓ˚î myÓ˚y ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– Trev ˛õò!ê˛ ˛õÌ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° lÎ˚–
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §yôyÓ˚îï˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛y•z !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛ (G) lyÙܲ xyˆÏÓ˚ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ˆÏܲ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
§ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ (G) §yˆÏÌ ˆÜ˛yl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ~ÓÇ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ı
∆ rG = ∆ rH – T ∆ rS
Èfl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏl ñ ∆Gsys < 0 •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ ∆Gsys = 0 •Î˚ñ
≤ÃÙyî !àÓ§‰ Ù%=˛¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ÓÇ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°yñ
∆rG θ = – RT ln K.
˛~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ KÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Î!ò ∆rG θÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl çyly ÌyˆÏܲ– ∆rG θ ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl ∆rGθ = ∆rHθÈ – T ∆rSθ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
ˆÌˆÏܲ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏï˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆÜ˛yl !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ (Entropy of
reaction) Ùyl Î!ò ôlydܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ Ü˛Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •Î˚ ly ~Ùl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ
§Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–
188 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

xl%¢#°l#

6.1 §!ë˛Ü˛ í˛z_Ó˚ ˆÓˆÏSÈ lyG– ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ •ˆÏ°y ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ÎyÈüüüÈ

(i) ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–

(ii) ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° lÎ˚–

(iii) ã˛y˛õÈüÈxyÎ˚ï˛!lܲ ܲyÎ≈ !lô≈yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚–

(iv) ÎyÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–

6.2 Ó˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ Óy §Ùï˛y˛õ#Î˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §!ë˛Ü˛ ¢ï≈˛!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y /

(i) ∆T = 0

(ii) ∆p = 0

(iii) q=0

(iv) w=0

6.3 ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §ÙhflÏ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y ı

(i) ~ܲܲ (unity)

(ii) ¢)îƒ (zero)

(iii) <0

(iv) ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ çlƒ ˛õ,Ìܲ–

6.4 !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ ò•l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ∆U θÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl – X kJ mol–1. ∆H θüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl •ˆÏ°y ı

(i) = ∆U θ

(ii) > ∆U θ

(iii) < ∆U θ

(iv) =0

6.5 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !ÙˆÏÌlñ @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ G •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ò•l ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏ°y ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ –890.3 kJ mol–1 –393.5
kJ mol–1 ~ÓÇ –285.8 kJ mol–1 – !ÙˆÏ̈ÏlÓ˚ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ

(i) –74.8 kJ mol–1 (ii) –52.27 kJ mol–1

(iii) +74.8 kJ mol–1 (iv) +52.26 kJ mol–1.

ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 189

6.6 A + B → C + D + q !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl ôlydܲ– !Ó!ܲ ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ

(i) ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚–

(ii) ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye !l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚–

(iii) ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z£÷Ïï˛yˆÏï˛•z §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ly–

(v) ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ–

6.7 ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù myÓ˚y 701 J ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ ˆ¢y!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù myÓ˚y 394 J ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ܲyÎ≈ §¡õy!òï˛ •Î˚–
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ xyhs˝Ó˚¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ •ˆÏÓ⁄

6.8 Ó¡∫ ܲƒy°!Ó˚!Ùê˛yˆÏÓ˚ §yÎ˚ylyÙy•zí˛ñ NH2CN (s), ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ x!:ˆÏçl àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y ~ÓÇ 298 K
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˆòáy ˆà° ∆U ~Ó˚ Ùyl •Î˚ –742.7 kJ mol–1– 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyl
àîly ܲÓ˚–

3
NH2CN(g) + O (g) → N2(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2 2

6.9 60.0 @˝ÃyÙ xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ 35°C ˆÌˆÏܲ 55°C ÈüÈ~
xylˆÏï˛ !ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÓ ï˛y
!ܲˆÏ°yç%° åkJä ~ܲˆÏܲ àîly ܲÓ˚– xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl •ˆÏ°y 24 J mol–1 K–1 –

6.10 10.0°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 ˆÙy° ç°ˆÏܲ ë˛yu˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ –10.0°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛ ˛õ!Ó˚lï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~l̃y°!˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
•ˆÏÓ ï˛y àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–

0°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ∆fusH = 6.03 kJ mol–1

Cp [H2O(l)] = 75.3 J mol–1 K–1

Cp [H2O(s)] = 36.8 J mol–1 K–1

6.11 ܲyÓ≈lˆÏܲ ˛õ%!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ CO2 í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ò•l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl –393.5 kJ mol–1– ܲyÓ≈l ~ÓÇ í˛y•z x!:ˆÏçl
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ 35.2 @˝ÃyÙ CO2 ˜ï˛Ó˚# ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ Ü˛# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛y˛õ !là≈ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛y àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–

6.12 CO(g), CO2(g), N2O(g) ~ÓÇ N2O4(g) ~Ó˚ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ –110, – 393, 81 ~ÓÇ 9.7 kJ mol–1–
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆rH ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !ll≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı

N2O4(g) + 3CO(g) → N2O(g) + 3CO2(g)

6.13 ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈñ

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) ; ∆rH θ = –92.4 kJ mol–1

NH3 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄

190 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

6.14 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ï˛ÌƒyÓ°# ˆÌˆÏܲ CH3OH(l) ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı˛
3
CH3OH (l) + O (g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ; ∆rH θ = –726 kJ mol–1
2 2

C(@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ; ∆cH θ = –393 kJ mol–1

1
H2(g) + O (g) → H2O(l) ; ∆f H θ = –286 kJ mol–1.
2 2

6.15 !l¡¨!°!áï ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı˛

CCl4(g) → C(g) + 4 Cl(g)

~ÓÇ CCl4 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ C – Cl Órôl ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y

∆vapH θ(CCl4) = 30.5 kJ mol–1.

∆fH θ (CCl4) = –135.5 kJ mol–1.

∆aH θ (C) = 715.0 kJ mol–1 , ˆÎáyˆÏl ∆aH θ xƒyê˛Ùy•zˆÏç¢l ~l̃y°!˛õ

∆aH θ (Cl2) = 242 kJ mol–1

6.16 !l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ∆U = 0 •Î˚ñ ∆SÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄

6.17 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ 2A + B → C !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ ∆H = 400 kJ mol–1 ~ÓÇ ∆S = 0.2 kJ K–1 mol–1 •Î˚–

Ü˛ï˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ ôˆÏÓ˚ lyG í˛z£Ï÷ï˛yÓ˚ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚!ôÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ∆H ~ÓÇ ∆S ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl
!fiÌÓ˚ ÌyܲˆÏÓ–

6.18 2 Cl(g) → Cl2(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆H ~ÓÇ ∆S ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !ã˛•´ ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ •ˆÏÓ⁄

6.19 2 A(g) + B(g) → 2D(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆Uθ = –10.5 kJ ~ÓÇ ∆S θ = –44.1 JK–1 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆GθüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly
ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ xl%Ùyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ !ܲly–

6.20 ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl 10– ∆GθÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈ R = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1, T = 300 K–

6.21 NO(g)ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ fiÌy!Î˚c (Thermody namic stability) §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ Ùhs˝Óƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈñ

1 1
N (g) + O2(g) → NO(g) ; ∆rHθ = 90 kJ mol–1
2 2 2
1
NO(g) + O (g) → NO2(g) : ∆rHθ= –74 kJ mol–1
2 2
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!Óòƒy 191

6.22 ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ 1 ˆÙy° H2O(l) í˛zͲõߨ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õÓ˚ ܲ# ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓ ï˛y
àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈñ ∆f Hθ= –286 kJ mol–1–
192
§yÙƒyÓfĩy
(EQUILIBRIUM)
í˛zˆÏj¢ƒ ı
~•z xôƒyÎ˚!ê˛ xôƒÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y §«˛Ù •ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
• ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚ y §yÎ˚ ! lܲ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y à% ˆ Ï ° yˆÏ ï ˛
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ à!ï˛¢#° ≤ÃÜ, ˛ !ï˛ˆÏ Ü ˛ §ly=˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ §)e !ÓÓ,ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
• ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚ y §yÎ˚ ! lܲ ≤Ã!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y à% ˆ Ï ° yˆÏ ï ˛
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y !°áˆÏï˛–
• Kp~ÓÇ Kc ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛–
• !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏܲ
≤Ã˲yÓ!ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚y§ñ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ÈüÈ°yí˛z!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ °%•z§
ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ xyôyˆÏÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xƒy!§í˛ Óy
«˛yÓ˚ܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ˆÏ˲ò ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l
ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  Óy Ù,ò%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ◊!îË%˛=˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£ƒÏ ~ÓÇ §Ù xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ÙyeyÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛yˆÏܲ Óƒyáƒy
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
çlƒ pH ˆfl҈ϰÓ˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
~Ó˚ ˜mï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲy Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ à%îÊ˛° åKwä ~ÓÇ pKw ˆÜ˛
Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
• ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚‡í˛z˛õˆÏÎy!àï˛y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛–
• oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° ô %Óܲ àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
§ÆÙ xôƒyÎ˚
(UNIT 7)
xˆÏlܲ ˜ç!Óܲ ~ÓÇ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢àï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l
ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ Ê%˛§Ê%˛§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ÙyǧˆÏ˛õ¢# ˛õÎ≈hs˝ O2 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ~ÓÇ
Órê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe O2 xî% G !•ˆÏÙyˆÏ@’y!Ól lyÙܲ ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒÓfiÌy!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ Ë)˛!Ùܲy ˛õy°l ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xl%Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ CO xî% ~ÓÇ !•ˆÏÙyˆÏ@’y!ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛
CO ~Ó˚ !Ó£Ïy=˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ÓÂô˛õyˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚° Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ í˛zFã˛ à!ï˛¢!=˛
§¡õߨ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Óy‹õò¢yÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
x§Çრxî% Óy‹õò¢y ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° xyâyï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° ò¢y ≤ÃyÆ
•Î˚– ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚° G ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ï˛Ó˚°
ˆÌˆÏܲ Óy‹õ ò¢yÎ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒy Óy‹õ ò¢y ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xy§y
xî% §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ,T˛ï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ Óy‹õ
ã˛y˛õ §,!T˛ •Î˚– xyÙÓ˚y ï˛ál Ó!° ˆÎ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ åÓƒÓfiÌy!ê˛ä §yÙƒyÓfiÌy °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ–
Î!òG ~•z §yÙƒ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ §yÙƒ lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° G ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ flõ¢≈ï˛° ÓÓ˚yÓÓ˚ xM˛ˆÏ°
xˆÏlܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•z ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ Óy‹õyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ñ âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
•yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– ~ˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
H2O (l) H2O åÓy‹õä
~áyˆÏl ò%!ê˛ xô≈ ï˛#Ó˚ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ ˆÎ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ ~ܲ•z §yˆÏÌ âˆÏê˛–
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !Ù◊îˆÏܲ §yÙƒ !Ù◊î ӈϰ– ˆË˛Ôï˛
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y í˛z˲Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z §yÙƒ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚
¢ï≈˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y o%ï˛ Óy ÙrÌÓ˚ à!ï˛Ó˚
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲñ
ˆÎáyˆÏl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚˛õÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ Óy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ly– ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚
!§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ åÓƒÓfiÌy!ê˛ä˛à!ï˛¢#° §yÙƒyÓfiÌy xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ §¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
§yÙƒyÓfĩy
˛õŸã˛yò‰Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z à!ï˛¢#°
§yÙƒyÓ§dÌyÓ˚ çlƒ•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏî !Ó!˲ߨ í˛z˛õyòyˆÏlÓ˚
åspeciesä àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ly– Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •GÎ˚y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ §¡õߨ •ˆÏ°y
~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛
!ï˛l!ê˛ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
(i) ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ≤ÃyÎ˚ §¡õ)î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚
àyì˛¸c á%Ó•z làlƒ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî xÓ!¢T˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– !ܲS%È !ܲS%È
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ~ï˛•z •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ˆÎ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y
myÓ˚yG xˆÏlܲ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àyì˛¸c !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó •Î˚ ly–
(ii) ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ÙyeyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈
í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒyÓ§ÌyÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚ ˲yà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ•z
x˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ ÎyÎ˚–
(iii) ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ~ÓÇ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c ï%˛°lyˆÏÎyàƒ •Î˚–
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛ylG !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ §¡õߨ •Î˚ ï˛y ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚
¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆÎÙl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ àyì˛¸cñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚– !¢“ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ~ÓÇ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yàyˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y°lyàï˛
¢ï≈˛yÓ°#ˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ≈y_Ù˲yˆÏÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– ÎyˆÏï˛
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛Ó˚ xyܲy!A«˛ï˛ oˆÏÓƒÓ˚ åproductä í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚
§•ˆÏÎyà# •Î˚– ~•z ~ܲˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y ˆË˛Ôï˛ ï˛Ìy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ !ܲS%È à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ !òܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÎ §yÙƒñ ÎyˆÏܲ
xyÎ˚l#Î˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy Ó°y •Î˚ñ ˆ§!ê˛G xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
7.1 ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (EQUILIBRIUM IN
PHYSICAL PROCESSES)
!ܲS%È ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ xôƒÎ˚l ܲˆÏÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˲y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó%V˛y ÎyÎ˚– ò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y åphase transformation processesä •° §Ó ˆÌˆÏܲ
˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î ı ˆÎÙl
ܲ!ë˛l ï˛Ó˚°
ï˛Ó˚° àƒy§
ܲ!ë˛l àƒy§
7.1.1 ܲ!ë˛lÈüÈï˛Ó˚° §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (Solid-Liquid Equilibrium)
~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ)î≈ xhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ åinsulatedä ÌyˆÏÙ≈yÊœ˛yˆÏ: åˆÎáyˆÏl Êœ˛yˆÏ:
Ó˚yáy Ó› G ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏӈϢÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ xyòyl ≤Ãòyl âˆÏê˛ lyä
193
273K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ~ÓÇ ç°
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ xyܲ£Ï≈l#Î˚ ã˛y!Ó˚!eܲ
˜Ó!¢T˛ƒˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲ!Ó˚ ˆÎñ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
§yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛
ly ~ÓÇ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ï˛y §ˆÏ_¥G §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ lÎ˚–
ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §#ÙylyÎ˚ x!ôܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ï˛Ó˚° çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §Çâ£Ï≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛
ˆ°ˆÏà ÎyÎ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ !ܲS%È xî% ï˛Ó˚° ò¢yÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ° xyˆÏ§–
ç° G ÓÓ˚ˆÏÊ˛Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ lyñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ÓÓ˚Ê˛
ˆÌˆÏܲ çˆÏ° xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ •yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y
xÌ≈yÍ ç° ˆÌˆÏܲ xî%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚ ÓÓ˚ˆÊÏ ˛ fiÌylyhs˝ˆÓÏ Ó˚ ˚ •yÓ˚ ÓyÎ%̊Ù[˛°#Î˚
ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ 273K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– ~!ê˛ flõT˛ ˆÎ ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ~ÓÇ
ç° ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ
ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° ò¢y §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˙
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ à°lyAܲ Óy fl∫y˲y!Óܲ !•ÙyAܲ Ó°y •Î˚–
~áyˆÏl !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù!ê˛ àï˛#Î˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ xyÙÓ˚y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
!§Âôyhs˝à%ˆÏ°y !lˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ı
(i) ò%!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ Ù%á# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y Î%à˛õÍ âˆÏê˛–
(ii) ò%!ê˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y•z §Ù•yˆÏÓ˚ âˆÏê˛ ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ÓÓ˚Ê˛ ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
7.1.2 ï˛Ó˚ ° ÈüÈÓy‹õ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (Liquid-Vapour
Equilibrium)
~•z §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G ˲y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó%V˛y ÎyˆÏÓ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y
ÙyÜ≈˛y!Ó˚ §• •zí˛z!ê˛í˛zÓ åmanometerä åU-tubeä °yàyˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛
fl∫FSÈ Óy: !lˆÏÎ˚ ˆò!áñ ≤Ã̈ÏÙ Óy:!ê˛ˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÎ˚ܲ ârê˛yÓ˚ çlƒ
¢%‹ÒܲyÓ˚# ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎÙl xlyo ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ åÓy
Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ ˆ˛õrê˛yx:y•zí˛ÈüÈˆÜ˛ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏ°y– ¢%‹ÒܲyÓ˚# ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ ˆÓÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ Óy:!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~ܲ!òˆÏܲ áy!lܲê˛y ï%˛ˆÏ° ï˛yí˛¸yï˛y!í˛¸ ܲˆÏÓ˚
ç° §• GÎ˚yã˛ @’y§ åÓy ˆ˛õ!ê˛∆í˛§ä ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ~!ê˛
°«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ ÙˆÏly!Ùê˛yÓ˚ åmanometerä ~Ó˚ ò!«˛î Óy•%Ó˚
ÙyÜ≈˛y!Ó˚Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ ô#ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ GˆÏë˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£Ï ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~ܲ!ê˛
!l!ò≈T˛ ÙyˆÏl ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚– xÌ≈yÍ ÓyˆÏ:Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ ÙyˆÏl ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ GÎ˚yã˛ @’yˆÏ§Ó˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚
xyÎ˚ï˛lG •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ å!ã˛e 7.1ä ≤ÃÌÙ!òˆÏܲ ÓyˆÏ:Ó˚ !˲ï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ylG
ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ !SÈ° ly Óy á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù !SÈ°– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ç° Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛
194
xlyo≈ ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛
!ã˛e 7.1 ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ–
•ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚– ÓyˆÏ:Ó˚ x˲ƒhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ã˛y˛õG Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚%
ܲˆÏÓ–˚ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ ô Ó% ܲ Îy •zí˛zܲ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ çˆÏ° âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ã˛y˛õ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ •yÓ˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ˆ¢£Ï ˛õÎ≈hs˝
~ܲ!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy í˛z˛õ!lï˛ •Î˚ Îál Ê˛°ï˛/ xyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG
Óy‹õyÎ˚l •Î˚ ly– ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ÎyÎ˚ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌy ˆÌˆÏܲ
çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚ fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚G Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Îï˛«˛î ly
˛õÎ≈hs˝ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy í˛z˛õ!lï˛ •Î˚ñ xÌ≈yÍ
Óy‹õyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ âl#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ åÓy‹õä
H2O(l) H2O åÓy‹õä
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y myÓ˚y
≤ÃÎ%=˛ ã˛y˛õ !l!ò≈T˛ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yÙƒÓfiÌy Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ åÓy
çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õä ӈϰ– çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Ó,!Âô
˛õyÎ˚– Î!ò í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ !ÙÌy•z° xƒy°ˆÏܲy•°ñ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛yl
~ÓÇ •zÌyÓ˚ §•ˆÏÎyˆÏà ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ~ܲ•z
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ §yÙƒ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ ˆÎ
ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï Ó˚ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ ˆ§!ê˛ ˆÓ!¢ í˛zmyÎ˚# •Î˚ ~ÓÇ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ
Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y !ï˛l!ê˛ GÎ˚yã˛ @’yˆÏ§ ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ 1 ml
xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ylñ •zÌy•z° xƒyˆÏܲy•° ~ÓÇ ç° !lˆÏÎ˚ ˆáy°y xÓfiÌyÎ˚
Ó˚y!á ~ÓÇ ~•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ï˛Ó˚° !lˆÏÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
xˆÏ˛õ«˛yÜ,˛ï˛ í˛z£÷Ï âˆÏÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆòáy ÎyˆÏÓ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ï˛Ó˚°
ˆ¢£Ï ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !Ó°#l •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Óy‹õ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ
§ÙÎ˚ °yˆÏà ï˛y !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ åiä ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ åiiä
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ÓÇ åiiiä í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚–
Îál GÎ˚yã˛ @’y§ˆÏܲ ˆáy°y ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ï˛ál
Óy‹õyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ !ܲv ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°y âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §ÙhflÏ
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!í˛ˆÏ§Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ç°
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl SÈ!í˛¸ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Óy‹õ ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyÎ˚
âî#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ Óy‹õ#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ xˆÏlܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
~à% ˆ Ï ° y ˆáy°yï˛sf å Systemä ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆáy°y ï˛ˆÏ s f
åopensystemä §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyˆÏly §Ω˛Ó •Î˚ ly– 100°C
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ å1.013 barä ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe
ç° G ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– 1.013 bar ã˛yˆÏ˛õ çˆÏ°Ó˚
fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ 100°C– ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !Ó¢%Âô ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ
ÓyÎ˚%Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ å1.013 barä ˆÎ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚
Óy‹õ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏܲ ˙ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl∫y˲y!Óܲ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ
ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yl fiÌyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
í˛zÑã%˛ fiÌyˆÏl fl≥%˛ê˛lyAܲ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
7.1.3 ܲ!ë˛lÈüÈÓy‹õ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (Solid – Vapour
Equilibrium)
~ál xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ åsystemsä ܲÌy !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy
ˆÎáyˆÏl ܲ!ë˛l!ê˛ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ |ôÁ≈˛õy!ï˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ Óy‹õ ò¢yÎ˚ ã˛ˆÏ°
ÎyÎ˚– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô˛õyˆÏe ܲ!ë˛l xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛lˆÏܲ Ó˚y!áñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˛õye!ê˛ ˆÓà%î# Ó˚ˆÏ.Ó˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õ˛õ)î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚
~ÓÇ Ó˚ˆÏ.Ó˚ àyì˛¸c åintensity of colourä §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ Ó˚ˆÏ.Ó˚ ày˛ì˛¸c !fiÌÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§ ~ÓÇ
~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •Î˚– xÌ≈yÍ Ü˛!ë˛l xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l
|ôÁ≈˛õy!ï˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l Óy‹õ ˆòÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l Óy‹õ
âl#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛l xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l ˆòÎ˚– §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏï˛y ≤Ãܲyy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
I2 åܲ!ë˛lä ⇌ I2 åÓy‹õä
~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ xlƒylƒ í˛zòy•Ó˚î •ˆÏ°yÈüüüÈ
§yÙƒyÓfĩy
ܲ˛õ)≈Ó˚ åܲ!ë˛lä ⇌ ܲ˛õ)≈Ó˚ åÓy‹õä
NH4Cl åܲ!ë˛lä ⇌ NH4Cl åÓy‹õä
7.1.4 ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ܲ!ë˛l Óy àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ oÓî â!ê˛ï˛ §yÙƒ
(Equilibrium Involving Dissolution of Solid
or Gases in Liquids)
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° ܲ!ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ oÓî åSolids in liquidsä
˛õ)Ó≈ x!˲K˛ï˛y ˆÌˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y çy!l ˆÎ âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî çˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y §#!Ùï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî °Ól Óy !ã˛!l à%°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
Î!ò í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y !ã˛!l à%ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ àyì˛¸ !ã˛!lÓ˚ !§Ó˚y˛õ ˜ï˛!Ó˚
ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !§Ó˚y˛õ!ê˛ˆÏܲ ¢#ï˛° ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° !ã˛!lÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°y§
˛õ,Ìܲ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– xyÙÓ˚y ~ˆÏܲ §¡õ,=˛ oÓî Ó!° Îál
!l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ oÓˆÏî xyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG oyÓ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ ly– §¡õ,=˛
oÓˆÏî oyˆÏÓƒÓ˚ àyì˛¸c í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏî
ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ oyˆÏÓÓ˚ xî% ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ oyˆÏÓÓ˚ à!ï˛¢#°
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy ÌyˆÏܲ
!ã˛!l åoÓîä ⇌ !ã˛!l åܲ!ë˛läñ ~ÓÇ
!ã˛!lÓ˚ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ = !ã˛!lÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°y§ àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ •yÓ˚–
ò%!ê˛ •yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ùylï˛y ~ÓÇ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚
åradioactiveä !ã˛!lÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ §%!l!Ÿã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xyÙÓ˚y Î!ò
!ܲS%È ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ !ã˛!lˆÏܲ xˆÏï˛ç!fl;Î˚ !ã˛!lÓ˚ §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏî
ˆÎyà ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ oÓˆÏî ~ÓÇ Ü˛!ë˛l !ã˛!l í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚•z
ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ï˛y °«˛ƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ≤Ã̈ÏÙ oÓˆÏî ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚
!ã˛!lÓ˚ xî% !SÈ° ly !ܲv §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ ò%!ê˛ ò¢yˆÏï˛
ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ ~ÓÇ xÈüȈï˛ç!fl;Î˚ !ã˛!lÓ˚ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ âˆÏê˛– oÓˆÏî
ˆï˛ç!fl;Î˚ xî%Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ xˆÏï˛ç!fl;Î˚ xî%Ó˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Îï˛«˛î
ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~Ó˚ Ùyl !fiÌÓ˚ •Î˚–
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ oÓî åGases in liquidsä
Îál ˆ§yí˛y GÎ˚yê˛yÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ˆÓyï˛° ˆáy°y •Î˚ñ ï˛ál oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲyÓ≈l
í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ àƒy§ ï˛#Ӡ˲yˆÏÓ Óy•zˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓ!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ xyˆÏ§– !Ó!˲ߨ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ
çˆÏ° ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ ~Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ~•z âê˛ly
âˆÏê˛– !fiÌÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ àƒy§#Î˚ xÓfiÌyÓ˚ xî% ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏî
oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •Î˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õÈüüüÈ
CO2 åàƒy§ä ⇌ CO2 åoÓˆÏîä
~•z §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ˆ•lÓ˚#Ó˚ !lÎ˚Ùyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !lÎ˚!sfï˛ •Î˚– ÎyÓ˚ !ÓÓ,!ï˛
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !l!ò≈T˛ ˲ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ oyÓˆÏܲ
195
oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˲Ó˚ oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §Ùyl%˛õyï˛#ܲ–
ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ– ˆ§yí˛y GÎ˚yê˛yÓ˚ ˆÓyï˛ˆÏ° àƒy§ˆÏܲ í˛zFã˛ã˛yˆÏ˛õ Îál àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
oyÓƒï˛y ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál §#°ÓÂô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– Îál•z ˆÓyï˛° ˆáy°y
•Î˚ ï˛ál•z ˆÓyï˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ˛õ,¤˛ï˛ˆÏ° ã˛y˛õ •ë˛yÍ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ
ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲyÓ≈l í˛y•z x:y•zí˛ ˆÓÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨
ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ lï%˛l §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚– Î!ò ˆ§yí˛y
GÎ˚yê˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÓyï˛°ˆÏܲ !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ôˆÏÓ˚ Óyï˛yˆÏ§ ˆáy°y Ó˚yáy •Î˚ñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §ÙhflÏ àƒy§ ˆÓÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ– ~ˆÏܲ §yôyÓ˚î#ܲÓ˚î
ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
(i) ܲ!ë˛l ⇌ ï˛Ó˚° §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ çlƒñ ÓyÎ˚%Ù[˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ
å1.013 barä ˆÜ˛Ó° Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey åà°lyAܲä
xyˆÏSÈñ ˆÎ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ ò¢y•z ~ܲ §yˆÏÌ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
Î!ò ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!lÙÎ˚ ly âˆÏê˛ñ ï˛ál ò%ˆÏê˛y
ò¢yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
(ii) ï˛Ó˚° ⇌ Óy‹õ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚
Óy‹õã˛y˛õ ô %Óܲ •Î˚–
(iii) ï˛Ó˚ˆ°
Ï Ü˛!ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚
oyÓƒï˛y ô %Óܲ •Î˚–
(iv) ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ àyì˛¸c
ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ åàyì˛¸cä §Ùyl%˛õyï˛#ܲ– ~•z
˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛îà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ §yÓ˚î# 7.1 ~ §Ç!«˛Æ˲yˆÏÓ ˆòGÎ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
§yÓ˚î# 7.1 ˆË˛Ôï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ !ܲS%È ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y !§Âôyhs˝
ï˛Ó˚° Óy‹õ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ pH2O !fiÌÓ˚ ‡ô Ó% ܲ
H2O åï˛Ó˚°ä ⇌ H2O åàƒy§ä •Î˚
ܲ!ë˛l ï˛Ó˚° !fiÌÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ à°lyAܲ ô %Óܲ •Î˚
H2O åܲ!ë˛lä ⇌ H2O åï˛Ó˚°ä
oyÓ åܲ!ë˛lä ⇌ oyÓ åoÓîä oÓˆÏî oyˆÏÓÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛
!ã˛!l åܲ!ë˛lä ⇌ !ã˛!l åoÓîä ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ô %Óܲ •Î˚
àƒy§ åàƒy§ä ⇌ àƒy§ åç°#Î˚ä [àƒy§ åç°#Î˚ä]/[àƒy§ åàƒy§ä]
!l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ô %Óܲ •Î˚–
CO2 åàƒy§ä ⇌ CO2 åç°#Î˚ä [CO 2 åç°#Î˚ä]/[CO 2 åàƒy§ä]
!l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ô %Óܲ •Î˚–
196
7.1.5 ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ §Ù)•
(General Characteristics of Equilibria
Involving Physical Processes)
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚y=˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛ˆÏsfÓ˚ å!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ä
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒà%ˆÏ°y §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ˆòáy
ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
(i) ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ÓÂô ï˛ˆÏsf•z å!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙä
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy §Ω˛Ó–
(ii) §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ò%!ê˛ !ÓˆÏÓ˚yô# ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ܲ•z •yˆÏÓ˚ âˆÏê˛– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛
à!ï˛¢#° !ܲv fiÌyÎ˚# xÓfiÌy–
(iii) ï˛ˆÏsÓ f ˚ å!§ˆÏfiê˛Ùä §Ü˛° ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏÎyàƒ à%îÈüÈôÙ≈ åpropertiesä
!fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
(iv) Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ
ï˛ál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùy˛õòˆÏ[˛Ó˚
åparametersä Ùyl ô %Óܲ •Î˚– §yÓ˚î# 7.1 ˆï˛ !ܲS%È Ó˚y!¢
í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
(v) ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ~•z Ó˚y!¢à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ Ùyl §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÓ˚
˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲï˛ò)Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ~!àˆÏÎ˚ ˆàˆÏSÈ ï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲˆÏÓ˚–
7.2 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÈüüüÈàï˛#Î˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
(EQUILIBRIUM IN CHEMICAL
PROCESSES – DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM)
ˆË˛Ôï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ÙˆÏï˛y Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yG §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚
!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õÔшÏSÈ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y §¡ø%áÙ%á# G ˛õŸã˛yòÙ%á#
í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ•z âê˛ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Îál §¡ø%áÙ%á# ~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yòÙ%á# í˛z˲Î˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ï˛ál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
àyì˛¸c !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ xÓfiÌy– ~•z
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ §¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎáyˆÏl
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲà%ˆ°Ï y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆòÏ Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# å˛õŸã˛yòÙ%á#ä
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎáyˆÏl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ù)° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈
í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ˆÏܲ xyÓ˚G ˲y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y !l¡¨!°!áï˛
í˛z˲Î˚Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚ÈüüüÈ
A+B⇌C+D
§ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ C G D çÙy •ˆÏï˛
ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ A G B •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ å!ã˛e 7.2ä–
~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ à!ï˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yòÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
!ã˛e 7.2 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy xç≈l–
à!ï˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xӈϢˆÏ£Ï ò%!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y•z ~ܲ•z •yˆÏÓ˚ âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛sf!ê˛
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚–
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ¢%ô% C G D !òˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚% ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛álG
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÌ≈yÍ Î!ò ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ A
G B ly ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ í˛z˲Î˚!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ•z §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyl
ÎyÎ˚–
ˆ•ÓyÓ˚ÈüÈ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y í˛zͲõyòˆÏl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ àï˛#Î˚ ˛≤Ãܲ, !ï˛ˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ˆ•ÓyÓ˚˛ÈܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛
ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y myÓ˚y í˛zFã˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ K˛yï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî
í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚
!ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–
~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !ï˛!l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ x!ÓÜ,˛ï˛ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ
í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ G !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆ˛õˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– !ã˛e
7.4 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õÓ˚ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛ ~ܲ•z
˛ÌyˆÏܲ Î!òG !ܲS%È !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ï˛álG í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚
§ÇÎ%!=˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z !fiÌÓ˚ï˛y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔˆÏSÈ ˆàˆÏSÈ ï˛y !lˆÏò¢≈
ܲˆÏÓ˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÓ˚ çlƒ H2 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛
D2 å!í˛í˛zˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yÙä ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ•z ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ¢ˆÏï≈˛ åxÇ¢ã˛y˛õ
G í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yä xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y í˛zͲõyòl âê˛yˆÏly •Î˚– H2 Óy D2 !òˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
âê˛yˆÏ°G §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ ~ܲ•z §ÇÎ%!=˛Ó˚ !Ù◊l ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ¢%ô%Ùye
H2 ~ÓÇ NH3 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï˛≈ D2 ~ÓÇ ND3 ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
ˆ˛õÔSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ !Ù◊îˆÏܲ (H2, N2, NH3 ~ÓÇ D2, N2, ND3)
!Ù!◊ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ܲS%È §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y–
Îál ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ~•z !Ù◊î!ê˛ˆÏܲ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y ï˛ál ˆòáy
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 197

àï˛#Î˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÈüüSÈyeSÈye#ˆÏòÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà (Dynamic Equilibrium – A Student’s Activity)

ˆË˛Ôï˛ Óy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ï˛ˆÏsf §yÙƒyÓfiÌy §Ó≈òy àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚– ˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ~•z ï˛Ìƒ!ê˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y
§Ω˛Ó– !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yàÙy°yˆÏï˛ ~ˆÏܲ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚– Î!òG !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏàÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ~•z ï˛Ìƒ!ê˛ˆÏܲ §•ˆÏç
ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚– 5 - 6 çl SÈyeSÈye# !lˆÏÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ òˆÏ° ~•z ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà!ê˛ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
100mL ~Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ Ùy˛õl ˆã˛yˆÏ. å1 G 2 lÇ Ó˚%ˆÏ˛õ !ã˛!•´ï˛ä ~ÓÇ 30 cm °¡∫y ò%!ê˛ ÜÑ˛yˆÏã˛Ó˚ l° lyG– l°à%!°Ó˚ Óƒy§ §Ùyl Óy 3
ˆÌˆÏܲ 5 mm ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ùy˛õl ˆã˛y. 1 ~Ó˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ Ó˚!.l ç° åçˆÏ° ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ˛õyÓ˚ ÙƒyAàyˆÏlˆÏê˛Ó˚
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆÜ˛°y§ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ä !òˆÏÎ˚ ˲!ï≈˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ Ùy˛õl ˆã˛y.È 2 ˆÜ˛ áy!° Ó˚yˆÏáy–
ˆã˛y. 1 ÈüÈ~ ~ܲ!ê˛ l° ~ÓÇ ˆã˛y. 2ÈüÈ~ !mï˛#Î˚ l° lyG– ˆã˛y. 1ÈüÈ~Ó˚ l°!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !SÈo!ê˛ˆÏܲ xyAà%° !òˆÏÎ˚ Órô ܲˆÏÓ˚ l°!ê˛Ó˚
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ xLjϢ ˛õ%î≈ •GÎ˚y Ó˚!.l ç°ˆÏܲ ˆã˛y. 2 Èü ~Ó˚ !l¡¨yÇ¢ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚y– ˆã˛y. 2 üˆÌˆÏܲ ˆã˛y. 1 ÈüÈ~ ç° fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~•z ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ lˆÏ°Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆã˛y. 1 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆã˛y. 2 ~ ~ÓÇ ˆã˛y. 2 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆã˛y. 1 ÈüÈ~ Ó˚!.l ç° ÓyÓ˚ ÓyÓ˚ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲy Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ í˛z˲Î˚ ˆã˛yˆÏ. Ó˚!.l çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
Î!ò ~•z ò%!ê˛ ˆã˛yˆÏ. Ó˚!.l çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflψÏÓ˚ xyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ylG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓ ly– Î!ò ~•z ò%!ê˛ ˆã˛yˆÏ. Ó˚!.l çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ
~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆò!á ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ~•z ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏܲ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈñ ˆÎ!ê˛
Ó˚!.l çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ fiÌyÎ˚# •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚G ã˛°ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ~•z ˛õÓ˚#«˛y!ê˛ˆÏܲ ò%!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ÓƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ l° !òˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ܲ!Ó˚
ï˛y•ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ §yÙƒyÓhflÏyÎ˚ ~•z ò%•z !§!°u˛yÓ˚ Ó˚!.l çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ •ˆÏÓ– ò%!ê˛ ˆã˛yˆÏ. Ó˚!.l çˆÏ°Ó˚ hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
ˆÎ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ ÜÑ˛yã˛lˆÏ°Ó˚ Óƒy§ ܲï˛ê%˛Ü%˛ òyÎ˚#⁄ (2) lÇ áy!° ˆã˛y.!ê˛ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ ¢%Ó%̊ˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛ylG !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ÌyˆÏܲ
ly–

!ã˛e ı 7.3 §yÙƒyÓhflÏyÓ˚ àï˛#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ ≤Ãò¢≈l (a) ˛≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌy (b) §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy˛õˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ x!hs˝Ù xÓfiÌyÎ˚–
198 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

!ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚– Î!ò H2 ~ÓÇ I2 ~Ó˚ §Ùyl ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛

¢%Ó˚% •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡ø%á!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Îï˛«˛î ly
˛õÎ≈hs˝ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚ ï˛ï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ H2 G I2 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c
•…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ HI ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– å!ã˛e ı 7.5ä– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y
ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye HI ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ •ˆÏï˛
ˆò•z ï˛ˆÏÓ HI ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ H2 G I2 ÈüÈ~Ó˚
àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚
å!ã˛e ı 7.5ä – Î!ò ˆÜ˛ylG !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl H ~ÓÇ I ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%àˆ% ° Ï yÓ˚
ˆÙyê˛ §Çáƒy ~ܲ•z •Î˚ ï˛ál !Ó¢%Âô !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ Óy !Ó¢%Âô !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°G ~ܲ•z §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !Ù◊î ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ–

!ã˛e ı 7.4 N2(g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe

§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ !ã˛eyAܲl–

ˆàˆÏ°y xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y àyì˛¸c !ë˛Ü˛ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈Ó˚ §Ùyl xÌ≈yÍ x˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛

ÌyˆÏܲ– !ܲv Îál !Ù◊î!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˲Ó˚ ˆflõ܉˛ˆÏê˛∆y!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
!ӈϟ’£îÏ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏ°y ï˛ál ~ˆÏï˛ !í˛í˛zˆêÏ ˛!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Î%=˛ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y (NH3,
NH 2D, NHD2 ~ÓÇ ND 3) ~ÓÇ !í˛í˛z ˆ Ï ê ˛!Ó˚ Î ˚ y Ù Î% = ˛ í˛y•z
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl (H2, HD ~ÓÇ D2) ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏ°y– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ¢ˆÏ£Ï
Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ !Ù◊ˆÏ î §¡ø% á Ù% á # x~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yò‰ Ù % á # !Ó!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y Ó˚
ôyÓ˚yÓy!•Ü˛ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl G !í˛í˛zˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yÙ
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §Çâ£Ï≈ (Scramblign) âˆÏê˛– Î!ò §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛
•GÎ˚ y Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!Ü  ˛ Î˚ y !ê˛ ˆÌˆÏ Ù ˆÎï˛ñ ˆ§ˆÏ « ˛ˆÏ e ~•z Ë ˛yˆÏ Ó !ã˛e 7.5 H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ù◊î âê˛ˆÏï˛y ly– §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !òˆÏܲ •ˆÏï˛ fiÌy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y §ÇˆÏŸ’£ˆÏ îÏ xy•zˆ§Ï yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ å!í˛í˛zˆêÏ ˛!Ó˚Îy˚ Ùä ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ 7.3 Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ §)e å!lÎ˚Ùä ~ÓÇ §yÙƒ ô Ó
% ܲ (LAW
OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND
ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ flõT˛ ˆÎ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ à!ï˛¢#° §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT)
fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎˆÏ«˛ˆÏe §¡ø%áÙ%á# ~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yò‰Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚
§Ùyl •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ylG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !Ù◊îˆÏܲ
ly– §yÙƒ!Ù◊î ӈϰ– ~•z ˲yˆÏà xyÙÓ˚y §yÙƒ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ xˆÏlܲ à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ ≤ß¿ !lˆÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy– §yÙƒ!Ù◊ˆÏî
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy ò%•z !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ•z fiÌy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ •Î˚ H2(g)
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲ# §¡õÜ≈˛
~ÓÇ N2(g)ÈüÈ~Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y â!ê˛ˆÏÎ˚ NH3(g) í˛zͲõyòl ܲÓ˚y ˆ•yܲ Óy
!ÓòƒÙyl⁄ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y §yÙƒ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ
NH3(g) ˆÜ˛ N2(g) G H2(g) ÈüÈ~ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ˆ•yܲ–
!lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚Ó⁄
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
ˆÜ˛yl‰ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y §yÙƒ!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
˛õyˆÏÓ⁄ ˆ¢ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ≤ß¿!ê˛ !¢ˆÏ“ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ oÓƒ ˆÎÙl H2,
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ NH3, CaO •zï˛ƒy!òÓ˚ §ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏî í˛z˛õÎ%=˛ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !lô≈yÓ˚ˆÏî
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 199

!ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈–
~•z ≤ß¿à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ í˛z_ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î í˛z˲Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ
!ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îy܉˛
A+B C+D
~•z §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî A G B •° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ C G D •°
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈– Ó•% í˛z˲Ù%á !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°∑ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚
í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ lÓ˚GˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò ˆÜ˛ˆÏê˛y ˆÙ:!Ù!°Î˚l à%°Óyà≈
(Cato Maximillian Guldberg) ˚~ÓÇ !˛õê˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚yˆÏç (Peter
Waage) 1864 §yˆÏ° ≤ÃhflÏy!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚l ˆÎ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚
§¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
ÎyÎ˚–
(1, 2, 3 ˛~ÓÇ 4) ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye àƒy§#Î˚ H2 ~ÓÇ I2 ˆ¢£Ï
ò%!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yˆÏï˛ (5 ~ÓÇ 6) ¢%ô%Ùye HI ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛
˛õÓ˚#«˛yˆÏï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !˲ߨ !˲ߨ àyì˛¸c !lˆÏÎ˚
ˆòáy ˆàˆÏ°y §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ l#°y˲ ˆÓà%l#
(Purple) ÓˆÏîÓ≈ ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y !fiÌÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛
•Î˚– ~ܲ•z ≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚ 5 lÇ G 6 lÇ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yˆÏï˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚– §Óܲ!ê˛ åSÈÎ˚ ˆ§ê˛ä ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛° 7.2
§yÓ˚î#ˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
˛õÓ˚#«˛y lÇ 1, 2, 3 ~ÓÇ 4 ˆÌˆÏܲ flõT˛ ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛
xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# H2ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy = !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚#
xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy = ½ åà!ë˛ï˛ HI ~Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒyä

Kc =
[C][D] ÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉÉ (7.1) xyÓyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y lÇ 5 G 6 ÈüÈ~ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚
[A ][B] [H2(g)]eq = [I2(g)]eq
~áyˆÏl Kc •° §yÙƒô %Óܲ ~ÓÇ í˛yl ˛õˆÏ«˛Ó˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚y=˛ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y çylyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ
§yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z §yÙƒ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ Ë˛Ó˚!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ fiÌy˛õˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y
§)e lyˆÏÙG ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ ܲyÓ˚î ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ àyì˛¸c ˆÜ˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏl Ú§!Ü ˛Î˚˲Ó˚Û xˆÏlܲà%ˆÏ°y §Ω˛yÓly !lˆÏÎ˚ !Óã˛yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î
Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏï˛y– Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îy܉˛
à%°Óyà≈ ï˛Ìy GÎ˚yˆÏç ≤Ã!ï˛˛õy!òï˛ ï˛Ìƒà%ˆÏ°y ˲y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛ [HI(g)]eq / [H2(g)]eq [I2(g)]eq
xyÙÓ˚y ÓÂô˛õyˆÏe 731K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ àƒy§#Î˚ H2 ~ÓÇ àƒy§#Î˚ I2 ~Ó˚
§yÓ˚î# 7.3 ˆï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ï˛Ìƒà%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ
ÙˆÏôƒ !ÓÜ ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓyÈüüüÈ
~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yˆÏï˛
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
1 mol 1 mol 2 mol
Ó§y•z ï˛ˆÏÓ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÓ˚ Ùyl !fiÌÓ˚ ly •ˆÏÎ˚ !˲ߨ !˲ߨ •Î˚ å§yÓ˚î#
7.3ä–
!Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ¢ˆÏï˛≈ SÈÎ!˚ ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤ÃÌÙ ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yˆÏï˛

§yÓ˚î# 7.2 H2, I2 ~ÓÇ HI ~Ó˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c

200 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§yÓ˚î# 7.3 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yÙƒàyì˛¸c §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y

H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) aA + bB c C + d D ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
§yÙƒÓfiÌy !fiÌÓ˚yAܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
Kc = [C]c[D]d / [A]a[B]b (7.4)
ˆÎáyˆÏl [A], [B], [C] ~ÓÇ [D] •° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c–
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒô %ÓܲˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚
4 6 4 5
Kc = [NO] [H2O] / [NH3] [O2]
Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ˆl•z !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ Óà≈ܲyÓ˚ Órôl#Ó˚ myÓ˚y !âˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáyˆÏly
[HI(g)]2eq / [H2(g)]eq [I2(g)]eq •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆ° Ï y §yÙƒ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ §yÙƒ ô Ó% ܲˆÏܲ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y
ï˛ál ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ SÈÎ˚!ê˛ ˛õÓ˚#«˛yˆÏï˛•z ~•z Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y !fiÌÓ˚ Ùyl ˆ°áyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ï˛l!ê˛ ò¢yÓ˚ !ã˛•´ (s, l, g) ˆÜ˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ ˆ°áy •Î˚
ˆòÎ˚ å§yÓ˚î# 7.3 ˆï˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈä– Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛y ly–
ÎyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ âyˆÏï˛Ó˚ Ùyl Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) ................ (7.5)
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ Ó˚§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î !Ùï˛#Î˚ à%lyˆÏAàÓ˚ (Stoichionetric !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒô %Óܲ ˆÜ˛ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚
Coefficiout) §Ùyl– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~•z Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛Ó˚ ÙylˆÏܲ Kc = [HI]2 / [H2] [I2] = x ................ (7.6)
§yÙƒ!fiÌÓ˚yAܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ÎyˆÏܲ KC myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ~ܲ•z ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓܲˆÏܲ ˆ°áy
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) ~•z §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ çlƒ ÎyÎ˚ÈüÈ 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g),
§yÙƒ ô %Óܲ Óy §yÙƒyÓhflÏy !fiÌÓ˚yAܲñ KC ˆÜ˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ K′c = [H2] [I2] / [HI]2 = 1/ x = 1 / Kc ... (7.7)
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
2
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ K′c = 1 / Kc ................ (7.8)
Kc = [HI(g)]eq / [H2(g)]eq [I2(g)]eq ........... (7.2)
xÌ≈yÍ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %Óܲ §¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yˆÏï˛ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õyòyAܲ (Subcript) Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆÎ
§yÙƒô %ÓyCˆÏܲÓ˚ xˆÏlylƒÜ˛ •Î˚–
'eq' å§yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ çlƒ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ä ˆ°áy •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ˆ§!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛
ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ ly– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ó˚§§Ù#ܲÓ˚î!Ù!ï˛Ü˛
à%lyAܲ (stoichiometric coefficients) ˆÜ˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ à%îܲ
~!ê˛ fl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ KC ~Ó˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÎ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ Ùyl
myÓ˚y à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ã˛y•z ï˛ˆÏÓ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ °«˛ƒ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ˆ§çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y !°!áÈüüüÈ
•ˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛G ÎyˆÏï˛ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢
Kc = [HI(g)]2 / [H2(g)] [I2(g)]..............(7.3)
ܲˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ Î!ò §Ù#ܲÓ˚î (7.5) ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆ°áy •Î˚ÈüüüÈ
˛õòyAܲ 'c' !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ KC ~Ó˚ Ùyl àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ Ùyey mol L–1
½ H2(g) + ½ I2(g) HI(g) ................... (7.9)
~ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ï˛ˆÏÓ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ñ ˆÜ˛ylG Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §!Ùï˛
K″c = [HI] / [H2] [I2]
1/2 1/2 2 1/2
= {[HI] / [H2][I2]}
§Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%§ÇáƒyÓ˚ âyˆÏï˛ í˛zߨ#ï˛
àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ à%îÊ˛°ˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%%§ÇáƒyÓ˚ áyˆÏï˛ í˛zߨ#ï˛ = x1/2 = Kc1/2 ............(7.10)

àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ à%îÊ˛° myÓ˚y ˲yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚Ùyl ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î (7.5) ˆÜ˛ n myÓ˚y à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy•z
~ˆÏܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy §)e Óy Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy §)e ӈϰ– nH2(g) + nI2(g) D 2nHI(g) .................. (7.11)
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 201

~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô Ó% ܲñ Kcn ~Ó˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ– ~•z ˛õÎ≈ˆÓÏ «˛îà%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ §Ùyôyl /
§yÓ˚î# 7.4 ~Ó˚ §Ç!«˛ÆÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ~áyˆÏl í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ˆÜ˛ ˆ°áy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚È–
•ˆÏÓ §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ~ÓÇ K′c ~Ó˚ !Ó!˲ߨ §Çáƒyàï˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ
§yÙƒô Ó% ܲ ~Ó˚ Ùyl ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §!Ùï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚ [ NO ]2
ôÓ˚îˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– Kc =
[ N 2 ][O2 ]
§yÓ˚î# 7.4 §yôyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ à%!îï˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
( 2.8 × 10 M ) -3 2

§yÙƒô %Óܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛– =

(3.0 × 10 M ) ( 4.2 × 10
−3 −3
M )
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §yÙƒô %Óܲ
= 0.622
aA+bB c C + dD Kc

cC+dD aA+ b B K′c =(1/Kc )

7.4 §Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (HOMOGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA)
K′″c = (Kc )
n
na A + nb B ncC + ndD
~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù§_¥ ï˛ˆÏsf (System) §Ó !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈
~ܲ•z ò¢yÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ N2(g)
§Ù§ƒy 7.1 + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y
500K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ N2 G H2 ˆÌˆÏܲ NH3 àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ù§_¥ ò¢yÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ àyì˛¸cà%ˆÏ°y ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏ°y [N2] = CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COOH (aq)
+ C2H5OH (aq)
1.5 × 10–2M. [H2] = 3.0 ×10–2 M ~ÓÇ [NH3] = 1.2
×10–2M– §yÙƒô %Óܲ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~ÓÇñ Fe3+ (aq) + SCN–(aq) Fe(SCN)2+ (aq)

§Ùyôyl / xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ §Ó !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛

˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y §Ù§_¥ ˲yˆÏÓ oÓl#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ~ál xyÙÓ˚y !ܲS%È
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒô Ó
% ܲˆÏܲ
§Ù§_¥ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ˆòáÓ–
ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ñ
7.4.1 àƒy§#Î˚ ï˛ˆÏsf §yÙƒô Ó
% ܲ (Equilibrium Constant in
Gaseous Systems)
 NH 3 ( g ) 
2

Kc = ~•z ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ

 N 2 ( g )   H 2 ( g ) 
3

G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ §yÙƒô Ó% ܲˆÏܲ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛

=
(1.2 × 10 ) −2 2
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ï˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚çlƒ Kc !ã˛•´ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ï˛– ï˛ˆÏÓ
(1.5 × 10 ) (3.0 × 10 )
−2 −2 3
àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ §yÙƒô %ÓܲˆÏܲ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢
ܲÓ˚y x!ôܲ ˆ◊Î˚–
= 0.106 × 104 = 1.06 × 103
xyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ°áy •Î˚
§Ù§ƒy 7.2
pV = nRT
800K í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛ylG ÓÂô˛õyˆÏeñ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸cà%ˆ°
Ï y •ˆÏ°y
n
N 2 =3.0 × 10 –3 M, O 2 = 4.2 × 10 –3 M ~ÓÇ ⇒ p= RT
V
NO = 2.8 × 10–3 ~áyˆÏl p •° ˛õyˆÏflÒ° (Pa) ~ܲˆÏܲ˛ ã˛y˛õñ n •° àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy°
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) ÈüÈ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Kc §Çáƒyñ V •° âl!Ùê˛yÓ˚ (m3) ~ܲˆÏܲ u xyÎ˚ï˛l ~ÓÇ T •°
!lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ˆÜ˛°!˲l ˆfl҈ϰ ï˛y˛õÙyey–
202 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ n/V •° ˆÙy°‡âl!Ùê˛yÓ˚ (m3) ~ܲˆÏܲ àyì˛¸c– Î!ò àyì˛¸c  NH3 ( g )  [ RT ]

2 −2

= = K c ( RT )
−2
'c' ˆÜ˛ ˆÙy°‡!Ùê˛yÓ˚ xÌÓy ˆÙy°‡âlˆÏí˛!§!Ùê˛yÓ˚ (dm3) ~ÓÇ P
 N 2 ( g )   H 2 ( g ) 
3

ˆÜ˛ ÓyÓ˚ ~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ°

xÌÓyñ K p = K c ( RT )
−2
p = cRT (7.14)
xyÙÓ˚y ~ê˛yG !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ p = [àƒy§]RT.
xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õñ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ
~áyˆÏlñ R= 0.0831 ÓyÓ˚ !°ê˛yÓ˚‡ˆÙy° ˆÜ˛°!˲l aA + b B cC + dD
!fiÌÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ •z•yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ §!•ï˛ §Ùyl%˛õyï˛#ܲñ
xÌ≈yÍ p ∝ [àƒy§] Kp =
( p )( p ) = [C] [D] ( RT )(
c
C
d
D
c d c+ d )

( p )( p ) [A] [B] ( RT )(
a
A
b
B
a b a + b)

§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó !Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)

xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ [ C] [D]
c d
(c + d ) − ( a + b )
b (
= RT )
[ A ] [ B]
a

 HI ( g ) 
2

Kc = [C]c [D]d ( RT )∆n = K ( RT )∆n

 H 2 ( g )   I 2 ( g )  = (7.15)
[A ]a [B]b
c

lï%˛Óy K p =
( pHI )2 (7.12)
ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ ∆n = åàƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚
( p )( p ) H2 I2 ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyÈäÈ üü åàƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒyä–
•z•y xyÓ!¢ƒÜ˛ ˆÎñ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ñ ã˛y˛õˆÏܲ ÓyÓ˚
xyÓyÓ˚ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ pHI =  HI ( g ) RT
~ܲˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ܲyÓ˚î ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyl xÓfiÌy •° 1 ÓyÓ˚–
pI2 =  I 2 ( g )  RT xyÙÓ˚y ≤Ã̈ÏÙ xôƒyÎ˚ å•zí˛z!lê˛ 1ä ˆÌˆÏܲ çylˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÎñ 1 ˛õyˆÏflÒ°ñ
pH 2 =  H 2 ( g )  RT Pa = !lí˛zê˛l !Ùê˛yÓ˚È üü2 ~ÓÇ 1 ÓyÓ˚ = 105 Pa

§% ï ˛Ó˚ y Çñ ˛ §yÓ˚î# 7.5 ~ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ !ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl
ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
( pHI )2  HI ( g )  [ RT ]
2 2

Kp = = §yÓ˚î# 7.5 !ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl

( p )( p )
H2 I2
 H 2 ( g )  RT .  I 2 ( g )  RT

 HI ( g ) 
2

= = Kc
 H 2 ( g )   I 2 ( g ) 
(7.13)

~•z í˛zòy•Ó˚îñ Kp = Kc xÌ≈yÍ í˛z˲Î˚ §yÙƒô %Óܲ•z §Ùyl– ï˛ˆÏÓ •z•y

§Ó≈òy §ï˛ƒ lÎ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚

(p )
2

Kp =
NH 3
§Ù§ƒy 7.3
( p )( p )
3

500K í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ PCl5, PCl3 ~ÓÇ Cl2 §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎáyˆÏl
N2 H2

 NH 3 ( g )  [ RT ]
2 2 PCl3, Cl2 ~ÓÇ PCl5 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 1.59M, 1.59M
= ~ÓÇ 1.41 M –
 N 2 ( g )  RT .  H 2 ( g )  ( RT )
3 3
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 203

PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2 ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kc àîly ܲÓ˚– 0.194 Ùyl!ê˛ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲÓ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ܲyÓ˚î •z•y •° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚
àyì˛¸cñ Îy•y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆã˛ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÓ!¢–
§Ùyôyl /
xï˛~Óñ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸c à%ˆÏ°y •°ñ
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ˆÜ˛ ˆ°áy ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñÈ
[CO2] = [H2-] = x = 0.067 M

Kc =
[ PCl ][Cl ] = (1.59)
3 2
2

= 1.79
[CO] = [H2O] = 0.1 – 0.067 = 0.033 M
[ PCl ] 5 (1.41) §Ù§ƒy 7.5
§Ù§ƒy 7.4 1069K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ 2NOCl(g) 2NO(g) + Cl2(g) ~•z
800K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ CO (g) + H2O (g) CO2 (g) + H2 (g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 3.75 × 10–6– í˛z=˛
~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl 4.24– Î!ò CO ~ÓÇ H2O ≤ÈÏï˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸c 0.10M •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ 800K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ §Ùyôyl /
CO2, H2, CO ~ÓÇ H2O ~ˆÏòÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚– xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ
∆n
§Ùyôyl / Kp = Kc(RT)

CO (g) + H2O (g) CO2 (g) + H2 (g) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ

≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸c 0.1M 0.1M 0 0 ∆n = (2+1) – 2 = 1

ô!Ó˚ñ ˛≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚Îyçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ x ˆÙy°‡!°ê˛yÓ˚ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– Kp = 3.75 ×10–6 (0.0831 × 1069)

§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ (0.1-x) M (0.1-x) M x M xM Kp = 0.033

ˆÎáyˆÏlñ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ CO2 ~ÓÇ H2 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî x 7.5 x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA)
xï˛~Óñ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛ˆÏsf ~ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!ôܲ ò¢y ÌyܲˆÏ° x§Ù§_¥
Kc = x2/(0.1-x)2 = 4.24 §yÙƒÓfiÌy Ó°y •Î˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe çˆÏ°Ó˚ Óyflõ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚
x2 = 4.24(0.01 + x2-0.2x) ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒÓfiÌy!ê˛ •° x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î–
x2 = 0.0424 + 4.24x2-0.848x H2O(l) H2O(g)
3.24x2 – 0.848x + 0.0424 = 0
~•z í˛zòy•Ó˚ˆîÏ àƒy§#Î˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚° ò¢y §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ
a = 3.24, b = – 0.848, c = 0.0424 ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l ~ÓÇ •z•yÓ˚ §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒÓfiÌy!ê˛ •°
!mâyï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚#ñ ax2 + bx + c = 0, x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒÓfiÌy– ˆÎÙlÈüÈ

x=
(− b ± b 2 − 4ac ) Ca(OH)2 (s) + (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH–(aq)

2a ≤ÃyÎ˚•z !Ó¢%Âô ܲ!ë˛l Óy ï˛Ó˚° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒÓfiÌy ˆòáy

x = 0.848 ± √(0.848)2– 4(3.24)(0.0424) / ÎyÎ˚– !Ó¢%Âô ï˛Ó˚° Óy !Ó¢%Âô ܲ!ë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚
(3.24×2) Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yˆÏܲ xyÙÓ˚y §Ó˚°#Ü,˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ !Ó¢%Âô ܲ!ë˛l
x = (0.848 ± 0.4118)/ 6.48 Óy ï˛Ó˚ˆ°Ï Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ô Ó% ܲ åxÌ≈yÍ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°
x1 = (0.848 – 0.4118)/6.48 = 0.067 lÎ˚ä– xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG !Ó¢%Âô ˛õòyÌ≈ X ˆlGÎ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál
x2 = (0.848 + 0.4118)/6.48 = 0.194 [X(s)] ~ÓÇ [X(P)] ô %Óܲ •Î˚ñ ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe X ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî Îy•z
•í˛zܲ ly ˆÜ˛l–
204 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

x˛õÓ˚˛õˆÏ˛«˛ñ [X(g)] ~ÓÇ [X(aq)] ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#° ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ X ~Ó˚ ~Ó˚˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ñ CaO(s) ~ÓÇ
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l¢#°– ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆlÏ ˆÏê˛Ó˚ CaCO3(s) ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛ §yˆÏÙƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ CO2 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Óy ã˛y˛õ
ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl •° ~ܲ!ê˛ ÙçyòyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ x§Ù§_¥ ô %Óܲ– ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°∑ Ê˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆòáy ˆàˆÏSÈ ˆÎñ 1100K, í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
§yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– CaO(s) ~ÓÇ CaCO3(s) ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛ §yˆÏÙƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ CO2 ~Ó˚
ã˛y˛õ •° 2.0 ×105 Pa– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 1100K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) (7.16)
§yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •°
fiê˛Î˚!§G!Ù!ï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ñ
Kp = PCO2 = 2 × 105 Pa/105 Pa = 2.00
CaO ( s )  CO2 ( g )  xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !lˆÏܲ°ñ ܲyÓ≈l ÙˆÏly:y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ !lˆÏܲ° ܲyÓ≈!l° ~ˆÏòÓ˚
Kc = 
CaCO3 ( s ) ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚l!ê˛ •° å•z•y !lˆÏܲ° !Ó¢%!ÂôܲÓ˚l!ê˛ •°
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ [CaCO3(s)] ~ÓÇ [CaO(s)] í˛z˲Î˚•z ô %Óܲ ˆ§•zˆÏ•ï%˛ å•z•y !lˆÏܲ° !Ó¢%!ÂôܲÓ˚ˆÏî ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ä
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yÓ≈ˆlÏ ˆÏê˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ çˆÏlÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ÇˆÏ¢y!ôï˛ Ni (s) + 4 CO (g) Ni(CO)4 (g),
Ó˚)˛õ!ê˛ •°ÈüÈ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛ •°
K´c = [CO2(g)] (7.17)
 Ni (CO)4 
xÌÓyñ Kp = pCO (7.18) Kc = 
2

[CO]4
§yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲܲ (Units of Equilibrium Constant) ï˛ˆÏÓñ xÓ¢ƒ•z ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ x!hflψÏcÓ˚
àyì˛¸c ˛õò!ê˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ ˆÙy°‡!°ê˛yÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ çlƒ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ܲ!ë˛l Óy ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ xÓ¢ƒ•z òÓ˚ܲyÓ˚ åܲÙ
Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ Pa, ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî •ˆÏ°Gä !ܲv ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Óy xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚
kPa, ÓyÓ˚ (bar) Óy xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ (atm) Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ Kp àîly Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÎ˚ ÌyܲˆÏÓ ly– ˆÎÙl !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚˛ÈüÈ
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤ÃyÆ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÙy°!Ó˚!ê˛ Óy ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ˆÏï˛ Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) 2AgNO3(aq) +H2O(l)
§yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲܲ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Î!ò °Ó ~ÓÇ •Ó˚ í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚
âyï˛ §Ùyl •Î˚– H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI, ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Kc Kc =
[ AgNO ] 3
2

[HNO ]
2
~ÓÇ Kp ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲܲ ˆl•z– 3

N2O4(g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ ~ܲܲ •°

2NO2 (g),
§Ù§ƒy (Problem) 7.6
ˆÙy°‡!°ê˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Kp ~Ó˚ ~ܲܲ •° ÓyÓ˚ (bar)–
§yÙƒô %ÓܲˆÏܲ Ùyey•#l Ó˚y!¢Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õG ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Î!ò !l!ò≈T˛ 1000 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ CO2 (g) + C (s) 2CO (g)

!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 3.0. Î!ò ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ
PCO = 0.48 ÓyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ PCO = 0 ÓyÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Î!ò !Ó¢%Âô
!Ó¢%Âô àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌy •° 1 ÓyÓ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ ≤ÃÙyî 2

xÓfiÌyÎ˚ 4 ÓyÓ˚ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° •ˆÏÓ 4 bar/1 bar = 4 Îy•y @˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ CO ~ÓÇ CO2
Ùyey•#l §Çáƒy– ~Ó˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚–
ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌy (c0) •° 1 ˆÙy°yÓ˚ oÓî ~ÓÇ §Ùyôyl (Solution)
xlƒylƒ §Ó àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ ~Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ô!Ó˚ñ CO2 ~Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ x •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ CO2(g)
~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ï˛ˆÏsf Kp ~ÓÇ Kc í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚•z Ùyey!Ó•#l
+ C(s) 2CO(g)
Ó˚y!¢ !ܲv !Ó!˲ߨ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÓ˚ çlƒ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §Çáƒyàï˛ Ùyl
!Ó!˲ߨ •Î˚– ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ 0.48 ÓyÓ˚ 0
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 205

§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ (0.48 – x)bar 2x bar 5. ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô Ó% ܲ K xl%Ó˛)˚ õ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
~ܲ!ê˛ «%˛o xáu˛ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ myÓ˚y à%î Óy ˲yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚
pC2 O
Kp = ˆ§•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §!•ï˛ §¡õÜ≈˛ Î%=˛–
pC O2
Kp = (2x)2/(0.48 – x) = 3 ã˛° xyÙÓ˚y §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚–
4x2 = 3(0.48 – x) • §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ü˛ï˛ò)Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È
4x2 = 1.44 – x
ï˛yÓ˚ ôyÓ˚ly ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
4x2 + 3x – 1.44 = 0
a = 4, b = 3, c = –1.44 • !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ !òܲ §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–

x=
(−b ± b2 − 4ac ) • §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–

2a 7.6.1 ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x@˝Ãà!ï˛Ó˚ ôyÓ˚ly (Predicting the

= [–3 ± √(3)2– 4(4)(–1.44)]/2 × 4 Extent of a Reaction)
= (–3 ± 5.66)/8
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §Çáƒyàï˛Ùylñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ x@˝Ãà!ï˛Ó˚
= (–3 + 5.66)/ 8 (ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ x ~Ó˚ Ùyl -ve •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ôyÓ˚ly ˆòÎ˚– !ܲv •z•y à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆÎ •yˆÏÓ˚ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚
ly ˆ§•z ˆ•ï%˛ í˛z˛õˆÏ«˛y ܲÓ˚y •°ä ˆ˛õÑÔˆÏSȈÏSÈ §yÙƒô %ÓÜ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ï˛Ìƒ ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– Kc xÌÓy
x = 2.66/8 = 0.33 Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ ≈ ˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ §!•ï˛ §Ùyl%˛õyï˛# åˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛
§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ à%ˆÏ°y •° §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÎ˚ •z•yÓ˚y °ˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲä ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚
pCO = 2x = 2 × 0.33 = 0.66 ÓyÓ˚ §!•ï˛ ÓƒhflÏyl%˛õyï˛# åˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ •z•yÓ˚y •ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏÜ˛ä– ~ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó%V˛y ÎyÎ˚
pCO = 0.48 – x = 0.48 – 0.33 = 0.15 ÓyÓ˚
ˆÎ K ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸cG ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ
2
~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓG §ï˛ƒ–
7.6 §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà §Ù)• (APPLICATIONS OF ˛§yÙƒ!Ù◊ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛ ܲˆÏÎÜ˚ ˛!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ôyÓ˚ly
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS) !lˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •° /
• Î!ò Kc > 103 •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏÓ!¢
§yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à §Ù)• !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õ)˜ÓÏ ≈ §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈
•ˆÏÓ xÌ≈yÍ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl Î!ò á%Ó ˆÓ¢# •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
˜Ó!¢T˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yÓ˚yÇ¢ !lˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
§¡õ)î≈ï˛yÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ– !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚îà%ˆÏ°y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly
1. §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ àyì˛¸c ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
•ˆÏÎ˚ Îál !fiÌÓ˚ ÙyˆÏl ˆ˛õÑÔSÈyÎ˚ ï˛ál•z ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚
(a) 500 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ H2 ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛ O2 ~Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚
˛Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ≤ÈÏÎy烖
Ùyl á%Ó ˆÓ¢# •Î˚– Kc = 2.4 × 1047.
2. !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚
(b) 300 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
§yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– 31
Kc = 4.0 × 10 .
3. ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îÎ%=˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈≈T˛
(c) 300 K í˛z£ï
Ï÷ ˛yÎ˚ H2(g) + Br2(g) 2HBr (g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ~ÓÇ 18
Kc = 5.4 × 10
~ܲ!ê˛ xllƒ Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ–
• Î!ò Kc < 10–3 •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÓ!¢
4. §¡ø%á !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ •ˆÏÓñ xÌ≈yÍ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl á%Ó Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ Ü˛òy!ã˛Í x@˝Ã§Ó˚
ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ xˆÏlylƒˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– •Î˚– !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚îà%!° !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •°–
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(a) 500 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ H2O ~Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏl í˛zͲõߨ H2 ~ÓÇ O2
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl á%Ó Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
Kc = 4.1 × 10 –48
(b) 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g), ~•z
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùylñ Kc = 4.8 ×10 –31.
• Î!ò Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl 10 –3 ˆÌˆÏܲ 103 ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚§ˆÏÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ°
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚•z àyì˛¸c í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚îà%ˆÏ°y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y
•°–
(a) 700 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI(g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
§yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc = 57.0
(b) àƒy§#Î˚ ò¢yÎ˚ñ 25°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ N2O4 (g) 2NO2(g)
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl Kc = 4.64 × 10 – ~•z Ùyl!ê˛
–3
á%Ó «%˛o G ly xyÓyÓ˚ á%Ó Óí˛¸G ly–
xï˛~Óñ §yÙƒ!Ù◊ˆÏl N2O4~ÓÇ NO2 í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ àyì˛¸c
í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
~•z §yôyÓ˚î !Ó£ÏÎ˚à%ˆÏ°y !ã˛e 7.6 ~ !ã˛!eï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •°–
!ã˛e 7.6 Kc ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x@˝Ãà!ï˛–
7.6.2 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˲!Ó£Ïƒï˛ Óyî# (Predicting
the Direction of the Reaction)
§yÙƒô %Óܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ Ó˚ ôyÓ˚ly ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ ï˛yÓ˚çlƒ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Q àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Q åÎál
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c •ˆÏÓ ï˛ál •ˆÏÓ Qc ~ÓÇ Îál xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ •ˆÏÓ
ï˛ál QPä §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùï˛ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ Óƒ!ï˛Ü ˛Ù
¢%ô%Ùye ~•z ˆÎ Qc ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe àyì˛¸c §yÙƒàyì˛¸c lyG •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
aA+bB cC+dD (7.19)
~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
Qc = [C]c[D]d / [A]a[B]b (7.20)
Î!ò Qc > Kc •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ xÌ≈yÍ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ–
Î!ò Qc < Kc •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §¡ø%á!òˆÏܲ xÌ≈yÍ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ–
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
Î!ò Qc = Kc •Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!Ù◊î!ê˛ ÎÌyÓ˚#!ï˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ–
~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yñ H2 ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛ I2 ~Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly
ܲÓ˚y •°– 700 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI(g)
~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kc = 57.0
ô!Ó˚ñ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ H2, I2 ~ÓÇ HI ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ [H2]t=0.10M, [I2]t = 0.20 M ~ÓÇ [HI]t =0.40 M.
àyì˛¸c !ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ l#ˆÏã˛ 't' ˆÜ˛ Ó%V˛yÎ˚ t §ÙˆÏÎ˚ àyì˛¸c ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ àyì˛¸c çÓ˚%Ó˚# lÎ˚È–
í˛z˛õ!Ó˚í˛z=˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ~•z Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc •°ñ
Qc = [HI]t2 / [H2]t [I2]t = (0.40)2/ (0.10)×(0.20)
= 8.0
~•zˆÏ«˛ˆÏeñ Qc •° (8.0) Îy•y Kc (57.0) ~Ó˚ §Ùyl lÎ˚–
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ H2(g), I2(g) ~ÓÇ HI(g) !Ù◊l!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆl•zñ Qc
= Kc •GÎ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏl H2(g) ~ÓÇ I2(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚
x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî HI(g) ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓñ Ê˛ˆÏ° H2(g) ~ÓÇ I2(g)
~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ Ü˛ÙˆÏï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓ–
Qc ~ÓÇ Kc ~Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲyˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc
~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy ≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î Ó˚)˛õˆÏÓ˚áy xyÙÓ˚y !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ å!ã˛e ı 7.7ä
!ã˛e 7.7 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îy
• Î!ò Qc < Kc •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §Ù@˝Ã !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ÓyÙ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ
í˛yl !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ–
• Î!ò Qc > Kc •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §Ù@˝Ã !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ í˛yl!òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ
ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ–
• Î!ò Qc = Kc •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !lê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §Çà!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚ ly–
§Ù§ƒy 7.7
2A B + C ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 2 ×10–3–
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ
[A] = [B] = [C] = 3 × 10–4 M ˆÜ˛yl x!˲Ù%ˆÏá !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 207

§Ùyôyl / §Ùyôyl /
~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc •°ñ xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ pV = nRT
Qc = [B][C]/ [A]2
ˆÙyê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛l (V ) = 1 !°/
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ [A] = [B] = [C] = 3 × 10 –4M N2O4 ~Ó˚ xyl!Óܲ à%Ó˚%c = 92 g
Qc = (3 ×10–4)(3 × 10 –4) / (3 ×10 –4)2 = 1
àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy (n) = 13.8g / 92g = 0.15
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Qc > Kc xï˛~Ó !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ x!˲Ù%á# •ˆÏÓ– àƒy§ ô %Óܲ (R) = 0.083 ÓyÓ˚ !°/ ˆÙy°–1 ˆÜ˛°!˲l–1
7.6.3 §yÙƒ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ àîly (Calculating Equilibrium í˛z£÷Ïï˛y (T ) = 400 K
pV = nRT
Concentrations)
p × 1L = 0.15 ˆÙy° × 0.083 ÓyÓ˚ !°/ ˆÙy°–1ˆÜ˛°!˲l–1
ˆÎ§Ó §Ù§ƒyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c çy!l !ܲv p = 4.98 bar
§yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ àyì˛¸c çy!l ly ˆ§§Ó ˆ«˛ˆÏe !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õÑyã˛!ê˛ ôy˛õà%ˆ° Ï y N2O4 2NO2
xl%§Ó˚î ܲÓ˚y í˛z!ã˛ï˛– ˛õyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ 4.98 bar 0

ôy˛õ 1. !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ !°á– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ (4.98 – x) ÓyÓ˚ 2x ÓyÓ˚

ôy˛õ 2. §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !lˆÏã˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Î%%=˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ§•zˆÏ•ï%˛
ï˛y!°Ü˛y §yÓ˚!îÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ (P) = pN2O4 + pNO2
9.15 = (4.98 – x) + 2x
(a) ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c
(b) §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §!•ï˛ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l 9.15 = 4.98 + x

(c) §yÙƒàyì˛¸c x = 9.15 – 4.98 = 4.17 bar

§yÓ˚!î ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ x@˝ÃàyÙ# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ •°
xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ x [ˆÙy°‡!°ê˛yÓ˚] pN O = 4.98 – 4.17 = 0.81bar
2 4
ôˆÏÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c x ~Ó˚ fl∫yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ pNO = 2x = 2 × 4.17 = 8.34 bar
2
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fiê˛G!§G!Ù!ï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
( )
2
K p = p NO2 / p N 2O4
ôy˛õ 3. ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ §yÙƒàyì˛¸c ˆÜ˛ x˛õlÎ˚l
= (8.34)2/0.81 = 85.87
ܲˆÏÓ˚ x §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚– Î!ò !mâyï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ Kp = Kc(RT)
∆n

ï˛y•ˆÏ° x ~Ó˚ Î%!=˛ @˝Ãy•ƒ Ùyl!ê˛ lyG–

85.87 = Kc(0.083 × 400)1
ôy˛õ 4. x ~Ó˚ !l!î≈ï˛ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚–
Kc = 2.586 = 2.6
ôy˛õ 5. §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî Ùylà%ˆÏ°y Ó!§ˆÏÎ˚ ˆï˛yÙyÓ˚ Ê˛°yÊ˛°
˛õÎ≈yˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– §Ù§ƒy 7.9
380K í˛z£÷ï˛yÎ˚ 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ ÓÂô˛õyˆÏe 3.00 ˆÙy° PCl5 Ó˚yáy
§Ù§ƒy 7.8
•° ~ÓÇ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy °y˲ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y •°– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
400K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 !°ê˛yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õyˆÏe 13.8 @˝ÃyÙ
!Ù◊ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÎ)!ï˛ àîly ܲÓ˚y–
N2O4 Ó˚yáy •° ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ í˛z˛õl#ï˛ •ˆÏï˛
Kc= 1.80
ˆòGÎ˚y •°ñ
N 2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g) §Ùyôyl /
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ ˆòáy ˆà° 9.15 ÓyÓ˚– Kc, Kp ~ÓÇ PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2
§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚– È≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c 3.0 0 0
208 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

ô!Ó˚ñ x ˆÙy°‡!°ê˛yÓ˚ PCl5 !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚– í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ antilog !lˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ
θ
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ñ K = e–∆G /RT (7.23)
3-x x x xï˛~Ó (7.23) §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ∆Gθ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
Kc = [PCl3][Cl2]/[PCl5] !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
1.8 = x2/ (3 – x) • Î!ò ∆G θ < 0, •Î˚ñ ï˛ál ∆G θ/RT ôlydÜ •Î˚ ~ÓDz
x2 + 1.8x – 5.4 = 0 >1 •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° K>1 •Î˚ñ Îy•y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ï˛yˆÏܲ !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xÌÓy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡ø%á !òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚
x = [–1.8 ± 2
(1.8) - 4(-5.4) ]/2 •ˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÓ¢# ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ÌyˆÏܲ–
x = [–1.8 ± 3.24 + 21.6 ]/2 • Î!ò ∆Gθ > 0 •Î˚ñ ï˛álÈüÈ ∆Gθ/RT }îydܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
x = [–1.8 ± 4.98]/2 < 1 •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° K < 1 •Î˚ñ ï˛ál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
x = [–1.8 + 4.98]/2 = 1.59 xfl∫ï˛fl≥)˛ï≈˛ •Î˚ xÌÓy ~ï˛ fl∫“ÙyeyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡ø%á !òˆÏܲ
x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚ ˆÎ á%Ó §yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ
[PCl5] = 3.0 – x = 3 –1.59 = 1.41 M
•Î˚–
[PCl3] = [Cl2] = x = 1.59 M
§Ù§ƒy 7.10
7.7 §yÙƒô %Óܲ K, !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Q ~ÓÇ !àÓ§‰ ¢!=˛ G
~Ó˚ ÙˆÏ ô ƒ §¡õÜ≈ ˛ (RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN @’y•zˆÏܲy!°!§§ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ @’%ˆÏܲyˆÏçÓ˚ Ê˛§ˆÏÊ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏ°¢ˆÏl ∆Gθ
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT K, REACTION ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 13.8 KJ/molñ 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Kc~Ó˚ Ùyl
QUOTIENT Q AND GIBBS ENERGY G) !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ •yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ §Ùyôyl /
ly– ˛ï˛ˆÏÓ 6lÇ xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ï%˛!Ù ˛õˆÏí˛¸SÈ ˆÎñ •z•y åKcä ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ∆Gθ = 13.8 KJ/mol = 13.8 × 103 J/mol
ï˛y˛õà!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !ӈϢ£Ï˲yˆÏÓ !àÓ‰§ Ù%=˛ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ ∆Gθ = – RT lnKc
∆G §!•ï˛ §Ó˚y§!Ó˚ §¡õÜ≈˛Î%=˛–
xï˛~Ó ln Kc = –13.8 × 103J/mol
• Î!ò ∆G }îydܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ –1 –1
(8.314 J mol K × 298 K)
§Çà!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ §¡ø%á x!˲Ù%ˆÏá x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ–
ln Kc = – 5.569
• ∆G ôlydܲ •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ xfl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ Ó!°Î˚y !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ ∆G }îydܲ •Î˚ñ Kc = e–5.569
§¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Kc = 3.81 × 10 –3
˛õ!Ó˚ÓˆÏï≈˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
• ∆G, 0 •Î˚ñ ~•z !Ó®%ˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy x!ç≈ï˛ •Î˚ñ xyÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG
§Ù§ƒy 7.11
Ù%=˛¢!=˛ xÓ!¢¤˛ ÌyˆÏܲ lyñ Îy•y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ã˛y!°ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ– 300 ˆÜ˛°!˲l í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §%ˆÏÜ ˛yç ~Ó˚ xyo!ӈϟ’£Ïî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚
ï˛y˛õ!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ò,!T˛ˆÏï˛ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ ày!î!ï˛Ü˛ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 2 ×1013– 300 ˆÜ˛°!˲l í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ∆Gθàîly
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î myÓ˚y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚y •°ÈüÈ Ü˛Ó˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ •°ñ §%ˆÏÜ ˛yç + H2O @’%ˆÏܲyç + Ê %˛ˆÏQyç
∆G = ∆G + RT lnQ
θ
(7.21) §Ùyôyl (Solution)
ˆÎáyˆÏl ∆G •° ≤ÃÙylÙ%=˛ ¢!=˛– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ Îál ∆G =
θ
∆Gθ = – RT lnKc
0 ~ÓÇ Q = Kc ñ ï˛ál §Ù#ܲÓ˚î (7.21) !ê˛ •Î˚
∆Gθ = – 8.314J mol–1K–1×
∆G = ∆Gθ + RT ln K = 0
300K × ln(2×1013)
∆G = – RT lnK
θ
(7.22)
∆Gθ = – 7.64 ×104 J mol–1
lnK = – ∆G / RT θ
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 209

7.8 §yÙƒÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl ¢ï≈˛ §Ù)•˛ (FACTORS xlƒË˛yˆÏÓ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ°ñ Îál ˆÜ˛ˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ Óy
AFFECTING EQUILIBRIA) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛ylG ~ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ àyì˛¸c §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏï˛
Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ Ù%რí˛zˆÏj¢ƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ •ˆÏ°y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~Ùl ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
l)ƒlï˛Ù ¢!=˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ à%ˆ° Ï yˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓy≈ Fã˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî âˆÏê˛ ÎyˆÏï˛ àyì˛¸c ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ Îï˛ò)Ó˚ §Ω˛Ó Ü˛Ù Óy ¢)lƒ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y– ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏ°y ÙôƒÙyˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y– Î!ò ã˛ˆÏ°y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ !Óã˛yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚ñ
~Ùl!ê˛ ly âˆÏê˛ñ ï˛ál ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˆ•ÓyÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ N2 ~ÓÇ H2 ˆÌˆÏܲ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
§ÇˆÏŸ’£ÏˆÏî ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÓ˚ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ã˛Î˚l xy!Ì≈ܲ Ó˚)˛õ ˆÌˆÏܲ á%Ó•z Î!ò §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏî H2 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ál
à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈– !ӈϟª Óy!£Ï≈ܲ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y í˛zͲõyòl ≤ÃyÎ˚ 100 !Ù!°Î˚l !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !Ó!â¯ï˛ •Î˚– §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ%l/fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl– ˆÎ!ê˛ Ù%áƒï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÓ˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆ§•z!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎ!òˆÏܲ H2 ÓƒÎ˚ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ
§yÙƒ ô %Óܲ Kc ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– !ܲv x!ôܲ H2 ~ÓÇ I2 !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ HI àë˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ˆ¢£Ï ˛õÎ≈hs˝
Î!ò §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ !fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛ylG ï˛ˆÏsf ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yܲyÓ˚# §yÙƒyÓfiÌy í˛yl!òˆÏܲ 姡ø%á!òˆÏܲä x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏÓ å!ã˛e ı7.8ä – ~!ê˛
˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˙ ï˛ˆÏsf §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ÌyܲˆÏï˛ °y ¢ˆÏï˛!°Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛Ó˚ xl%Ó˚)˛õ ÎyÓ˚ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ‡!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly ~ÓÇ ˆlê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ ï˛ï˛«˛î ˛õÎ≈hs˝ âê˛ˆÏï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ ˆÎáyˆÏl
Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ï˛ˆÏsf ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ‡!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c ˛õòyÌ≈!ê˛ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ
ï˛ˆÏsf ï˛y˛õÙyey Óy ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlG §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– àyì˛¸c •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ !ܲv Ù)° !Ù◊ˆÏî ˆÎ àyì˛¸c ï˛yÓ˚
ˆÜ˛yl‰˛õˆÏÌ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ âê˛ˆÏÓ ˆ§!ê˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ–
¢ï≈˛à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏî §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !ܲ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ à%îàï˛
ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ °y ¢yˆÏï˛°#Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~•z l#!ï˛
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !fiÌï˛ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ï˛ˆÏsÓf ˚ å!§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ä §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
!lÎ˚sîf ܲyÓ˚# ¢ï≈˛à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢ˆÏï˛≈ Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï ï˛sf!ê˛
~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ !lˆÏçˆÏܲ !ÓlƒhflÏ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ ~•z ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛îç!îï˛
≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ Îï˛ò)Ó˚ §Ω˛Ó Ü˛Ù Óy ≤â!Ùï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~!ê˛ §Ü˛° ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
ˆË˛Ôï˛ G Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤ÈÏÎy烖
xyÙÓ˚y ~ál ~Ùl ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y xyˆÏ°yã˛Ó˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy ÎyÓ˚y
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
7.8.1 àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ˛ (Effect of Concentration
Change)
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ‡!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ Î%=˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° Óy §!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚
!lˆÏ° Îál §yÙƒÓyfiÌy !Ó!â¯ï˛ •Î˚ñ °y ¢ˆÏï≈˛ !°Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ /
• !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ‡!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ !ã˛eı 7.8 H2(g) + I2 (g) 2HI(g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ
ã˛y˛õ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆ§•z!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚
•Î˚ ˆ§!òˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ÓƒÎ˚ •Î˚– H2 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ–

• !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ‡!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ !lflÒy!§ï˛ •ˆÏ° àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚G ~•z !Ó£ÏÎ˚!ê˛ Óƒyáƒy
ˆÎ ˛ã˛y˛õ xyˆÏ§ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆ§•z !òˆÏܲ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
•ˆÏÓ ˆÎ!òˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÌˆÏܲ !lflÒy!£Ïï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˛õ)!ï≈˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ–˚ 2
Qc = [HI] / [H2][I2]
210
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ H2 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° Qc~Ó˚ Ùyl Kc ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy˛õl ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
§¡ø%á!òˆÏܲ (Forward direction) x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y
Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï §¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
xyˆÏÓ˚yG ˆçyÓ˚òyÓ˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚–
ˆÎ §ÙhflÏ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ àƒy§#Î˚ Óy í˛zmyÎ˚# ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚
•Î˚ ˆ§ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Óy!î!çƒÜ˛ !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~!ê˛ á%Ó•z °y˲çlܲ– xƒyˆÏÙ!lÎ˚yÓ˚
!¢ˆÏ“yͲõyòl ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yˆÏܲ ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï ˛õ!Ó˚lï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
!Ù◊î ˆÌˆÏܲ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •Î˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡ø%áÙ%á#
(Forward direction) •Î˚– ~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ CaCO3 ˆÌˆÏÜ !Ó¢y°
˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî CaO åà%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ !lÙ≈yî §yÙ@˝Ã# Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚ä í˛zͲõyòˆÏl
ã%˛Õ‘# ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ CO2 ˆÜ˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛!Ó˚ˆÎÏ ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ §¡õ)î≈
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ~áyˆÏl ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÏܲ Ü ˛Ùyàï˛
x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° Qc ~Ó˚ Ùyl Kc ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù •Î˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
Ü ˛Ùyàï˛ §¡ø%á!òˆÏܲ (Forward direction) x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •Î˚–
àyì˛¸ ˆ Ï c Ó˚ ≤Ã˲yÓÈ ü È ~ ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÃˆÏ Î ˚ y à‡˛õÓ˚ # «˛y (Effect of
Concentration – An experiment)
!lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ myÓ˚y ~!ê˛ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚
– 2+
Fe3+(aq)+ SCN (aq) [Fe(SCN)] (aq) (7.24)
•°%ò Óî≈•#l àyì˛¸°y°
(7.25)
1 mL of 0.2 M xyÎ˚Ó˚î (III) ly•zˆÏê˛∆ê˛ oÓˆÏî ò%•z ˆÊ˛Ñyê˛y
0.002 M ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ÌyˆÏÎ˚y§yÎ˚yˆÏlê˛ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° [Fe(SCN)]2+
xyÎ˚l àë˛ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° oÓî!ê˛ °y° Óî≈ ôyÓ˚î ܲˆÏÓ–˚ °y° ÓˆÏîÓ≈ ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy fiÌy!˛õï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ !fiÌÓ˚ •Î˚– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õSÈ® ÙˆÏï˛y
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ Óy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎyˆÏàÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ §¡ø%áÙ%á# Óy ˛õyŸã˛yò‰Ù%á# ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Fe3+
Óy SCN – xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~Ùl !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ ˆÎyà
ܲˆÏÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õŸã˛yò‰Ù%á# ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
x:y!°Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ (H2C2O4), Fe3+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚
fiÌyÎ˚# ç!ê˛° xyÎ˚l [Fe(C2O4)3]3– àë˛l ܲˆÏÓñ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù%=˛ Fe3+(aq)
xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– °y ¢yï˛!°Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ñ Fe3+
xyÎ˚l x˛õ§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ ã˛y˛õ xyˆÏ§ ˆ§!ê˛
[Fe(SCN)]2+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏl í˛zͲõߨ Fe3+ xyÎ˚l myÓ˚y
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
≤â!Ùï˛ •Î˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ [Fe(SCN)]2+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚
ˆ§çlƒ °y° ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
ç°#Î˚ HgCl2 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°G °y° Óî≈ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î Hg2+
xyÎ˚l SCN – xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ fiÌyÎ˚# ç!ê˛° xyÎ˚l
[Hg(SCN)4]2– àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– Ù%=˛ xyÎ˚l SCN – ç°#Î˚ x˛õ§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
Ê˛ˆÏ° (7.24) §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy í˛yl !òܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ Óy !òˆÏܲ
§ˆÏÓ˚ !àˆÏÎ˚ SCN – xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyÓyÓ˚
˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ ÌyˆÏÎ˚y§yÎ˚yˆÏÙê˛ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~!ê˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ í˛yl !òˆÏܲ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚–
7.8.2 ã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ (Effect of Pressure
Change)
àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎáyˆÏl àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy
àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ !˲ߨ ˆ§ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe
xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ myÓ˚y ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚
í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ˛ ˛õˆÏí˛¸– x§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏï˛ °y
¢yï˛°#Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï Ü˛!ë˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚
≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ í˛z˛õˆÏ«˛y ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î oÓî‡ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l
å~ÓÇ àyì˛¸cä ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly Ó°ˆÏ°•z ã˛ˆÏ°–
!lˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îy܉˛
CO(g) + 3H2(g) CH4(g) + H2O(g)
~áyˆÏl 4 ˆÙy° àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ (CO + 3H2) •ˆÏï˛ 2 ˆÙy°
àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ (CH4 + H2O) ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ô!Ó˚ ~•z
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒ!Ù◊îˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !˛õfiê˛l °yàyˆÏly
~ܲ!ê˛ !§!°u˛yˆÏÓ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ù)° xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xˆÏô≈ܲ
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl §ÇÜ%˛!ã˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˆÙyê˛ ã˛y˛õ !mà%l •ˆÏÎ˚
ÎyˆÏÓ åpV = ô %Óܲ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ä– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ G !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ àyì˛¸c ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ˆà° ~ÓÇ
!Ù◊î!ê˛ ~ál xyÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆl•z– °y ¢yˆÏï˛°#Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ ˛õ%l/fiÌy!˛õï˛
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ ï˛y §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ã˛y˛õ !mà%î •ˆÏ°yñ
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ §¡ø%á!òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ˆàˆÏ°yñ ˆÎ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚
ˆÙy°§Çáƒy Óy ã˛y˛õ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ åxyÙÓ˚y çy!l ã˛y˛õ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy°
§ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛ä– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ (Qc ) ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓG ˚ ~ˆÏܲ
Ó%V˛y ÎyÎ˚– ô!Ó˚ !ÙÌyˆÏl¢yl (methanation) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸cà%ˆÏ°y [CO],
§yÙƒyÓfĩy
[H2], [CH4] ~ÓÇ [H2O] Îál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l xˆÏô≈ܲ
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ál xÇ¢ã˛y˛õ ~ÓÇ àyì˛¸c !mà%l •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~ál ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛
§yÙƒ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ Ùyl !mà%l ܲˆÏÓ˚ñ xyÙÓ˚y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ ˛õy•zñ
CH4 ( g )  H2 O ( g )
Qc = 
CO ( g ) H2 ( g )
3
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Qc < Kc !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡ø%áÙ%á# •Î˚–
C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ Îál ã˛y˛õ
Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õŸã˛yò‰Ù%á# •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î §¡ø%áÙ%á#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
7.8.3 !lfl;#Î˚ àƒy§ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ (Effect of Inert
Gas Addition)
Î!ò xyÎ˚ï˛l !fiÌÓ˚ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá !lfl;#Î˚ àƒy§ ˆÎÙl xyà≈lñ ˆÎ!ê˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ lyñ Î!ò ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛
!Ó!â¯ï˛ •Î˚ ly– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î !fiÌÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl !lfl;#Î˚ àƒy§ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Óy ˆÙy°yÓ˚
àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ylG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ ly– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc ï˛ál•z
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ Î!ò ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y àƒy§!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ Óy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛ylG ~ܲ!ê˛ •Î˚–
7.8.4 í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ (Effect of Temperature
Change)
Îál àyì˛¸cñ ã˛y˛õ Óy xyÎ˚ï˛l ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy
!Ó!â¯ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál §yÙƒ!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ï˛ál
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc G §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc §Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ ly– !ܲv Îál
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛ál §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ •Î˚–
§yôyÓ˚îï˛ §yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛y !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ∆H ÈüÈ~Ó˚
!ã˛ˆÏ•´Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
• ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ å}îydܲ ∆Hä ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
• ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ åôlydܲ ∆Hä ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛î §yÙƒô %Óܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y•yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
211
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ;
∆H= – 92.38 kJ mol–1
~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y í˛zͲõyòl ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y– °y °yˆÏï˛!°Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
§yÙƒ!ê˛ ÓyÙ!òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒàyì˛¸cˆÏܲ •…y§
ܲˆÏÓ˚– xlƒ ܲÌyÎ˚ !l¡¨ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y
í˛zͲõyòˆÏl §y•y΃ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !ܲv ÓyhflψÏÓ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ á%Ó Ü˛Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛y
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ Ù®#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî•z xl%âê˛Ü˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚–
í˛z£÷ïÏ ˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓÈüÈ~ܲ!ê˛ ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ à‡˛õÓ˚#«˛y (Effect of Temperature
– An experiment)
ÓyòyÙ# ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ NO2 àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ í˛y•zÙyÓ˚ àë˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙƒ Óî≈•#l
N2O4 ~ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !òˆÏÎ˚ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ G˛õÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚
≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
2NO2(g) N2O4(g); ∆H = –57.2 kJ mol–1
àyì˛¸ HNO3 ~ ܲ˛õyÓ˚ !SÈÓí˛¸ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ í˛zͲõߨ NO2 àƒy§ˆÏܲ
ò%!ê˛ 5 !Ù!° ˆê˛fiê˛!ê˛ê˛í˛zˆÏÓ å≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ !ê˛í˛zˆÏÓ ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y §Ùyl •ˆÏÓä
!lˆÏÎ˚ xƒyÓ˚y° í˛y•zê˛ åaralditeä !òˆÏÎ˚ §#° åsealä ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y •Î˚–
!ï˛l!ê˛ 250 !Ù!° Ó#ܲyÓ˚ 1, 2 G 3 ly¡∫yÓ˚ !°ˆÏá ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !•Ù!Ù◊îñ
âˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ç° ~ÓÇ àÓ˚Ùç° (363K) ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y–
å!ã˛eı7.9ä– í˛z˲Î˚ ˆê˛fiê˛!ê˛í˛zÓˆÏܲ 2 lÇ Ó#ܲyˆÏÓ˚ 8-10 !Ù!lˆÏê˛Ó˚
çlƒ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏ°y– ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆê˛fiê˛!ê˛í˛zÓ 1 lÇ Ó#ܲyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ
xlƒ!ê˛ 3 lÇ Ó#ܲyˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚yáy •ˆÏ°y– ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ Ó˚
G˛õÓ˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓˆÏܲ ˲y° ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚–
!l¡¨ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1lÇ Ó#ܲyˆÏÓ˚ N2O4 àë˛ˆÏîÓ˚ §¡ø%áÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛
≤Ãyôylƒ ˛õyÎ˚ ܲyÓ˚î !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ
!ã˛e 7.9 ˚2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ
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NO2 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÓyòyÙ# ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ 3 lÇ Ó#ܲyˆÏÓ˚
í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ NO2 àë˛ˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õŸã˛yòÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ xl%Ü%˛° ÌyˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ ÓyòyÙ# ÓˆÏî≈Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yÓ˚ Ó,!Âô âˆÏê˛–
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ!ê˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛G ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚–
Co(H2O) 6]3+ (aq) + 4Cl –(aq) [CoCl4]2–(aq) +
6H2O(l)
ˆày°y˛õ# Óî≈•#l l#°
âˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ §yÙƒ !Ù◊î!ê˛ [CoCl4]2– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆîÏ l#° ÓˆÏîÓ≈ ˚
•Î˚– Îál ~!ê˛ê˛ !•Ù!Ù◊ˆÏl ë˛yu˛y ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál [Co(H2O)6]3+
~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî ˆày°y˛õ# •Î˚–
7.8.5 xl%âê˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ (Effect of a Catalyst)
xl%âê˛Ü˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ü˛Ù ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ˛õˆÏÌÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲˆÏܲ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈ Ó˚)˛õyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˆòÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏï˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– xl%âê˛Ü˛ ~ܲ•z §ÇÜ ˛Ùl xÓfiÌy
(Transition State) !òˆÏÎ˚ à!ï˛¢#° §¡ø%áÙ%á# G ˛õŸã˛yò‰Ù%á#
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ à!ï˛ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ !ܲv §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ly–
xl%âê˛Ü˛ §¡ø%áÙ%á# ~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yò‰Ùá% # !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y í˛z˲Î˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z §Ü ˛#Î˚ܲÓ˚î
¢!=˛ (Activation Energy) ˆÜ˛ §Ùyl ÙyeyÎ˚ •…y§ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xl%âê˛Ü˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏlÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ylG ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ §!Ùï˛
§Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî Óy §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ !fiÌÓ˚yAܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî ≤Ãܲy!¢ï˛ •Î˚ ly–
í˛y•z ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÌˆÏܲ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y
àë˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !Óã˛yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y Îyܲ– ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zFã˛
ï˛y˛õˆÏÙyã˛# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y– ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy°
§Çáƒy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛ ˆÙy° §Çáƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù– ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛
§yÙƒô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– !l¡¨ í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
•yÓ˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÑÔSȈïÏ ˛ xˆÏlܲ §ÙÎ˚ ˆlÎ˚ xlƒ!òˆÏܲ
í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y •yÓ˚ §ˆÏhs˝y£Ïçlܲ •ˆÏ°G í˛zͲõyòl Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
çyÙ≈yl Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò Ê ˛#§ ˆ•ÓyÓ˚ åFritz Haberä xy!ÓflÒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓl˚
ˆÎ ˆ°Ô• xl%âë˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §ˆÏhs˝y£Ïçlܲ •yˆÏÓ˚
âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ NH3 Èü~Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c §ˆÏhs˝y£Ïçlܲ •Î˚– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy° §Çáƒyñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚
ˆÙy° §Çáƒy ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ NH3 ÈüÈ~Ó˚ í˛zͲõyòl
Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ xl%âê˛Ü˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ NH3 í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚ çlƒ §Ó
ˆÌˆÏܲ xl%Ü%˛°ï˛Ù í˛z£÷Ïï˛y G ã˛˛õ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ500 °C ~ÓÇ 200
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
xƒyê˛Ù§Ê˛#Î˚yÓ˚ ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!S–È ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ flõ¢≈ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛
§y°!Ê˛í˛z!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ≤Û!ï˛˛
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g); Kc = 1.7 × 1026
K üÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §¡õ)î≈ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyGÎ˚yÓ˚
ܲÌy •ˆÏ°G ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛˛õˆÏ«˛ SO2 ˆÌˆÏܲ SO3 ~ çyÓ˚î á%Ó•z ÙrÌÓ˚
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– ˆ§çlƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ •yÓ˚ˆÏܲ Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ≤’y!ê˛lyÙ Óy í˛y•z
ˆË˛l!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆ˛õrê˛y x:y•zí˛ (V2O5) ˆÜ˛ xl%âê˛Ü˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚–
oT˛Óƒ å Noteä ı Î!ò ˆÜ˛ylG !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !fiÌÓ˚yˆÏAܲÓ˚
Ùyl åKä á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ ï˛ál xl%âê˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ §y•y΃ Ü˛Ù °yˆÏà–
7.9 oÓˆÏl xyÎ˚!lÎ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy (Ionic Equilibrium in
Solution)
§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ≤çˆÏAà
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ !àˆÏÎ˚ âê˛lyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l §Ù!ß∫ï˛ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛
ˆlGÎ˚y •°Èüü
Fe3+(aq) + SCN–(aq) [Fe(SCN)]2+(aq)
§yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ xˆÏlܲ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y xyˆÏSÈ ˆÎáyˆÏl ¢%ô%Ùye xyÎ˚l
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ xl%ˆÏFSȈÏò xyÙÓ˚y xyÎ˚l §Ù!ß∫ï˛ §yÙƒ
!lˆÏÎ˚ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚Ó– ~ê˛y §ÓyÓ˚ çyly ˆÎñ !ã˛!lÓ˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓî ï˛!í˛¸Í
˛õ!Ó˚Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly– ï˛ˆÏÓ §yôyÓ˚î °Ól 刧y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ä çˆÏ°
ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° •z•yÓ˚ oÓî ï˛!í˛¸Í ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚– §yôyÓ˚î °ÓˆÏlÓ˚
àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ܲ!Ó˚Î˚y ï˛!í˛¸Í ˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛y G Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ï˛!í˛¸Í
˛õ!Ó˚Ó•ˆÏlÓ˚ §yÙˆÏ̃≈ Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !˲!_ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ùy•zˆÜÏ ˛° Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛
ò%!ê˛ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ !Ó˲=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl– ~ܲ ˆ◊!îÓ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî
ï˛!í˛¸Í ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•l ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ ӈϰñ ˆÎáyˆÏl
xlƒylƒÓ˚y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ~Ó˚y •° ï˛!í˛¸ÍÈüx!ӈϟ’£Ïƒ– Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛
ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£ƒÏ ˛õòyÌ≈ˆÜÏ ˛ñ ï˛#Ó  ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% !ӈϟ’£ƒÏ ˛õòyÌ≈Óˆ)˚ ˛Ï õG ˆ◊!îË%˛=˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ ˛õòyÌ≈ çˆÏ° ≤ÃyÎ˚ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyÎ˚!lï˛
•Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl ò%Ó≈° ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ ˛õòyÌ≈ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚–
í˛zòy•Ó˚î fl∫Ó˚)˛õ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xyÎ˚l
~ÓÇ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏl !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛
≤Ãôylï˛ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ xl%Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ
ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye §yÙylƒ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» y!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚l ÌyˆÏܲ–
~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ≤ÃyÎ˚ 100% xyÎ˚!lï˛ •Î˚
ˆÎáyˆÏl xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ Ù,ò% ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ ӈϰ 5% ~Ó˚G ܲÙ
xyÎ˚!lï˛ •Î˚– ~áyˆÏl ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ Ù,ò% ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’ˆÏ£ÏƒÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 213

§yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ xl%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚– •y•zˆíÏ ˛» y:y•zˆíÏ ˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– ~!ê˛ Ü˛!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ôlydܲ
ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî xyÎ˚l !lˆÏÎ˚ ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ }îydܲ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ à%FSÈÓˆ)˚ ˛Ï õ xÓfiÌyl
§yÙƒyÓfiÌy ӈϰ– xƒy!§í˛ñ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ °Ól ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£ƒÏ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– ˆÎà%ˆÏ°y ò%!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ôÙ≈# xyôyl !Ó!¢T˛ ܲîyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !fiÌÓ˚
˛õˆÏí˛¸ ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  Óy Ù,ò% ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£ÏƒÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ï˛y!í˛¸!ï˛Ü˛ xyܲ£Ï≈î ӈϰÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ~ܲˆÏe Î%=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ å!ã˛e 7.10ä–
ò%!ê˛ xyôyˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í Ó° ÙyôƒˆÏÙƒÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚y˜ÏÓò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ ô Ó% ˆÏܲÓ˚
7.10 xƒy!§í˛ñ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ °Óî (ACIDS, BASES AND
§yˆÏÌ ÓƒhflÏyl%˛õy!ï˛Ü˛– §yÓ≈çl#l oyÓܲ ç° ~Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚y˜ÏÓò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ ô %Óܲ
SALTS)
(dielective constantä í˛zFã˛ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ å80ä •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° Îál
xƒy!§í˛ñ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ °Óî ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ˆÏï˛ Ó•%° ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛ál !fiÌÓ˚ï˛y!í˛¸ï˛#ܲ
ÎyÎ˚– ˛õyã˛Ü˛ Ó˚ˆ§Ï í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏܲœ y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ ˆÎ!ê˛ ˛õyܲfiÌ°#Ó˚ Ó° 80 ˲yà ܲˆÏÙ ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÎ˚là%ˆ° Ï y oÓˆÏî fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ
!Ë˛ï˛ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xyhflÏÓ˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤Ãã%˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî (1.2-1.5 L/day) «˛!Ó˚ï˛
•Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ •çˆÏÙÓ˚ çlƒ x!ï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– !˲!làyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚
Ù)° í˛z˛õyòyl •° xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛– ˆ°Ó% ~ÓÇ Ü˛Ù°yˆÏ°Ó%Ó˚ Ó˚ˆÏ§
§y•z!ê˛∆ܲ ~ÓÇ xƒy§Ü˛Ó˚!Óܲ xƒy!§í˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ ê˛yÓ˚ê˛y!Ó˚ܲ
xƒy!§í˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆï˛ï%˛ˆÏ°– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ˆÓ¢#Ó˚ ˲yà xƒy!§í˛•z fl∫yˆÏò
ê˛Ü˛ñ Úxƒy!§í˛Û ¢∑!ê˛ °ƒy!ê˛l ¢∑ Úxƒy!§í˛y§Û (acidus) ˛ˆÌˆÏܲ
ˆlGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ÎyÓ˚ xÌ≈ ê˛Ü˛– xƒy!§í˛ l#° !°ê˛Ùy§ ܲyàçˆÏܲ
°y° ÓˆÏî≈ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È !ܲS%È ôyï%˛Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚
í˛y•z •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl àƒy§ ˆòÎ˚– ~ܲ•z ˲yˆÏÓ «˛yÓ˚ܲ à%ˆ° Ï y °y° !°ê˛Ùy§
ܲyàçˆÏܲ l#° ÓˆÏî≈ ˛õ!Ó˚îï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚– fl∫yˆÏò !ï˛=˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ flõ¢≈ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
§ÓyˆÏlÓ˚ Ùï˛– «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î í˛zòy•Ó˚î •° ܲy˛õí˛¸ ܲyã˛yÓ˚
ˆ§yí˛y ˆÎ!ê˛ Ü˛y˛õí˛¸ ˆôÔï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– Îál xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ !ã˛e 7.10 çˆÏ° ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl– Na+ xyÎ˚l
«˛yÓ˚ܲ ˆÜ˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ÙyeyÎ˚ ˆÙ¢yˆÏly •Î˚ ï˛ál ï˛yÓ˚y ˛õÓ˚flõÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ~ÓÇ Cl– xyÎ˚l çˆÏ°Ó˚ ô %Ó#Î˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
ܲˆÏÓ˚ °Óî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛ !ܲS%È °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î oyÓܲyÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ !fiÌ!ï˛¢#°ï˛y °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
•° ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ñ ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ñ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ly•zˆÏê˛∆ê˛–
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ å§yôyÓ˚î °Óîä xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ áyˆÏòƒÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ã˛°yã˛° ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ oyÓܲyÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
à%Óc%̊ ˛õ)î≈ í˛z˛õyòyl ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏܲœ y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y ˆÓ¢ ˛õ,Ìܲ˲yˆÏÓ ÌyˆÏܲ–
Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛Ó˚ çß√ °u˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyˆÏ¢ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ˛õ!Ó˚ÓyˆÏÓ˚ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– 14 ÓSÈÓ˚ ÓÎ˚ˆÏ§ í˛z!l ~ܲçl òÎ˚y°% ˛õ%hflÏܲ
Óyôy•zܲyÓ˚#Ó˚ (Bookbinder) §•ˆÏÎyà# !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ¢%Ó˚% ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !Î!l Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛ˆÏܲ ÓÑyôy•z ܲÓ˚y Ó•zà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
˛õí˛¸ˆÏï˛ xl%Ù!ï˛ !òˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– ˲yàƒÜ ˛ˆÏÙ !ï˛!l ˆí˛!˲Ó˚ (Davy) ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà¢y°yÎ˚ §•ˆÏÎyà# !•§yˆÏÓ !lÎ%=˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl–
1813-14 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛ ˆí˛!˲Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ Ù•yˆÏò¢ ºÙˆÏî !àˆÏÎ˚!SȈϰl– ~•z ºÙˆÏî í˛z!l ˙ §ÙÎ˚ܲyÓ˚ !Óáƒyï˛
˜ÓK˛y!lܲàˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ ~ˆÏ§ xˆÏlܲ x!˲K˛ï˛y xç≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– 1825 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l ˆí˛!˲Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛#
!lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ó˚Î˚y° ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yl ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà¢y°yˆÏï˛ (Royal Institution Laboratories) !lÎ%=˛ •l ~ÓÇ 1833 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑
!ï˛!l Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏl ≤ÃÌÙ Ê%˛ˆÏ°!Ó˚Î˚yl xôƒy˛õܲ •l– Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ Ü˛yç !ӈϟ’£Ïîbܲ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ÙyˆÏÜ≈˛° Ê˛Ó˚yˆÏí˛
!SÈ°– 1821 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑Ó˚ õÓ˚ í˛zlyÓ˚ ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà àˆÏÓ£Ïîy•z ï˛!í˛¸Í G ã%˛¡∫Üc ~ÓÇ ï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ âê˛lyÓ°#Ó˚ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛
!SÈ°– í˛zlyÓ˚ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚•z Modern Field Theory ≤Ã!ï˛˛õy!òï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ï˛!l 1834 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ §)e
xy!ÓflÒyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl– Ê˛ƒyÓ˚˚yˆÏí˛ á%Ó•z !ÓlÎ˚# ~ÓÇ òÎ˚y°% !SȈϰl– !ï˛!l §ÙhflÏ §¡øyl @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ xfl∫#ܲyÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl ~ÓÇ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ
!Óï˛Ü≈˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ §Ó≈òy !lˆÏçˆÏܲ ò)ˆÏÓ˚ §!Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ Ó˚yáˆÏï˛l– !ï˛!l ~ܲy ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õSÈ® ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛l ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛ylG §•ˆÏÎyà# !SÈ° ly– !ï˛!l
!Ó!˲ߨ˲yˆÏÓ !ÓK˛yˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãã˛yˆÏÓ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛l ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ó˚Î˚y° ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛yl (Royal Institution) ï˛yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ ¢%Ü ˛ÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §yrôƒÜ˛y°#l
≤ÃÓã˛ˆÏl ÚÚˆÙyÙÓy!ï˛Ó˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ •z!ï˛•y§ÛÛ !lˆÏÎ˚ !Ü ˛§Ùy§ ≤ÃÓã˛l!ê˛ !Óáƒyï˛– !ï˛!l ≤ÃyÎ˚ 450 !ê˛ ˜ÓK˛y!lܲ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy˛õe ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚!SȈϰl–
214 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

çˆÏ° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏÜœ˛y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ åxƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚
§yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ä xyÎ˚ly•zˆçÏ ¢l ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï Î!òG í˛z˲Î˚•z ô Ó% #Î˚ §ÙˆÏÎyç#
ˆÎÔà–
≤ÃÌÙ!ê˛ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ í˛z˛õyòyl xyÎ˚ˆÏl xyÎ˚!lï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ !ܲv
!mï˛#Î˚!ê˛ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ (< 5%) xyÎ˚!lï˛ •Î˚– xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ Ùyey
!lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚!lï˛ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ oyÓܲyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
ÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚– !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ~•z ò%!ê˛ ˛õòˆÏܲ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈
˛õ,Ìܲ xˆÏÌ≈ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ó°ˆÏï˛ çˆÏ°
xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ˛õ,Ìܲ •GÎ˚yˆÏܲ Ó%V˛yˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ Îy oyˆÏÓÓ˚ ܲ!ë˛l
xÓfiÌyˆÏï˛G Óï≈˛Ùyl– ˆÎÙl ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y–
x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól •ˆÏ°y ~ܲ!ê˛ !lhfl!Ï í˛¸Í (neutral) xl%Ó˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» y!lÎ˚yÙ ~ÓÇ •y•zí˛» !:° xyÎ˚l
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xyÎ˚l !lˆÏç•z á%Ó ˆSÈyê˛ xyܲyÓ˚ (~10–15 m Óƒy§yô≈ä
Î%=˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ ˆ«˛e !Ó!¢T˛ xîyÓ,ï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l– ~!ê˛
çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ ò%•zˆÏçyí˛¸y !l/§Aà Î%à° •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ~ܲ!ê˛
ˆçyí˛¸yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ H3O+ xyÎ˚l ˆòÎ˚– ~•z xyÎ˚l!ê˛
!Ó!˲ߨ ˆÎÔˆÏà åˆÎÙl H3O+Cl –ä ܲ!ë˛l xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §ly=˛ ܲÓ˚y
•ˆÏΈ˚ SÏ È– ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏl •y•zˆíÏ ˛» y!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚l xyˆÏÓy˚ G ç°ˆÏÎy!çï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ H5O2+, H7O3+ ~ÓÇ H9O4+ È~Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ xyÎ˚l à%ˆ° Ï yàë˛l ܲˆÏÓ–˚
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ •y•zí˛» !:° xyÎ˚l ç°ˆÏÎy!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xyÎ˚là%ˆ° Ï y
ˆÎÙl H3O2 , H5O3 ~ÓÇ H7O4 •zï˛ƒy!ò àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
– – –

ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó˲y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyôylÎ%=˛ xyÎ˚l ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– ~áyˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y

~•z ò%!ê˛ ˛õòˆÏܲ xò°Óò° ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy–
7.10.1 xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲï˛_¥ (Arrhenius
Concept of Acids and Bases)
+
xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛_¥ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛ •° ˆ§•z §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ H 9O 4
ÎyÓ˚y ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚l H+(aq)
ˆòÎ˚ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ •° ˆ§•z §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ ÎyÓ˚y ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî !ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ 7.10.2 Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ °yí˛z!Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ (The Brönsted-
•ˆÏÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛y!:° xyÎ˚l OH –(aq) xyÎ˚l ˆòÎ˚– ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG xƒy!§í˛ Lowry Acids and Bases)
HX (aq)È ü È ~ Ó˚ xyÎ˚ l #˲Ól (Ionization) ˆÜ˛ !l¡¨ ! °!áï˛
í˛ƒy!l§ Ó˚§yÎ˚!l!Óò ˆçy•yl ÓœlˆÏfiê˛í˛ åJohannes Brönstedä ~ÓÇ
§Ù#ܲÓ˚îà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
•zLjÏÓ˚ç Ó˚§yÎ˚l!Óò ÌÙy§ ~Ù °yí˛z!Ó˚ åThomas M. Lowryä
HX (aq) → H (aq) + X (aq)
+ –
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÓ˚G Óƒy˛õܲ §ÇK˛y !òˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈl– Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛
xÌÓy °yí˛z!Ó˚ ï˛_¥ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛ •° ˆ§•z §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ ÎyÓ˚y •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl
HX(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + X –(aq) xyÎ˚l H+ !òˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ •° ˙§Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ ÎyÓ˚y
~ܲ!ê˛ Ù%=˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛lñ H+ á%Ó•z !Ü ˛Î˚y¢#° ~ÓÇ ç°#Î˚oÓˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚l H+ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ Ó°ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ°ñ
fl∫yô#l˲yˆÏÓ ÌyܲˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ly– ˆ§çlƒ ~!ê˛ oyÓܲ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ •° ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyï˛y ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ •° ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ã•#ï˛y–
x!:ˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyl%Ó˚ §ˆÏAà Órôl àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚ !eˆÏܲyl#Î˚ !˛õÓ˚!Ùí˛#Î˚
~ál !lˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚
•y•zˆÏí»˛y!lÎ˚Ù xyÎ˚îñ H3O+ ˆòÎ˚ {[H (H2O)]+} åÓ: ˆòáä– ~•z
í˛zòy•Ó˚î!ê˛ °«˛ƒ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ı
xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y H+(aq) ~ÓÇ H3O+(aq) ˆÜ˛ xò° Óò° ܲˆÏÓ˚
~ܲ•z xˆÏÌ≈ ç°ˆÏÎy!çï˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l (Hydrated proton) !•§yˆÏÓ
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy–
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ MOH ~Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ «˛yÓ˚ܲ xl% ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏl !l¡¨!°!áï˛
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xyÎ˚!lï˛ •Î˚ ı
MOH(aq) → M (aq) + OH (aq)
+ –

•y•zí˛» !:° xyÎ˚l ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî ç°ˆÏÎy!çï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚G ÌyˆÏܲ–

!ܲv xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛Ó˚ܲ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §#ÙyÓÂôï˛y •° ˆÎ
~!ê˛ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî•z ≤ÈÏÎyçƒ ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ Ùï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛y!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛Ó˚ çlƒ oÓî «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ •Î˚–
˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ «˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ï˛y Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ lyñ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ •y•zí»˛!:° ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî% ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyï˛y ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y xî% ˆ≤Ãyê˛l
@˝Ã%˛õ ÌyˆÏܲ ly– @˝Ã•#ï˛y !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ °yí˛z!Ó˚ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 215

xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ çß√ §%•zˆÏí˛ˆÏlÓ˚ G˛õ¢y°yÓ˚ !lܲˆÏê˛ •ˆÏÎ˚!SÈ°– 1884 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l G˛õ¢y°y !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ oÓˆÏîÓ˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óy!•ï˛yÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ GlyÓ˚ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy˛õe åThesisä ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚l– ˛õÓ˚Óï≈˛# ˛õÑyã˛ ÓͧÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ï˛!l xˆÏlܲ ºÙî ܲˆÏÓ˚l ~ÓÇ
•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ Ó•% àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ˆÜ˛w ˛õ!Ó˚ò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚l– 1895 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ GlyˆÏܲ lï%˛l fiÌy!˛õï˛ fiê˛Ü˛ˆÏ•yÙ !ÓŸª!Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ ˛õòyÌ≈!ÓòƒyÓ˚
xôƒy˛õܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !lÎ%=˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÎáyˆÏl 1897 !á fiê˛yÏ∑ ˆÌˆÏܲ 1902 !á fiê˛y∑ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ï˛!l ˆÓ˚QÓ˚ åRectorä !•§yˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏ§Óy
≤Ãòyl ܲˆÏÓ˚l– 1905 !á fiê˛y∑ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ù,ï%˛ƒ ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !ï˛!l fiê˛Ü˛ˆÏ•yˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆlyˆÏÓ° •zl!fiê˛!ê˛í˛zˆÏê˛ ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚§yÎ˚l !Ó˲yˆÏàÓ˚ í˛y•zˆÏÓ˚QÓ˚
åDirectorä Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚l– !ï˛!l xˆÏlܲ ÓͧÓ˚ ÎyÓÍ ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ G˛õÓ˚ àˆÏÓ£Ïîy ܲˆÏÓ˚l– 1899 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ !ï˛!l
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y •yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛yˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚lñ ˆÎ!ê˛ Óï≈˛ÙyˆÏl xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î
lyˆÏÙ ˛õ!Ó˚!ã˛ï˛–
!ï˛!l !Ó!˲ߨ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚!ÏSȈϰl– ≤Ã!ï˛ˆÏÓ˚yô Ó˚§yÎ˚l åImmunochemistryäñ Ó ·yu˛ !ÓK˛yl åCosmologyäñ ç#ÓˆÏlÓ˚
§yˆÏrê˛ xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚y§
ˆflÀyˆÏï˛Ó˚ í˛zͧ åThe origin of lifeä G !•ÙÎ%ˆÏàÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î •zï˛ƒy!ò ˆ«˛ˆÏe à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ xÓòyl ˆÓ˚ˆÏáˆÏSÈl– !ï˛!l•z §Ó≈≤ÃÌÙ Ú@˝Ã#î •yí˛zç
(Svante Arrhenius) ~ˆÏÊ˛QÛ lyÙ!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚l– Úï˛!í˛¸Í !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ~ÓÇ Ó˚§yÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤Ãà!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~Ó˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yàÛ í˛zlyÓ˚ ~•z ï˛_¥!ê˛Ó˚ çlƒ
(1859-1927) 1903 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ Ó˚y§yÎ˚ˆÏl ˆlyˆÏÓ° ˛õ%Ó˚flÒyÓ˚ °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚l–

xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲ ӈϰ– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛˛ NH+4 xyÎ˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛ !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î
H+ xyÎ˚lñ OH – xyÎ˚ˆl Ï fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe NH+4 Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ OH – Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xƒy!§í˛ÈüÈ«˛yÓ˚ Î%à° ÎyˆÏï˛ ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye 1!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ÌyˆÏܲ §Ù§ƒy 7.12
ï˛yˆÏܲ xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ÈüÈ«˛yÓ˚ Î%ఠӈϰ– ˆ§çlƒ OH – ˆÜ˛ xƒy!§í˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y !ܲ !ܲ
H2O ~Ó˚ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ NH4 ˆÜ˛ «˛yÓ˚ NH3 ~Ó˚ xî%Órô#
+ •ˆÏÓ⁄ HF, H2SO4 ~ÓÇ HCO3–
xƒy!§í˛ ӈϰ– Î!ò Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ §Ùyôyl
xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ •° Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛ Î!ò Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l Ü˛Ù •ˆÏÓ–
•Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~Ó˚ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚!ê˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚– ~!ê˛ °«˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ xl%Ó˚)˛õ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ F –, HSO4–
xî%Órô# xƒy!§ˆÏí˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ xî%Órô# «˛yˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ CO2–3 É
~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l Ü˛Ù ÌyˆÏܲ– §Ù§ƒy 7.13
çˆÏ° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏÜœ˛y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î!ê˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°y ˆ°ˆÏáy
–
NH2 , NH3 ~ÓÇ HCOO
–
!ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– HCl(aq), H2O xî%ˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛
!•§yˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ H2O «˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– §Ùyôyl
xî%Órô# xƒy!§ˆÏí˛ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ˆÓ!¢ ÌyܲˆÏÓ
~ÓÇ ˆ§•z çlƒ xl%Ó˛˚) õ xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°y •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ NH3,
NH4 ~ÓÇ HCOOH
+

§Ù§ƒy 7.14
– –
H2O, HCO3 , HSO4 ~ÓÇ NH3 ~•z ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ í˛z˲Î˚Óˆ˚) Ï˛õ ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xî%Ó˛˚) õ
í˛z˛õˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚ ç° «˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓñ˚ xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y ˆ°ˆÏáy–
ܲyÓ˚î ~!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– Îál ç° HCl ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ã•î §Ùyôyl
ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál H3O+ xyÎ˚l!ê˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •Î˚– ˆ§•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî Cl – •° HCl í˛z_Ó˚!ê˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆê˛!ӈϰ ˆòGÎ˚y •° ı
~Ó˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ ~ÓÇ HCl •° «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Cl – xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛– ˛õòyÌ≈ xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ xƒy!§í˛ H3O+ ~Ó˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ •° H2O ~ÓÇ H3O+ H2O H3O+ OH
–

•° «˛yÓ˚ H2O ~Ó˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛– HCO–3 H2CO3 CO2–

3

xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˜mï˛ Ë)˛!Ùܲy!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ HSO4– H2SO4 SO42–
ÙçyÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎ˚– HCl ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ç° «˛yÓ˚ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ~ÓÇ
216
7.10.3 °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ (Lewis Acids and Bases)
!çÉ~l °%•§z åG.N. Lewisä 1923 !á fiê˛yˆÏ∑ xƒy!§í˛ˆÏܲ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
Î%à° @˝Ãy•Ü˛Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲˆÏܲ •zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° òyï˛y Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛
ܲˆÏÓ˚l– «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ °yí˛z!Ó˚ ~ÓÇ °%•z§ ôyÓ˚îyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
!ӈϢ£ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ˆl•zñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ í˛z˲Î˚ ï˛ˆÏ_•¥ z «˛yÓ˚ܲ •zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l
Î%à° òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛ˆÏÓ °%•z§ ï˛_¥ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ~Ó˚)˛õ xˆÏlܲ xƒy!§í˛
xyˆÏSÈ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ÌyˆÏܲ ly– ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !ӈϢ£Ï í˛zòy•Ó˚î
•° x§¡õ)î≈ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ó!¢T˛ BF3 ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ NH3 ~Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y–
BF3 ˆï˛ ˆÜ˛ylG ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ˆl•z ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚G ~!ê˛ NH3 ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛
!•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏܲ ~˲yˆÏÓ ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚ñ
BF3 + :NH3 → BF3:NH3
•zˆ°
Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l âyê˛!ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ ˆÎÔà Óy xyÎ˚l ˆÎÙl AlCl3, Co3+, Mg2+
•zï˛ƒy!ò °%•§z xƒy!§í˛ Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎáyˆÏl H2O, NH3, OH–
•zï˛ƒy!ò ˆÎÔà Óy xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y ÎyÓ˚y ~ܲˆÏçyí˛¸y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚
°%•z§ «˛yÓ˚ܲ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
§Ù§ƒy 7.15
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ xyÎ˚l Óy ˆÎÔàà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ °%•z§
«˛yÓ˚ܲ !•§yˆÏÓ ˆ◊!îË%˛=˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ~•z xyã˛Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î
ˆòáyG–
– – + xƒy!§í˛
(a) HO (b)F (c) H (d) BCl3
§Ùyôyl
(a) •y•zí˛» !flÒ° xyÎ˚l •° °%•§z «˛yÓ˚ܲ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~!ê˛ ~ܲˆÏçyí˛¸y
!l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l òyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
(b) Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ xyÎ˚l ï˛yÓ˚ ã˛yÓ˚ ˆí˛yí˛¸y !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l ~Ó˚
ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ òyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ ˆ§ çlƒ ~!ê˛
°%•z§ «˛yÓ˚ܲ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
(c) ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l •° °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~!ê˛ •y•zí»˛!flÒ°
xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ùï˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏï˛
~ܲˆÏçyí˛¸y !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
(d) BCl 3 °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y Óy xƒy!Ùl xî%Ó˚ Ùï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y •ˆÏï˛
~ܲˆÏçyí˛¸y !l/§Aà •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
7.11 xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól (IONIZATION OF
ACIDS AND BASES)
xyÓ˚ˆ•Ï !lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲ ï˛_¥!ê˛ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚
xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# ܲyÓ˚î ˆÓ!¢Ó˚˲yà Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ G
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
˜ç!Óܲ ÓƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ç°#Î˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ âˆÏê˛– ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÜœ˛y!Ó˚ܲ
xƒy!§í˛ åHClO4äñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏܲœ y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åHCläñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏÓy  !Ùܲ
xƒy!§í˛ åHBräñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» y xyˆÏÎy˚ !í˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ åHIäñ ly•z!ê˛∆ܲ xƒy!§í˛
åHNO3ä ~ÓÇ §y°!Ê˛í˛z!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åH2SO4ä ˆÜ˛ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛
Ó°y •Î˚ ܲyÓ˚î ç°#Î˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ï˛yÓ˚y §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ í˛z˛õyòyl xyÎ˚ˆÏl
!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ñ ~ÓÇ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l åH+ä òyï˛y !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚–
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ܲ ˆÎÙl !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ åLiOHäñ
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ •y•zí˛» :y•zí˛ åNaOHäñ ˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ •y•zí˛» :y•zí˛ åKOHäñ
!§!çÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ åCsOHä ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛
Ba(OH)2 ç°#Î˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ §¡õ)îË ≈ ˛yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õòyl
xyÎ˚ˆÏl !ӈϟ’!£Ïï˛ •ÏˆÏÎ˚ •y•zí»˛!:° åOH –ä xyÎ˚l í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyÓ˚ˆ•Ï !lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛_¥ xl%ÎyÎ˚# ï˛yÓ˚y ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛
§¡õ)î≈˲yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ H3O+ ~ÓÇ OH–
xyÎ˚l í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚– !Óܲ“Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õñ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛
Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ °yí˛z!Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ï˛ˆÏ_¥Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃G ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y
§Ω˛Óñ ˆ§ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ÙyˆÏl í˛zÍÜ,˛T˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyï˛y ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó 
«˛yÓ˚ܲ ÙyˆÏl í˛zÍÜ,˛T˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ã•#ï˛y– Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ HA ~Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛
«˛yÓ˚ܲ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §yÙƒ!ê˛ °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚yÈüüüÈ
HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)
xî%Órô# xî%Órô#
«˛yÓ˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ
xl%ˆÏFSÈò 7.10.2 ˆï˛ xyÙÓ˚y ˆòˆÏá!SÈ ˆÎ xƒy!§í˛ åÓy «˛yÓ˚ܲä
!ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl §yÙƒ!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ à!ï˛¢#° §yÙƒ ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛lñ §¡ø%á
!òˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !òˆÏܲ fiÌylyhs˝!Ó˚ï˛ •Î˚– ~ál ≤ß¿ ~ˆÏ§ ÎyÎ˚ñ
Î!ò §yÙƒ!ê˛ à!ï˛¢#° •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ §ÙˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ §yˆÏÌ ˆÜ˛yl‰!òˆÏܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛
≤Ãyôylƒ ˛õyˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚ ˆ˛õSȈlÏ ã˛y°Ü˛ Ó°!ê˛ !ܲ⁄ ~•z ≤ß¿à%ˆ°Ï yÓ˚ í˛z_ˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚
çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §yˆÏÙƒ Î%=˛ ò%!ê˛ xƒy!§í˛ åÓy «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ä ¢!=˛Ó˚
ï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ÙˆÏl ܲˆÏÓ˚y ò%!ê˛ xƒy!§í˛ HA
~ÓÇ H3O+ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘!áï˛ xƒy!§í˛ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §yˆÏÙƒ xyˆÏSÈ–
xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ˆòáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÜ˛yl‰!ê˛ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛¢y°#
ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyï˛y– ˆÎ!ê˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÓîï˛y x˛õÓ˚!ê˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ x!ôܲ
•ˆÏÓ ˆ§!ê˛ˆÏܲ ï˛#Ó ï˛Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ Ó°y •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒ!ê˛ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛
~Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ– ôÓ˚ñ HA •° H3O+ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ñ
ï˛ˆÏÓ HA ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ H3O+ lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ oÓî!ê˛ˆÏï˛ Ù%áƒï˛ A–
~ÓÇ H3O+ xyÎ˚l ÌyܲˆÏÓ– §yÙƒ!ê˛ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚
àë˛l ˆÎ!òˆÏܲ âˆÏê˛ ˆ§!òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏÓñ ܲyÓ˚îÈü ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ï˛#Ó 
«˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚–
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 217

~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Ó%V˛y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ çˆÏ° §¡õ)îË≈ ˛yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ «˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ–˚ çˆÏ° !l¡¨!°!áï˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ «˛yÓ˚ܲ í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§!ê˛ á%Ó ò%Ó≈° •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ §yÙƒ!ê˛ Óï≈˛Ùyl ı
á%Ó•z Ù,ò% åò%Ó≈°ä xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ˆÎÙl H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)
˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÜœ˛y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åHClO4äñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏÜœ˛y!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åHCläñ
xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ xî%Órô# xî%Órô#
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏÓy  !Ùܲ xƒy!§í˛ åHBräñ •y•zˆíÏ ˛» y xyˆÏÎy˚ !í˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ åHIäñ
ly•z!ê˛∆ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åHNO3ä ~ÓÇ §y°!Ê˛í˛z!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åH2SO4ä xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ
xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ClO4–, Cl–, Br–, I –, NO3– ~ÓÇ HSO4– !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %Óܲ!ê˛ˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ
–
xyÎ˚l ˆòÎ˚ ÎyÓ˚y H2O ˆÌˆÏܲG xˆÏlܲ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ܲ– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ ~ܲ!ê˛ K = [H3O+] [OH ] / [H2O] .......(7.26)
ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ܲ á%Ó•z Ù,ò% xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ ˆòÎ˚– x˛õÓ˚!òˆÏܲ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù,ò% çˆÏ°Ó˚ âlcˆÏܲ •Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Óyò ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈñ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ç°
xƒy!§í˛ ˆÎÙl HA ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî xyÇ!¢Ü˛ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢%Âô ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ âlc !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– [H2O] ˆÜ˛ §yÙƒ
Ê˛ˆÏ° oÓˆÏî Ù%áƒï˛ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ HA xî% ˆÓ!¢ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî ÌyˆÏܲ– ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l ô %Óܲ Kw, ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ÎyˆÏܲ
ly•zê˛∆y§ xƒy!§í˛ åHNO2äñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yÊœ%˛!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ åHFä ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ à%îÊ˛° ӈϰ–
xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ åCH3COOHä à%ˆÏ°y •°˛ ˜Ó!¢T˛ƒ§)ã˛Ü˛ Ù,ò% + –
Kw = [H ][OH ] .......(7.27)
xƒy!§í˛– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ á%Ó•z
ï˛#Ó  •Î˚– ˆÎÙl í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õ NH2 , O 2– ~ÓÇ H – xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y
– ˛õÓ˚#«˛yÙ)°Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˛õyGÎ˚y ˆàˆÏSÈ 298 K í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ H+ ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c
1.0 × 10–7 M ~ÓÇ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏl §Ù ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî H
+
å«˛yÓ˚ܲä í˛z_Ù ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ãy•Ü˛ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ~Ó˚y H2O
ˆÌˆÏܲG ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ܲ– ~ÓÇ OH – xyÎ˚l í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛y!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c
[OH ] = [H ] = 1.0 × 10–7 M. §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Kw
– +
!ܲS%È !ܲS%È çˆÏ° oÓî#Î˚ ˜çÓ ˆÎÔà ˆÎÙl !Ê˛l˛õ̃y!°l
~Ó˚ Ùyl •ˆÏÓñ
åPhenolphthaleinä ~ÓÇ ˆÓ yˆÏÙyÌy•zÙ° Óœ% åBromothymol + –
blueä Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛ åHInä Kw = [H3O ][OH ]
~ÓÇ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ åIn–ä Ó˚)˛õ !Ó!˲ߨ Óî≈ ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚– = (1 × 10–7)2 = 1 × 10–14 M2 .......(7.28)
HIn(aq) + H2O(l)
+
H3O (aq) + In (aq)
–
Kw ~Ó˚ Ùyl í˛z£÷Ïï˛y !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ–
xƒy!§í˛ xî%Órô# xî%Órô# !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ°Ó˚ âlc 1000 g / L ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ 18.0 g /
!lˆÏò¢≈ ܲ xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ molÉ ~•z ï˛Ìƒ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚!ê˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
colour A colourB [H2O] = (1000 g /L)(1 mol/18.0 g) = 55.55 M.
~•z ˆÎÔàà%ˆÏ°y xƒy!§í˛ÈüÈ«˛yÓ˚ܲ ≤âÙî !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ ç° ~ÓÇ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ
!lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ~ÓÇ H+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ •Î˚– •ˆÏÓ 10–7 / (55.55) = 1.8 × 10–9 Óy ~ 2 × 10–9 å~•z ≤ÃܲyÓ˚
7.11.1 çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ô %Óܲ ~ÓÇ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ à%îÊ˛° (The §yÙƒ Ù%áƒï˛ x!ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî%Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ xÓfiÌyl ܲˆÏÓä˚ – xyÙÓ˚y
Ionization Constant of Water and its Ionic xy!¡‘ܲñ ≤â٠~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓîˆÏܲ H3O+ ~ÓÇ OH– ~Ó˚
Product) àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ı
çˆÏ°Ó˚ ÙˆÏï˛y !ܲS%È ˛õòyÌ≈ xyˆÏSÈ ÎyÓ˚y xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ í˛z˲Î˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xy!¡‘ܲ : [H3O+] > [OH– ]
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §«˛Ù– 7.10.2 ˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏFSȈÏò xyÙÓ˚y çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe ≤â٠: [H3O+] = [OH– ]
~!ê˛ °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ!˚ SÈ– xƒy!§í˛ HA ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ : [H3O+] < [OH–]
@˝Ã•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ «˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÓyÓ˚ «˛yÓ˚ܲ B– ~Ó˚
í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~!ê˛ xƒy!§í˛ !•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l 7.11.2 pH ˆflÒ° (The pH Scale)
òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚– !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ° ~ܲ!ê˛ H2O xî% ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyl ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ˆÏï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛y!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ °ày!Ó˚ò!Ùܲ ˆfl҈ϰ
xƒy!§í˛Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xî% ~ܲ•z §ÙˆÏÎ˚ §•ˆÏç ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ñ ÎyˆÏܲ pH ˆflÒ° ӈϰ– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly oÓˆÏîÓ˚
218
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yˆÏܲ åaH ä 10 !lôyl !Ó!¢T˛ }îydܲ
+ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l [H+] ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ 10 à%î ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l Ó%V˛yÎ˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ
°ày!Ó˚òˆÏÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ï˛yˆÏܲ pH ӈϰ– °â% oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe å<
0.01 Mä •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ åH +ä §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛y ˙ oÓˆÏî
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ §Ùyl– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ
§!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲܲ ˆl•z ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚
§y•yyˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
a H+ = [H+] / mol L–1
pH ~Ó˚ §ÇK˛y •ˆÏï˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ ı
pH = – log aH+
+
= – log {[H ] / mol L–1}
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ HCl (10–2 M) ~Ó˚ xy!¡‘ܲ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH •ˆÏÓ 2–
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ NaOH ~Ó˚ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe Î!ò [OH–] =10–4
M ~ÓÇ [H3O+] = 10–10 M •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ pH •ˆÏÓ 10– 25 °C
í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ° •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c [H + ] = 10–7
M – ˆ§çlƒ !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ°Ó˚ pH •ˆÏÓ ı
–7
pH = –log(10 ) = 7
xy!¡‘ܲ oÓˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c [H + ] > 10–7 M •Î˚
ˆÎáyˆÏl «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ oÓˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c [H + ] > 10–7
M •Î˚– Ê˛ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y §ÇˆÏ«˛ˆÏ˛õ Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ÈüÈ
xy!¡‘ܲ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ : pH < 7
«˛yÓ˚#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ : pH > 7
≤â٠oÓˆÏîÓ˚ : pH = 7
~ál §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 7.28 ˆÜ˛ 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ˛õ)î≈!Óã˛yÓ˚ ܲ!Ó˚
+ –
Kw = [H3O ] [OH ] = 10–14
§Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ }îydܲ °ày!Ó˚òÙ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õy•z
+ –
–log Kw = – log {[H3O ] [OH ]}
–
= – log [H3O+] – log [OH ]
= – log 10 –14
pKw = pH + pOH = 14 .........(7.29)
°«˛ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ !Ó£ÏÎñ˚ Î!òG Kw ~Ó˚ Ùyl í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ ˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛
•ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ñ !ܲv í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ pH ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ~ï˛•z «%˛o ˆÎ
xyÙÓ˚y ≤ÃyÎ˚•z ~ˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲ!Ó˚– ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe pKw ~ܲ!ê˛
à%Ó%̊c˛õ)î≈ Ó˚y!¢ Îy •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ~ÓÇ •y•zí»˛!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛
àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sfî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ à%îÊ˛° ~ܲ!ê˛ ô %Óܲ– ÙˆÏl Ó˚yáˆÏï˛
•ˆÏÓ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ pH ˆflÒ° °ày!Ó˚ò!Ùܲñ pH ˆfl҈ϰ ~ܲ ~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚
Ó˚§yÎ˚l
Îál •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c [H+], 100 à%î ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚ñ
ï˛ál pH ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl 2 ~ܲܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •Î˚– ~ál ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y Ó%V˛ˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚ˆÓÏ ˆÜ˛l ï˛y˛õÙyeyÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ pH ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÎ˚•z í˛zˆ˛Ï õ«˛y
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
˜ç!Óܲ ~ÓÇ ≤çyôl §¡∫rô#Î˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yˆÏàÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH
§ÙˆÏrô çylyñ Óy ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚y x!ï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚– pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ ˆÎ!ê˛
!Ó!˲ߨ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ oÓˆÏî !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚Ç ˆòáyÎ˚ñ ï˛yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
ˆÙyê˛yÙ%!ê˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÜ˛yl oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
xyçܲy° ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ˛õ!ê˛Î%=˛ pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyˆÏFSÈ– ~ܲ•z
pH ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl å!ã˛e 7.11ä !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õ!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚. ˆòáyÎ˚– pH
ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ 1-14 ˛õÎ≈hs˝ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl ~0.5 ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛yÓ˚
åaccuracyä ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó–
!ã˛e 7.11 ã˛yÓ˚!ê˛ ˛õ!ê˛Î%=˛ pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ ˆÎ!ê˛ ~ܲ•z pH ÙyˆÏl
!Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚. ≤Ãò¢≈l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
x!ôܲ ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛yÓ˚ åaccuracyä çlƒ pH !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚– pH !Ùê˛yÓ˚ •° ~Ùl ~ܲ Îsf ÎyÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆÜ˛yl ˛õÓ˚#«˛î#Î˚
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lË≈˛Ó˚ ˜Óò%ƒ!ï˛Ü˛ !ÓË˛ÓˆÏܲ 0.001 ÎÌyÌ≈ï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ !lî≈Î˚
ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ÓyçyˆÏÓ˚ ~ál ܲ°ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyܲyˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ §Ùyl pH !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˛õyGÎ˚y
ÎyÎ˚– !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆê˛!Ó° 7.5 ~ ˆòGÎ˚y •°–
§Ù§ƒy 7.16
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˛õyl#ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ lÙ%lyˆÏï˛ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c 3.8 ×
10–3M oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ pH Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
§Ùyôyl
pH = – log[3.8 × 10–3]
= – {log[3.8] + log[10–3]}
= – {(0.58) + (– 3.0)} = – { – 2.42} = 2.42
xÌ≈yÍ Ù,ò% ˛õyl#Î˚!ê˛Ó˚ pH •° 2.42 ~ÓÇ ~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ x!¡‘ܲ
oÓî–
§Ù§ƒy 7.17
–8
HCl ~Ó˚ 1.0 × 10 M oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 219

§yÓ˚î# 7.5 !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ pH

ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ lyÙ pH ï˛Ó˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ lyÙ pH

NaOH ~Ó˚ §¡õ,=˛ oÓî ~15 Óœƒyܲ ܲ!Ê˛ åBlack Coffeeä 5.0
0.1 M NaOH oÓî 13 ê˛ˆÏÙˆÏê˛y ç%§ ~4.2
ˆ°Ó%Ó˚ ç° åLime waterä 10.5 Ù,ò% ˛õyl#Î˚ ~ÓÇ !˲!làyÓ˚ ~3.0
!ÙÕÒ xÓ ÙƒyàˆÏl!¢Î˚y 10 ˆ°Ó%Ó˚ ç%§ åÓ˚§ä ~2.2
!í˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §yòy xÇ¢ñ §Ù%o ç° 7.8 àƒy§!ê˛∆ܲ ç%§ åçë˛Ó˚ Ó˚§ä ~1.2
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ Ó˚=˛ 7.4 1M HCl oÓî ~0
ò%ô 6.8 àyì˛¸ HCl ~–1.0
Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ °y°yÓ˚§ 6.4

§Ùyôyl àyì˛¸cñ α •° HX ~Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey– ~•z §ÇˆÏܲï˛à%ˆÏ°y ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚

2H2O (l)
+
H3O (aq) + OH (aq)
–
ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §ƒyÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
–
Kw = [OH ][H3O+] §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛˛õy!òï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ÈüüüÈ
= 10–14 Ka = c2α2 / c(1-α) = cα2 / 1-α
–
ô!Ó˚ x = [OH ] = ç° ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ [H3O+] Ka •° xƒy!§í˛ HX ~Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Óy xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ–
~áyˆÏl H3O+ ò%•z˲yˆÏÓ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚ åiä oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ HCl ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ §y•ˆÏ΃ !Óܲ“Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
xyÎ˚î#˲Ól ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎÙlÈüüüÈ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
+ – + –
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O (aq) + Cl (aq) Ka = [H ][X ] / [HX] (7.30)
~ÓÇ åiiä H2OÈüÈ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól •ˆÏï˛– ~Ùl ôÓ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ x!ï˛ °â% oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y T ˆï˛ Ka xƒy!§í˛ HX ~Ó˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚
+
ˆ«˛ˆÏe H3O ~Ó˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ í˛zͧˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– åï˛#Ó ï˛yÓ˚ä ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xÌ≈yÍ Ka ~Ó˚ Ùyl Îï˛ ˆÓ!¢
–8
[H3O+] = 10 + x •ˆÏÓ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛ ï˛ï˛ ˆÓ!¢ ï˛#Ó  •ˆÏÓ–
–8 –14
Kw = (10 + x)(x) = 10
–8 §Ó ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ≤ÃÙyî xÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸c 1M ôÓ˚ˆÏ° Ka Ùyey!Ó•#l
or x2 + 10 x – 10–14 = 0
– –8 •Î˚–
[OH ] = x = 9.5 × 10
xÌ≈yÍñ pOH = 7.02 ~ÓÇ pH = 6.98 §yÓ˚!î 7.6 ~ !ܲS%È Ù,ò% xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl
ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y–
7.11.3 Ù, ò % xƒy!§ˆÏ í ˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚ l #˲Ól ô  % Ó Ü˛ (Ionization
§yÓ˚î# 7.6 !ܲS%È Ù,ò% xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ å298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ä xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ
Constants of Weak Acids)

ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ˲yˆÏÓ xyÎ˚!lï˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ HX xƒy!§í˛ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲñ Ka
!ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îyܲ– ~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ •y•zˆÏí»˛Êœ%˛!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ (HF) 3.5 × 10 –4
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ ly•zê˛∆y§ xƒy!§í˛ (HNO2) 4.5 × 10 –4
HX(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + X –(aq) Ê˛Ó˚!Ùܲ xƒy!§í˛ (HCOOH) 1.8 × 10
–4

≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸c (M) !lÎ˚y!§l (C5H4NCOOH) 1.5 × 10

–5

c 0 0
xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ (CH3COOH) 1.74 × 10 –5
Î!ò α !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l (M)
ˆÓˆÏOy!Î˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ (C6H5COOH) 6.5 × 10
–5
-cα +cα +cα
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ àyì˛¸c (M) •y•zˆÏ˛õy ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y§ xƒy!§í˛ (HCIO) 3.0 × 10
–8

c-cα cα cα •y•zˆÏí»˛y §yÎ˚y!lܲ xƒy!§í˛ (HCN) 4.9 × 10 –10

~áyˆÏl c •° t = 0 §ÙˆÏÎ˚ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ xƒy!§í˛ HX ~Ó˚ ˆÊ˛l° (C6H5OH) 1.3 × 10
–10
220 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ çlƒ pH ˆflÒ° ~ï˛ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà#

§Ùyôyl
ˆÎ pKw SÈyí˛¸yG xlƒylƒ ˛õòyÌ≈ G Ó˚y!¢Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ~Ó˚ Ó!ô≈ï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y §Ω˛Ó ı
Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– –
1) HF + H2O H3O+ + F
xï˛~Ó xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•z Ka = 3.2 × 10–4
pKa = –log (Ka) (7.31) 2) H2O + H2O
+
H3O + OH
–

~ܲ!ê˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %Óܲ Ka ~ÓÇ ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸c c Kw = 1.0 × 10–14
ˆçˆÏl §Ü˛° ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸cñ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey ~ÓÇ ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Ka >> Kw, [1] lÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Ù)° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó– –
HF + H2 O H3O+ + F
ò%Ó≈° ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛
≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸c åMä
§yôyÓ˚î ôy˛õà%ˆÏ°y Ü ˛Ùyî%§yˆÏÓ˚ @˝Ã•î ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
0.02 0 0
1Ù ôy˛õÉ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ÈüÈ°yí˛z!Ó˚
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l åMä
xƒy!§í˛‡«˛yÓ˚ܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !ã˛!•´ï˛ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
– 0.02α + 0.02α + 0.02α
2Î˚ ôy˛õÉ ˆÎ §Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ í˛z˲Î˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ
xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ü˛° §Ω˛yÓƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c åMä
!°áˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– 0.02 – 0.02α 0.02α 0.02α

3Î˚ ôy˛õÉ ˆÎ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ka ~Ó˚ Ùyl í˛zFã˛ •Î˚ñ ï˛yˆÏܲ Ù)°!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Ù)° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ §yÙƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸cà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ
~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆàÔî!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ӈϰ– ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy•zñ
Ka = (0.02α)2 / (0.02 – 0.02α)
4Ì≈ ôy˛õÉ Ù)° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÓ˚!î
= 0.02 α2 / (1 –α) = 3.2 × 10–4
xyܲyˆÏÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y !°!˛õÓÂô ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
xyÙÓ˚y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !mâyï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˛õy•zñ
(a) ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ àyì˛¸cñ c
α2 + 1.6 × 10–2α – 1.6 × 10–2 = 0
(b) §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ !òˆÏܲ à!ï˛¢#° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ
!mâ#ï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ §Ùyôyl ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° α ~Ó˚ Óà≈Ù)ˆÏ°Ó˚ ò%!ê˛ Ùyl
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey α ~Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚
(c) §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c α = + 0.12 ~ÓÇ – 0.12
5Ù ôy˛õÉ Ù)° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !fiÌÓ˚yAܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî }îydܲ Ùyl!ê˛ @˝Ã•îˆÏÎyàƒ •Î˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
§yÙƒ àyì˛¸cà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ α ~Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– α = 0.12
6¤˛ ôy˛õÉ Ù)° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– xÌ≈yÍ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey α = 0.12 ~ÓÇ xlƒylƒ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
7Ù ôy˛õÉ pH àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚yñ pH = – log[H3O+] ˆÎÙl HF, F – ~ÓÇ H3O+ ~Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c •ˆÏ°y
–
[H3O+] = [F ] = cα = 0.02 × 0.12
í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘!áï˛ ≤Ãîy°#!ê˛ˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ
= 2.4 × 10–3 M
flõT˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏ°y–
[HF] = c(1 – α) = 0.02 (1 – 0.12)
= 17.6 × 10-3 M
§Ù§ƒy 7.18 pH = – log[H+] = –log(2.4 × 10–3) = 2.62
HF ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ 3.2 × 10–4 . HF ~Ó˚ 0.02 M
§Ù§ƒy 7.19
oÓˆÏî HF ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚ll Ùyey àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– oÓˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ §Ü˛°
~ܲ «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ xƒy!§í˛ ~Ó˚ 0.1M oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH 4.50– §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
˛õòyÌ≈ åH3O+, F – ~ÓÇ HFä ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y ~ÓÇ + –
H , A ~ÓÇ HA ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ~ܲ«˛yÓ˚#Î˚ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚
oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y– Ka ~ÓÇ pKa ~Ó˚ ÙylG !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 221

§Ùyôyl §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ¢ï˛yÇ¢

pH = – log [H ]
+ = {[HA]!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ /[HA]≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ} × 100%
= 1.41 × 10–3 × 102/ 0.08 = 1.76 %.
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ, [H+] = 10 –pH = 10 –4.50
pH = –log(1.41 × 10–3) = 2.85
= 3.16 × 10 –5
–
[H+] = [A ] = 3.16 × 10 –5 7.11.4 Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól (Ionization of Weak
Bases)
~ÓÇ Ka = [H+][A-] / [HA]
[HA]eqlbm = 0.1 – (3.16 × 10-5) ∫ 0.1
«˛yÓ˚ܲ MOH ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲ÓlˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ı
Ka = (3.16 × 10–5)2 / 0.1 = 1.0 × 10–8
MOH(aq) M+(aq) + OH–(aq)
pKa = – log(10–8) = 8
xƒy!§í˛ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ lƒyÎ˚ ò%Ó°≈ «˛yÓ˚ܲ åMOHä xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ
!Óܲ“Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ Ú!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ¢ï˛yÇ¢Û ò%Ó≈° åÙ,ò%ä xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ xyÎ˚!lï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ M+ ~ÓÇ OH– xyÎ˚l ˆòÎ˚– «˛yÓ˚ܲ xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
!lî≈ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛z˛õˆÏÎyà# ˛õÂô!ï˛ ÎyˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒ ô %ÓܲˆÏܲ «˛yÓ˚ܲ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %Óܲ Ó°y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Kb myÓ˚y
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛Ó˚
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ¢ï˛yÇ¢ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲˆÏÓ˚ «˛yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl ô Ó% ܲˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆîÏ Ó˚
= [HA]!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ /[HA]≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ × 100% (7.32)
§y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
–
Kb = [M+][OH ] / [MOH] (7.33)
§Ù§ƒy 7.20 !Óܲ“Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õñ Î!ò c = «˛yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c •Î˚ ~ÓÇ α = «˛yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y§ xƒy!§í˛ñ HOCl ~Ó˚ 0.08M oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH àîly xyÎ˚ll Ùyey •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî «˛yÓ˚ܲ xyÎ˚!lï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
ܲˆÏÓ˚y– xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚î#˲Ól ô %Óܲ ~Ó˚ Ùyl 2.5 × 10 –5 •ˆÏ° ï˛ál §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏ° §yÙƒ ô Ó% ܲˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆ°áy
HOCl ~Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ¢ï˛yÇ¢ !lî≈Î˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ÎyÎ˚ ı
§Ùyôyl cα 2
Kb = (cα)2 / c (1-α) =
HOCl(aq) + H2O (l) H3O+(aq) + ClO–(aq) 1-α
≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c (M) !lÓ≈y!ã˛ï˛ !ܲS%È Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ Kbñ §yÓ˚!î 7.7 ~
ˆòGÎ˚y •°
0.08 0 0
§yˆÏÙƒ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ (M) ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l §yÓ˚!î 7.7 298K ~ !ܲS%È Ù,ò% åò%Ó≈°ä «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl

–x +x +x «˛yÓ˚ܲ Kb
§yÙƒ àyì˛¸c (M)
í˛y•z!ÙÌy•z° xƒy!Ùlñ (CH3)2NH 5.4 × 10
–4

0.08 – x x x
ê˛∆y•z •zÌy•z° xƒy!Ùlñ (C2H5)3N 6.45 × 10–5
[ H 3O + ][ClO − ] xƒyˆÏly!ÙÎ˚yñ NH3 or NH4OH –5
x2 1.77 × 10
Ka = =
[ HOCl ]} (0.08) − x Ü%˛•z!ll åí˛z!qI Ó›ä 1.10 × 10
–6

!˛õ!Ó˚!í˛lñ C5H5N 1.77 × 10–9

ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ x << 0.08ñ ˆ§çlƒ 0.08 – x ≃ 0.08
xƒy!l!°lñ C6H5NH2 4.27 × 10
–10

2
x
= 2.5 × 10 −5 •zí˛z!Ó˚Î˚yñ CO (NH2)2 1.3 × 10
–14

0.08
x2 = 2.0 × 10–6, §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ, x = 1.41 × 10–3 xˆÏlܲ ˜çÓ ˆÎÔà ˆÎÙl xƒy!Ùl ò%Ó° ≈ «˛yÓ˚ܲ– xƒy!Ùlà%ˆ°
Ï y
[H+] = 1.41 × 10–3 M.
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y çyï˛Ü˛ ˆÎÔà åDerivativesä ˆÎáyˆÏl ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xlƒ @˝Ã˛% õ myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ •Î˚– ˆÎÙl !ÙÌy•z°
222 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

xƒy!Ùlñ ˆÜ˛yˆÏí˛•zlñ Ü%˛•z!ll ~ÓÇ !lˆÏܲy!ê˛lñ ≤ÈïÏ ˛ƒˆÏܲ•z ò%Ó°

≈ «˛yÓ˚ܲ + –
NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH
!•§yˆÏÓ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ܲyÓ˚î ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ Kb~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü˛Ù– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y
≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c (M)
ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî OH– xyÎ˚l ˆòÎ˚ ı
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
+
NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
– 0.10 0.20 0
§yˆÏÙƒ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÓ˚ çlƒ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àyì˛¸c !lô≈yÓ˚lܲyÓ˚# pH ˆflÒˆ°
Ï Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óô≈l
–x +x +x
ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ÎyˆÏï˛ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
pKb = –log (Kb) (7.34) §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ åMäñ
0.10 – x 0.20 + x x
§Ù§ƒy 7.21 + –
Kb = [NH4 ][OH ] / [NH3]
0.004M •y•zí»˛!çl oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl 9.7 É xyÎ˚l#˲Ól
= (0.20 + x)(x) / (0.1 – x) = 1.77 × 10–5
ô %Óܲ Kb ~ÓÇ pKb ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Kb~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆSÈyê˛ñ ˆ§çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y x ˆÜ˛ 0.1M ~ÓÇ
§Ùyôyl
0.2M àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ˆ§çlƒ
NH2NH2 + H2O NH2NH3+ + OH– –
[OH ] = x = 0.88 × 10–5
xyÙÓ˚y pH ˆÌˆÏܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
ˆ§çlƒñ [H+] = 1.12 × 10–9
˛õy!Ó˚– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚l àyì˛¸c ~ÓÇ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ à%îÊ˛°
pH = – log[H+] = 8.95.
•ˆÏï˛ xyÙÓ˚y •y•zí»˛!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ~•z
≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•z 7.11.5 Ka ~ÓÇ Kb ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ (Relation between
[H+] = antilog (–pH) Ka and Kb)
= antilog (–9.7) = 1.67 ×10–10 ~•z xôƒyˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y
[OH–] = Kw / [H+] = 1 × 10–14 / 1.67 × 10–10 ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ Ka ~ÓÇ Kb˚ myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ G
= 5.98 × 10–5 «˛yÓ˚ Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ï˛yÓ˚y ~˲yˆÏÓ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ ˆÎ Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛ çyly
ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ° x˛õÓ˚!ê˛ §•ˆÏç•z xî%Ùyl ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– NH+4 ~ÓÇ NH3
•y•zí»˛y!ç!lÎ˚yÙ xyˆÏÎ˚lÓ˚ àyì˛¸c •y•zí»˛!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚
~Ó˚ í˛zòy•Ó˚î !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˆò!áÈüüüÈ
§Ùyl– ~•z ò%!ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àì˛¸c á%Ó•z ܲÙñ ˆ§ çlƒ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛
NH+4 (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)
«˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ àyì˛¸c 0.004M ~Ó˚ §Ùyl ôÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z
Ka = [H3O+][NH3] / [NH4+] = 5.6 × 10–10
≤ÃܲyˆÏÓ˚ñ NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
–
NH4+(aq) + OH (aq)
+ –
Kb = [NH2NH3 ][OH ] / [NH2NH2] –
Kb =[ NH4+][OH ] / [NH3] = 1.8 × 10–5
= (5.98 × 10–5)2 / 0.004 = 8.96 × 10–7 §¡õ)î≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y : 2 H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH (aq)
–

pKb = –logKb = –log(8.96 × 10–7) = 6.04. –

Kw = [H3O+][ OH ] = 1.0 × 10 M
–14

§Ù§ƒy 7.22 ˆÎáyˆÏl Ka myÓ˚y NH4+ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Kb
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly oÓˆÏî 0.2M NH4Cl ~ÓÇ 0.1M NH3 í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛– myÓ˚y NH3 «˛yÓ˚ܲ!ê˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ pH àîly ܲÓ˚– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pKb, 4.75– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆÎ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y
§Ùyôyl ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ •ˆÏ°y Ka ~ÓÇ Kb ~Ó˚ à%îÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyl–
NH3 + H2O NH4
+
+ OH
–
[ H 3O + ] [ NH 3 ] [ NH 4+ ] [OH − ]
K a × Kb = ×
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲñ [ NH 4+ ] [ NH 3 ]
+ –
= [H3O ][ OH ] = Kw
Kb = antilog (–pKb)
= (5.6x10–10) × (1.8 × 10–5)
xÌ≈yÍ Kb = 10–4.75 = 1.77 × 10–5 M
= 1.0 × 10–14 M
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 223

~ˆÏܲ Ó!ô≈ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î Ó˚)˛õ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
+ –
ò%•z Óy ï˛ˆÏï˛y!ôܲ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ ˆÎ §yÙ!@˝Ãܲ NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒ xyÙÓ˚y §Ù#ܲÓ˚î 7.33 ˆÜ˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ •y•zí»˛!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ à%îÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ùyl–
àyì˛¸c àîly ܲ!Ó˚ñ
K§yÙ!@˝Ãܲ = K1 × K2 × …… (7.35)
[OH–] = c α = 0.05 α
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ Î%àˆÏ°Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ
Ka × Kb = Kw (7.36) Kb = 0.05 α2 / (1 – α)
~ܲ!ê˛ çyly ÌyܲˆÏ°ñ x˛õÓ˚!ê˛ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~ê˛y í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚y α ~Ó˚ Ùyl á%Ó•z ˆSÈyê˛ñ ˆ§çlƒ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ í˛yl !òˆÏܲ §Çâ!ê˛ï˛
í˛z!ã˛ï˛ ˆÎ ¢!=˛¢y°# Óy ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xî%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ ò%Ó≈° •Î˚ ~ÓÇ •ˆÏÓ– ~Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ α ~Ó˚ ÙylˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲˆÏÓ˚ !mâyï˛
!Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !ÓÓ,!ï˛!ê˛G §ï˛ƒ– §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ §Ó˚°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
!Óܲ“˲yˆÏÓñ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î Kw = Ka × Kb ˆÜ˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §yÙƒÓfiÌy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ~•zÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ
Kb = c α2 or α = √ (1.77 × 10–5 / 0.05)
+ –
B(aq) + H2O(l) BH (aq) + OH (aq)
+ −
[ BH ] [OH ] = 0.018.
Kb =
[ B]
[OH–] = c α = 0.05 × 0.018 = 9.4 × 10–4M.
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ àyì˛¸c ô %Óܲ å!fiÌÓ˚ä ˆ§ çlƒ •Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ Óyò
ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ xhs˝Ë%≈˛=˛ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– [H+] = Kw / [OH–] = 10–14 / (9.4 × 10–4)
~ÓyÓ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ [H+] myÓ˚y à%î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ Ë˛yà ܲˆÏÓ˚ = 1.06 × 10–11
xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ
pH = –log(1.06 × 10–11) = 10.97.
[ BH + ] [OH − ] [ H + ]
Kb = xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ Î%@¬ §¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy•zñ
[ B] [ H + ]
Ka × Kb = Kw
[OH − ] [ H + ] [ BH + ]
=
[ B] [ H + ] §yÓ˚!î 7.7 ˆÌˆÏܲ NH3 ~Ó˚ Kb ~Ó˚ Ùyl ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y
K xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ NH4+ ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚–
= w
Ka Ka = Kw / Kb = 10–14 / 1.77 × 10–5
Óy Ka × Kb = Kw = 5.64 × 10–10.
~áyˆÏl í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ ˆÎñ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚
í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ‡í˛z˲Î˚˛õˆÏ«˛ }îydܲ °ày!Ó˚òÙ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲ!Ó˚ñ ï˛ál
7.11.6 !m ~ÓÇ Ó•%«˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ x¡‘ G !m ~ÓÇ Ó•% x¡‘#Î˚ «˛yÓ˚˛
xî%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ pK-Ó˚ Ùyl l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ myÓ˚y
(Di- and Polybasic Acids and Di- and
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ •Î˚ ı Polyacidic Bases)
pKa + pKb = pKw = 14 298K ˚í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
!ܲS%È xƒy!§í˛ ˆÎÙl x:y!°Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ñ §y°!Ê˛í˛z!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ
§Ù§ƒy 7.23 Ê˛§Ê˛!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xî%ˆÏï˛ ~ܲy!ôܲ xyÎ˚!lï˛ •ÓyÓ˚ ˆÎyàƒ
0.05M xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyÎ˚l Ùyey ~ÓÇ pH àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– ˆ≤Ãyê˛l Óï≈˛Ùyl ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z §ÙhflÏ xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ Ó•%«˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ Óy
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ §yÓ˚!î 7.7 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆlGÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õ!°ˆÏ≤Ãy!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ ӈϰ–
˛õyˆÏÓ˚– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ xî%Órô# xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚î#˲Ól ô %Óܲ G í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õ ~ܲ!ê˛ !m«˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ xƒy!§í˛ H2X ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól
àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆ°Ï yˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îà%ˆ°
Ï yÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ˆòáyˆÏly ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓı˚
+ –
H2X(aq) H (aq) + HX (aq)
§Ùyôyl –
HX (aq)
+ 2–
H (aq) + X (aq)
çˆÏ° xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲ÓlˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ §yÙƒ ô Ó% ܲà%ˆ°
Ï yˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°yı
+ –
≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– Ka = {[H ][HX ]} / [H2X] ~ÓÇ
1
224 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

Ka2 = {[H+][X2-]} / [HX-] !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §#Ùy H-A ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ ~ÓÇ ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚
~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe Ka1 ~ÓÇ Ka2 ˆÜ˛ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ xƒy!§í˛ H2 X ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚–
~ÓÇ !mï˛#Î˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô Ó% ܲ Ó°y •Î˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ !e«˛yÓ˚#Î˚ xƒy!§í˛ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ Îál H-A ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ Îál
ˆÎÙl H3PO4 ~Ó˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe !ï˛l!ê˛ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ ÌyˆÏܲ– §yÓ˚!î Órôl !Ó˲yçˆÏl ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ñ ï˛ál HA
7.8 ~ !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î ˛õ!°ˆÏ≤Ãy!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ xyã˛Ó˚î ܲˆÏÓ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ Îál H-A Órôl x!ôܲ
Ùyl ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y– ô %Ó#Î˚ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ Îál H ~ÓÇ A ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y
§yÓ˚!î 7.8 !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î ˛õ!°ˆÏ≤Ãy!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xyôyl ˛õ,Ìܲ#ܲÓ˚î í˛zˆÕÏ á‘ ˆÏÎyàƒ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî âˆÏê˛ ï˛ál
xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl Órôl !Ó˲yçl §•ç •Î˚– Ê˛°fl∫Ó˚)˛õ x¡‘ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
xƒy!§í˛ K a2 K a3 !ܲv ~áyˆÏl í˛zˆÏÕ‘ál#Î˚ ˆÎ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚î#Ó˚ ~ܲ•z ˆ◊!îÓ˚
ˆÙÔ°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° H-A ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ñ xƒy!§í˛ ôÙ≈
x:!°Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ 5.9 × 10
–2
6.4 × 10
–5
!lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ ô %Ó#Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y x!ôܲ à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ܲyÓ˚î !•§yˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y
xƒy§Ü˛Ó˚!Óܲ xƒy!§í˛ 7.4 × 10–4 1.6 × 10
–12
•Î˚– ˆ◊!îÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˆÎˆÏï˛ A ~Ó˚ xyÜ,˛!ï˛ Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ
§y°!Ê˛í˛zÓ˚y§ xƒy!§í˛ 1.7 × 10–2 6.4 × 10–8 §yˆÏÌ H-A ÓrôˆÏlÓ˚ ¢!=˛ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚–
§y°!Ê˛í˛z!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ á%Ó•z ˆÓ!¢ 1.2 × 10
–2
í˛zòy•Ó˚îfl∫Ó˛)˚ õñ
ܲyÓ≈!lܲ xƒy!§í˛ 4.3 × 10
–7
5.6 × 10
–11
xyܲyÓ˚ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
§y•z!ê˛∆ܲ xƒy!§í˛ 7.4 × 10–4 1.7 × 10–5 4.0 × 10–7
HF << HCl << HBr << HI
Ê˛§Ê˛!Ó˚ܲ xƒy!§í˛ 7.5 × 10
–3
6.2 × 10
–8
4.2 × 10
–13

xƒy!§í˛ ôÙ≈ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚

°«˛î#Î˚ ˆÎ ˛õ!° ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ í˛zFã˛Ü ˛Ù !Ó!¢T˛ ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓñ H2O xˆÏ˛õ«˛y H2S x!ôܲ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛– xyÓyÓ˚
xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %Óܲ åKa , Ka ä ~Ó˚ Ùyl !l¡¨Ü ˛Ù !Ó!¢T˛ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól
2 3
Îál xyÙÓ˚y ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ §yÓ˚!îÓ˚ ~ܲ•z ˛õÎ≈yˆÏÎÓ˚ ˚ ˆÙÔ°à%ˆ°
Ï y !lˆÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly
ô %Óܲ åKa ä xˆÏ˛õ«˛y ˆSÈyê˛ •Î˚– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏ°y !fiÌÓ˚ ï˛y!í˛¸!ï˛Ü˛
1
ܲ!Ó˚ñ H-A ÈüÈ~Ó˚ Órôl ô %Ó#Î˚ï˛y xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ !lî≈ˆÏÎ˚ Ù%áƒ Ü˛yÓ˚î
ӈϰÓ˚ çlƒ }îydܲ xyÎ˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ ôlydܲ xyôyl !Ó!¢T˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛lˆÏܲ !•§yˆÏÓ ôÓ˚y •Î˚– AÈüÈ~Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ §yˆÏÌ §yˆÏÌ
x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ ܲ!ë˛l– xly!•ï˛ H2CO3 ~Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– í˛zòyÓÓ˚îfl∫Ó˚)˛õñ
}îydܲ˲yˆÏÓ xy!•ï˛ HCO3– ~Ó˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l x˛õ§yÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe AÈüÈ~Ó˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
~!ê˛ ˆòáy ÎyÎ˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ H2PO4– xƒylyÎ˚l xˆÏ˛õ«˛y !mxyôyl
CH4 < NH3 < H2O < HF
@˝Ã•fiÌ HPO4–2 xƒylyÎ˚l ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l x˛õ§yÓ˚î ܲÓ˚y x!ôܲ §Ù§ƒy
Ó•%°– xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
˛õ!°ˆÏ≤Ãy!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ oÓˆÏî ˆÎÙl í˛y•zˆÏ≤Ãy!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ 7.11.8 xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏl §ÙxyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yÓ
2–
H2A ~Ó˚ oÓˆÏî H2A, HA ~ÓÇ A xƒy!§í˛à%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ !Ù◊î ÌyˆÏܲ– (Common Ion Effect in the Ionization of
–

H2A ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ •GÎ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° Ù%რ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ H2 A ~Ó˚ Acids and Bases)
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl âˆÏê˛ ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏî H3O+ Ù)°ï˛ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ôy˛õ í˛zòy•Ó˚îÓ˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl §yÙƒ!ê˛ ~˲yˆÏÓ ≤Ãܲy¢
ˆÌˆÏܲ xyˆÏ§– ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
7.11.7 xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ¢!=˛ !lÎ˚sfîܲyÓ˚# !Ó£ÏÎ˚ §Ù)• (Factors
–
CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO (aq)
Affecting Acid Strength) Óy HAc(aq) H+ (aq) + Ac– (aq)
–
Ka = [H+][Ac ] / [HAc]
˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ¢!=˛Ó˚ Ùyey !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚yÓ˚
˛õÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ~Ùl ~ܲ!ê˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ Îál ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤Ãò_ xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ oÓˆÏî xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆ°
Ï
pH àîly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– !ܲv ≤ß¿ í˛zˆÏë˛ ˆÜ˛l !ܲS%È xƒy!§í˛ xlƒylƒ
•y•zˆíÏ ˛» yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ [H ] àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– xyÓyÓ˚ Î!ò H xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ
+ +

xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ x!ôܲ ï˛#Ó  •Î˚⁄ xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï˛#Ó ï˛yÓ˚ çlƒ Óy!•ƒÜ˛ í˛zͧ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ál §yÙƒ!ê˛ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛
ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ !Ó£ÏÎ˚ òyÎ˚# ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ í˛z_Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ç!ê˛° ôÙ≈yÓ°#ˆÏï˛ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ !òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚ xÌ≈yÍ ˆÎ!òˆÏܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
!ÓÓ˚yç ܲˆÏÓ–˚ !ܲv Ù%áƒï˛ Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚ˆÏl [H+] àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ˆ§!òˆÏܲ §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ~•z âê˛ly!ê˛ §Ù
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 225

xyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yˆÏÓÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ í˛zòy•Ó˚î– ~ˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ çl §yÙƒyÓhflyÏ Î˚ Óy•zˆÓÏ ˚ x2 / 0.10 = 1.77 × 10–5
ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛yl ˛õòyÌ≈ ˆÎyà ˛Ü˛Ó˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ §yˆÏÙƒ ˛õ)Ó≈ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ, x = 1.33 × 10–3 = [OH–]
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!ÂôÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ §Ó˚î !•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ, [H+] = Kw / [OH–] = 10–14 / (1.33 × 10–3)
ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ xyÙÓ˚y Ó°ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ §ÙxyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yÓ = 7.51 × 10–12
âê˛ly!ê˛ °y¢yˆÏï˛!°Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° ÎyˆÏܲ 7.8 xl%ˆFÏ SȈòÏ pH = –log(7.5 × 10–12) = 11.12
xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
25 mL, 0.1M HCl oÓî åxÌ≈yÍ 2.5 mmol HClä 50
0.05M xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏî 0.05M xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ xyÎ˚l mL 0.1M xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y oÓˆÏî åxÌ≈yÍ 5 mmol NH3ä ˆÎyà
ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ !ܲ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l âˆÏê˛ ï˛y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° 2.5 mmol xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y xî% ≤â!Ùï˛ •Î˚– í˛zͲõߨ
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl §yÙƒˆÏܲ 75 mL oÓˆÏ î x≤â!Ùï˛ 2.5 mmol NH 3 xî% ~ÓÇ
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚ñ 2.5m mol NH 4+ ÌyˆÏ Ü ˛–
–
HAc(aq) H+(aq) + Ac (aq) NH3 + HCl → NH4+ + Cl –
≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ àyì˛¸c åMä 2.5 2.5 0 0
0.05 0 0.05
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚
ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ñ x •° xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey– 0 0 2.5 2.5
àyÈì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l åMä
í˛zͲõߨ 75 mL oÓˆÏî 2.5 mmol NH+4 xyÎ˚l åxÌ≈yÍ 0.033
–x +x +x
Mä ~ÓÇ 2.5 m mol åxÌ≈yÍ 0.033 Mä x≤â!Ùï˛ NH3 xî%
§yÙƒ àyì˛¸c åMä
ÌyˆÏܲ– ~•z xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yÙƒˆÏï˛ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ı
0.05-x x 0.05+x + –
NH4OH NH4 + OH
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ
–
0.033M – y y y
Ka= [H+][Ac ]/[H Ac] = {(0.05+x)(x)}/(0.05-x)
ˆÎáyˆÏlñ y = [OH –] = [NH4+]
ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ á%Ó•z Ù,ò% xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ka ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆSÈyê˛ñ x<<0.05
≤âوÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ 75 mL §Ó≈ˆÏ¢£Ï oÓˆÏî 2.5 mmol NH+4 xyÎ˚l
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇ (0.05 + x) ≈ (0.05 – x) ≈ 0.05
åxÌ≈yÍ 0.033 Mä ˆÌˆÏܲ ÎyÎ˚ñ ~•z˲yˆÏÓ NH4+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÙyê˛
Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ àyì˛¸cˆÏܲ ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚–
1.8 × 10–5 = (x) (0.05 + x) / (0.05 – x) +
–5 [NH4 ] = 0.033 + y
= x(0.05) / (0.05) = x = [H+] = 1.8 × 10 M
pH = – log(1.8 × 10–5) = 4.74 ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ y á%Ó ˆSÈyê˛ñ ï˛y•z [NH4OH] ≃ 0.033 M ~ÓÇ
[NH4+] ≃ 0.033M.
§Ù§ƒy 7.24 xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ
0.10M xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– Î!ò ~•z oÓˆÏîÓ˚ Kb = [NH4+][OH–] / [NH4OH]
50.0 mL ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà 25.0 mL, 0.10M HCl oÓî ˆÎyà = y(0.033)/(0.033) = 1.77 × 10–5 M
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚ pH àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ, y = 1.77 × 10–5 = [OH–]
ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl Kb = 1.77 × 10–5 [H+] = 10–14 / 1.77 × 10–5 = 0.56 × 10–9
§Ùyôyl §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ, pH = 9.24
NH3 + H2 O → NH4+ + OH–
Kb = [NH 4+][OH–] / [NH3] = 1.77 × 10 –5
7.11.9 °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyo≈ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH
≤âوÏlÓ˚ ˛õ)ˆÏÓ≈ñ
– (Hydrolysis of Salts and the pH of their
[NH4+] = [OH ] = x
Solutions)
[NH3] = 0.10 – x ∫ 0.10
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yˆÏÓÓ˚ ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚
226 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

çˆÏ ° xyÎ˚ l #˲Ól âˆÏ ê ˛– °ÓˆÏ î Ó˚ xyÎ˚ l #Ë˛ÓˆÏ l à!ë˛ï˛ 10–5ä ~ÓÇ Ê˛°fl∫Ó˛˚) õ oÓˆÏî xÈüÈxyÎ˚!lï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ°
ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l‡xƒylyÎ˚l ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî ç°ˆÏÎy!çï˛ xyÎ˚lÓ˚)ˆÏ˛õ Óï≈˛Ùyl oÓˆÏî H+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ oÓî!ê˛ xy!¡‘ܲ •Î˚–
ÌyˆÏܲ Óy çˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° NH4Cl ~Ó˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH, 7 ~Ó˚ Ü˛Ù •Î˚–
xƒy!§í˛ Óy «˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛ àë˛l ܲˆÏ Ó ˚ – çˆÏ ° Ó˚ §ˆÏ A à °ÓˆÏ î Ó˚ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ à!ë˛ï˛ CH3COONH4
ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l‡xlƒyÎ˚l Óy í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ xyo≈!ӈϟ’£Ïî ӈϰ– ~•z °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyo!ӈϟ’£Ïî !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îy܉˛– í˛zͲõߨ xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°y
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õˆÏÓ˚– ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ xyo!ӈϟ’!£Ïï˛ •Î˚ ı
≤ÃyÆ Ü˛ƒyê˛yÎ˚l åˆÎÙl Na+, K+, Ca2+, Ba2+ ≤ÃË,˛!ï˛ä ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  –
CH3COO + NH4 + H2O
+
CH3COOH + NH4OH
xƒy!§í˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ xƒylyÎ˚l åˆÎÙl Cl–, Br–, NO–3, ClO–4 CH3COOH ~ÓÇ NH4OH G xyÇ!¢Ü˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ !ÓˆÏÎy˚ !çï˛ •Î˚–
•zï˛ƒy!òä à%ˆÏ°y §•ˆÏç•z ç°ˆÏÎy!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚ !ܲv xyo!ӈϟ’!£Ïï˛ CH3COOH CH3COO + H+
–

•Î˚ ly Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oÓî
NH4OH NH4+ + OH–
≤â٠•Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ pH 7 •Î˚– Î!òG xlƒ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyo –
H2O H+ + OH
!ӈϟ’£Ïî âˆÏê˛–
xyÙÓ˚y ~ál !l¡¨!°!áï˛ °Óîà%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ xyo!ӈϟ’£îÏ ˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly !ÓhflÏy!Ó˚ï˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ àîly ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó°y ÎyÎ˚ñ xyo!ӈϟ’£ÏˆÏîÓ˚ Ùyey
ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy ı oÓˆÏîÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#° lÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z §Ü˛° oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pHñ
(i) Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ °Óî ˆÎÙl CH3COONa. ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ pK ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚–
pH = 7 + ½ (pKa – pKb) (7.38)
(ii) ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ ò%Ó≈° «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ °Óî ˆÎÙl NH4Cl, ~ÓÇ
(iii) Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ °Óî ˆÎÙl CH3COONH4. oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl 7 ˆÌˆÏܲ Óí˛¸ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ Î!ò ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ!ê˛
ôlydܲ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl 7 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆSÈyê˛ •Î˚ Î!ò ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ!ê˛ }îydܲ
≤ÃÌÙ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ CH3COONa Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ CH3COOH ~ÓÇ
•Î˚–
ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ NaOH ~Ó˚ °Óî •GÎ˚yÓ˚ §%ÓyˆÏò ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî §¡õ)îË≈ ˛yˆÏÓ
§Ù§ƒy 7.25
xyÎ˚!lï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚
xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ pKa ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛flÒy•zˆÏí˛Ó˚
CH3COONa(aq) → CH3COO– (aq)+ Na+(aq)
pKb ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 4.76 ~ÓÇ 4.75– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚
í˛zͲõߨ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ xyÎ˚l çˆÏ° xyo!ӈϟ’!£Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ pH àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y–
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ OH– xyÎ˚l í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
– –
§Ùyôyl
CH3COO (aq)+H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq)+OH (aq)
pH = 7 + ½ [pKa – pKb]
xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ åKa = 1.8 × 10 ä –5
= 7 + ½ [4.76 – 4.75]
•GÎ˚yÎ˚ oÓˆÏî Ù%áƒï˛ xÈüÈxyÎ˚!lï˛ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° oÓˆÏî = 7 + ½ [0.01] = 7 + 0.005 = 7.005
OH– xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õˆÏÎ˚ oÓî!ê˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ#Î˚ •Î˚– ~•z ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
7.12 ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî (BUFFER SOLUTIONS)
oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH, 7 ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •Î˚–
~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ NH4OH ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ HCl ˆÌˆÏܲ ¢Ó˚#ˆÏÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛Ó˚° ˆÎÙl Ó˚=˛ Óy Ù)ˆÏeÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ pH Ùyl
à!ë˛ï˛ NH4Cl çˆÏ° §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– ÌyˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ pH ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yl ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ ¢yÓ˚#!Ó˚ܲ §Ù§ƒyÓ˚
+ •z!Aàï˛ ˆòÎ˚– !Ó!˲ߨ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ~ÓÇ ˜çÓ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ˛≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛
NH4Cl(aq) → NH 4(aq) +Cl– (aq)
pH ~Ó˚ !lÎ˚sfî á%Ó•z à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ •Î˚– !Ó!˲ߨ G£Ï%ô ~ÓÇ ≤çyôl#Î˚
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚l çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà xyo!ӈϟ’!£Ïï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚
§yÙ@˝Ã#ˆÏܲ !l!ò≈T˛ pH ~ Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– ˆÎ ôÓ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
NH4OH ~ÓÇ H+ xyÎ˚l àë˛l ܲˆÏÓ˚–
+
oÓîñ oÓî!ê˛ˆÏܲ °â% ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° Óy oÓˆÏî §yÙylƒ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî xƒy!§í˛ Óy
NH 4 (aq) + H2O (1) NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq)
«˛yÓ˚ ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° pH ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lˆÏܲ ÓÑyôy ˆòÎ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ ò%Ó≈° «˛yÓ˚ åKb = 1.77 ×
oÓî ӈϰ– xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ pKa Óy «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ pKb Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ÓÇ !Ù◊ˆÏî
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 227

°Óî G xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ Óy °Óî G «˛yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sfî ܲˆÏÓ˚
K˛yï˛ ÙyeyÓ˚ pH !Ó!¢T˛ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛
xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ ~Ó˚ !Ù◊î 4.75 pH ~ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚
oÓî !•§yˆÏÓ Ü˛yç ܲˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ ~Ó˚ !Ù◊î 9.25 pH ~ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ !•§yˆÏÓ
ܲyç ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ˆï˛yÙÓ˚y í˛zãÑ ˛% ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî §¡õˆÏܲ≈ xyÓ˚G çylˆÏï˛
˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
7.12.1 ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ≤Û!ï˛ (Designing Buffer Solution)
pKa, pKb ~ÓÇ §yÙƒô Ó
% ˆÏܲÓ˚ !ӣψÎÏ ˚ ˆçˆÏl xyÙÓ˚y !l!ò≈T˛ pH !Ó!¢T˛
àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ˆÏSÈ– ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛ Ù,ò%ñ ˆ§
çlƒ ~!ê˛ á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ÙyeyÎ˚ xyÎ˚!lï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ [HA] ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸cñ
ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ≤Û!ï˛ˆÏï˛ à,•#ï˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚–
xyÓyÓ˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ [A—]ÈüÈ~Ó˚ x!ôܲï˛Ó˚ xÇ¢•z xƒy!§í˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ
≤ÃyÆ °Óî!ê˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚– ˆ§çlƒ xl%Órô#
«˛yÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛Ó˚ àyì˛¸c G °Óî!ê˛Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ á%Ó•z làlƒ •Î˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ
å7.40ä §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆ°áy ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ
[ °Óî ]
pH = pK a + log
[ xƒy!§í˛]
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å7.39ä ~ [A ] ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Î!ò [HA]ÈüÈÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚
−

ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ã˛ˆÏ°y ˆò!áñ xyÙÓ˚y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ §Ùyl •Î˚ ï˛ál pH = pKa •Î˚ñ ܲyÓ˚î log 1 ~Ó˚ Ùyl ¢)lƒ–
˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ åxl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚Ü˛ä ˆÙy°yÓ˚
xy¡‘#ܲ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ≤Û!ï˛ åPreparation of Acidic Bufferä àyì˛¸c §Ùyl ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆl•z ï˛ˆÏÓ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ pKa
xy¡‘#ܲ pH !Ó!¢T˛ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ– ˆ§çlƒ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ pH !Ó!¢T˛ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ §ˆÏAà ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ à!ë˛ï˛ °ÓîˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚Ó˚ çlƒ xyÙÓ˚y ˙ xƒy!§í˛ˆÏܲ•z !lÓ≈yã˛l ܲ!Ó˚ ÎyÓ˚ pKaÈüÈ~Ó˚
ܲ!Ó˚– xyÙÓ˚y pHñ Ù,ò% xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲñ Ka ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ Ùyl ≤ÈÎÏ y˚ çl#Î˚ pHÈüÈ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ •Î˚– xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚
G ~Ó˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ xl%˛õyˆÏï˛Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §¡õÜ≈˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe pKaÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl 4.76ñ ˆ§çlƒ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ
fiÌy˛õlܲyÓ˚# §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲ!Ó˚– ~ܲ!ê˛ §yôyÓ˚î ˆ«˛ˆÏe ôˆÏÓ˚ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xƒy!§!ê˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ §Ùyl ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆcÏ Ó˚ !Ù◊ˆÏî à!ë˛ï˛ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚
ˆl•z ˆÎáyˆÏl Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ HAñ çˆÏ° xyÎ˚!lï˛ •Î˚– oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ pHÈüÈ~Ó˚ Ùyl 4.76 ~Ó˚ ≤ÃyÎ˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÌyܲˆÏÓ–
HA + H2O ⇋ H3O+ + A–
~ܲ!ê˛ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ myÓ˚y à!ë˛ï˛
~•z ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyÙÓ˚y !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî!ê˛ ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ !ӈϟ’£îÏ Ü˛Ó˚ˆ° Ï !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ê˛°yÊ˛° ˛õyGÎ˚y
 H 3O +   A −  ÎyÎ˚ ı
Ka =   
[ HA ] pOH = pK + log
[ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛, BH + ]
(7.41)
Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˛õ%l≈!Ólƒy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñ b [ «˛yÓ˚ܲ, B]
[HA ] ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pHñ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î pH + pOH =14 ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚
[ H 3O + ] = K a
[A − ] ܲˆÏÓ˚ àîly ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚–
Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛Ó˚ í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ °ày!Ó˚òÙ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õ%l!Ó≈lƒy§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° xyÙÓ˚y çy!lñ pH + pOH = pKw ~ÓÇ
xyÙÓ˚y ˛õy•zñÈüüüÈ pKa + pKb = pKw
[A − ]
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î å7.41ä ˆï˛ ~•z Ùylà%ˆÏ°y Ó§yˆÏ° §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ˆÏܲ
pK a = pH − log !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˛õy•zı
[HA ]
xÌÓy [ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛, BH + ]
pK w − pH = pK w − pK a + log
[ «˛yÓ˚ܲ, B]
[A − ]
pH = pK a + log (7.39) Óy
[ HA ]
[ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲñA − ] [ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛, BH + ]
pH = pK a + log pH = pK a + log (7.42)
[ xƒy!§í˛ñ HA ]
(7.40) [ «˛yÓ˚ܲ, B]

å7.40ä Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛ˆÏܲ ˆ•u˛yÓ˚§l •yˆÏ§°ÓyÕÒ åHenderson– Î!ò «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ åܲƒyê˛yÎ˚lä ˆÙy°yÓ˚
[A − ] àyì˛¸c §Ùyl •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ pKa ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚
Hasselbalchä §Ù#ܲÓ˚î ӈϰ– ~•z xl%˛õyï˛!ê˛ !Ù◊ˆÏî §Ùyl •°– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ (NH+4) pKa ~Ó˚ Ùyl 9.25–
[ HA]
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ åxƒylyÎ˚lä ~ÓÇ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ §ÙˆÏÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c !Ó!¢T˛ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y oÓî ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ
228 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ oÓî !lˆÏÎ˚ pH = 9.25 ~Ó˚ ܲySÈyܲy!SÈ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ 7.13.1 oyÓƒï˛y à% î Ê˛° ô  % Ó Ü˛ (Solubility Product
ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ– xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Constant)
!òˆÏÎ˚ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe å7.42ä §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ •ˆÏÓ ı
ã˛ˆÏ°y xyÙÓ˚y ܲ!ë˛l ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ §ÇflõˆÏ¢≈ Ìyܲy
[ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛, BH + ]
pH = 9.25 + log ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ §¡õ,=˛ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ܲÌy !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲ!Ó˚–
[ «˛yÓ˚ܲ, B]
xoÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲ!ë˛l ~ÓÇ §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ xyÎ˚là%ˆ° Ï yÓ˚ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛
ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH °â%ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •Î˚ ly ܲyÓ˚î
°ày!Ó˚òÙ ˛õò!ê˛Ó˚ xhs˝à≈ï˛ xl%˛õyï˛!ê˛ x˛õ!Ó˚Ó!ï≈˛ï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– §yÙƒˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
7.13 fl∫“ oyÓƒ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y §yÙƒ (SOLUBILITY BaSO4(s) Ba2+(aq) + SO2–
4
(aq),
EQUILIBRIA OF SPARINGLY SOLUBLE
§yÙƒ ô %ÓܲˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ı
SALTS)
K = {[Ba2+][SO2–
4
]} / [BaSO4]
xyÙÓ˚y •z!ï˛ÙˆÏôƒ ˆçˆÏl ˆà!SÈ ˆÎñ çˆÏ° xyÎ˚l#Î˚ ܲ!ë˛là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ !Ó¢%Âô ܲ!ë˛l ˛õòyˆÏÌÓ≈ ˚ àyì˛¸c ô Ó% ܲ å!fiÌÓ˚ä ÌyˆÏܲñ ˆ§çlƒ
oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ xˆÏlܲ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ Óï≈˛Ùyl– ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !ܲS%È åˆÎÙl
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ä ~ï˛•z oÓî#Î˚ ˆÎ ï˛yÓ˚y í˛zò@˝Ãy•# ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ •Î˚ xyÙÓ˚y !°áˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚
~ÓÇ ~Ùl!ܲ ÓyÎ˚Ù% [˛° ˆÌˆÏܲG ç°#Î˚ Óy‹õ ˆ¢y£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ–˚ xlƒà%ˆ° Ï y Ksp = K[BaSO4] = [Ba2+][SO42–] (7.43)
åˆÎÙl !°!ÌÎ˚yÙ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ä á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyÙÓ˚y Ksp ˆÜ˛ oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° !fiÌÓ˚yAܲ Óy §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ
ˆ§ çlƒ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚îï˛ xoÓî#Î˚ °Óî ӈϰ– oyÓƒï˛y xˆÏlܲà%ˆ° Ï y oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° Ó!°– 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
!ӣψÎÏ Ó˚ ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ ~ˆÏòÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ à%Óc%˚ ˛õ)î≈ •° °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ çy°Ü˛ Ksp-Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚#«˛y°kô Ùyl 1.1 × 10 – ~Ó˚ xÌ≈ •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛!ë˛l ˆÓ!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù
–10

¢!=˛ ålattice enthalpyä ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏî xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ oyÓܲyÎ˚î ¢!=˛

åsolvation enthalpyä– ˆÜ˛yˆÏly °ÓîˆÏܲ oyÓˆÏܲ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛
•ˆÏ° xyÎ˚lÈüÈoyÓܲ xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ï˛#Ó  §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ à%îÊ˛° oyÓƒï˛y
xyܲ£Ï≈î Ó° åçy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛ä ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚
oyÓܲyÎ˚î ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ oyÓܲyÎ˚î !•§yˆÏÓ !lˆÏò≈¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÎ!ê˛ §Ó≈òy
}îydܲ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ oyÓܲyÎ˚î ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏï˛ ¢!=˛ Ù%=˛ •Î˚– oyÓܲyÎ˚î
¢!=˛Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚– xô %Ó#Î˚
å§ÙˆÏÎyç#ä oyÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe oyÓܲyÎ˚î ¢!=˛ Ùyl Ü˛Ù •Î˚ñ Îy °ÓˆÏîÓ˚
çy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ ˛õˆÏ«˛ ΈÏÌT˛ lÎ˚– ~•z ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî °Óî
xô %Ó#Î˚ oyÓˆÏܲ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •Î˚ ly– §yôyÓ˚î !lÎ˚Ùyl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏlyG
°ÓîˆÏܲ ˆÜ˛ylG !l!ò≈T˛ oyÓˆÏܲ oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˆàˆÏ° ï˛yÓ˚ oyÓܲyÎ˚î
¢!=˛ xÓ¢ƒ•z çy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ oyÓܲyÎ˚î
¢!=˛ çy°Ü˛ ¢!=˛ˆÏܲ x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛
!lçfl∫ ˜Ó!¢T˛Ù)°Ü˛ oyÓƒï˛y ÌyˆÏܲ ˆÎ!ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
xyÙÓ˚y °Óîà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚
ÙˆÏï˛y !ï˛l!ê˛ ˆ◊!îˆÏï˛ Ë˛yà ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ–
!Ó˲yà I oyÓƒ oyÓƒï˛y > 0.1M
!Ó˲yà II xyÇ!¢Ü˛ 0.01M< oyÓƒï˛y < 0.1M
oyÓƒ
!Ó˲yà III fl∫“ oyÓƒ oyÓƒï˛y < 0.01M
xyÙÓ˚y ~ál fl∫“oyÓƒ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ °Óî ~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ §¡õ,=˛ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚
ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌy !lˆÏÎ˚ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓy–
§y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆÎ §yÙƒ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ ï˛yˆÏï˛
à%îÊ˛° ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ §Ùyl– ò%!ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ– Î!ò ˆÙy°yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y S •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓÈüüüÈ
1.1 × 10–10 = (S)(S) = S2
Óy S = 1.05 × 10–5.
xÌ≈yÍ ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y 1.05 × 10–5
mol L–1 ~Ó˚ §Ùyl •ˆÏÓ–
~ܲ!ê˛ °Óî !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ xyôyl !Ó!¢T˛ ò%•z Óy
ï˛ˆÏ ï ˛y!ôܲ xƒylyÎ˚ l ~ÓÇ Ü˛ƒyê˛yÎ˚ l ˆòÎ˚ – í˛z ò y•Ó˚ î fl∫ Ó ˚ ) ˛ õ
(Zr )3(PO4 )4 xyl!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ !Ó!¢T˛ °Óî !çÓ˚ˆÏܲy!lÎ˚yÙ
4+ 3–
Ê˛§ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲÓ˚y Îyܲ– ~!ê˛ +4 xyôyl !Ó!¢T˛ 3!ê˛
!çÓ˚ˆÏܲy!lÎ˚yÙ Ü˛ƒyê˛yÎ˚l ~ÓÇ –3 xyôyl !Ó!¢T˛ 4!ê˛ Ê˛§ˆÏÊ˛ê˛
xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏl !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚– Î!ò !çÓ˚ˆÏܲy!lÎ˚yÙ Ê˛§ˆÏÊ˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚
oyÓƒï˛y S •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ˆÎÔà!ê˛Ó˚ fiê˛Î˚!¢G!Ù!ï˛ åstoichiometryä
xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆò!áñ
[Zr4+] = 3S ~ÓÇ [PO43–] = 4S
~ÓÇ Ksp = (3S)3 (4S)4 = 6912 (S)7
Óy S = {Ksp / (33 × 44)}1/7 = (Ksp / 6912)1/7
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 229

p+ q−
M x X y §yôyÓ˚î §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Î%=˛ G S ˆÙy°yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y !Ó!¢T˛ §yÓ˚!î 7.9 !ܲS%È §yôyÓ˚î xyÎ˚l#Î˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ oyÓƒï˛y
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ܲ!ë˛l °Óî ~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyˆÏܲ à%îÊ˛° !fiÌÓ˚yAܲ Ksp ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆòGÎ˚y •ˆÏ°y
!l¡¨!°!áï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ÈüüüÈ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ lyÙ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ksp

p+ q– !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ AgBr 5.0 × 10−13

MxXy(s) xM (aq) + yX (aq) !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ܲyˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ Ag2CO3 8.1 × 10−12
!§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ ˛yˆÏÙê˛ Ag2CrO4 1.1 × 10−12
(ˆÎáyˆÏl x × p+ = y × q–) !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ AgCl 1.8 × 10−10
!§°Ë˛yÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zí˛ Agl 8.3 × 10−17
~ÓÇ ~Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° !fiÌÓ˚yAܲˆÏܲ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ˆòáyˆÏly ÎyÎ˚ ı !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ Ag2SO4 1.4 × 10−5
p+ x q– y x y xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛y:y•zí˛ A1(OH)3 1.3 × 10−33
Ksp = [M ] [X ] = (xS) (yS) (7.44) ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ ˆÜ ˛yˆÏÙê˛ BaCrO4 1.2 × 10−10
ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ BaF2 1.0 × 10−6
= xx . yy . S(x + y) ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ BaSO4 1.1 × 10−10
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ CaCO3 2.8 × 10−9
S(x + y) = Ksp / xx . yy ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ CaF2 5.3 × 10−9
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Ca(OH)2 5.5 × 10−6
S = (Ksp / xx . yy)1 / x + y (7.45) ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ x:yˆÏ°ê˛ CaC2O4 4.0 × 10−9
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ CaS04 9.1 × 10−6
§Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏî Îál ~ܲ Óy ~ܲy!ôܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ àyì˛¸c GˆÏòÓ˚ ܲƒyí˛!ÙÎ˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Cd(OH)2 2.5 × 10−14
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ly ï˛ál Ksp ˆÜ˛ Qsp myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲƒyí˛!ÙÎ˚yÙ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ CdS 8.0 × 10−27
ˆÜ ˛y!Ùܲ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Cr(OH)3 6.3 × 10−31
ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ åxl%ˆÏFSÈò 7.6.2ä– flõT˛ï˛•z §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ Ksp = Qsp •Î˚– !ܲí˛z≤Ãy§ ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ CuBr 5.3 × 10−9
!ܲí˛z!≤Ãܲ ܲyˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ CuC03 1.4 × 10−10
!ܲv xlƒ ˛õ!Ó˚!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~!ê˛ xôˆÏ«˛˛õl Óy !Ó!°Î˚l ådissolutionä !ܲí˛z≤Ãy§ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ CuCl 1.7 × 10−6
!ܲí˛z!≤Ãܲ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Cu(OH)2 2.2 × 10−20
≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ !lˆÏò¢≈ ܲˆÏÓ–˚ 298K í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ !ܲS%È §ÇáƒÜ˛ §yôyÓ˚î °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ !ܲí˛z≤Ãy§ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zí˛ Cul 1.1 × 10−12
oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° !fiÌÓ˚yAܲ §yÓ˚î# 7.9-~ ˆòáyˆÏly •ˆÏ°y– !ܲí˛z!≤Ãܲ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛
ˆÊ˛Ó˚y§ ܲyˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛
CuS
FeCO3
6.3 × 10−36
3.2 × 10−11
ˆÊ˛Ó˚y§ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Fe(OH)2 8.0 × 10−16
ˆÊ˛!Ó˚ܲ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Fe(OH)3 1.0 × 10−38
§Ù§ƒy 7.26 ˆÊ˛Ó˚y§ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ FeS 6.3 × l0−18
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xyÎ˚l•z çˆÏ°Ó˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly ~Ùl ÙˆÏl ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛zÓ˚y§ ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ Hg2Br2 5.6 × 10−23
ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛zÓ˚y§ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ Hg2Cl2 1.3 × 10−18
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ° A2 X3 ~Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– A2 X3 ~Ó˚ ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛zÓ˚y§ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zí˛ Hg2I2 4.5 × 10−29
oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛°ñ Ksp = 1.1 × 10–23 ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛zÓ˚y§ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ Hg2SO4 7.4 × 10−7
ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛z!Ó˚ܲ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ HgS 4.0 × 10−53
ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ MgCO3 3.5 × l0−8
§Ùyôyl ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ MgF2 6.5 × 10−9
A2X3 → 2A3+ + 3X2– ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Mg(OH)2 1.8 × l0−11
ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ x:yˆÏ°ê˛ MgC2O4 7.0 × 10−7
Ksp = [A3+]2 [X2–]3 = 1.1 × 10–23 ÙƒyAày!lç ܲyˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ MnCO3 1.8 × 10−11
Î!ò S = A2X3-~Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y •Î˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ÙƒyAày!lç §y°y•zí˛ MnS 2.5 × 10−13
!lˆÏܲ° •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Ni(OH)2 2.0 × 10−15
[A3+] = 2S; [X2–] = 3S !lˆÏܲ° §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ NiS 4.7 × l0−5
§%ï˛Ó˚yÇñ Ksp = (2S)2(3S)3 = 108S5 ˆ°í˛ ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ PbBr2 4.0 × 10−5
ˆ°í˛ ܲyˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ PbCO3 7.4 × 10−14
= 1.1 × 10–23 ˆ°í˛ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ PbCl2 1.6 × lO−5
ˆ°í˛ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ PbF2 7.7 × l0−8
xÌ≈yÍ S5 = 1 × 10–25 ˆ°í˛ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Pb(OH)2 1.2 × l0−15
S = 1.0 × 10–5 mol/L. ˆ°í˛ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zí˛ PbI2 7.1 × 10−9
ˆ°í˛ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ PbSO4 1.6 × 10−8
ˆ°í˛ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ PbS 8.0 × 10−28
§Ù§ƒy 7.27 fiê˛ƒyly§ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Sn(OH)2 1.4 × 10−28
ò%!ê˛ fl∫“ oyÓƒ °Óî Ni(OH)2 ~ÓÇ AgCN ~Ó˚ Ksp ~Ó˚ Ùyl fiê˛ƒyly§ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ SnS 1.0 × 10−25
fiê˛∆l!§Î˚yÙ Ü˛yˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ SrCO3 1.1 × 10−10
ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 2.0 × 10–15 ~ÓÇ 6 × 0–17 – ˆÜ˛yl °Óî!ê˛ x!ôܲ fiê˛∆l!§Î˚yÙ Êœ%˛Ó˚y•zí˛ SrF2 2.5 × 10−9
oyÓƒ⁄ Óƒyáƒy ܲˆÏÓ˚y– fiê˛∆l!§Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ SrSO4 3.2 × 10−7
̃y°y§ ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ TIBr 3.4 × 10−6
§Ùyôyl ̃y°y§ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ T1C1 1.7 × l0−4
– ̃y°y§ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zí˛ Til 6.5 × 10−8
AgCN Ag+ + CN !çAܲ ܲyˆÏÓ≈yˆÏlê˛ ZnCO3 1.4 × l0−11
Ksp = [Ag+][CN–] = 6 × 10–17 !çAܲ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ Zn(OH)2 1.0 × 10−15
!çAܲ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ ZnS 1.6 × 10−24
230 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

Ni(OH)2 Ni2+ + 2OH– !ÓˆÏÎy˚ çˆÏl S mol/L Ni2+ xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ 2S mol/L OH– xyÎ˚l
Ksp = [Ni2+][OH–]2 = 2 × 10–15 ˆòÎ˚– !ܲv OH– ~Ó˚ ˆÙyê˛ àyì˛¸c (0.10 + 2S) mol/L ܲyÓ˚î
ô!Ó˚ [Ag+] = S1, ï˛ál [CN-] = S1 oÓˆÏî xyˆÏà ˆÌˆÏܲ•z NaOH •ˆÏï˛ 0.10 mol/L OH– xyÎ˚l
í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛–
ô!Ó˚ [Ni2+] = S2, ï˛ál [OH–] = 2S2
Ksp = 2.0 × 10–15 = [Ni2+] [OH–]2
2 –17 –9
S = 6 × 10
1
, S1 = 7.8 × 10
= (S) (0.10 + 2S)2
(S2)(2S2) = 2 × 10–15, S2 = 0.58 × 10–4
2

ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ Ksp ~Ó˚ Ùyl «%˛o 2S << 0.10,

xÌ≈yÍ Ni(OH)2 , AgCN ˆÌˆÏܲ ˆÓ!¢ oyÓƒ–
~•z˲yˆÏÓñ (0.10 + 2S) ≈ 0.10
7.13.2 xyÎ˚l#Î˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §ÙxyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yÓ Ê˛ˆÏ°ñ
(Common Ion Effect on Solubility of Ionic 2.0 × 10–15 = S (0.10)2
Salts)
S = 2.0 × 10–13 M = [Ni2+]
°y ¢yˆÏï˛°#Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ ˆÌˆÏܲ ~ê˛y xy¢y ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ~ܲ!ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ ~!ê˛ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ xyôyl Ü˛Ù pH ~ Ê˛§ˆÏÊ˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ Ù,ò% xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y
!Ó!¢T˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà Î%=˛ •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ !ܲS%È °Óî xô/!«˛Æ •ˆÏÓ Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚– ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚î •ˆÏFSÈ Ü˛Ù pH ~ ˆ≤ÃyˆÏê˛yˆÏl¢yl ~Ó˚ ܲyÓ˚ˆÏî
Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ksp = Qsp •Î˚– ~ܲ•z˲yˆÏÓ Î!ò ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xƒylyÎ˚l ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– ÎyÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚
~ܲ!ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆlÏ Ó˚ àyì˛¸c •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚ ï˛ál x!ôܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî °Óî oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ Ksp = Qsp •Î˚– xyÙyˆÏòÓ˚ ò%!ê˛ §yÙƒˆÏܲ ~ܲ•z §yˆÏÌ §vT˛
•ˆÏÎ˚ í˛z˲Î˚ ≤ÃܲyÓ˚ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏÓ Îï˛«˛î ly ˛õÎ≈hs˝ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ xÌ≈yÍ
˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ Ksp = Qsp •Î˚– ~!ê˛ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ~Ó˚ lƒyÎ˚ oÓî#Î˚ Ksp = [M+] [X–],
°ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeG ≤ÈÏÎy烖 !ܲv xyÎ˚là%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛zFã˛ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ çlƒ
xyÙÓ˚y Qsp Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÎ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚!ê˛Ó˚ ÓòˆÏ° §!Ü ˛Î˚ ˲Ó˚ˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ HX ( aq ) ⇌ H + (aq ) + X − (aq);
ܲ!Ó˚– Î!ò xyÙÓ˚y ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ §¡õ,=˛ oÓî ˆl•z  H + (aq)   X − (aq ) 
Ka =   
~ÓÇ ï˛yÓ˚ Ùôƒ !òˆÏÎ˚ HCl àƒy§ˆÏܲ ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ܲ!Ó˚ ï˛ál HCl ~Ó˚ [ HX ( aq ) ]
!ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏl ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° oÓˆÏî ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ –
[X ] / [HX] = Ka / [H+]
xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c å§!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yä Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛
xô/!«˛Æ •Î˚– ~˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÃyÆ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ !Ó¢%Âôï˛y á%Ó•z í˛z˲Î˚!òˆÏܲ xˆÏlylƒÜ˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ï˛yÓ˚˛õÓ˚ 1 ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˛õy•zñ
í˛zÑã%˛ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ xyÙÓ˚y x¢%!Âô ˆÎÙl ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ [ HX ] + 1 =  H
+

 +1
ÙƒyàˆÏl!¢Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ˆÏܲ ò)Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆïÏ ˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– Gçl Ùy!eܲ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õ X −  Ka
ˆÜ˛yˆÏly xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ §¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ á%Ó•z Ü˛Ù oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° !Ó!¢T˛ fl∫“  
oyÓƒ °Óî !•§yˆÏÓ xô/!«˛Æ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ §Ù xyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yÓ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y [ HX ] +  H −   H +  + Ka
= 
•Î˚– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ xyÙÓ˚y ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õ !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ X − Ka
 
!§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ñ ˆÊ˛!Ó˚ܲ xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ •y•zí»˛:y•zí˛ åÓy ç°
ˆÎy!çï˛ ˆÊ˛!Ó˚ܲ x:y•zí˛ä ~ÓÇ ˆÓ!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù xyÎ˚lˆÏܲ ï˛yÓ˚ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛Ó˚ˆ) ˛Ï õ ~álñ ˛õ%lÓ˚yÎ˚ xˆÏlylƒÜ˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ ˛õy•z
xô/!«˛Æ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õy!Ó˚– [X–] / {[X–] + [HX]} = f = Ka / (Ka + [H+]) xyÙÓ˚y
ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z pH •…y§ ˆ˛õˆÏ° f ~Ó˚ ÙylG •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚– Î!ò ~ܲ!ê˛
§Ù§ƒy 7.28 !l!ò≈T˛ pH ~Ó˚ ÙyˆÏl S °Óî!ê˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y Ó%V˛yÎ˚ñ ï˛ˆÏÓ
0.10 M NaOH ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ Ni(OH)2 ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y
Ksp = [S] [f S] = S2 {Ka / (Ka + [H+])} ~ÓÇ
àîly ܲˆÏÓ˚y– Ni(OH)2 ~Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ à%îÊ˛° 2.0 × 10–15.
+ 1/2
S = {Ksp ([H ] + Ka ) / Ka } (7.46)
§Ùyôyl ~•z˲yˆÏÓ oyÓƒï˛y S Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Î!ò [H+] Ó,!Âô ˛õyÎ˚ Óy pH
ÙˆÏl ܲ!Ó˚ñ Ni(OH)2 ~Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y S– S mol/L Ni(OH)2 ~Ó˚ •…y§ ˛õyÎ˚–
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 231

§yÓ˚yÇ¢
Î!ò oÓî ˆÌˆÏܲ ÓyˆÏ‹õ !là≈ï˛ xî%Ó˚ §Çáƒyñ Óy‹õ ˆÌˆÏܲ oÓˆÏî !Ê˛ˆÏÓ˚ xî%Ó˚ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ §yÙƒ ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ÓˆÏ° ôÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ
~!ê˛ ~ܲ!ê˛ à!ï˛¢#° ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚y– ˆË˛Ôï˛ ~ÓÇ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ í˛z˲Î˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe•z §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ≤Ã!ï˛!¤˛ï˛ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §¡ø%áÙ%á#
~ÓÇ ˛õŸã˛yòÙ%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ à!ï˛ §Ùyl •Î˚– ¢!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%ÎyÎ˚# xî%§ÇáƒyÓ˚ âyˆÏï˛ í˛zߨ#ï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚
à%îÊ˛° ~ÓÇ xî%§ÇáƒyÓ˚ âyˆÏï˛ í˛zߨ#ï˛ ≤Ã!ï˛!ê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ à%îÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ !•§yˆÏÓ §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ˆÜ˛ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y
•Î˚– ˆÎÙl
A + b B ⇌ c C +d D ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe
c d a b
Kc = [C] [D] /[A] [B]
~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !l!ò≈T˛ ~ÓÇ ~•z xÓfiÌyÎ˚ §Ü˛° fiÌ)° à%î åmacroscopic propertiesä ˆÎÙl àyì˛¸cñ
ã˛y˛õ •zï˛ƒy!ò !fiÌÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ– àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe §yÙƒ ô %ÓܲˆÏܲ Kp myÓ˚y ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ~ÓÇ Kc Ó˚y!¢Ùy°yÎ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ ˛õòà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ xyÇ!¢Ü˛
ã˛y˛õ myÓ˚y ≤Ã!ï˛fiÌy!˛õï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ KpÈüÈÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y ˆ°áy •Î˚– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ Qc ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ x!˲Ù%á §¡õˆÏÜ≈˛ ôyÓ˚îy ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ˆÎ!ê˛
§yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ §Ùyl •Î˚– °y ¢yˆÏï˛!°Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ xl%ÎyÎ˚# §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆÜ˛ylG ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢ï≈˛ ˆÎÙl ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ ã˛y˛õñ àyì˛¸c •zï˛ƒy!ò
˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° §yÙƒyÓfiÌy!ê˛ ~Ùl x!˲Ù%ˆÏá §ˆÏÓ˚ ÎyˆÏÓ ÎyˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lç!lï˛ Ê˛°ˆÏܲ ܲ!ÙˆÏÎ˚ Óy lT˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ !òˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ~•z l#!ï˛!ê˛ !Ó!˲ߨ
¢ï≈˛ ˆÎÙl ï˛y˛õÙyeyñ àyì˛¸cñ ã˛y˛õñ xl%âê˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ !l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§ñ §yˆÏÙƒÓ˚ x!˲Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ≤Ã˲yÓ xôƒÎ˚l ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ~ÓÇ ~•z ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ !lÎ˚sfî
ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyîˆÏܲ !lÎ˚sfî ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ÎyÎ˚– xl%âê˛Ü˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!=˛ˆÏܲ ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ly
!ܲv !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ~ÓÇ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yˆÏܲ §¡õߨ ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ lï%˛l !l¡¨ ¢!=˛ §¡õߨ ˛õÌ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ à!ï˛ Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚–
§Ü˛° ˛õòyÌ≈ ÎyÓ˚y ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî ï˛!í˛¸Í ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ Ó°y •Î˚– xƒy!§í˛ñ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ~ÓÇ °Óî ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ ~ÓÇ
ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏl Óy xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏl ܲƒyê˛yÎ˚l Óy xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛zͲõ!_Ó˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° ï˛yÓ˚y ï˛!í˛¸Í ˛õ!Ó˚Ó•î ܲˆÏÓ˚– ï˛#Ó  ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒà%ˆÏ°y
§¡õ)î≈Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ ÎyÎ˚– Ù,ò% ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’ˆÏ£ÏƒÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ x!ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ ï˛!í˛¸Í !ӈϟ’£Ïƒ xî%Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ ÓçyÎ˚ ÌyˆÏܲ–
xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùï˛yl%§yˆÏÓ˚ xƒy!§í˛ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚l ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛y!:° xyÎ˚l ˆòÎ˚– xlƒ!òˆÏܲ
Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛°yí˛z!Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l òyï˛y ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲˆÏܲ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l @˝Ã•#ï˛y !•§yˆÏÓ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl– Îál ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ °yí˛z!Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛
~ܲ!ê˛ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛ál ~!ê˛ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲ G xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ ˆòÎ˚– Îy !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xÇ¢@˝Ã•îܲyÓ˚# xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ §ˆÏAà
§¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛– ~•z˲yˆÏÓ xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ xl%Órô# Î%àˆÏ° ˆÜ˛Ó°Ùye ~ܲ!ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õyÌ≈ܲƒ ÌyˆÏܲ– ˛õˆÏÓ˚ !ÓK˛yl# °%•z§ §yôyÓ˚î˲yˆÏÓ
xƒy!§í˛ˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° @˝Ã•#ï˛y ~ÓÇ «˛yÓ˚ܲˆÏܲ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l Î%à° òyï˛y Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ §ÇK˛y!Î˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈl– Ù,ò% xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól å§yÙƒÓfiÌyä
ô %Óܲ åKaä ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#˲Ól ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ åKbä Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y àë˛ˆÏl xyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ Ùï˛ÓyòˆÏܲ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚
Ùyey ~ÓÇ àyì˛¸c G §ÙxyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ xyÎ˚l#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ !lË≈˛Ó˚¢#°ï˛y xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ å§!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yä ˆ«˛ˆÏe
–
pH ˆflÒ° åpH = -log[H+]ä ≤Ã›ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ ~ˆÏܲ xlƒ Ó˚y!¢à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ åpOH = – log[OH ]) ; pKa = –log[Ka] ; pKb = –
log[Kb]; ~ÓÇ pKw = –log[Kw] •zï˛ƒy!òä ˆ«˛ˆÏe Ó!ô≈ï˛ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚lÎ˚îˆÏܲ !ÓˆÏÓã˛ly ܲˆÏÓ˚ xyÙÓ˚y ˆòáˆÏï˛ ˛õy•z
§Ù#ܲÓ˚î pH + pOH = pKw §Ü˛° ˆ«˛ˆÏe §Ê˛° •Î˚– ï˛#Ó  xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ Ù,ò% «˛yÓ˚ܲñ Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ ï˛#Ó  «˛yÓ˚ܲ G Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ Ù,ò%
«˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ °Óîà%ˆÏ°y ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏl xyo!ӈϟ’!£Ïï˛ •Î˚– ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚˲y£Ïy ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ à%Ó˚%c xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– fl∫“ oyÓƒ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚
oyÓƒï˛y§yÙƒ xyˆÏ°yã˛ly ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲ oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° ô %Óܲ åKspä !•§yˆÏÓ í˛z˛õfiÌy!˛õï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– ~Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚
§¡õÜ≈˛!ê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛¤˛y ܲÓ˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– oÓî •ˆÏï˛ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ xô/ˆ«˛˛õˆÏlÓ˚ Óy çˆÏ° °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçˆÏlÓ˚ ¢ï≈˛à%ˆÏ°y !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ– §Ù xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚
Ë)˛!Ùܲy ~ÓÇ fl∫“ oyÓƒ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y xyˆÏ°y!ã˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
232 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

!ÓòƒyÌ≈#ˆÏòÓ˚ çlƒ ~•z ~ܲܲ §¡õ!Ü≈˛ï˛ !ܲS%È Ü˛yç

åaä !ÓòƒyÌ≈#Ó˚y !Ó!˲ߨ ï˛yçy Ê˛° G §Ó!çÓ˚ Ó˚§ñ Ù,ò% ˛õyl#Î˚ñ ˆò•Ó˚§ ~ÓÇ í˛z˛õ°kô çˆÏ°Ó˚ lÙ%lyÓ˚ pH çylˆÏï˛ pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛
˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
åbä pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ !ÓòƒyÌ≈#Ó˚y ~G !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ˆÎ ˙ °Óîà%ˆÏ°y
ï˛#Ó  ly Ù,ò% xƒy!§í˛ Óy «˛yÓ˚ܲ •ˆÏï˛ à!ë˛ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
åcä ï˛yÓ˚y ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~Ó˚ oÓî !Ù!◊ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ !ܲS%È ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚
ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˙ ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
ådä ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ˆÏܲ !Ó!˲ߨ !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ §Ó˚ÓÓ˚y• ܲˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!˲ߨ ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ pH oÓˆÏî ˙ !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Óî≈ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆòGÎ˚y ˆÎˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
åeä !lˆÏò≈¢Ü˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yÓ˚y !ܲS%È xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ !lˆÏÎ˚ ê˛y•zˆÏê˛∆y¢yl åTitrationä ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
åfä ï˛yÓ˚y !ܲS%È fl∫“oyÓƒ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ §Ù xyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õÎ≈ˆÏÓ«˛î ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–
ågä Î!ò !Óòƒy°ˆÏÎ˚ pH !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ÌyˆÏܲñ ï˛ˆÏÓ ï˛yÓ˚y ~Ó˚ §y•yˆÏ΃ pH ˛õ!Ó˚Ùy˛õ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ pH ˆ˛õ˛õyÓ˚ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ Ê˛°yÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ §yˆÏÌ
ï%˛°ly ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyÓ˚ˆÏÓ–

xl%¢#°l#
7.1 ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛Ó˚° ï˛yÓ˚ ÓyˆÏ‹õÓ˚ §!•ï˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– •ë˛yÍ ˛õyˆÏeÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l Ó,!Âô ˆ˛õ°–
a) Óy‹õã˛y˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ü˛#⁄
b) Óy‹õ#˲Ól G âî#Ë˛ÓˆÏlÓ˚ ‡≤ÃyÓ˚!Ω˛Ü˛ •yˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !ܲÓ˚)˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓ⁄
c) Îál §yÙƒyÓfiÌy ˛õ%lÓ˚%ÂôyÓ˚ •ˆÏÓ ï˛ál ܲ# •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ ã)˛í˛¸yhs˝ Óy‹õ ã˛y˛õ ܲ# •ˆÏÓ⁄
7.2 !lˆÏ¡¨Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ Îál ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÎ˚ àyì˛¸c ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ ı [SO2]= 0.60M,
[O2] = 0.82M ~ÓÇ [SO3] = 1.90M ?

2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

7.3 10 ˛õyfl҈ϰ ˆÙyê˛ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ I2 (g) ⇌ 2I (g) §yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛Ó˚ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ñ ˆÎáyˆÏl
5

xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l ÓyˆÏ‹õ xyÎ˚ï˛l !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ 40% I åxyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛lä ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xyˆÏSÈ–

7.4 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓܲˆÏܲ Kc Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚ ı
(i) 2NOCl (g) ⇌ 2NO (g) + Cl2 (g)
(ii) 2Cu(NO3)2 (s) ⇌ 2CuO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

(iii) CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq)

−
(iv) Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH (aq) ⇌ Fe(OH)3 (s)
(v) I2 (s) + 5F2 ⇌ 2IF5
7.5 Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚ ı

(i) 2NOCl (g) ⇌ 2NO (g) + Cl2 (g); Kp= 1.8 × 10–2ñ 500 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚

(ii) CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g); Kp= 167ñ 1073 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚

7.6 1000 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 6.3 × 1014

NO (g) + O3 (g) ⇌ NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ §¡ø%áÙ%á# G !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# í˛z˲Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y•z ˆÙÔ!°Ü˛ !mxyl!Óܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y– !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛Ù%á# !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 233

7.7 §yÙƒô %Óܲ ˆ°áyÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ !Ó¢%Âô ï˛Ó˚° ~ÓÇ Ü˛!ë˛lˆÏܲ í˛zˆÏ˛õ«˛y ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ˆÜ˛l⁄
7.8 N2 ~ÓÇ O2 ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !l¡¨!°!áï˛Ë˛yˆÏÓ âˆÏê˛ ı

2N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2N2O (g)

Î!ò 0.482 ˆÙy° N2 ~ÓÇ 0.933 ˆÙy° O2 ~Ó˚ !Ù◊îˆÏܲ 10 L !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˛õyˆÏe Ó˚yáy •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ N2O ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ñ
ˆÎáyˆÏl Kc= 2.0 × 10–37, ï˛y•ˆÏ° §yÙƒ !Ù◊ˆÏî í˛z˛õyòylà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
7.9 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ ly•z!ê˛∆ܲ x:y•zí˛ Br2 ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛ !Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚ ly•zˆÏê˛∆y!§° ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚ ı
2NO (g) + Br2 (g) ⇌ 2NOBr (g)

~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô˛õyˆÏe 0.087 ˆÙy° NO ~ÓÇ 0.0437 ˆÙy° Br2 ˆÜ˛ !Ù¢yˆÏly •Î˚ ï˛ál §yˆÏÙƒ 0.0518 ˆÙy°
NOBr ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ NO ~ÓÇ Br2 ~Ó˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî àîly ܲÓ˚–

7.10 450K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Kp= 2.0 × 1010/bar

2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)

~•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄

7.11 0.2 xƒyê˛Ù!flÒÎ˚yÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ Êœ˛yˆÏflÒ HI(g) ~Ó˚ lÙ%ly Ó˚yáy •°– §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ HI(g) ~Ó˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ •° 0.04 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚–
ï˛y•ˆÏ° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kp ~Ó˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄
2HI (g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)
7.12 500 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 20 L !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˛õyˆÏe 1.57 ˆÙy° N2, 1.92 ˆÙy° H2 ~ÓÇ 8.13 ˆÙy° NH3 ~Ó˚ !Ù◊l Ó˚yáy •°– ~•z ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 1.7 × 102. !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊l !ܲ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ⁄ Î!ò ly ÌyˆÏܲ
ï˛y•ˆÏ° §Ù@˝Ã !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yl!òˆÏܲ •ˆÏÓ⁄
7.13 ~ܲ!ê˛ àƒy§#Î˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ ≤Ãܲy¢ •°ñ
[ NH 3 ] [O2 ]
4 5

Kc =
[ NO ] [ H 2O ]
4 6

~•z ≤Ãܲy¢ xl%§yˆÏÓ˚ !Ó!Ü Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §!Ùï˛ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î!ê˛ ˆ°á–

7.14 10 L ˛õyˆÏe ~ܲ ˆÙy° H2O ~ÓÇ ~ܲ ˆÙy° CO ˆÓ˚ˆÏá 725 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛y ˛õÎ≈hs˝ í˛z_Æ Ü˛Ó˚y •°– §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
Gçl !•ˆÏ§ˆÏÓ 40% ç° CO ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚–
H2O (g) + CO (g) ⇌ H2 (g) + CO2 (g)

~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–

7.15 700 K, í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI (g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 54.8– 700 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ Î!ò 0.5
ˆÙy° !°ê˛yÓ˚–1 HI í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ ï˛y•ˆÏ° H2(g) ~ÓÇ I2(g) ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c ܲï˛⁄ ôˆÏÓ˚ lyG ≤ÃyÌ!Ùܲ xÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyÙÓ˚y HI !lˆÏÎ˚ ¢%Ó˚%
ܲˆÏÓ˚!SÈ ~ÓÇ 700 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈy°–
7.16 ICl ~Ó˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!¡∫ܲ àyì˛¸c 0.78 M •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c ܲï˛⁄

2ICl (g) ⇌ I2 (g) + Cl2 (g); Kc = 0.14

7.17 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ 899 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Kp = 0.04 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚– 4.0 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ Êœ˛yˆÏflÒ C2H6 ˆÜ˛ Ó˚yáy •° ~ÓÇ
§yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈy°– ï˛y•ˆÏ° C2H6 ~Ó˚ §yÙƒ àyì˛¸c ܲï˛⁄
C2H6 (g) ⇌ C2H4 (g) + H2 (g)

7.18 •zÌyl° ~ÓÇ xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ •zÌy•z° xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •° ~ÓÇ §yÙƒÓfiÌy!ê˛ˆÏܲ !l¡¨Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ≤Ãܲy¢ ܲÓ˚y •° ı
CH3COOH (l) + C2H5OH (l) ⇌ CH3COOC2H5 (l) + H2O (l)
234 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

(i) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Qc å!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ä ÈüÈ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛ ˆ°á– åoT˛Óƒ ı x!ï˛!Ó˚=˛ ç° ˆl•z ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly
oyÓܲ ˆl•zä–
(ii) 293 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ Î!ò 1 ˆÙy° xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ ~ÓÇ 0.18 ˆÙy° •zÌyl° !lˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ã)˛í˛¸yhs˝ §yÙƒ
!Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ 0.171 ˆÙy° •zÌy•z° xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚– §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
(iii) 293 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 0.5
ˆÙy° •zÌyl° ~ÓÇ 1.0 ˆÙy° xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ !lˆÏÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ¢%Ó˚% ܲÓ˚y •Î˚– !ܲS%È §ÙÎ˚ ˛õˆÏÓ˚ 0.214
ˆÙy° •zÌy•z° xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚– §yÙƒÓfiÌy í˛zͲõߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ !ܲ⁄
7.19 473 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó¢%Âô PCl5 ~Ó˚ lÙ%ly ~ܲ!ê˛ ¢)lƒ ˛õyˆÏe ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚yˆÏly •°– §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyˆÏlyÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚ PCl5 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c •° 0.5
× 10–1 mol/L– Î!ò Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl 8.3 × 10–3 •Î˚ñ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §yˆÏÙƒ PCl3 G Cl2 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2(g)

7.20 ~ܲ!ê˛ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xyÎ˚Ó˚ˆÏlÓ˚ xyܲ!Ó˚ܲ ˆÌˆÏܲ !fiê˛° í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ xyÎ˚Ó˚l (II) x:y•zí˛ Ü˛yÓ≈l ÙˆÏly:y•zí˛ myÓ˚y
!Óçy!Ó˚ï˛ •ˆÏÎ˚ xyÎ˚Ó˚l ~ÓÇ CO2 í˛zͲõߨ ܲˆÏÓ˚–
FeO (s) + CO (g) ⇌ Fe (s) + CO2 (g); Kp = 0.265 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ñ í˛z£÷Ïï˛y =1050K

Î!ò ≤ÃyÓ˚!¡∫ܲ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ pCO= 1.4 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ pC O = 0.80 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ CO ~ÓÇ CO2
2

üÈ~Ó˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ ã˛y˛õ ܲï˛⁄

7.21 500 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ çlƒ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 0.061ñ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ Ù%•)ˆÏï≈˛ !ӈϟ’£Ïî ܲˆÏÓ˚ ˆòáy
ˆà° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ •° 3 mol/L N2, 2.0 mol/L H2 ~ÓÇ 0.5 mol/L NH3 – !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ !ܲ §yÙƒÓfiÌy °y˲ ܲˆÏÓ˚ˆÏSÈ⁄
Î!ò ly •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ˆÜ˛yl!òˆÏܲ x@˝Ã§Ó˚ •ˆÏ° §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyˆÏÓ⁄
7.22 ˆÓ y!Ùl ÙˆÏlyˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ñ (BrCl)ñ ˆÓ y!Ùl ~ÓÇ ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚ˆÏl !ÓˆÏÎ˚y!çï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyÎ˚ ı
2BrCl (g) ⇌ Br2 (g) + Cl2 (g)

500 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl 32. Î!ò !Ó¢%Âô BrCl ~Ó˚ ≤ÃyÓ˚!¡∫ܲ àyì˛¸c 3.3 × 10–3 mol/L •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚
•z•yÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ܲï˛⁄
7.23 1127 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ~ÓÇ 1 xƒyê˛Ù!fl≥˛Î˚yÓ˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ CO ~ÓÇ CO2 ~Ó˚ àƒy§#Î˚ !Ù◊l ܲ!ë˛l ܲyÓ≈l ~Ó˚ §!•ï˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈñ ˆÎáyˆÏl
90.55% CO Gçlàï˛ Ë˛yˆÏÓ Óï≈˛Ùyl–
C (s) + CO2 (g) ⇌ 2CO (g)

˙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–

7.24 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ NO ~ÓÇ O2 ˆÌˆÏܲ NO2 í˛zͲõyòˆÏlÓ˚ §ÙÎ˚ a) ∆Gθ ~ÓÇ b) §yÙƒô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–

NO (g) + ½ O2 (g) ⇌ NO2 (g)

ˆÎáyˆÏlñ
∆fGθ (NO2) = 52.0 KJ/mol

∆fGθ (NO) = 87.0 KJ/mol

∆fGθ (O2) = 0 KJ/mol

7.25 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ §yÙƒ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l Ó,!Âô ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛y˛õ •…y§ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˆÙy° §ÇáƒyÓ˚ ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï˛≈l âê˛ˆÏÓ⁄
Ó,!Âô ˛õyˆÏÓñ •…y§ ˛õyˆÏÓ ly!ܲ !ë˛Ü˛•z ÌyܲˆÏÓ⁄
(a) PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
(b) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) ⇌ CaCO3 (s)
(c) 3Fe (s) + 4H2O (g) ⇌ Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 235

7.26 ã˛y˛õ Ó,!ÂôˆÏï˛ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yà%ˆÏ°y ≤Ã˲y!Óï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛ˆÏlÓ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y §¡øá%Ù%á# •ˆÏÓ ly ˛õŸã˛yÍÙ%á# •ˆÏÓ ï˛yG
í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚–
(i) COCl2 (g) ⇌ CO (g) + Cl2 (g)
(ii) CH4 (g) + 2S2 (g) ⇌ CS2 (g) + 2H2S (g)
(iii) CO2 (g) + C (s) ⇌ 2CO (g)
(iv) 2H2 (g) + CO (g) ⇌ CH3OH (g)
(v) CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
(vi) 4 NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ⇌ 4NO (g) + 6H2O(g)
7.27 1024K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ H2(g) + Br2(g) ⇌ 2HBr(g) ~•z Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ §yÙƒ ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl 1.6 ×105, 1024K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ 10.0
ÓyÓ˚ åbarä ã˛yˆÏ˛õ ~ܲ!ê˛ ÓÂô ˛õyˆÏe HBr ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚yˆÏ° §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛!ê˛ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ã˛y˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.28 fiê˛#ˆÏÙÓ˚ xyÇ!¢Ü˛ çyÓ˚î myÓ˚y ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ àƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ í˛y•z •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl àƒy§ ˛õyGÎ˚y ÎyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy•#
CH4 (g) + H2O (g) ⇌ CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
(a) í˛z˛õˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ KpÓ˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛ ˆ°á–
(b) §yÙƒ !Ù◊ˆÏîÓ˚ §ÇÎ%!ï˛ ~ÓÇ Kp ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ !ܲÓ˚)˛õ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l •ˆÏÓ⁄
(i) ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
(ii) í˛z£÷Ïï˛y Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
(iii) xl%âê˛Ü˛ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
7.29 2H2(g) + CO (g) ⇌ CH3OH (g) ~•z §yÙƒ!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˆ«˛eà%ˆÏ°yˆÏï˛ ≤Ã˲yÓ Ü˛# •ˆÏÓ Óƒyáƒy ܲÓ˚–
a) H2 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
b) CH3OH ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ°
c) CO ˆÜ˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏ°
d) CH3OH ˆÜ˛ x˛õ§y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛Ó˚y •ˆÏ°
7.30 473 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ ˆ˛õrê˛y ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ §yÙƒô %Óܲ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 8.3 ×10-3ñ Î!ò !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl !l¡¨yl%§yˆÏÓ˚
•Î˚ñ
PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ∆rH θ = 124.0 !ܲˆÏ°yç%° ˆÙy°–1 ï˛y•ˆÏ°
a) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ó˚y!¢Ùy°y!ê˛ ˆ°á–
b) ˙ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ !Ó˛õÓ˚#ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄
c) Î!ò (i) xyÓ˚G PCl5 ˆÎyà ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
(ii) ã˛y˛õ Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
(iii) ï˛y˛õÙyey Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚y •Î˚
ï˛y•ˆÏ° Kc ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲ# ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏÓ⁄
7.31 ˆ•ÓyÓ˚ ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ÓƒÓ•,ï˛ í˛y•zÈüÈ•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˜ï˛!Ó˚ •Î˚ ≤ÃyÜ,˛!ï˛Ü˛ àƒy§ ˆÌˆÏܲ ≤ÃyÆ !ÙˆÏÌl G í˛zFã˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ fiê˛#ˆÏÙÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚– ò%•z
ôyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ôy˛õ!ê˛ •° CO ~ÓÇ H2 ~Ó˚ í˛zͲõyòl– !mï˛#Î˚ ôy˛õ!ê˛ •°ñ GÎ˚yê˛yÓ˚ àƒy§ !¢Êê˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ ôyˆÏ˛õ í˛zͲõߨ
CO xyÓ˚G fiê˛#ˆÏÙÓ˚ §!•ï˛ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ܲˆÏÓ˚–
CO (g) + H2O (g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)
236 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

Î!ò ˆÜ˛yl !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y˛õyˆÏe 400°C í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yÎ˚ CO ~ÓÇ fiê˛#Ù ~Ó˚ §ÙˆÏÙy°yÓ˚ !Ù◊î ~Ùl˲yˆÏÓ ≤ÈÏÓ¢ ܲÓ˚yˆÏly •Î˚ ÎyˆÏï˛ pco = pH2O = 4.0
ÓyÓ˚ •Î˚ ï˛ˆÏÓ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ H2 ~Ó˚ xÇ¢ ã˛y˛õ Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄ 400°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ñ Kp= 10.1
7.32 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yÎ˚ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚ܲ ~ÓÇ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ í˛zˆÏÕ‘áˆÏÎyàƒ àyì˛¸c •ˆÏÓ ï˛y xl%Ùyl ܲÓ˚ ı
a) Cl2 (g) ⇌ 2Cl (g) Kc = 5 ×10–39

b) Cl2 (g) + 2NO (g) ⇌ 2NOCl (g) Kc = 3.7 × 108

c) Cl2 (g) + 2NO2 (g) ⇌ 2NO2Cl (g) Kc = 1.8

7.33 25°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 3O2 (g) ⇌ 2O3 (g) !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 2.0 ×10–50ñ 25°C í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ÓyÎ˚%ˆÏï˛ O2 ~Ó˚ §yÙƒàyì˛¸c
1.6 ×10–2 •ˆÏ° O3 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c Ü˛ï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄
7.34 CO(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ CH4(g) + H2O(g) ~•z !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ 1300 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1L Êœ˛yˆÏflÒ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ xyˆÏSÈ– !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ˆÏï˛ 0.30 ˆÙy°
CO, 0.10 ˆÙy° H2 ~ÓÇ 0.02 ˆÙy° H2O ~ÓÇ xK˛yï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî CH4 xyˆÏSÈ– !Ù◊l!ê˛ˆÏï˛ CH4 ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚– ~•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚
!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛Ó˚ §yÙƒ ô %Óܲ Kc ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 3.90.
7.35 xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ Î%à° Ü˛#⁄ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛‡«˛yÓ˚ !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
HNO2, CN–, HClO4, F –, OH–, CO32– ~ÓÇ S2–
7.36 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ ˆÜ˛ylà%ˆÏ°y °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛⁄
H2O, BF3, H+, ~ÓÇ NH4+
7.37 HF, H2SO4 ~ÓÇ HCO–3 ~•z Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ܲà%ˆÏ°y ˆ°á–
7.38 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ Ó lˆÏfiê˛í˛ «˛yÓ˚à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛à%ˆÏ°y ܲ# ï˛y•y ˆ°á–
–
NH2 , NH3 ~ÓÇ HCOO–.
7.39 H2O, HCO–3, HSO–4 ~ÓÇ NH3 ~•zà%ˆÏ°y ÓœlˆÏfiê˛í˛ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲ í˛z˲Î˚Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ•z ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚– ≤ÈÏï˛ƒÜ˛ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xl%Órô#
xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚–
7.40 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈à%ˆÏ°y ˆÌˆÏܲ °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ G °%•z§ «˛yÓ˚ܲ ˆ◊!îË%˛=˛ ܲÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ˆòáyG •z•yÓ˚y ܲ#˲yˆÏÓ °%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ G °%•z§
«˛yÓ˚ܲ Ó˚)ˆÏ˛õ ܲyç ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
(a) OH – (b) F – (c) H+ (d) BCl3 .

7.41 ~ܲ!ê˛ ë˛y[˛y ˛õyl#Î˚Ó˚ lÙ%lyÎ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c •° 3.8 × 10–3 M. •z•yÓ˚ pH ܲï˛⁄
7.42 !˲!làyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ lÙ%lyÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 3.76. ~•z oÓˆÏî •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
7.43 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ HF, HCOOH ~ÓÇ HCN ~Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùylà%ˆÏ°y •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 6.8 × 10–4, 1.8 × 10–4 ~ÓÇ
4.8 × 10–9 ~ˆÏòÓ˚ xl%Órô# «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùy°à%ˆÏ°y àîly ܲÓ˚–

7.44 ˆÊ˛lˆÏ°Ó˚ !Ó!ˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 1.0 × 10–10ñ ˆÊ˛lˆÏ°Ó˚ 0.05 M oÓˆÏî ˆÊ˛lˆÏ°ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ܲï˛⁄ 0.01(M) ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ
ˆÊ˛lˆÏ°ê˛ oÓˆÏî •z•yÓ˚ åˆÊ˛lˆÏ°Ó˚ä !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.45 H2S ~Ó˚ ≤ÃÌÙ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 9.1 × 10–8. •z•yÓ˚ 0.1(M) oÓˆÏî HS– xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚– 0.1(M)
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ HCl oÓˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~•z àyì˛¸ˆÏcÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏÓ⁄ Î!ò H2S ~Ó˚ !mï˛#Î˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %Óܲ ~Ó˚
Ùyl 1.2 × 10–13 •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° í˛z˲Î˚ ¢ï≈˛yô#ˆÏl S2– ÈüÈ~Ó˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.46 xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 1.74 × 10–5. xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ 0.05 M oÓˆÏî •z•yÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey
àîly ܲÓ˚– xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.47 0.01M ~ܲ!ê˛ ˜çÓ xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 4.15. xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ xƒylyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸cñ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %Óܲ
~ÓÇ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ pKa ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
§yÙƒyÓfĩy 237

7.48 §¡õ)î≈ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ ôˆÏÓ˚ !lˆÏÎ˚ l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ oÓîà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
(a) 0.003 M HCl (b) 0.005 M NaOH

(c) 0.002 M HBr (d) 0.002 M KOH

7.49 l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ oÓîà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ pH àîly ܲÓ˚ ı

a) 2 g TlOH çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ 2 L oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •°–

b) 0.3 g Ca(OH)2 çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ 500 mL oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •°–

c) 0.3 g NaOH çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ 200 mL oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •°–

d) 13.6 M, 1 mL HCl oÓˆÏî ç° ˆÎyà ܲˆÏÓ˚ °â% ܲÓ˚y •° ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l 1L ܲÓ˚y •°–

7.50 0.1M ˆÓ yˆÏÙy xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey •° 0.132. oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~ÓÇ ˆÓ yˆÏÙy xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pKa ~Ó˚
Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.51 0.005M ˆÜ˛yˆÏí˛•zl åcodeineä (C18H21NO3) oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl 9.95– xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %Óܲ ~ÓÇ pKb ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–

7.52 0.001M xƒy!l!°l oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄ §yÓ˚!î 7.7 ˆÌˆÏܲ xƒy!l!°ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl !lˆÏï˛ •ˆÏÓ– oÓˆÏî
xƒy!l!°ˆÏlÓ˚ xl%Órô# xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.53 0.05M xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l Ùyey àîly ܲÓ˚ Î!ò xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ pKa ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 4.74. (a)
0.01M (b) 0.1M HCl oÓˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ í˛z=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ÙyeyÓ˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ ܲ#Ó˚)˛õ ≤Ã˲yÓ ˛õí˛¸ˆÏÓ⁄

7.54 í˛y•z!ÙÌy•z° xƒy!ÙˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 5.4 × 10–4, 0.02M í˛z=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l Ùyey àîly ܲÓ˚–
0.1M NaOH oÓˆÏîÓ˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y Ü˛ï˛ Ë˛yà í˛y•z!ÙÌy•z° xƒy!Ùl xyˆÏÎ˚y!lï˛ •ˆÏÓ⁄

7.55 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ ç#Ó!ÓK˛yl §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ï˛Ó˚°à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚ ÎyˆÏòÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl l#ˆÏã˛ ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈüüüÈ
(a) Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ˆ˛õ¢# ï˛Ó˚° 6.83 (b) Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ ˛õyܲfiÌ°#Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚° 1.2

(c) Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ Ó˚=˛ 7.38 (d) Ùyl%ˆÏ£ÏÓ˚ Ù%ˆÏáÓ˚ °y°y 6.4.

7.56 ò%ôñ ܲyˆÏ°y ܲ!Ê˛ñ ê˛ƒˆÏÙˆÏê˛y Ó˚§ñ ˆ°Ó%Ó˚ Ó˚§ ~ÓÇ !í˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ §yòy xLjϢÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 6.8, 5.0, 4.2, 2.2 ~ÓÇ 7.8. ≤Ã!ï˛
ˆ«˛ˆÏe •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.57 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Î!ò 0.561 @˝ÃyÙ KOH çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ 200 !Ù!° oÓî ˜ï˛!Ó˚ ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˙ oÓˆÏî ˛õê˛y!§Î˚yÙñ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl
~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛y!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c àîly ܲÓ˚– ~•z oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ lyÙ Ü˛ï˛⁄
7.58 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ Sr(OH)2 ~Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y 19.23 g/Lñ fiê˛∆l!§Î˚yÙ ~ÓÇ •y•zˆÏí»˛y!:° xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly
ܲÓ˚–
7.59 ˆ≤Ãy˛õyˆÏly!Î˚ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 1.32 × 10–5. •z•yÓ˚ 0.05M oÓˆÏîÓ˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey ~ÓÇ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH
~Ó˚ ÙylG àîly ܲÓ˚– 0.01M HCl oÓˆÏî •z•yÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l Ùyey ܲ# •ˆÏÓ⁄
7.60 0.1(M) §yÎ˚y!lܲ xƒy!§í˛ (HCNO) oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 2.34. xƒy!§í˛ oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl ~ÓÇ
oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl Ùyey àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.61 ly•zê˛∆y§ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ !ÓˆÏÎ˚yçl ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 4.5 × 10–4, 0.04 M ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ly•zê˛∆y•zê˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl ~ÓÇ xyo≈ !ӈϟ’£Ïî
Ùyey àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.62 0.02 M !˛õ!Ó˚!í˛!lÎ˚yÙ •y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl 3.44 •ˆÏ° !˛õ!Ó˚!í˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.63 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ °Óîà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÃÜ,˛!ï˛ ≤âÙñ xy!¡‘ܲ ly «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ •ˆÏÓ í˛zˆÏÕ‘á ܲÓ˚–
NaCl, KBr, NaCN, NH4NO3, NaNO2 ~ÓÇ KF
238 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

7.64 ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚y xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 1.35 × 10–3ñ 0.1(M) ~•z xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ ~ÓÇ xƒy!§í˛!ê˛Ó˚ 0.1M
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
7.65 310 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ çˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Î˚ à%îÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùyl •° 2.7 × 10–14. ~•z í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ≤â٠çˆÏ°Ó˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl ܲï˛⁄
7.66 !l¡¨!°!áï˛ !Ù◊ oÓîà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ pH ~Ó˚ Ùyl àîly ܲÓ˚–
a) 10 mL 0.2M Ca(OH)2 + 25 mL 0.1M HCl

b) 10 mL 0.01M H2SO4 + 10 mL 0.01M Ca(OH)2

c) 10 mL 0.1M H2SO4 + 10 mL 0.1M KOH

7.67 §yÓ˚!î 7.9 ˆÌˆÏܲ !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÙê˛ñ ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ ˆÜ ˛yˆÏÙê˛ñ ˆÊ˛!Ó˚ܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛y:y•zí˛ñ ˆ°í˛ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ ~ÓÇ ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛zÓ˚y§ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zí˛
ˆÎÔàà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛ˆÏ°Ó˚ Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ 298K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ oyÓƒï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚–
7.68 Ag2CrO4 ~ÓÇ AgBr ~Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° ô %Óܲ ~Ó˚ Ùyl ÎÌyÜ ˛ˆÏÙ 1.1 × 10–12 ~ÓÇ 5.0 × 10–13. ~ˆÏòÓ˚ §¡õ,=˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚
ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛Ó˚ xî%˛õyï˛ àîly ܲÓ˚–
7.69 §ÙxyÎ˚ï˛l 0.002 M ¢!=˛ÙyeyÓ˚ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ xyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏí˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ !ܲí˛z!≤Ãܲ ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚ê˛ ~ܲˆÏe !Ù¢yˆÏly •°– ~ˆÏ«˛ˆÏe ܲ˛õyÓ˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏí˛ê˛
~Ó˚ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õl âê˛ˆÏÓ !ܲ⁄ å!ܲí˛z!≤Ãܲ xyˆÏÎ˚yˆÏí˛ê˛ ~Ó˚ Ksp = 7.4 × 10–8 ä
7.70 ˆÓlˆÏçy!Î˚ܲ xƒy!§ˆÏí˛Ó˚ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l ô %ÓˆÏܲÓ˚ Ùyl •° 6.46 × 10–5 ~ÓÇ !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÓlˆÏçyˆÏÎ˚ê˛ ~Ó˚ Ksp ~Ó˚ Ùyl 2.5 × 10–
13
– !Ó¢%Âô çˆÏ°Ó˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ 3.19 pH §¡õߨ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓˆÏî !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÓˆÏOyˆÏÎ˚ˆÏê˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y Ü˛ï˛ à%î ˆÓ!¢ •ˆÏÓ⁄
7.71 §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ Ü˛ï˛ àyì˛¸ˆÏc §Ù ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˆÊ˛Ó˚y§ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ ~ÓÇ ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ oÓî §Ù xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏl !Ù¢yˆÏly •ˆÏ° ˆÊ˛Ó˚y§ §y°Ê˛y•zí˛
~Ó˚ xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õl •ˆÏÓ ly⁄ åÊ˛Ó˚y§§y°Ê˛y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ Ksp = 6.3 × 10–18ä
7.72 298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ 1 @˝ÃyÙ Ü˛ƒy°!§Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ê˛ˆÏܲ çˆÏ° oÓ#Ë)˛ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ çˆÏ°Ó˚ §Ó≈!l¡¨ xyÎ˚ï˛l ܲï˛⁄ åܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ §y°ˆÏÊ˛ˆÏê˛Ó˚ Ksp
~Ó˚ Ùyl •° 9.1 × 10–6ä
7.73 H2S myÓ˚y §¡õ,=˛ 0.1M HCl oÓˆÏî §y°Ê˛y•zí˛ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ àyì˛¸c •° 1.0 × 10–19 M. Î!ò ~•z oÓˆÏîÓ˚ 10 !Ù!°ñ 0.04 M
¢!=˛ÙyeyÓ˚ 5 !Ù!° l#ˆÏã˛Ó˚ oÓîà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ §ˆÏAà !Ù¢yˆÏly •Î˚ ï˛y•ˆÏ° ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆÜ˛yl‰ ˆ«˛ˆÏe xô/ˆÏ«˛˛õl •ˆÏÓ⁄
FeSO4, MnCl2, ZnCl2 ~ÓÇ CdCl2.
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 239

í˛z˛õyAà I

~§ xy•z (SI) ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲܲ §Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ §ÇK˛y (Definitions of the SI Base Units)

!Ùê˛yÓ˚ (m): ¢)îƒ ÙyôƒˆÏÙ xyˆÏ°y˛ ~ܲ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛Ó˚ 1/299 792 458 ˲yà §ÙˆÏÎ˚ ˆÎ ò)Ó˚c x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù ܲˆÏÓ˚ ï˛yˆÏܲ 1
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ӈϰ– å17 ï˛Ù CGPM, 1983ä.
!ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ (kg): !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ •° ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ~ܲܲ– ~!ê˛ !ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyˆÏÙÓ˚ xyhs˝ç≈y!ï˛Ü˛ ˆ≤ÃyˆÏê˛yê˛y•zˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ §Ùyl–
åï,˛ï˛#Î˚ CGPM– 1901ä
ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ (S): 1 ˆ§ˆÏܲ[˛ •° Ë)˛!Ù hflψÏÓ˚ !§!çÎ˚yÙ ÈüÈ 133 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y §)- ¢!=˛hflψÏÓ˚Ó˚ ÙôƒÜ˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚c x!ï˛Ü ˛Ù
ܲÓ˚yÓ˚ çlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !Ó!ܲÓ˚ˆÏîÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl#Î˚ §ÙˆÏÎ˚Ó˚ 9 192 631 770 !ê˛ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚– å13 ï˛Ù CGPM, 1967ä
xƒy!¡õÎ˚yÓ˚ (A): 1 xƒy!¡õÎ˚yÓ˚ •° ~ܲ!ê˛ !fiÌÓ˚ !Óò%ƒÍ ≤ÃÓy• Îy làîƒ ≤ÃfïÏFSÈò Î%=˛ x§#Ù ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ ò%ˆÏê˛y
ˆày°yܲyÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ï˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲ ¢)ˆÏîƒ 1 !Ùê˛yÓ˚ ò)Ó˚ˆÏc §Ùyhs˝Ó˚y°Ë˛yˆÏÓ ˆÓ˚ˆÏá ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤ÃÓy!•ï˛ ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ˛õ!Ó˚Óy•# ò%!ê˛Ó˚ ≤Ã!ï˛
!Ùê˛yÓ˚ ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒ 2×10-7 !lí˛zê˛l Ó° §,!T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚– ålÓÙ CGPM, 1945ä
ˆÜ˛°!˲l (K): ˆÜ˛°!˲l •° í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚˚ ~ܲܲñ Îy çˆÏ°Ó˚ ˜eô!Ó®%Ó˚ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ 1/273.16
xÇ¢– å13 ï˛Ù CGPM, 1967ä
ˆÙy° (mol): 1 ˆÙy° åmoleä •° ˆÜ˛yˆÏly !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ ˆ§•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ˛õòyÌ≈ ÎyÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ܲyÓ≈lÈ-12 ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ 0.012
!ܲˆÏ°y@˝ÃyÙ ˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏî í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% §ÇáƒyÓ˚ §Ùyl §ÇáƒÜ˛ Ù)° ܲ!îܲy í˛z˛õ!fiÌï˛ ÌyˆÏܲ– ~Ó˚ !ã˛•´ •° ˆÙy°
åmoleä– ˆÙy° åmoleä ¢ˆÏ∑Ó˚ ÓƒÓ•yÓ˚ ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ •ˆÏ° Ù)° ܲ!îܲyà%ˆÏ°yˆÏܲ !l!ò≈T˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚ Ó°ˆÏï˛ •Î˚ ~ÓÇ ~à%ˆÏ°y
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ñ xî%ñ xyÎ˚lñ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lñ xlƒylƒ ܲ!îܲy Óy xlƒylƒ ܲ!îܲyÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ §ÙÓyÎ˚ •ˆÏï˛ ˛õyˆÏÓ˚–
ܲƒyˆÏu˛°y (cd): ܲƒyˆÏu˛°y •° í˛z͈ϧÓ˚ ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ x!˲Ù%ˆÏá ˆ§•z ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ò#˛õl ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ Îy 540×1012 •yÍ≈ç
ܲ¡õyˆÏAܲÓ˚ ~ܲÓî≈# !Ó!ܲÓ˚î !l/§,ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~ÓÇ ÎyÓ˚ ˙ x!˲Ù%ˆáÏ !Ó!ܲ!Ó˚ï˛ ≤ÃyÓ°ƒ •° 1/683 GÎ˚yê˛ ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆfiê˛ˆÏÓ!˚ í˛Î˚yl–
å˛~áyˆÏl ï˛y!°Ü˛yË%˛=˛ !ã˛•´à%ˆ°
Ï y xyhs˝çy≈ !ï˛Ü˛ hflˆÏ ÓÏ ˚ fl∫#Ü,˛ï˛ ~ÓÇ xlƒ ˆÜ˛yˆÏly ˲y£Ïy Óy !°!˛õˆÏï˛ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ܲÓ˚y ÎyˆÏÓ ly–ä
240
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

í˛z˛õyAà II

ˆÙÔ° §Ù)•ñ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §Çáƒy ~ÓÇ ˆÙy° xyîÓ Ë˛Ó˚

Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass

ˆÙÔ° !ã˛•´ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xylÓ ˆÙÔ° !ã˛•´ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% xylÓ

Ü ˛ÙyAܲ ¢!=˛/ Ü ˛ÙyAܲ ¢!=˛/
(g mol–1) (g mol–1)

xƒyܲ‰!ê˛!lÎ˚yÙ Ac 89 227.03 ÙyÓ˚ܲy!Ó˚ Hg 80 200.59

xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ Al 13 26.98 Ù!°ÓˆÏí˛lyÙ Mo 42 95.94
xƒyˆÏÙ!Ó˚!¢Î˚yÙ Am 95 (243) !lG!í˛!ÙÎ˚yÙ Nd 60 144.24
xƒy!rê˛Ù!l Sb 51 121.75 !lÎ˚l Ne 10 20.18
xyà≈l Ar 18 39.95 ˆl˛õã%˛l Np 93 (237.05)
xyˆÏ§!≈ lÜ As 33 74.92 !lˆÏܲ° Ni 28 58.71
xƒyfiê˛y!ê˛l At 85 210 !lí˛z!ÓÎ˚yÙ Nb 41 92.91
ˆÓ!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Ba 56 137.34 ly•zˆêÏ ˛∆yˆÏçl N 7 14.0067
ÓyˆÏܲ≈ !°Î˚yÙ Bk 97 (247) ˆlyˆÏÓ!°Î˚yÙ No 102 (259)
ˆÓ!Ó˚!°Î˚yÙ Be 4 9.01 x§‰!ÙÎ˚yÙ Os 76 190.2
!Ó§ÙyÌ Bi 83 208.98 x!:ˆÏçl O 8 16.00
ˆÓy!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Bh 107 (264) ˛õƒy°!í˛Î˚yÙ Pd 46 106.4
ˆÓyÓ˚l B 5 10.81 Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ P 15 30.97
ˆÓ y!Ùl Br 35 79.91 ≤’y!ê˛lyÙ Pt 78 195.09
ܲƒyí˛!ÙÎ˚yÙ Cd 48 112.40 ≤’ˆ% êÏ ˛y!lÎ˚yÙ Pu 94 (244)
!§!çÎ˚yÙ Cs 55 132.91 ˛õˆÏ°y!lÎ˚yÙ Po 84 210
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ Ca 20 40.08 ˛õê˛y!§Î˚yÙ K 19 39.10
ܲƒy!°ˆÏÊ˛y!l≈Îy˚ Ù Cf 98 251.08 ≤Ãy!§Gí˛y•z!ÙÎ˚yÙ Pr 59 140.91
ܲyÓ≈l C 6 12.01 ˆ≤ÃyˆÏÙ!ÌÎ˚yÙ Pm 61 (145)
!§!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Ce 58 140.12 ˆ≤Ãyê˛yxƒy!Q!lÎ˚yÙ Pa 91 231.04
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l Cl 17 35.45 ˆÓ˚!í˛Î˚yÙ Ra 88 (226)
ˆÜ ˛y!ÙÎ˚yÙ Cr 24 52.00 ˆÓ˚í˛l Rn 86 (222)
ˆÜ˛yÓyŒê˛ Co 27 58.93 ˆÓ˚ˆ•Ï !lÎ˚yÙ Re 75 186.2
ܲ˛õyÓ˚ Cu 29 63.54 ˆÓ˚y!í˛Î˚yÙ Rh 45 102.91
Ü%˛!Ó˚Î˚yÙ Cm 96 247.07 ˆÓ˚y!Ó!í˛Î˚yÙ Rb 37 85.47
ˆí˛yÓ!lÎ˚yÙ Db 105 (263) ˆÓ˚yˆÏÌ!lÎ˚yÙ Ru 44 101.07
!í˛§ˆÏ≤Ãy!§Î˚yÙ Dy 66 162.50 Ó˚yòyÓ˚Ê˛!í≈˛Î˚yÙ Rf 104 (261)
xy•zlˆÏfiê˛!lÎ˚yÙ Es 99 (252) §Ùy!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Sm 62 150.35
•zÓ!˚ ÓÎ˚yÙ Er 68 167.26 flÒƒyl!í˛Î˚yÙ Sc 21 44.96
•zí˛zˆÏÓ˚y!˛õÎ˚yÙ Eu 63 151.96 !§Ó!à≈Î˚yÙ Sg 106 (266)
Ê˛y!Ù≈Îy˚ Ù Fm 100 (257.10) ˆ§°!lÎ˚yÙ Se 34 78.96
ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚l F 9 19.00 !§!°Ü˛l Si 14 28.08
Ê ˛y!™Î˚yÙ Fr 87 (223) !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ Ag 47 107.87
àƒyˆÏí˛y!°!lÎ˚yÙ Gd 64 157.25 ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ Na 11 22.99
àƒy!°Î˚yÙ Ga 31 69.72 fiê˛∆l!¢Î˚yÙ Sr 38 87.62
çyˆÏÙ!≈ lÎ˚yÙ Ge 32 72.61 §y°Ê˛yÓ˚ S 16 32.06
ˆày”˛ Au 79 196.97 ˆê˛Ïlê˛y°yÙ Ta 73 180.95
•yʉ˛!lÎ˚yÙ Hf 72 178.49 ˆê˛Ü‰˛ˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ Tc 43 (98.91)
•ƒy!§Î˚yÙ Hs 108 (269) ˆê˛°%!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Te 52 127.60
!•!°Î˚yÙ He 2 4.00 ê˛yÓ˚!ÓÎ˚yÙ Tb 65 158.92
ˆ•y°!§Î˚yÙ Ho 67 164.93 ̃y!°Î˚yÙ Tl 81 204.37
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl H 1 1.0079 ˆÌy!Ó˚Îy˚ Ù Th 90 232.04
•zl!í˛Î˚yÙ In 49 114.82 Ì%!°Î˚yÙ Tm 69 168.93
xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l I 53 126.90 !ê˛l Sn 50 118.69
•z!Ó˚!í˛Î˚yÙ Ir 77 192.2 ê˛y•zê˛y!lÎ˚yÙ Ti 22 47.88
xyÎ˚Ól˚ Fe 26 55.85 ê˛yLjÏfiê˛l W 74 183.85
!Ü ˛≤Wzl Kr 36 83.80 xylxyl!ÓÎ˚yÙ Uub 112 (277)
°ƒyl‰ˆÌÏ lyÙ La 57 138.91 xylxyl!l!°Î˚yÙ Uun 110 (269)
°ˆÏÓ™ ˚ !§Î˚yÙ Lr 103 (262.1) xylxylxy!lÎ˚yÙ Uuu 111 (272)
ˆ°í˛ Pb 82 207.19 •zí˛zˆÏÓ˚!lÎ˚yÙ U 92 238.03
!°!ÌÎ˚yÙ Li 3 6.94 ˆË˛ly!í˛Î˚yÙ V 23 50.94
°%ˆêÏ ˛!¢Î˚yÙ Lu 71 174.96 ˆçll Xe 54 131.30
ÙƒyàˆÏl!§Î˚yÙ Mg 12 24.31 •zê˛yÓ˚!ÓÎ˚yÙ Yb 70 173.04
ÙƒyAày!lç Mn 25 54.94 •z!ê˛∆Î˚yÙ Y 39 88.91
ˆÙê˛!lÎ˚yÙ Mt 109 (268) !çAܲ Zn 30 65.37
ˆÙˆÏu˛!°!˲Î˚yÙ Md 101 258.10 çyÓ˚ˆÜÏ ˛y!lÎ˚yÙ Zr 40 91.22

à!Ó˚¤˛ xô≈yÎ˚% §¡õߨ xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Ùyl ≤ÃÌÙ Órôl#Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈ–
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 241

í˛z˛õyAà III

A. 298K ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚ ~ÓÇ ~ܲ ÓyÎ˚%Ùu˛°#Î˚ ã˛yˆÏ˛õ !ܲS%È ˛õòyÌ≈§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ~ÓÇ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy!•ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl åSpecific and Molar Heat
Capacities for Some Substances at 298 K and one Atmospheric Pressure

˛õòyÌ≈ xyˆÏ˛õ!«˛Ü˛ ï˛y˛õÙyey ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ã•#ï˛y

(J/g) (J/mol)
ÓyÎ˚% 0.720 20.8
ç° åï˛Ó˚°ä 4.184 75.4
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y åàƒy§ä 2.06 35.1
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ 0.797 29.1
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÓ yÙy•zí˛ 0.360 29.1
xƒyˆÏÙy!lÎ˚y åï˛Ó˚°ä 4.70 79.9
•zÌy•z° xƒy°ˆÏܲy•° åï˛Ó˚°ä 2.46 113.16
•z!Ì!°l @˝Ãy•zܲ° åï˛Ó˚°ä 2.42 152.52
ç° åܲ!ë˛lä 2.06 37.08
ܲyÓ≈l ˆê˛ê˛∆yˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ åï˛Ó˚°ä 0.861 132.59
ˆÜœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yˆÏÊœ˛yˆÏÓ˚yܲyÓ≈l (CCl F ) 0.5980 72.35
2 2
GˆÏçyl 0.817 39.2
!lÎ˚l 1.03 20.7
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l 0.477 33.8
ˆÓ y!Ùl 0.473 75.6
xyÎ˚Ó˚l 0.460 25.1
ܲ˛õyÓ˚ 0.385 24.7
xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ 0.902 24.35
ˆày”˛ 0.128 25.2
@˝ÃyÊ˛y•zê˛ 0.720 8.65

B. !ܲS%È àƒy§§Ù)ˆÏ•Ó˚ ˆÙy°yÓ˚ ï˛y˛õ@˝Ãy!•ï˛yÓ˚ Ùyl Molar Heat Capacities for Some Gases (J/mol)

àƒy§ Cp Cv Cp - C v Cp / Cv
~ܲ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ*
!•!°Î˚yÙ 20.9 12.8 8.28 1.63
xyà≈l 20.8 12.5 8.33 1.66
xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l˛ 20.9 12.6 8.37 1.66
˛õyÓò 20.8 12.5 8.33 1.66
!mÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ†
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl 28.6 20.2 8.33 1.41
x!:ˆÏçl 29.1 20.8 8.33 1.39
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl 29.0 20.7 8.30 1.40
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ 29.6 21.0 8.60 1.39
ܲyÓ≈l ÙˆÏlyx:y•zí˛ 29.0 21.0 8.00 1.41
!eÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ†
ly•zê˛∆y§ x:y•zí˛ 39.0 30.5 8.50 1.28
ܲyÓ≈l í»˛y•zx:y•zí˛ 37.5 29.0 8.50 1.29
Ó•%ÈüÈ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ†
•zˆÏÌl 53.2 44.6 8.60 1.19

* ˛¢%ô%Ùye fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ç!lï˛ àï˛#Î˚ ¢!=˛–

† ˛fiÌylyhs˝Ó˚ç!lï˛ñ ܲ¡õlç!lï˛ ~ÓÇ â)î≈lç!lï˛ ¢!=˛–
242
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

í˛z˛õyAà IV

ˆË˛Ôï˛ ô %Óܲ §Ù)• (Physical Constants)

Ó˚y!¢ !ã˛•´ ≤Ãã˛!°ï˛ ~ܲܲ§Ù)• ~§ xy•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~ܲܲ§Ù)•

x!˲ܲ£Ï≈ç cÓ˚î g 980.6 cm/s
˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ܲܲ (12C amu 1.6606 × 10-24
˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ 1/12 xÇ¢) or u
xƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ô %Óܲ NA 6.022 ×1023
particles/mol
ˆÓyÓ˚ Óƒy§yô≈ ao 0.52918 C
5.2918 × 10-9 cm
ˆÓy°Í§‰Ùyl ô %Óܲ k 1.3807 × 10-16 erg/K
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl e/m 1.758820 ×l08 coulomb/g 1.7588 × 1011 C/kg
G ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛xl%˛õyï˛
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ xyôyl e 1.602176 × 10-19 coulomb 1.60219 × 10-19 C
4.8033 × 10-19 esu
•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ˲Ó˚ me 9.109382 ×10-28 g
0.00054859 u
Ê˛ƒyÓ˚yˆÏí˛Ó˚ ô %Óܲ F 96,487 coulombs/eq
23.06 kcal/volt. eq
L atm
àƒy§ ô %Óܲ R 0.8206
mol K
cal
1.987
mol k
ˆÙy°yÓ˚ xyÎ˚ï˛l (STP) Vm 22.710981 L/mol
!lí˛zê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ˲Ó˚ mn 1.674927 × 10-24 g
1.008665 u
≤’ƒyAܲ ô %Óܲ h 6.6262 × 10-27 ergs
ˆ≤Ãyê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ !l!ò≈T˛ ˲Ó˚ mp 1.6726216 ×10-24 g
1.007277 u
!Ó˚í˛Óyà≈ ô %ܲ R∞ 3.289 × 1015 cycles/s
2.1799 × 10-11 erg
xyˆÏ°yˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÓà c 2.9979 ×1010 cm/s
å¢)lƒ ÙyôƒˆÏÙä (186,281 miles/second)
9.806 m/s
g 1.6606 × 10-27 kg
6.022 × 1023
particles/mol
5.2918 × 10-11 m
1.3807 × 10-23 J/K
9.10952 ×10-31 kg
96,487 C/mol e-
96,487 J/V.mol e-
k Pa dm3
8.3145
mol K
8.3145 J/mol.K
22.710981 × 10-3 m3/mol
22.710981 dm3/mol
1.67495 × 10-27 kg
6.6262 × 10-34 J s
1.6726 ×10-27 kg
1.0974 × 107 m-1
2.1799 × 10-18 J
2.9979 × 108 m/s

π = 3.1416 2.303 R = 4.576 cal/mol K = 19.15 J/mol K

e = 2.71828 2.303 RT (25°C ï˛y˛õÙyeyÎ˚) = 1364 cal/mol = 5709 J/mol
X ~Ó˚ ÙˆÏôƒ˛= 2.303 log X
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 243

í˛z˛õyAà V

!ܲS%È à%Ó˚%c˛õ)î≈ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ç!lï˛ ˛õò §Ù)•È (Some Useful Conversion Factors)

˲Ó˚ G GçˆÏlÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲܲ ˜òˆÏâ≈ƒÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲܲ §Ù)•

1 pound = 453.59 grams 1 inch = 2.54 centimetres (exactly)
1 pound = 453.59 grams = 0.45359 kilogram 1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.609 kilometres
1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.205 pounds 1 yard = 36 inches = 0.9144 metre
1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams 1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39.37 inches
= 1000 milligrams = 3.281 feet
1 gram = 6.022 × 1023 atomic mass units or u = 1.094 yards
1 atomic mass unit = 1.6606 × 10–24 gram 1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards
1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms = 0.6215 mile
= 2205 pounds 1 Angstrom = 1.0 × 10–8 centimetre
= 0.10 nanometre
xyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲܲ = 1.0 × 10–10 metre
1 quart = 0.9463 litre = 3.937 × 10–9 inch
1 litre = 1.056 quarts

1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic

Ó°* ~ÓÇ ã˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲܲ §Ù)•
centimetres = 0.001 cubic metre 1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury
1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0.001 litre = 1.013 × 105 pascals
= 1.056 × 10-3 quart = 14.70 pounds per square inch
1 cubic foot = 28.316 litres = 29.902 quarts 1 bar = 105 pascals
= 7.475 gallons 1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury
1 pascal = 1 kg/ms2 = 1 N/m2
¢!=˛Ó˚ §yôyÓ˚î ~ܲܲ §Ù)•
1 joule = 1 × 107 ergs ï˛y˛õÙyey
1 thermochemical calorie**
~§ xy•z ˛õÂô!ï˛ˆÏï˛ ~Ü˛Ü ˆÜ˛°!˲l (K)
= 4.184 joules K = -273.15°C
= 4.184 × 107 ergs K = °C + 273.15
°F = 1.8(°C) + 32
= 4.129 × 10 litre-atmospheres
–2

= 2.612 × 1019 electron volts °F − 32

°C =
1 ergs = 1 × 10–7 joule = 2.3901 × 10–8 calorie 1.8
1 electron volt = 1.6022 × 10–19 joule
= 1.6022 × 10–12 erg
= 96.487 kJ/mol†
1 litre-atmosphere = 24.217 calories
= 101.32 joules
= 1.0132 ×109 ergs
1 British thermal unit = 1055.06 joules
= 1.05506 ×1010 ergs
= 252.2 calories

* Ó° ı 1 !lí˛zê˛l (N) = 1 kg m/s2, xÌ≈yÍ Îál 1 kg ˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˆÜ˛yl Ó›Ó˚ í˛z˛õÓ˚ 1 ˆ§ˆÏܲu˛ ôˆÏÓ˚ Ó° ≤ÈÏÎ˚yà ܲÓ˚ˆÏ° ≤Ã!ï˛ ˆ§ˆÏܲˆÏu˛ 1 m ˆÓà §,!T˛ •Î˚–
** 1 g çˆÏ°Ó˚ ï˛y˛õÙyey 14.50C •ˆÏï˛ 15.50C Ó,!Âô ܲÓ˚ˆÏï˛ ˆÎ ˛õ!Ó˚Ùyî ï˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ≤ÈÏÎ˚yçl •Î˚–
† ÙˆÏl Ó˚yˆÏáyñ ≤Ã!ï˛ Ü˛îyÓ˚ xlƒylƒ ~ܲܲ§Ù)• ~ÓÇ xÓ¢ƒ•z 6.022 × 1023 ~Ó˚ à%!îï˛Ü˛ ܲˆÏë˛yÓ˚˲yˆÏÓ ï%˛°l#Î˚–
244
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

í˛z˛õyAà VI

298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ï˛y˛õàï˛#Î˚ ï˛Ìƒ §Ù)•

x˜ÏçÓ ˛õòyÌ≈ (INORGANIC SUBSTANCES)
˛õòyÌ≈ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ˛~lê˛∆!˛õ*
∆ fHθ/ (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

xƒy°%!Ù!lÎ˚yÙ (Aluminium)
Al(s) 0 0 28.33
Al3+(aq) – 524.7 –481.2 –321.7
Al2O3(s) –1675.7 –1582.3 50.92
Al(OH)3(s) –1276 — —
AlCl3(s) –704.2 –628.8 110.67
xƒy!rê˛Ù!l (Antimony)
SbH3(g) 145.11 147.75 232.78
SbCl3(g) –313.8 –301.2 337.80
SbCl5(g) –394.34 –334.29 401.94
xyˆÏ§≈!lܲ (Arsenic)
As(s), gray 0 0 35.1
As2S3(s) –169.0 –168.6 163.6
AsO43–(aq) –888.14 –648.41 –162.8
ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ (Barium)
Ba(s) 0 0 62.8
Ba2+(aq) –537.64 –560.77 9.6
BaO(s) –553.5 –525.1 70.42
BaCO3(s) –1216.3 –1137.6 112.1
BaCO3(aq) –1214.78 –1088.59 –47.3
ˆÓyÓ˚l (Boron)
B(s) 0 0 5.86
B2O3(s) –1272.8 –1193.7 53.97
BF3(g) –1137.0 –1120.3 254.12
ˆÓ y!Ùl (Bromine)
Br2(l) 0 0 152.23
Br2(g) 30.91 3.11 245.46
Br(g) 111.88 82.40 175.02
Br–(aq) –121.55 –103.96 82.4
HBr(g) –36.40 –53.45 198.70
BrF3(g) –255.60 –229.43 292.53
ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ (Calcium)
Ca(s) 0 0 41.42
Ca(g) 178.2 144.3 154.88
Ca2+(aq) –542.83 –553.58 –53.1
(Ü ˛Ù¢)
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 245

˛õòyÌ≈ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ˛~lê˛∆!˛õ*

∆ fHθ / (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

ܲƒy°!§Î˚yÙ (Calcium) åÜ ˛Ù¢ä

CaO(s) –635.09 –604.03 39.75
Ca(OH)2(s) –986.09 –898.49 83.39
Ca(OH)2(aq) –1002.82 –868.07 –74.5
CaCO3(s), calcite –1206.92 –1128.8 92.9
CaCO3(s), aragonite –1207.1 –1127.8 88.7
CaCO3(aq) –1219.97 –1081.39 –110.0
CaF2(s) –1219.6 –1167.3 68.87
CaF2(aq) –1208.09 –1111.15 –80.8
CaCl2(s) –795.8 –748.1 104.6
CaCl2(aq) –877.1 –816.0 59.8
CaBr2(s) –682.8 –663.6 130
CaC2(s) –59.8 –64.9 69.96
CaS(s) –482.4 –477.4 56.5
CaSO4(s) –1434.11 –1321.79 106.7
CaSO4(aq) –1452.10 –1298.10 –33.1
ܲyÓ≈l (Carbon)**
C(s), graphite 0 0 5.740
C(s), diamond 1.895 2.900 2.377
C(g) 716.68 671.26 158.10
CO(g) –110.53 –137.17 197.67
CO2(g) –393.51 –394.36 213.74
CO2–
3 (aq) –677.14 –527.81 –56.9
CCl4(l) –135.44 –65.21 216.40
CS2(l) 89.70 65.27 151.34
HCN(g) 135.1 124.7 201.78
HCN(l) 108.87 124.97 112.84
!§!Ó˚Î˚yÙ (Cerium)
Ce(s) 0 0 72.0
Ce3+(aq) –696.2 –672.0 –205
Ce4+(aq) –537.2 –503.8 –301
ˆÜœ˛y!Ó˚l (Chlorine
Cl2(g) 0 0 223.07
Cl(g) 121.68 105.68 165.20
Cl–(aq) –167.16 –131.23 56.5
HCl(g) –92.31 –95.30 186.91
HCl(aq) –167.16 –131.23 56.5
ï˛yÙy (Copper)
Cu(s) 0 0 33.15
Cu+(aq) 71.67 49.98 40.6
Cu2+(aq) 64.77 65.49 –99.6
Cu2O(aq) –168.6 –146.0 93.14
CuO(s) –157.3 –129.7 42.63
CuSO4(s) –771.36 –661.8 109
CuSO4.5H2O(s)ƒƒƒƒ –2279.7 –1879.7 300.4

** ˜çÓ ˆÎÔˆÏàÓ˚ çˆÏlƒ ~ܲ!ê˛ ˛õ,Ìܲ §yÓ˚!î ˛õˆÏÓ˚ ˆòGÎ˚y xyˆÏSÈ– (Ü ˛Ù¢)
246
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

˛õòyÌ≈ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ˛~lê˛∆!˛õ*

∆ fHθ/ (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

!í˛í˛zˆÏê˛y!Ó˚Î˚yÙ (Deuterium) åÜ ˛Ù¢ä

D2(g) 0 0 144.96
D2O(g) –249.20 –234.54 198.34
D2O(l) –294.60 –243.44 75.94
ˆÊœ˛y!Ó˚l (Fluorine)
F2(g) 0 0 202.78
F–(aq) –332.63 –278.79 –13.8
HF(g) –271.1 –273.2 173.78
HF(aq) –332.63 –278.79 –13.8
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl (Hydrogen) (!í˛í˛zˆÏê˛y!Ó˚Î˚yÙ °«˛ ܲˆÏÓ˚y)
H2(g) 0 0 130.68
H(g) 217.97 203.25 114.71
H+(aq) 0 0 0
H2O(l) –285.83 –237.13 69.91
H2O(g) –241.82 –228.57 188.83
H2O2(l) –187.78 –120.35 109.6
H2O2(aq) –191.17 –134.03 143.9
xyˆÏÎ˚y!í˛l (Iodine)
I2(s) 0 0 116.14
I2(g) 62.44 19.33 260.69
I–(aq) –55.19 –51.57 111.3
HI(g) 26.48 1.70 206.59
ˆ°Ô• (Iron)
Fe(s) 0 0 27.28
Fe2+(aq) –89.1 –78.90 –137.7
Fe3+(aq) –48.5 –4.7 –315.9
Fe3O4(s), magnetite –1118.4 –1015.4 146.4
Fe2O3(s), haematite –824.2 –742.2 87.40
FeS(s,a) –100.0 –100.4 60.29
FeS(aq) — 6.9 —
FeS2(s) –178.2 –166.9 52.93
ˆ°í˛ (Lead)
Pb(s) 0 0 64.81
Pb2+(aq) –1.7 –24.43 10.5
PbO2(s) –277.4 –217.33 68.6
PbSO4(s) –919.94 –813.14 148.57
PbBr2(s) –278.7 –261.92 161.5
PbBr2(aq) –244.8 –232.34 175.3

ÙƒyàˆÏl!¢Î˚yÙ (Magnesium)
Mg(s) 0 0 32.68
Mg(g) 147.70 113.10 148.65
Mg2+(aq) –466.85 –454.8 –138.1
MgO(s) –601.70 –569.43 26.94
MgCO3(s) –1095.8 –1012.1 65.7
MgBr2(s) –524.3 –503.8 117.2

(Ü ˛Ù¢)
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 247

˛õòyÌ≈ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ˛~lê˛∆!˛õ*

∆ fHθ/ (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ /(J K–1 mol–1)

˛õyÓ˚ò (Mercury) åÜ ˛Ù¢ä

Hg(1) 0 0 76.02
Hg(g) 61.32 31.82 174.96
HgO(s) –90.83 –58.54 70.29
Hg2Cl2(s) –265.22 –210.75 192.5
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl (Nitrogen)
N2(g) 0 0 191.61
NO(g) 90.25 86.55 210.76
N2O(g) 82.05 104.20 219.85
NO2(g) 33.18 51.31 240.06
N2O4(g) 9.16 97.89 304.29
HNO3(1) –174.10 –80.71 155.60
HNO3(aq) –207.36 –111.25 146.4
NO–3 (aq) –205.0 –108.74 146.4
NH3(g) –46.11 –16.45 192.45
NH3(aq) –80.29 –26.50 111.3
NH+4 (aq) –132.51 –79.31 113.4
NH2OH(s) –114.2 — —
HN3(g) 294.1 328.1 238.97
N2H4(1) 50.63 149.34 121.21
NH4NO3(s) –365.56 –183.87 151.08
NH4Cl(s) –314.43 –202.87 94.6
NH4ClO4(s) –295.31 –88.75 186.2
x!:ˆÏçl (Oxygen)
O2(g) 0 0 205.14
O3(g) 142.7 163.2 238.93
OH–(aq) –229.99 –157.24 –10.75
Ê˛§Ê˛Ó˚y§ (Phosphorus)
P(s), white 0 0 41.09
P4(g) 58.91 24.44 279.98
PH3(g) 5.4 13.4 210.23
P4O10(s) –2984.0 –2697.0 228.86
H3PO3(aq) –964.8 — —
H3PO4(1) –1266.9 — —
H3PO4(aq) –1277.4 –1018.7 —
PCl3(1) –319.7 –272.3 217.18
PCl3(g) –287.0 –267.8 311.78
PCl5(g) –374.9 –305.0 364.6
˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ (Potassium)
K(s) 0 0 64.18
K(g) 89.24 60.59 160.34
K+(aq) –252.38 –283.27 102.5
KOH(s) –424.76 –379.08 78.9
KOH(aq) –482.37 –440.50 91.6
KF(s) –567.27 –537.75 66.57

(Ü ˛Ù¢)
248
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

˛õòyÌ≈ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ˛~lê˛∆!˛õ*

∆fHθ / (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

˛õê˛y!¢Î˚yÙ (Potassium) åÜ ˛Ù¢ä

KCl(s) –436.75 –409.14 82.59
KBr(s) –393.80 –380.66 95.90
KI(s) –327.90 –324.89 106.32
KClO3(s) –397.73 –296.25 143.1
KClO4(s) –432.75 –303.09 151.0
K2S(s) –380.7 –364.0 105
K2S(aq) –471.5 –480.7 190.4
!§!°Ü˛l (Silicon)
Si(s) 0 0 18.83
SiO2(s,a) –910.94 –856.64 41.84
!§°Ë˛yÓ˚ (Silver)
Ag(s) 0 0 42.55
Ag+(aq) 105.58 77.11 72.68
Ag2O(s) –31.05 –11.20 121.3
AgBr(s) –100.37 –96.90 107.1
AgBr(aq) –15.98 –26.86 155.2
AgCl(s) –127.07 –109.79 96.2
AgCl(aq) –61.58 –54.12 129.3
AgI(s) –61.84 –66.19 115.5
AgI(aq) 50.38 25.52 184.1
AgNO3(s) –124.39 –33.41 140.92
ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ (Sodium)
Na(s) 0 0 51.21
Na(g) 107.32 76.76 153.71
Na+(aq) –240.12 –261.91 59.0
NaOH(s) –425.61 –379.49 64.46
NaOH(aq) –470.11 –419.15 48.1
NaCl(s) –411.15 –384.14 72.13
NaCl(aq) –407.3 –393.1 115.5
NaBr(s) –361.06 –348.98 86.82
NaI(s) –287.78 –286.06 98.53
NaHCO3(s) –947.7 –851.9 102.1
Na2CO3(s) –1130.9 –1047.7 136.0
§y°Ê˛yÓ˚ (Sulphur)
S(s), rhombic 0 0 31.80
S(s), monoclinic 0.33 0.1 32.6
S2–(aq) 33.1 85.8 –14.6
SO2(g) –296.83 –300.19 248.22
SO3(g) –395.72 –371.06 256.76
H2SO4(l) –813.99 –690.00 156.90
H2SO4(aq) –909.27 –744.53 20.1
SO2–
4 (aq) –909.27 –744.53 20.1
H2S(g) –20.63 –33.56 205.79
H2S(aq) –39.7 –27.83 121
SF6(g) –1209 –1105.3 291.82
(Ü ˛Ù¢)
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 249

˛õòyÌ≈ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ˛~lê˛∆!˛õ*

∆fHθ / (kJ mol–1) ∆fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

˛!ê˛l (Tin) åÜ ˛Ù¢ä

Sn(s), white 0 0 51.55
Sn(s), gray –2.09 0.13 44.14
SnO(s) –285.8 –256.9 56.5
SnO2(s) –580.7 –519.6 52.3

˛!çAܲ (Zinc)
Zn(s) 0 0 41.63
Zn2+(aq) –153.89 –147.06 –112.1
ZnO(s) –348.28 –318.30 43.64
Zn(g) +130.73 +95.14 160.93

* ˛çˆÏ° H+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õˆÏܲ 0ÈüÈ!•§yˆÏÓ !lô≈y!Ó˚ï˛ Ü˛ˆÏÓ˚ ~•z ÙyˆÏlÓ˚ §yˆÏ˛õˆÏ«˛ oÓˆÏî xlƒylƒ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ àîly ܲÓ˚y •Î˚ñ ï˛y•z }îydܲ ~lê˛∆!˛õ
Ó°ˆÏï˛ çˆÏ° H+ xyÎ˚ˆÏlÓ˚ ~lê˛∆!˛õ xˆÏ˛õ«˛y Ü˛Ù ~lê˛∆!˛õˆÏܲ ˆÓyV˛yÎ˚–

˜çÓ ˆÎÔà§Ù)• (ORGANIC COMPOUNDS)

˛õòyÌ≈ ò•l ~°Ìƒy°!˛õ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ

∆ cHθ/ (kJ mol–1) ∆ fHθ/ (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ / (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

•y•zˆÏí»˛yܲyÓ≈l (Hydrocarbons)
CH4(g), !ÙˆÏÌl –890 –74.81 –50.72 186.26
C2H2(g), •zÌy•zl åxƒy!Ù!ê˛!°lä –1300 226.73 209.20 200.94
C2H4(g), •z!Ìl å•z!Ì!°lä –1411 52.26 68.15 219.56
C2H6(g), •zˆÏÌl –1560 –84.68 –32.82 229.60
C3H6(g), ˆ≤Ãy!˛õl åˆ≤Ãy!˛õ!°lä –2058 20.42 62.78 266.6
C3H6(g), §y•zˆÏÜœ˛yˆÏ≤ÃyˆÏ˛õl –2091 53.30 104.45 237.4
C3H8(g), ˆ≤ÃyˆÏ˛õl –2220 –103.85 –23.49 270.2
C4H10(g), !Óí˛zˆÏê˛l –2878 –126.15 –17.03 310.1
C5H12(g), ˆ˛õˆÏrê˛l –3537 –146.44 –8.20 349
C6H6(l), ˆÓ!Ol –3268 49.0 124.3 173.3
C6H6(g) –3302 — — —
C7H8(l), ê˛°%•zl –3910 12.0 113.8 221.0
C7H8(g) –3953 — — —
C6H12(l), §y•zˆÏÜœ˛yˆÏ•ˆÏ:l –3920 –156.4 26.7 204.4
C6H12(g), –3953 — — —
C8H18(l), xˆÏQl –5471 –249.9 6.4 358
xƒy°ˆÏܲy•° ~ÓÇ ˆÊ˛l° (Alcohols and phenols)
CH3OH(l), !ÙÌyl° –726 –238.86 –166.27 126.8
CH3OH(g) –764 –200.66 –161.96 239.81
C2H5OH(l), •zÌyl° –1368 –277.69 –174.78 160.7
C2H5OH(g) –1409 –235.10 –168.49 282.70
C6H5OH(s), ˆÊ˛l° –3054 –164.6 –50.42 144.0

(Ü ˛Ù¢)
250
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

˛õòyÌ≈ ò•l ~°Ìƒy°!˛õ àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õ !àÓ§‰ àë˛l ¢!=˛ ~lê˛∆!˛õ

∆cHθ / (kJ mol–1) ∆ fHθ/ (kJ mol–1) ∆ fGθ/ (kJ mol–1) Sθ/(J K–1 mol–1)

ܲyÓ≈!:!°Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ (Carboxylic acid)

HCOOH(l), ˛Ê˛Ó˚!Ùܲ xƒy!§í˛ –255 –424.72 –361.35 128.95
CH3COOH(l), ˛xƒy!§!ê˛Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ –875 –484.5 –389.9 159.8
CH3COOH (aq) — –485.76 –396.64 86.6
(COOH)2(s), ˛x:y!°Ü˛ xƒy!§í˛ –254 –827.2 –697.9 120
C6H5COOH(s), ˆÓˆÏOy•zܲ xƒy!§í˛ –3227 –385.1 –245.3 167.6
xƒy°!í˛•y•zí˛ (Aldehydes and ketones)
HCHO(g), ˛!ÙÌyly° åÊ˛Ó˚ÏÙy°!í˛•y•zí˛ä –571 –108.57 –102.53 218.77
CH3CHO(l), ˛•zÌylƒy° xƒy!§ê˛ƒy°!í˛•y•zí˛ –1166 –192.30 –128.12 160.2
CH3CHO(g) –1192 –166.19 –128.86 250.3
CH3COCH3(l), ˛ˆ≤Ãy˛õyˆÏ˛lyl åxƒy!§ˆÏê˛ylä –1790 –248.1 –155.4 200
¢Ü≈˛Ó˚y (Sugars)
C6H12O6(s), @’%ˆÏܲyç –2808 –1268 –910 212
C6H12O6(aq) — — –917 —
C6H12O6(s), Ê %˛ˆÏܲyç –2810 –1266 — —
C12H22O11(s), §%ˆÏÜ ˛yç –5645 –2222 –1545 360
ly•zˆÏê˛∆yˆÏçl â!ê˛ï˛ ˆÎÔà (Nitrogen compounds)
CO(NH2)2(s), •zí˛z!Ó˚Î˚y –632 –333.51 –197.33 104.60
C6H5NH2(l), xƒy!l!°l –3393 31.6 149.1 191.3
NH2CH2COOH(s), @’y•z!§l –969 –532.9 –373.4 103.51
CH3NH2(g), !ÙÌy•z° xƒy!Ùl –1085 –22.97 32.16 243.41
õ!Ó˚!¢T˛ 251

í˛z˛õyAà VII

298 K í˛z£÷Ïï˛yÎ˚ ï˛!í˛¸Í Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yÓ˚ Ü ˛Ùyl%ÎyÎ˚# ≤ÃÙyî !Ó˲Ó

˛!ÓçyÓ˚î xô≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Eθ/V ˛!ÓçyÓ˚î xô≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Eθ/V

H4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e– → XeO3 + 3H2O +3.0 Cu+ + e– → Cu +0.52

F2 + 2e– → 2F– +2.87 NiOOH + H2O + e– →Ni(OH)2 + OH– +0.49
O3 + 2H+ + 2e– → O2 + H2O +2.07 Ag2CrO4 + 2e– → 2Ag + CrO42– +0.45
2–
S2O8 + 2e– → 2SO4
2–
+2.05 O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH– +0.40
Ag+ + e– → Ag+ +1.98 ClO–4 + H2O + 2e– → ClO–3 + 2OH– +0.36
[Fe(CN)6]3– + e– → [Fe(CN)6]4– +0.36
Co3+ + e– → Co2+ +1.81
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu +0.34
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– → 2H2O +1.78
Hg2Cl2 + 2e– → 2Hg + 2Cl– +0.27
Au+ + e– → Au +1.69
AgCl + e– → Ag + Cl– +0.27
Pb4+ + 2e– → Pb2+ +1.67
Bi3+ + 3e– → Bi +0.20
2HClO + 2H+ + 2e– → Cl2 + 2H2O +1.63 –
SO24 + 4H+ + 2e– → H2SO3 + H2O +0.17
Ce4+ + e– → Ce3+ +1.61
Cu + e– → Cu+
2+
+0.16
2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e– → Br2 + 2H2O +1.60 Sn4+ + 2e– →Sn2+ +0.15
–
MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O +1.51 AgBr + e– → Ag + Br– +0.07
Mn3+ + e– → Mn2+ +1.51 Ti4+ + e– → Ti3+ 0.00
Au3+ + 3e– → Au +1.40 2H+ + 2e– → H2 0.0 §ÇK˛y
Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl– +1.36 xl%§yˆÏÓ˚
2–
Cr2O7 + 14H+ + 6e– → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.33 Fe3+ + 3e– → Fe –0.04
O3 + H2O + 2e– → O2 + 2OH– +1.24 O2 + H2O + 2e– → HO–2 + OH– –0.08
O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O +1.23 Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb –0.13
ClO–4 + 2H+ +2e– → ClO–3 + 2H2O +1.23 In+ + e– → In –0.14
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e– → Mn2+ + 2H2O +1.23 Sn2+ + 2e– → Sn –0.14
Pt2+ + 2e– → Pt +1.20 AgI + e– → Ag + I– –0.15
Br2 + 2e– → 2Br– +1.09 Ni2+ + 2e– → Ni –0.23
Pu4+ + e– → Pu3+ +0.97 V3+ + e– → V2+ –0.26
NO–3 + 4H+ + 3e– → NO + 2H2O +0.96 Co2+ + 2e– → Co –0.28
2Hg2+ + 2e– → Hg 22+ +0.92 In3+ + 3e– → In –0.34
Tl+ + e– → Tl –0.34
ClO– + H2O + 2e– → Cl– + 2OH– +0.89
PbSO4 + 2e– → Pb + SO2– –0.36
Hg2+ + 2e– → Hg +0.86 4
Ti3+ + e– → Ti2+ –0.37
NO–3 + 2H+ + e– → NO2 + H2O +0.80
Cd2+ + 2e– → Cd –0.40
Ag+ + e– → Ag +0.80
In2+ + e– → In+ –0.40
Hg22++2e– → 2Hg +0.79
Cr3+ + e– → Cr2+ –0.41
Fe3+ + e– → Fe2+ +0.77
Fe2+ + 2e– → Fe –0.44
BrO– + H2O + 2e– → Br– + 2OH– +0.76 In3+ + 2e– → In+ –0.44
Hg2SO4 +2e– → 2Hg + SO42– +0.62 S + 2e– → S2– –0.48
MnO42– + 2H2O + 2e– → MnO2 + 4OH– +0.60 In3+ + e– → In2+ –0.49
MnO–4 + e– → MnO42– +0.56 U4+ + e– → U3+ –0.61
I2 + 2e– → 2I– +0.54 Cr3+ + 3e– → Cr –0.74
–
I3 + 2e– → 3I +0.53 Zn2+ + 2e– → Zn –0.76
(Ü ˛Ù¢)
252
Ó˚§yÎ˚l

˛!ÓçyÓ˚î xô≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Eθ/V !ÓçyÓ˚î xô≈ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y Eθ/V

Cd(OH)2 + 2e– → Cd + 2OH– –0.81 La3+ + 3e– → La –2.52

2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH– –0.83 Na+ + e– → Na –2.71
Cr2+ + 2e– → Cr –0.91 Ca2+ + 2e– → Ca –2.87
Mn2+ + 2e– → Mn –1.18 Sr2+ + 2e– → Sr –2.89
V2+ + 2e– → V –1.19 Ba2+ + 2e– → Ba –2.91
Ti2+ + 2e– → Ti –1.63 Ra2+ + 2e– → Ra –2.92
Al3+ + 3e– → Al –1.66 Cs+ + e– → Cs –2.92
U3+ + 3e– → U –1.79 Rb+ + e– → Rb –2.93
Sc3+ + 3e– → Sc –2.09 K+ +e– → K –2.93
Mg2+ + 2e– → Mg –2.36 Li+ + e– → Li –3.05
Ce3+ + 3e– → Ce –2.48
˛í˛z_Ó˚Ùy°y 253

!ܲS%È !l!ò≈T˛ §Ù§ƒyà%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ í˛z_Ó˚§Ù)•

UNIT 1
1.17 ~ 15 × 10–4 g , 1.25 × 10–4 m
–3 5 3 2
1.18 (i) 4.8 × 10 (ii) 2.34 × 10 (iii) 8.008 × 10 (iv) 5.000 × 10
(v) 6.0012
1.19 (i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (iv) 3
(v) 4 (vi) 5
1.20 (i) 34.2 (ii) 10.4 (iii) 0.0460 (iv) 2810
1.21 (a) à%îyl%˛õyï˛ §)e (b) 6
(i) (10 mm, 10 pm) 15

–6 6
(ii) (10 kg, 10 ng)
(iii) (10–3 L, 10–3 dm3)
–1
1.22 6.00 × 10 m =0.600 m
1.23 (i) B !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ (ii) A !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ
(iii) fiê˛Î˚!§GˆÏÙ!ê˛∆ܲ oÓîÈüÈly (iv) B !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ
(v) A !°!Ù!ê˛Ç !ÓܲyÓ˚ܲ
1.24 (i) 2.43 × 10 g
3
(ii) •Ñƒy
•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl x!ÓÜ,˛ï˛ ÌyܲˆÏÓó 5.72 × 10 g
(iii) 2

1.26 ò¢ xyÎ˚ï˛l
1.27 (i) 2.87 × 10–11m (ii) 1.515 × 10–11 m (iii) 2.5365 × 10–2kg
–23
1.30 1.99265 × 10 g
1.31 (i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 4
–1
1.32 39.948 g mol
1.33 (i) 3.131 × 1025 !ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% (ii) 13 !ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% (iii) 7.8286 × 1024 !ê˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
1.34 fiÌ)° §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ CH, xylÓ Ë˛Ó˚ 26.0 g mol–1, xyl!Óܲ §ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ C2H2
1.35 0.94 g CaCO3
1.36 8.40 g HCl

UNIT 2
2.1 (i) 1.099 × 1027 !ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l (ii) 5.48 × 10–7 kg, 9.65 × 104C
2.2 (i) 6.022 × 1024 !ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l
(ii) (a) 2.4088 × 1021 !ê˛ !lí˛zê˛∆l (b) 4.0347 × 10–6 kg
(iii) (a) 1.2044 × 1022 !ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l (b) 2.015 × 10–5 kg
2.3 7,6: 8,8: 12,12: 30,26: 50, 38
254 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

2.4 (i) Cl (ii) U (iii) Be

2.5 5.17 × 1014 s–1, 1.72 × 106m–1
2.6 (i) 1.988 × 10–18 J (ii) 3.98 × 10–15 J
2.7 6.0 × 10–2 m, 5.0 × 109 s–1 ~ÓÇ 16.66 m–1
2.8 2.012 × 1016 !ê˛ ˆÊ˛yê˛l
2.9 (i) 4.97 × 10–19 J (3.10 eV); (ii) 0.97 eV (iii) 5.84 × 105 m s–1
2.10 494 kJ mol–1
2.11 7.18 × 1019s–1
2.12 4.41 × 1014s–1, 2.91 × 10–19J
2.13 486 nm
2.14 8.72 × 10–20J
2.15 15 !ê˛
2.16 (i) 8.72 × 10–20J (ii) 1.3225 nm
2.17 1.523 × 106 m–1
2.18 2.08 × 10–11 ergs, 950 Å
2.19 3647Å
2.20 3.55 × 10–11m
2.21 8967Å
2.22 Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+; Ar, S2– ~ÓÇ K+
2.23 (i) (a) 1s2 (b) 1s2 2s2 2p6; (c) 1s22s22p6 (d) 1s22s22p6
2.24 n=5
2.25 n = 3; l = 2; ml = –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 åˆÎ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ Ùylä
2.26 (i) 29 !ê˛ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l
2.27 1, 2, 15
2.28 (i) l ml
0 0
1 –1,0,+1
2 –2,–1,0,+1,+2
(ii) l = 2; m1=–2, –1,0,+1,+2
(iii) 2s, 2p
2.29 (a) 1s, (b) 3p, (c) 4d ~ÓÇ (d) 4f
2.30 (a), (c) ~ÓÇ (e) §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚–
2.31 (a) 16 !ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l (b) 2 !ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
2.33 n = 2 to n = 1
2.34 8.72 × 10–18J ≤Ã!ï˛ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%
2.35 1.33 × 109
2.36 0.06 nm
2.37 (a) 1.3 × 102 pm (b) 6.15 × 107 pm
2.38 1560
2.39 8
2.40 x!ôܲ §ÇáƒÜ˛ Èα üüܲîy •y°Ü˛y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ ˛õyï˛°y ˛õyï˛ˆÏܲ ˆË˛ò ܲˆÏÓ˚ ã˛ˆÏ° ÎyÎ˚ Ê˛ˆÏ° á%Ó Ü˛Ù §ÇáƒÜ˛ α üüܲîy !Ó!«˛Æ •Î˚–
˛í˛z_Ó˚Ùy°y 255

2.41 xy•zˆÏ§yˆÏê˛yˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆ«˛ˆÏeñ ˆÜ˛yl ~ܲ!ê˛ !l!ò≈T˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ≤Ãyê˛l ~ܲ•z •Î˚ !ܲv ≤Ãò_ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ §ÇáƒyÓ˚ çlƒ ˲Ó˚§Çáƒy
!˲ߨ !˲ߨ •Î˚–
81
2.42 35Br
2.43 37
17 Cl −1
2.44 56
26 Fe 3 +
2.45 ܲ§!Ùܲ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ > X–Ó˚!Ÿ¬ > xƒy¡∫yÓ˚ Ó˚Ç > Ùy•zˆÏÜ ˛yGˆÏÎ˚˲ > FM ˆÓ˚!í˛G
2.46 3.3 × 106 J
2.47 (a) 4.87 × 1014 s–1 (b) 9.0 × 109 m (c) 32.27 × 10–20 J
(d) 6.2 × 1018 ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛y
2.48 10
2.49 8.28 × 10–10 J
2.50 3.45 × 10–22 J
2.51 (a) §)ã˛ly ï˛Ó˚Aà ˜òâ≈ƒ (b) §)ã˛ly ܲ¡õyAܲ
652.46 nm 4.598 ×1014 s–1
(c) !là≈ï˛ Ê˛ˆÏë˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛¢!=˛ 9.29 ×10–20 J, Ê˛ˆÏê˛y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ à!ï˛ˆÏÓà 4.516 × 105 ms–1
2.52 530.9 nm
2.53 4.3 eV
2.54 7.6 × 103 eV
2.55 xӈϰ!•ï˛ Óî≈y°#ñ 5
2.56 433 pm
2.57 455 pm
2.58 494.5 ms–1
2.59 332 pm
2.60 1.51 × 10–27 m
2.61 ≤ÃÜ,˛ï˛ Ùyl!ê˛ x!lŸã˛Î˚ï˛y Ùyl ˆÌˆÏܲ Ü˛Ù ÓˆÏ° !lî≈Î˚ ܲÓ˚y §Ω˛Ó lÎ˚–
2.62 (v) < (ii) = (iv) < (vi) = (iii) < (i)
2.63 4p
2.64 (i) 2s (ii) 4d (iii) 3p
2.65 Si
2.66 (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 6
(d) 4 (e) ¢)îƒ
2.67 16
UNIT 5
5.1 2.5 bar
5.2 0.8 bar
5.4 70 g mol−1
5.5 MB = 4MA
5.6 202.5 mL
5.7 8.314 × 104 Pa
5.8 1.8 bar
5.9 3g dm−3
256 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

5.10 1294.8 g mol–1

5.11 3/5
5.12 50 K
5.13 4.2154 × 1023 !ê˛ •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l
5.14 1.90956 × 106 ÓSÈÓ˚
5.15 56.025 bar
5.16 3811.1 kg
5.17 5.05 L
5.18 40 g mol–1
5.19 0.8 bar

UNIT 6
6.1 (ii)
6.2 (iii)
6.3 (ii)
6.4 (iii)
6.5 (i)
6.6 (iv)
6.7 q = + 701 J
w = – 394 J, ˆÎˆÏ•ï%˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ù ܲï,≈˛Ü˛ Ü,˛ï˛Ü˛yÎ≈ §¡õߨ •ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏSÈ–
∆U = 307 J
6.8 –743.939 kJ
6.9 1.067 kJ
6.10 ∆H = –7.151 kJ mol–1
6.11 – 314.8 kJ
6.12 ∆rH = –778 kJ
6.13 – 46.2 kJ mol–1
6.14 – 239 kJ mol–1
6.15 326 kJ mol–1
6.16 ∆S > 0
6.17 2000 K
6.18 ∆H }îydܲ åÓrôl ¢!=˛ !là≈ï˛ •Î˚ä ~ÓÇ ∆S }îydܲ åxî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ !Ó¢,C°ï˛y ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%à%ˆÏ°yÓ˚ ï%˛°lyÎ˚ ܲÙä
6.19 0.164 kJ, !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ fl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ lÎ˚–
6.20 –5.744 kJ mol–1
6.21 NO(g) xfiÌyÎ˚#ñ !ܲv NO2(g) í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
6.22 qsurr = + 286 kJ mol–1
∆Ssurr = 959.73 J K–1

UNIT 7

7.2 12.229 molL–1

7.3 2.67 x 104
˛í˛z_Ó˚Ùy°y 257

7.5 (i) 4.4 × 10–4 (ii) 1.90

7.6 1.59 × 10–15
7.8 [N2] = 0.0482 molL–1,
[O2] = 0.0933 molL–1,
[N2O] = 6.6 × 10–21 molL–1
7.9 0.0352 mol NO ~ÓÇ 0.0178mol Br2
7.10 7.47 × 1011 M–1
7.11 4.0
7.12 Qc = 2.379 × 103 lyñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆl•z–
7.14 0.44
7.15 H2 ~ÓÇ I2 ≤ÈÏï˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚ àyì˛¸c 0.068 molL–1
7.16 [I2] = [Cl2] = 0.167 ˆÙy°yÓ˚ñ [ICl] = 0.446 ˆÙy°yÓ˚
7.17 [C2H6]eq = 3.62 atm
7.18 (i) [CH3COOC2H5][H2O] / [CH3COOH][C2H5OH]
(ii) 3.92 (iii) Qc ~Ó˚ Ùyl Kc ˆÌˆÏܲ ܲÙñ §%ï˛Ó˚yÇ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÎ˚ ˆ˛õÔÑSÈyˆÏÓ ly–
7.19 í˛z˲ˆÏÎ˚Ó˚•z 0.02molL–1
7.20 [PCO] = 1.739atm, [PCO2] = 0.461atm.
7.21 lyñ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y!ê˛ §¡ø%áÙ%á# •ˆÏÓ ~ÓÇ x!ôܲ !Ó!Ü ˛Î˚yçyï˛ ˛õòyÌ≈ í˛zͲõߨ •Î˚–
7.22 3 × 10–4 molL–1
7.23 0.149
7.24 a) – 35.0kJ, b) 1.365 × 106
7.27 [PH ]eq = [PBr ]eq = 2.5 × 10–2bar, [PHBr] = 10.0 bar
2 2

7.30 b) 120.48
7.31 [H2]eq = 0.96 bar
7.33 2.86 × 10–28 M
7.34 5.85x10–2
7.35 NO2–, HCN, ClO−4, HF, H2O, HCO3–, HS–
7.36 BF3, H+, NH4+
7.37 F–, HSO4–, CO32–
7.38 NH3, NH4+, HCOOH
7.41 2.42
7.42 1.7 x 10–4M
–
7.43 F = 1.5 x 10–11, HCOO– = 5.6 × 10–11, CN–= 2.08 x 10–6
7.44 [ˆÊ˛ˆÏlyˆÏ°ê‰˛ xyÎ˚l]= 2.2 × 10–6, α = 4.47 × 10–5 , ˆ§y!í˛Î˚yÙ ˆÊ˛ˆÏly!°ˆÏê˛Ó˚ α = 10–8
[HS ]= 9.54 x 10–5, 0.1M HCl oÓˆÏî [HS–] = 9.1 × 10–8M, [S2–] = 1.2 × 10–13M, 0.1 M HCl oÓˆÏîÓ˚ ÙˆÏôƒ
–
7.45
[S2–]= 1.09 × 10–19M
7.46 [xƒy!§ˆÏê˛ê˛–]= 0.00093, pH= 3.03
7.47 [xƒylyÎ˚l–] = 7.08 x10–5M, Ka= 5.08 × 10–7, pKa= 6.29
7.48 a) 2.52 b) 11.70 c) 2.70 d) 11.30
7.49 a) 11.65 b) 12.21 c) 12.57 c) 1.87
7.50 pH = 1.88, pKa = 2.70
7.51 Kb = 1.6 × 10–6, pKb = 5.8
258 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

7.52 α = 6.53 × 10–4, Ka = 2.34 × 10–5

7.53 a) 0.0018 b) 0.00018
7.54 α = 0.0054
7.55 a) 1.48 × 10–7M, b) 0.063 c) 4.17 × 10–8M d) 3.98 × 10–7
–7 –5 –5
7.56 a) 1.5 × 10 M, b) 10 M, c) 6.31 × 10 M d) 6.31 × 10–3M
7.57 [K+] = [OH–] = 0.05M, [H+] = 2.0 × 10–13M
7.58 [Sr2+] = 0.1581M, [OH–] = 0.3162M , pH = 13.50
7.59 α = 1.63 × 10–2, pH = 3.09, 0.01 M HCl ~Ó˚ í˛z˛õ!fiÌ!ï˛ˆÏï˛ α = 1.32 × 10–3
7.60 Ka = 2.09 × 10–4 ~ÓÇ xyˆÏÎ˚yly•zˆÏç¢l Ùyey = 0.0457
7.61 pH = 7.97. xyo≈ !ӈϟ’£Ïî Ùyey = 2.36 × 10–5
7.62 Kb = 1.5 × 10–9
7.63 NaCl, KBr ~Ó˚ oÓî ≤âÙñ NaCN, NaNO2 ~ÓÇ KF ~Ó˚ oÓî «˛yÓ˚#Î˚ ~ÓÇ NH4NO3 ~Ó˚ oÓî xy!¡‘ܲ
7.64 (a) xƒy!§í˛ oÓˆÏî pH= 1.94 (b) °ÓˆÏîÓ˚ ç°#Î˚ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ pH= 2.87
7.65 pH = 6.78
7.66 a) 12.2 b) 7.00 c) 1.3
7.67 !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ ˛yˆÏÙˆÏê˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y (S)= 0.65 × 10–4M; Ag+ ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ = 1.30 x 10–4M CrO42– ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛
0.65 × 10–4M ˆÓ!Ó˚Î˚yÙ ˆÜ ˛yˆÏÙˆÏê˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y (S) = 1.1 × 10–5 ~ÓÇ Ba2+ ≤ÈÏï˛ƒˆÏܲÓ˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ •° 1.1 × 10–5M–
ˆÊ˛!Ó˚ܲ •y•zˆÏí»˛y:y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y (S) = 1.39 × 10–10M.
Fe3+ ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ = 1.39 × 10–10M
[OH–] ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ = 4.17 × 10–10M
ˆ°í˛ˆÏÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y (S) = 1.59 × 10–2M
Pb2+ ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ = 1.59 × 10–2M
Cl– ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ = 3.18 × 10–2M
ÙyÓ˚!ܲí˛zÓ˚y§ xyˆÏÎ˚yí˛y•zˆÏí˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y (S) = 2.24 × 10–10M;
Hg22+ ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ S = 2.24 × 10–10M ~ÓÇ I ~Ó˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ = 4.48 × 10–10M
–

7.68 !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ ˛yˆÏÙyˆÏê˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y x!ôܲ ~ÓÇ ï˛yˆÏòÓ˚ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛Ó˚ xl%˛õyï˛ •° = 91.9
7.69 xôıˆ«˛˛õl •ˆÏÓ ly–
7.70 !l¡¨ï˛Ó˚ pH ~ !§°Ë˛yÓ˚ ˆÓlˆÏçyˆÏÎ˚ˆÏê˛Ó˚ oyÓƒï˛y 3.317 à%î ˆÓ¢#–
7.71 oÓî!ê˛Ó˚ §ˆÏÓ≈yFã˛ ˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ •° 2.5 × 10–9M
7.72 2.43 L ç°
7.73 ܲƒyí˛!ÙÎ˚yÙ ˆÜœ˛yÓ˚y•zí˛ oÓˆÏîÓ˚ xôıˆ«˛˛õl •ˆÏÓ–
INDEX 259

INDEX

A Combined gas law åàƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §ÇˆÏÎyà §)eä 145

Absolute zero å˛õÓ˚Ù¢)lƒä 143 Common ion effect å§ÙxyÎ˚l ≤Ã˲yÓä 224, 230
Accuracy åÎÌyÌ≈ï˛yä 13 Compound åˆÎÔàä 5,6
Actinide series å˛~!Qly•zí˛ ˆ◊!îä 83 Conjugate acid –base pair åxl%Órô# xƒy!§í˛ «˛yÓ˚ܲ Î%à°ä 215
Adiabatic åÓ˚%Âôï˛y˛õ#Î˚ä 162 Continuous spectrum å!lÓ˚!Ó!FSÈߨ Óî≈y°#ä 44
Alpha (α) particle scattering experiment åxy°Ê˛y ܲîy !ÓFS%ÈÓî˚ ˛õÓ#̊«˛yä 34 Covalent bond å§ÙˆÏÎyç# Órôlä 102
Anion åxƒylyÎ˚lä 88 Covalent radius å§ÙˆÏÎyç# Óƒy§yô≈ä 87
Aqueous tension åç°#Î˚ ê˛ylä 146 Critical pressure å§ÇÜ˛ê˛ ã˛y˛õä 152
Arrhenius acids and bases åxyÓ˚ˆÏ•!lÎ˚yˆÏ§Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲä 214 Critical temperature å§ÇÜ˛ê˛ í˛z£÷Ïï˛yä 152
Atom å˛õÓ˚Ùyî%ä 3,5,15 Critical volume å§ÇÜ˛ê˛ xyÎ˚ï˛lä 152
Atomic mass å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ä 17 Closed system åÓÂô !§ˆÏfiê˛Ùä 161
Atomic mass unit å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ ~ܲܲä 16
Atomic models å˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛° §Ù)•ä 32 D
Atomic number å˛õÓ˚Ùyî% Ü ˛ÙyAܲä 35 Dalton’s Atomic theory åí˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Óyòä 16, 29
Atomic orbitals å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ä 54 Dalton’s law of partial pressure åí˛y°ê˛ˆÏlÓ˚ xÇ¢ã˛y˛õ §)eä 146
Atomic radius å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óƒy§yô≈ä 86,87 Density åâlcä 09
Atomic spectra å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ Óî≈y°#ä 44 Deuterium å!í˛í˛zˆÏê˛!Ó˚Î˚yÙä 35
Aufbau principle åxyí˛zÊ˛Óyí˛z l#!ï˛ä 61 Deviation from ideal gas behaviour åxyò¢≈ àƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ xyã˛Ó˚î ˆÌˆÏܲ !Óã%˛ƒ!ï˛ä 150
Average atomic mass åàí˛¸ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ä 17 Diagonal relationship åˆÜ˛Ô!îܲ §¡õÜ≈˛ä 94
Avogadro constant åxƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y ô %Óܲä 18 Diatomic molecules å!m˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xî%ä 15
Avogadro Law åxƒyˆÏ˲yàyˆÏí»˛y §)eä 15, 141 Dimensional analysis åÙyey !ӈϟ’£Ïîä 13
Azimuthal quantum number å!òàÇ¢#Î˚ Óy ˆàÔî ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyä 55 Dipole moment å!mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüȺyÙܲä 11
Dipole-dipole force å!mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈ!mˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó°ä 138
B Dipole induced dipole forces å!mˆÏÙÓ˚%ÈüÈxyˆÏÓ!¢ï˛ !mˆÏÙÓ˚% Ó°ä 138
Balmer series åÓyÙyÓ˚ ˆ◊!îä 45 Dispersion force å!í˛§˛õyÓ˚¢yl Ó°ä 138
Base physical quantities åÙ)° ˆË˛Ôï˛ Ó˚y!¢ §Ù)•ä 7,8 Dual behaviour of matter å˛õòyˆÏÌ≈Ó˚ ˜mï˛ xyã˛Ó˚îä 49
Bohr Model of atom åˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛°ä 46 Dynamic equilibrium åà!ï˛¢#° §yÙƒyÓfiÌyä 192,196
Bohr radius åˆÓyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ Óƒy§yô≈ä 47
Bond angle åÓrôl ˆÜ˛yîä 108 E
Bond dissociation enthalpy åÓrôl !Ó˲yçl ~l̃y°!˛õä 177 Effective nuclear charge åܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# !lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚yÓ˚ xyôylä 60
Bond enthalpy åÓrôl ~l̃y°!˛õä 108,118, 177 Electron å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lä 30
Bond length åÓrôl ˜òâ≈ƒä 107,129 Element åˆÙÔ°ä 05
Bond order åÓrôl Ü ˛Ùä 109, 129 Electronegativity åx˛õÓ˚y ï˛!í˛¸Í ôÙ≈#ï˛yä Óy ï˛!í˛¸Í }îydܲï˛y 91
Born-Haber cycle åÓî≈ÈüȈ•ÓyÓ˚ ã˛Ü ˛ä 179 Electron gain enthalpy å•zˆ° Ï Ü˛ê˛∆l xy§!=˛ Óy •zˆ°Ï ܲê˛∆l @˝Ã•î ~l̃y°!˛õä 90,10
Boundary surface diagrams å§#Ùyly ˛õ,¤˛!ã˛eä 58 Electromagnetic radiations åï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ !Ó!ܲÓ˚îä 37
Boyle’s law åÓˆÏÎ˚ˆÏ°Ó˚ §)eä 140 Electromagnetic spectrum åï˛!í˛¸Í ã%˛¡∫ܲ#Î˚ Óî≈y°#ä 38
Boyle point åÓˆÏÎ˚° !Ó®%ä 152 Electronic configuration å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆l !Ólƒy§ä 63,82
Boyle temperature åÓˆÏÎ˚° í˛z£÷Ïï˛yä 52 Elements d-block ådÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°ä 85
Bronsted –Lowry acids and bases åÓ lˆÏfiê˛í˛ °yí˛z!Ó˚ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲä 214 Elements p-block åpÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°ä 85
Buffer solution åÓyÊ˛yÓ˚ oÓîä 226 Elements f –block åfÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°ä 85
Elements s-block åsÈüÈÓœÜ˛ ˆÙÔ°ä 83
C Empirical formula åfiÌ)° §ÇˆÏܲï˛ä 19
Canal rays åܲƒyly° Ó˚!Ÿ¬ä 32 Emission spectrum å!là≈Ùl Óî≈y°#ä 44
Cathode rays åܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ä 30 Enthalpy å~l̃y°!˛õä 167
Cathode ray tube åܲƒyˆÏÌyí˛ Ó˚!Ÿ¬ l°ä 30 Enthalpy change during phase transformation åò¢y ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛l ç!îï˛ ~l̃y°!˛õÓ˚ ˛õ!Ó˚Óï≈˛lä 171
Cation åܲƒyê˛yÎ˚lä 88 Enthalpy of atomization å˛õÓ˚Ùyî% àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õä 177
Charles’ law åã˛y°ˆÏ§≈Ó˚ §)eä 142 Enthalpy of combustion åò•l ~l̃y°!˛õä 176
Chalcogens åã˛y°ˆÏܲyˆÏçlä 85 Enthalpy of solution åoÓî ~l̃y°!˛õä 180
Chemical equilibrium åÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyä 193 Entropy å~lê˛∆!˛õä 182
Chemical properties åÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ ôÙ≈ä 06 Equation of state åxÓfiÌy §Ù#ܲÓ˚îä 145
Chemical reactivity åÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §!Ü ˛Î˚ï˛yä 95 Equilibrium constant å§yÙƒ ô %Óܲä 201
260 Ó˚§yÎ˚l

Equilibrium equation å§yÙƒ §Ù#ܲÓ˚î˛ä 199 L

Equilibrium mixture å§yÙƒ !Ù◊îä 192 Lanthanoid series å°ƒyrÌylˆÏÎ˚í˛ ˆ◊!îä 82
Equilibrium vapour pressure å§yÙƒyÓƒfiÌy Óy‹õã˛y˛õä 154 Lattice enthalpy åçy°Ü˛ ~l̃y°!˛õä 107, 179
Exchange energy å!Ó!lÙÎ˚ ¢!=˛ä 65 Law of chemical equilibrium åÓ˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §yÙƒÓfiÌyÓ˚ §)eä 198
Excited state of atom å˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ í˛zˆÏ_!çï˛ xÓfiÌyä 59 Law of conservation of mass å˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ !lï˛ƒï˛y §)eä 14
Extensive property å˛õ!Ó˚Ùyîàï˛ Óy ˲Ó˚ §yˆÏ˛õ«˛ ôÙ≈ä 168 Law of definite proportion å!fiÌÓ˚ xl%˛õyï˛ §)eä 15
Law of multiple proportions åà%îyl%˛õyï˛ §)eä 15
F Law of Octaves åxT˛Ü˛ §)eä 75
Fajan’s rule åÊ˛yçyˆÏlÓ˚ !lÎ˚Ùä 112 Law of Triads åeÎ˚#§)eä 75
First law of thermodynamics åï˛y˛õ à!ï˛!ÓòƒyÓ˚ ≤ÃÌÙ §)eä 168 Le Chatelier’s principle å°y¢yˆÏïÑ˛°#Î˚yÓ˚ l#!ï˛ä 209
Formal charge åܲyÎ≈ܲÓ˚# xyôylä 104 Lewis acids and bases å°%•z§ xƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ܲä 216
Formula mass å§ÇˆÏÜ˛ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ä 17 Lewis dot structure å°%•z§ í˛ê˛ àë˛lä 103
Lewis symbols å°%•z§ !ã˛•´ä 101
G Limiting reagent å!°!Ù!ê˛Ç !Ó˚ˆÏÎ˚ˆÏçrê˛ä 21
Gas åàƒy§ä 4 Line spectrum åˆÓ˚áy Óî≈y°#ä 45
Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) å˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛§Ù)ˆ•Ï Ó˚ ˜Ó˚!áܲ §Ùß∫Îä˚ 126
Gas laws åàƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eyÓ!°ä 140
Liquid åï˛Ó˚°ä 04
Gay-Lussac’s law of gaseous volume åˆàÈüÈ°§% yˆÏܲÓ˚ àƒy§ xyÎ˚ï˛l §)eä 15
Liquid state åï˛Ó˚° xÓfiÌyä 154
Gay-Lussac’s law, pressure temperature relationship åˆàÈüÈ°§% yˆÏܲÓ˚ §)eñ ã˛y˛õ í˛£z ïÏ÷ ˛y §¡õÜ≈˛ä 143
Liquid–vapour equilibrium åï˛Ó˚° Óy‹õ §yÙƒä 193
Gibbs energy å!àÓ§‰ ¢!=˛ä 184,186
Liquifaction of gases åàƒyˆÏ§Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚°#ܲÓ˚îä 152
Ground state of atom å˛õÓ˚Ùyî%Ó˚ Ë)˛!ÙhflÏÓ˚ä 59 London force å°u˛lÓ°ä 138

H M
Halogens 啃yˆÏ°yˆÏçlä 85 Magnetic orbital quantum number åˆã˛Ô¡∫ܲ#Î˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §yrôƒyä 55
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle å•y•zˆç
Ï l ÓˆÏàÓ≈ ˚ x!lŸã˛Îï˚ ˛y l#!ï˛ä 50 Mass å˲Ó˚ä 09
Hess’s law 刕ˆÏ§Ó˚ §)eä 175 Mass number å˲Ó˚ §Çáƒyä 35
Heterogeneous equilibria åx§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒä 203 Mass per cent å˲Ó˚ ¢ï˛yÇ¢ä 23
Homogeneous equilibria å§Ù§_¥ §yÙƒä 201 Matter å˛õòyÌ≈ä 04
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity å•%ˆuÏ ˛Ó˚ Ùy!Œê˛!≤’!§!ê˛ !lÎ˚Ùä 62 Measurement, English system å˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ !Ó !ê˛¢ ˛õÂô!ï˛ä 07
Hybridisation å§ÇܲÓ˚yÎ˚lä 120 Measurement, Metric system å˛õ!Ó˚ÙyˆÏ˛õÓ˚ ˆÙ!ê˛∆ܲ ˛õÂô!ï˛ä 07
Hydrogen bonding å•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Órôlä 131, 138 Measurement, Volume åxyÎ˚ï˛l §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ àîlyä 09
Hydrogen spectrum å•y•zˆÏí»˛yˆÏçl Óî≈y°#ä 45 Mendeleev’s periodic law åˆÙˆÏu˛!°ˆÏ˲Ó˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§)eä 79
Hydronium ion å•y•zˆÏí»˛y!lÎ˚yÙ xyÎ˚lä 214 Metallic radius åôyï˛Ó Óƒy§yô≈ä 87
Metalloids åôyï%˛Ü˛“ä 86
I Metals åôyï%˛ä 86
Ideal gas equation åxyò¢≈ àƒy§ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îä 145 Mixture å!Ù◊îä 5
Intermolecular forces åxyhs˝Ó˚yî!Óܲ Ó°ä 137,139 Mixture heterogeneous åx§Ù§_¥ !Ù◊îä 5
Internal energy åxyhs˝Ó˚ ¢!=˛ä 162 Mixture homogeneous å§Ù§_¥ !Ù◊îä 5
Modern periodic law åxyô%!lܲ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§)eä 79
Intensive property åxÓfiÌyàï˛ Óy ˲Ó˚ !lÓ˚ˆÏ˛õ«˛ ôÙ≈ä 168
Molality åˆÙy°y!°!ê˛ä 24
Ionic bond åxyÎ˚l#Ó˚ Órôlä 106
Molar enthalpy of fusion åˆÙy°yÓ˚ à°l ~l̃y°!˛õä 171
Ionic equilibrium åxyÎ˚l#Ó˚ §yÙƒyÓfiÌyä 193, 212
Molar enthalpy of vaporization åˆÙy°yÓ˚ Óyflõ#˲Ól ~l̃y°!˛õä 172
Ionic product of water åçˆÏ°Ó˚ xyÎ˚l#Ó˚ à%îÊ˛°ä 217
Molar mass åˆÙy°yÓ˚ ˲Ó˚ä 18
Ionic radius åxyÎ˚l#Î˚ Óƒy§yô≈ä 88 Molarity åˆÙy°y!Ó˚!ê˛ä 23
Ionization constant åxyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ô %Óܲä 219, 221 Mole åˆÙy°ä 18
Ionization enthalpy åxyÎ˚lyÎ˚l ~l̃y°!˛õä 88 Mole fraction åˆÙy° ˲@¿yÇ¢ä 23
Ionization of acids and bases åxƒy!§í˛ G «˛yÓ˚ˆÏܲÓ˚ xyÎ˚l# ˲Ólä 216 Molecular formula åxyl!Óܲ §ÇˆÏܲï˛ä 19
Isobar åxy•zˆÏ§yÓyÓ˚ä 143 Molecular mass åxyl!Óܲ ˲Ó˚ä 17
Isocore åxy•zˆÏ§yˆÏܲyÓ˚ä 143 Molecular orbital theory åxyl!Óܲ ܲ«˛Ü˛ ï˛_¥ä 125
Isoelectronic species åxy•zˆÏ§y •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆!lܲ xî% Óy xyÎ˚lä 88 Molecule åxî%ä 3,5,15
Isolated system å!l/§Aà !§ˆÏfiê˛Ùä 162
Isotherm 姈ÏÙyâ¯ä 141
Isotopes å§ÙfiÌy!lܲä 35 N
National standards of measurements åçyï˛#Î˚ Ùylܲ Ó%ƒˆÏÓ˚yä 7
K Neutron å!lí˛zê˛∆lä 32
Kelvin temperature scale åí˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆÜ˛°!˲l ˆflÒ°ä 142 Noble gases å!l!‹;Î˚ àƒy§ä 85
Kössel –Lewis approach åˆÜ˛yˆÏ§°ÈüÈ°%•z§ ôyÓ˚îyä 101 Nodes åˆlyí˛‡§Çflõ®ä 57
INDEX 261

Non-metals åxôyï%˛ä 86 SI system of units å~ܲˆÏܲÓ˚ SI ˛õÂô!ï˛˛ä 07

Nucleons å!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚l§‰ä 35 SI system prefixes åSI !§ˆÏfiê˛ˆÏÙÓ˚ í˛z˛õ§à≈ä 09
Nucleus å!lí˛z!Üœ˛Î˚y§ä 35 SI unit of density åâlˆÏcÓ˚ SI ~ܲܲä 09
SI unit of mass å˲ˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ SI ~ܲܲä 09
O SI unit of temperature åí˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ SI ~ܲܲä 10
Octet rule åxT˛Ü˛ !lÎ˚Ùä 102 SI unit of volume åxyÎ˚ï˛ˆÏlÓ˚ SI ~ܲܲä 09
Open system åÙ%=˛ !§ˆÏfiê˛Ùä 161 Solid åܲ!ë˛lä 04
Orbit åܲ«˛ä 35, 46 Solid–gas equilibrium åܲ!ë˛lÈüÈàƒy§ §yÙƒä 194
Orbitals åܲ«˛Ü˛ä 54, 82 Solid–liquid equilibrium åܲ!ë˛lÈüÈï˛Ó˚° §yÙƒä 193
Orbital overlap åܲ«˛ˆÏܲÓ˚ x!˲ˆÏ°˛õlä 118 Solubility product constant åoyÓƒï˛y à%îÊ˛° ô %Óܲä 228
Oxidation state åçyÓ˚î hflÏÓ˚ä 93 Spectroscopy åÓî≈y°# Ó#«˛îä 44
Spectrum åÓî≈y°#ä 44
P Speed of light åxyˆÏ°yÓ˚ à!ï˛ä 38
Particle nature åܲîy ôÙ≈ä 39 Spin quantum number åâ)î≈l ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyä 56
Pauli’s exclusion principle å˛õyí˛z!°Ó˚ x˛õÓç≈l l#!ï˛˛ä 62 Spontaneous process åfl∫ï˛/fl≥)˛ï≈˛ ≤Ã!Ü ˛Î˚yä 181
Percentage composition å¢ï˛Ü˛Ó˚y §ÇÎ%!ï˛ä 18 Standard ambient temperature and pressure å≤ÃÙyî ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!ŸªÜ≈ ˛ ã˛y˛õ G í˛z£ïÏ÷ ˛yä 144
Periodic groups å˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ü ˛!Ùܲ ˆ◊!î˛ä 79 Standard enthalpy of combustion å≤ÃÙyî ò•l ~l̃y°!˛õä 176
Periodic table long form åò#â≈ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚§yÓ˚!îä 79 Standard enthalpy of formation å≤ÃÙyî àë˛l ~l̃y°!˛õä 173
Periodic table periods å˛õÎ≈yÎ˚ä 79 State functions åxÓfiÌyÓ˚ xˆÏ˛õ«˛Ü˛ä 162
Periodicity of valence åˆÎyçƒï˛yÓ˚ ˛õÎ≈yÎ˚Ó,!_ä 93 State variables åxÓfiÌyÓ˚ ã˛° Ó˚y!¢ä 162
pH scale åpH ˆflÒ°ä 217 Stoichiometry åfiê˛Î˚!¢G ˆÙ!ê˛∆ä 20
Photoelectric effect åxyˆÏ°yܲ ï˛!í˛¸Í ≤Ã˲yÓä 41 Subatomic particles åxÓ ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ ܲîyä 30
Physical properties åˆË˛Ôï˛ ôÙ≈ä 06 Sublevel åí˛z˛õhflÏÓ˚ä 55
pi bond å˛õy•z Órôlä 120
Subshell åí˛z˛õܲ«˛ä 55
Planck’s quantum theory å≤’yˆÏAܲÓ˚ ˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ ï˛_¥ä 39
Surface tension å˛õ,¤˛ê˛ylä 155
Polyatomic molecules åÓ•% ˛õyÓ˚Ùyî!Óܲ xî%ä 15, 177
Surroundings å˛õ!Ó˚ˆÏÓ¢ Óy ˛õy!Ó˚˛õy!Ÿª≈ܲä 161
Precision å!lË%≈˛°ï˛yä 13
System å!§ˆÏfiê˛Ùä 161
Principal quantum number åÙ%჈ÏܲyÎ˚yrê˛yÙ §Çáƒyä 47,53
Protium å˛ˆ≤Ãy!ê˛Î˚yÙä 35
Proton åˆ≤Ãyê˛lä 32
T
Temperature scales åí˛z£÷Ïï˛yÓ˚ ˆflÒ°ä 10
Pure substance å!Ó¢%Âô Ó›ä 05
Thermal energy åï˛y˛õ ¢!=˛ä 139
Thermal interactions åï˛y˛õ#Î˚ !ÙÌ!fl;Î˚yä
Q Thermochemical equations åï˛y˛õ Ó˚y§yÎ˚!lܲ §Ù#ܲÓ˚îä
139
168
Quantum åˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙä 41
Quantum mechanics åˆÜ˛yÎ˚yrê˛yÙ Ó°!Óòƒyä 53 Thermodynamic scale åï˛y˛õ à!ï˛!Óòƒy §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ˆflÒ°ä 142
Thermodynamic terms åï˛y˛õ à!ï˛!Óòƒy §ÇÜ ˛yhs˝ ˛õò §Ù)•ä 161
R Thomson model åÌÙ§ˆÏlÓ˚ ÙˆÏí˛°ä 33
Radioactive elements åˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ ˆÙÔ°ä 33 Threshold frequency å§)ã˛ly ܲ¡õyAܲä 41
Radioactivity åˆï˛çfl;#Î˚ï˛yä 33 Transition series å§!rôàï˛ ˆÙԈϰÓ˚ ˆ◊!îä 82
Reaction quotient å!Ó!Ü ˛Î˚y ˆÜ˛yˆÏ¢rê˛ä 206 Tritium å!ê˛∆!ê˛Î˚yÙä 35
Reference standard åï%˛°lyÙ)°Ü˛ Ùylä 11
Representative elements å≤Ã!ï˛!l!ô ˆÙÔ°ä 85 U
Resonance structures å§Çflõ®l àë˛lä 109 Unified mass å§Ù!ß∫ï˛ Ë˛Ó˚ä 17
Rutherford model of atom åÓ˚yòyÓ˚ ˆÊ˛yˆÏí≈˛Ó˚ ˛õÓ˚Ùyî% ÙˆÏí˛°ä 34 Universal gas constant å§yÓ≈çl#l àƒy§ ô %Óܲä 145
Rydberg constant å!Ó˚í˛Óyà≈ ô %Óܲä 47
V
S Valance bond theory åˆÎyçƒï˛y Órôl ï˛_¥ä 117
Schrödinger wave equation åˆflÀy!í˛OyˆÏÓ˚Ó˚ ï˛Ó˚Aà §Ù#ܲÓ˚îä 53 Valence electron åˆÎyçl •zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆lä 63, 101
Scientific notation å˜ÓK˛y!lܲ ≤Ãï˛#ܲä 11 van der Waals forces åˆË˛lí˛yÓ˚ GÎ˚y° Ó°ä 137
Screening effect åxyÓÓ˚l# ≤Ã˲yÓä 90 Vapour pressure åÓyflõã˛y˛õä 154
Semi-metals åôyï%˛ §ò,¢ä 86 Viscosity å§ywï˛yä 156
Shell åܲ«˛ä 82 Visible light åò,¢ƒÙyl xyˆÏ°yܲä 38
Shielding effect åxyÓÓ˚l# «˛Ùï˛y‡xyFSÈyòl ≤Ã˲yÓä 90 VSEPR theory å!˲ ~§ •z!˛õ xyÓ˚ ï˛_¥ä 112
Shielding of electrons å•zˆÏ°Ü˛ê˛∆ˆÏlÓ˚ ˛xyÓÓ˚îä 60
SI base units åSIÈüÈ~ܲܲä 07 W
Sigma bond å!§àÙy Órôlä 120 Wavenumber åï˛Ó˚Aà §Çáƒyä 39
Significant figures åï˛yͲõÎ≈˛õ)î≈ §Çáƒyä 12 Weight åGçlä 09
NOTES
 Logarithms

TABLE I

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 5 9 13 17 21 26 30 34 38
0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 4 8 12 16 2O 24 28 32 36
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 4 8 12 16 20 23 27 31 35
0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 33

12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 3 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32

0969 1004 1038 1072 1106 3 7 10 14 17 20 24 27 31
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 29
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 3 6 9 12 15 19 22 25 28
1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 3 6 9 12 14 17 20 23 26
15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 3 6 9 11 14 17 20 23 26
1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 22 25
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 3 6 8 11 14 16 19 22 24
2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
2430 2455 2480 2504 2529 3 5 8 10 12 15 17 20 22
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2 5 7 9 12 14 17 19 21
2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2 4 7 9 11 14 16 18 21
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6471 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
 Logarithms

TABLE 1 (Continued)

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
61 7853 7860 7768 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9997 9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
 AntiLogarithms

TABLE II

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
00 1000 1002 1005 1007 1009 1012 1014 1016 1019 1021 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.01 1023 1026 1028 1030 1033 1035 1038 1040 1042 1045 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.02 1047 1050 1052 1054 1057 1059 1062 1064 1067 1069 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.03 1072 1074 1076 1079 1081 1084 1086 1089 1091 1094 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.04 1096 1099 1102 1104 1107 1109 1112 1114 1117 1119 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.05 1122 1125 1127 1130 1132 1135 1138 1140 1143 1146 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.06 1148 1151 1153 1156 1159 1161 1164 1167 1169 1172 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.07 1175 1178 1180 1183 1186 1189 1191 1194 1197 1199 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.08 1202 1205 1208 1211 1213 1216 1219 1222 1225 1227 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.09 1230 1233 1236 1239 1242 1245 1247 1250 1253 1256 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3

.10 1259 1262 1265 1268 1271 1274 1276 1279 1282 1285 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.11 1288 1291 1294 1297 1300 1303 1306 1309 1312 1315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.12 1318 1321 1324 1327 1330 1334 1337 1340 1343 1346 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.13 1349 1352 1355 1358 1361 1365 1368 1371 1374 1377 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.14 1380 1384 1387 1390 1393 1396 1400 1403 1406 1409 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.15 1413 1416 1419 1422 1426 1429 1432 1435 1439 1442 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.16 1445 1449 1452 1455 1459 1462 1466 1469 1472 1476 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.17 1479 1483 1486 1489 1493 1496 1500 1503 1507 1510 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.18 1514 1517 1521 1524 1528 1531 1535 1538 1542 1545 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.19 1549 1552 1556 1560 1563 1567 1570 1574 1578 1581 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3

.20 1585 1589 1592 1596 1600 1603 1607 1611 1614 1618 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
.21 1622 1626 1629 1633 1637 1641 1644 1648 1652 1656 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
.22 1660 1663 1667 1671 1675 1679 1683 1687 1690 1694 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
.23 1698 1702 1706 1710 1714 1718 1722 1726 1730 1734 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.24 1738 1742 1746 1750 1754 1758 1762 1766 1770 1774 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4

.25 1778 1782 1786 1791 1795 1799 1803 1807 1811 1816 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.26 1820 1824 1828 1832 1837 1841 1845 1849 1854 1858 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.27 1862 1866 1871 1875 1879 1884 1888 1892 1897 1901 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.28 1905 1910 1914 1919 1923 1928 1932 1936 1941 1945 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.29 1950 1954 1959 1963 1968 1972 1977 1982 1986 1991 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

.30 1995 2000 2004 2009 2014 2018 2023 2028 2032 2037 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.31 2042 2046 2051 2056 2061 2065 2070 2075 2080 2084 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.32 2089 2094 2099 2104 2109 2113 2118 2123 2128 2133 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.33 2138 2143 2148 2153 2158 2163 2168 2173 2178 2183 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
.34 2188 2193 2198 2203 2208 2213 2218 2223 2228 2234 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.35 2239 2244 2249 2254 2259 2265 2270 2275 2280 2286 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.36 2291 2296 2301 2307 2312 2317 2323 2328 2333 2339 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.37 2344 2350 2355 2360 2366 2371 2377 2382 2388 2393 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.38 2399 2404 2410 2415 2421 2427 2432 2438 2443 2449 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.39 2455 2460 2466 2472 2477 2483 2489 2495 2500 2506 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
.40 2512 2518 2523 2529 2535 2541 2547 2553 2559 2564 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.41 2570 2576 2582 2588 2594 2600 2606 2612 2618 2624 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.42 2630 2636 2642 2649 2655 2661 2667 2673 2679 2685 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
.43 2692 2698 2704 2710 2716 2723 2729 2735 2742 2748 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
.44 2754 2761 2767 2773 2780 2786 2793 2799 2805 2812 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
.45 2818 2825 2831 2838 2844 2851 2858 2864 2871 2877 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
.46 2884 2891 2897 2904 2911 2917 2924 2931 2938 2944 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
.47 2951 2958 2965 2972 2979 2985 2992 2999 3006 3013 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
.48 3020 3027 3034 3041 3048 3055 3062 3069 3076 3083 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
.49 3090 3097 3105 3112 3119 3126 3133 3141 3148 3155 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
 AntiLogarithms

TABLE II (Continued)
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.50 3162 3170 3177 3184 3192 3199 3206 3214 3221 3228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
.51 3236 3243 3251 3258 3266 3273 3281 3289 3296 3304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.52 3311 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3365 3373 3381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.53 3388 3396 3404 3412 3420 3428 3436 3443 3451 3459 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
.54 3467 3475 3483 3491 3499 3508 3516 3524 3532 3540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
.55 3548 3556 3565 3573 3581 3589 3597 3606 3614 3622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
.56 3631 3639 3648 3656 3664 3673 3681 3690 3698 3707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.57 3715 3724 3733 3741 3750 3758 3767 3776 3784 3793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.58 3802 3811 3819 3828 3837 3846 3855 3864 3873 3882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
.59 3890 3899 3908 3917 3926 3936 3945 3954 3963 3972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8

.60 3981 3990 3999 4009 4018 4027 4036 4046 4055 4064 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
.61 4074 4083 4093 4102 4111 4121 4130 4140 4150 4159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.62 4169 4178 4188 4198 4207 4217 4227 4236 4246 42S6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.63 4266 4276 4285 4295 4305 4315 4325 4335 4345 4355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.64 4365 4375 4385 4395 4406 4416 4426 4436 4446 4457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.65 4467 4477 4487 4498 4508 4519 4529 4539 4550 4560 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.66 4571 4581 4592 4603 4613 4624 4634 4645 4656 4667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
.67 4677 4688 4699 4710 4721 4732 4742 4753 4764 4775 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
.68 4786 4797 4808 4819 4831 4842 4853 4864 4875 4887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
.69 4898 4909 4920 4932 4943 4955 4966 4977 4989 5000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10

.70 5012 5023 5035 5047 5058 5070 5082 5093 5105 5117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
.71 5129 5140 5152 5164 5176 5188 5200 5212 5224 5236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
.72 5248 5260 5272 5284 5297 5309 5321 5333 5346 5358 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
.73 5370 5383 5395 5408 5420 5433 5445 5458 5470 5483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
.74 5495 5508 5521 5534 5546 5559 5572 5585 5598 5610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
.75 5623 5636 5649 5662 5675 5689 5702 5715 5728 5741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
.76 5754 5768 5781 5794 5808 5821 5834 5848 5861 5875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
.77 5888 5902 5916 5929 5943 5957 5970 5984 5998 6012 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
.78 6026 6039 6053 6067 6081 6095 6109 6124 6138 6152 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
.79 6166 6180 6194 6209 6223 6237 6252 6266 6281 6295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13

.80 6310 6324 6339 6353 6368 6383 6397 6412 6427 6442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
.81 6457 6471 6486 6501 6516 6531 6546 6561 6577 6592 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
.82 6607 6622 6637 6653 6668 6683 6699 6714 6730 6745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
.83 6761 6776 6792 6808 6823 6839 6855 6871 6887 6902 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 1314
.84 6918 6934 6950 6966 6982 6998 7015 7031 7047 7063 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15

.85 7079 7096 7112 7129 7145 7161 7178 7194 7211 7228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
.86 7244 7261 7278 7295 7311 7328 7345 7362 7379 7396 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
.87 7413 7430 7447 7464 7482 7499 7516 7534 7551 7568 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
.88 7586 7603 7621 7638 7656 7674 7691 7709 7727 7745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
.89 7762 7780 7798 7816 7834 7852 7870 7889 7907 7925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16

.90 7943 7962 7980 7998 8017 8035 8054 8072 8091 8110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
.91 8128 8147 8166 8185 8204 8222 8241 8260 8279 8299 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
.92 8318 8337 8356 8375 8395 8414 8433 8453 8472 8492 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
.93 8511 8531 8551 8570 8590 8610 8630 8650 8670 8690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
.94 8710 8730 8750 8770 8790 8810 8831 8851 8872 8892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

.95 8913 8933 8954 8974 8995 9016 9036 9057 9078 9099 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 17 19
.96 9120 9141 9162 9183 9204 9226 9247 9268 9290 9311 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
.97 9333 9354 9376 9397 9419 9441 9462 9484 9506 9528 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 17 20
.98 9550 9572 9594 9616 9638 9661 9683 9705 9727 9750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
.99 9772 9795 9817 9840 9863 9886 9908 9931 9954 9977 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20