FOREST PRODUCTS OF

MEGHALAYA
PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE

B K TIWARI
C KUMAR
Research team

M B Lynser
I Rynjah
K Sharma
L B Singh
H Tynsong
A Upadhaya

2
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF BOXES
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Chapter OVERVIEW OF MEGHALAYA
MEGHALAYA
FORESTS OF MEGHALAYA
FOREST OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
ECONOMY AND LIVELIHOOD
POLICIES AND REGULATIONS
Chapter FOREST PRODUCTS OF MEGHALAYA
BAMBOO
BROOM GRASS
BAY LEAF
PACKING LEAF
DALCHINI
WILD PEPPER
WOOD LICHEN
CHARCOAL
FUELWOOD
MEDICINAL PLANTS
TIMBER
Chapter FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
RESEARCH NEEDS/GAPS

3
FOREST PRODUCT MARKET
CAPACITY BUILDING
TECHNOLOGY ENHANCEMENT
SOCIAL ENGINEERING
REFERENCES CITED
FURTHER READINGS
APPENDICES
INDEX

4
 PREFACE

Forests are source of a variety of goods and services which range from medicinal herbs and leafy
vegetables for the rural poor to timber for international merchants; from source of drinking water
for rural communities and mega cities to sequestration of carbon contributing towards
amelioration of global climate. Forests are home for majority of tribal and indigenous people
living in regions rich in forest cover who depend on the forests for their subsistence livelihoods.
However, very less empirical data is available on the actual benefits accruing to people from the
forests. This is also reflected in non-inclusion of the forest products and services in Gross
Domestic Products (GDP) of most states and countries except occasional mention of timber and
bamboo. Environmental economists are increasingly realizing that in regions with high forest
cover, forests play much important role than estimated by conventional methods of economic
survey, as a significant portion of goods and services provided by forests are non-
commercialized and non-marketable. In particular, many non-timber forest products are traded
on a small-scale or occasionally, and they are generally neglected by official economic statistics.
Similarly, very little research has been done on the role of forests in livelihoods of rural poor.
Data on these aspects are required for planning as well as for formulation of policies that are
conducive for conservation and management of forest resources and help in enhancing benefits
to the forest dependent communities and in amelioration of poverty.
Keeping above in view a research was undertaken with an aim to review different forest
and livelihood contexts, to analyses the ground situation of forest-people relations and to identify
key issues that need to be addressed in the field of forests and livelihoods of the poor in the
state of Meghalaya for enhancing the share of benefit of the rural poor from the forest product
markets. This book embodies the results of current research as well as other studies and
documentations done by the team of researchers working with Professor B. K. Tiwari at North-
Eastern Hill University, Shillong. The book has three chapters- Chapter I deals with brief
description of the general status of the forests of the state, their ownership and management,
policies and regulations relating to forest. A separate section has been included dealing with an
overview of the economy and livelihood of the people so as to provide an idea of the other
sectors of the economy vis a vis forestry sector. Chapter 2 deals with the forest products market
and linkages with the livelihoods of the people. In this chapter the distribution, production and

5
marketing of eleven important marketable forest products of the state have been described.
Chapter 3 deals with the future prospective that include research needs, forest product market
intervention capacity building, technology enhancement and social engineering. The emphasis of
this is on suggesting ways for making the forests more productive, sustainable and to create a
policy environment that increases the share of the rural poor in the forest product market chain.
The principal objective of this book is to bring empirical data about forests and specially
forest products to the notice of policy makers, planners as well as researchers. It is hoped that the
readers will find the book useful.
The editors solicit the comments of the readers towards improvement of book.

B K Tiwari
C. Kumar

6
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are indebted to Brian Belcher, S. K. Barik, V.T. Darlong, Saihunlang Phanbuh and S. Umdor
for their ideas and expert advice during planning as well as execution of this study. The research
team received ample support from the officers of forest department, government of Meghalaya,
district councils, managers of business houses, heads of traditional institutions and villagers
living in the sample villages where the field study was conducted. We sincerely acknowledge the
receipt of the financial support from the Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor,
Indonesia through a research grant provided to B. K. Tiwari.

B. K. Tiwari
C Kumar

7
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 District-wise Forest Cover in Meghalaya

Table 1.2 Classification of Forests Based on Ownership

Table 1.3 Area, population, decadal growth rate and population density in the state and
districts of Meghalaya.
Table 1.4 Gross State Domestic Products (GSDP) at constant (1993-94) prices of
Meghalaya
Table 1.5 Sectoral contribution to GSDP for 1999-2000 at constant (1993-94) prices
Table 1.6 Distribution of working population
Table 1.7 Economic census government of Meghalaya (1998)
Table 1.8 District-wise number of shifting cultivator families in Meghalaya
Table 1.9 Climate suitability, market availability and people’s preference ranking of
some NTFP/MAP of Meghalaya
Table 2.1 Forest Range wise production of bamboo in Garo Hills during 2004-2005
Table 2.2 Rate of royalty for bamboos in Khasi Hills
Table 2.3 General growth pattern of Thysanolaena maxima (Rozb.) O.Ktze.
Table 2.4 Broom production in Khasi and Jaintia hills
Table 2.5 Cost and returns (Rs) analysis of broom grass cultivation in one hectare area
Table 2.6 Broom export from Meghalaya via Guwahati
Table 2.7 Broom grass export by road to some states of India during 2001
Table 2.8 Bay leaf production in the state during 1995-2005as recorded by the District
Councils
Table 2.9 Arrivals of Phyrnium pubinerve leaves in different local markets of
Meghalaya
Table 2.10 Selling price of Phrynium pubinerve in various markets of Meghalaya
Table 2.11 Wholesale price of Phrynium pubinerve in various markets of Khasi and
Jaintia Hills
Table 2.12 Production of Cinnamomum zeylenicum in Meghalaya
Table 2.13 Production of wild pepper in Khasi Hills
Table 2.14 Production of wood lichen in Meghalaya
Table 2.15 Production of charcoal in Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills
Table 2.16 Market price, annual sale and revenue accrued from charcoal production.
Table 2.17 Fuelwood consumption pattern (tonnes) in Meghalaya during 2004-2005

8
Table 2.18 Fuelwood prices at various levels
Table 2.19 Market rate and income to the local fuelwood traders to local
consumers in various districts of the state
Table 2.20 Wholesale rate of some medicinal plants in Meghalaya
Table 2.21 Important medicinal plants found in the western region
Table 2.22 Important Medicinal plants found in the central and upland region
Table 2.23 Important Medicinal plants found in the northern undulating hills of
Meghalaya
Table 2.24 Important medicinal plants found in the south precipitatious region of
Meghalaya.
Table 2.25 Annual timber production in Meghalaya (cu. m).
Table 2.26 Some important tree species of the state and their principal uses
Table 2.27 Licensed saw/veneer mills in the state
Table 2.28 Royalty on timber logs per cu. m in Garo Hills
Table 2.29 Royalty on timber logs per cu. m in Khasi Hills
Table 2.30 Annual production, rate per unit and the total estimated value of forest
products of Meghalaya

9
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1 Location map of Meghalaya
Fig.1. 2 Forest cover of Meghalaya
Fig. 1.3 Change in Forest Cover of Meghalaya
Fig. 1.4 End uses of NTFPs in Meghalaya
Fig. 2.1 Production of bamboo in Khasi Hills
Fig. 2.2 Production of bamboo in Garo Hills
Fig.2.3 End Users of marketable bamboos
Fig. 2.4 Distribution of Thysanolaena maxima in Meghalaya
Fig.2.5 Market linkages of broom grass produced from Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and
Ri Bhoi Districts
Fig. 2.6 Market Linkage of broom grass produced in Garo Hills
Fig. 2.7 Marketing channel of bay leaf
Fig.2.8 Pricing mechanism of bay leaf
Fig. 2.9 Distribution of Phyrnium pubinerve in Meghalaya
Fig.2.10 Marketing channel of Phyrnium pubinerve leaf
Fig.2.11 Distribution of wild pepper in the state
Fig.2.12 Pricing mechanism and average price of wild pepper
Fig. 2.13 Marketing channel of wild pepper
Fig. 2.14 Production of Dalchini (KHADC)
Fig. 2.15 Market chain of Dalchini
Fig. 2.16 Distribution of wood lichen in the state
Fig. 2.17 Pricing mechanism of wood lichen
Fig. 2.18 Market chain of wood lichen
Fig.2.19 Charcoal productions in Khasi Hills
Fig.2.20 Agro-ecological regions of the state.
Fig. 2.21 Year wise production of Fuelwood in Garo Hills (GHADC)
Fig. 2.22 Year wise production of Fuelwood in Jaintia Hills (JHADC)
Fig. 2.23 Year wise production of Fuelwood in Khasi Hills (KHADC)
Fig. 2.24 Fuelwood consumption pattern in Meghalaya
Fig. 2.25 Path of fuelwood from producer to the consumer

10
Fig. 2.26 Production of Timber in Garo Hills District

11
 LIST OF BOXES
Box 1.1 Three types of Political Administration in Meghalaya
Box 2.1 To lease or not to lease???
Box 2.2 Medicinal plants of western region of Meghalaya
Box 2.3 Medicinal plants of central and upland region of Meghalaya
Box 2.4 Medicinal plants of northern undulating Hill region of Meghalaya
Box 2.5 Medicinal plants of south precipitatious region of Meghalaya

12
 LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photo.1.1 Pine forest in the outskirt of Shillong town.

Photo.1.2 Sub tropical evergreen forest in Pynursla, East Khasi Hills
Photo.1.3 Broomgrass plantation raised on erstwhile shifting cultivation land in Umden
village, Ri Bhoi district.
Photo 1.4 A change in land use pattern in Nongkhlaw Syiemship, West Khasi Hills
Photo.1.5 Prohibited forest (Law Adong) Pynursla East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
Photo1.6 Agricultural land near Mawdiangdiang village, East Khasi Hills.
Photo 1.7 Rural communities engaged in collection of fuelwood
Photo 1.8 Bamboo mat weaving in Tangmang village, Pynursla.
Photo 1.9 Women collecting wild yam from a jhum fallow in Garo Hills.
Photo 1.10 Water source from forest in Saitbakon village, Pynursla.
Photo 2.1 Bamboo placed along the roadside ready for transportation in Ri-Bhoi Area
Photo 2.2 A bamboo forest in Umkon Village of Ri-Bhoi District
Photo 2.3 A truck load of bamboo ready for transport to paper mill
Photo 2.4 View of a hillock covered with broom grass plantation
Photo 2.5 Closer view of Broom grass plantation
Photo 2.6 Pure broom grass plantation
Photo 2.7 Brooms ready for sale
Photo 2.8 Bay leaf (Cinnamomum tamala) plant
Photo 2.9 Inflorescence of Cinnamomum tamala
Photo 2.10 Forest garden at Nongkwai village where Phyrnium pubinerve is grown
Photo 2.11 A leaf of Phyrnium pubinerve
Photo 2.12 Children involved in making rolls (shi song) of Phyrnium leaf
Photo 2.13 Baskets full of Phyrnium leaves at Mawlat village ready for transport to
Shillong market
Photo 2.14 Cinnamomum zeylenicum
Photo 2.15 Bark of Cinnamomum zeylenicum being sold at the roadside in Umden Village
Photo 2.16 Wild pepper growing in Raid Shabong Law Adong Pynursla
Photo 2.17 A Branch of Wild pepper

13
Photo 2.18 A close view of the fruit of wild pepper
Photo 2.19 Drying of wood lichen
Photo 2.20 Sorting and packing of wood lichen in Shillong wholesale shop.
Photo 2.21 News Paper Coverage (Marketing of wood lichen at Markasa market photo by
U Nongsain Hima).
Photo 2.22 Charcoal produced from waste wood in a saw mill in Ri-Bhoi District
Photo 2.23 Charcoal being sold in Gunny Bags at Lad Rymbai, Jaintia Hills
Photo 2.24 Fuelwood stacked on roadsides for sale
Photo 2.25 Use of fuelwood in road construction
Photo 2.26 (a) A fuelwood shop at Umran, Ri -Bhoi District
Photo 2.26 (b) A site within the forest where fuelwood is sold at Siatbakon, War area
Photo 2.27 Mahonia pycnophylla : an important medicinal plant of Meghalaya
Photo 2.28 Swertia chitrata at Mawphlang village
Photo 2.29 Osbekia capiteta at Jarain village
Photo 2.30 Nepenthes khasiana at Jarain village
Photo 2.31 Harvesting of Cinnamomum camphore bark in the forest of Pynursla village
Photo 2.32 Medicinal plants being sold in a village market in Garo Hills.
Photo 2.33 A Herbal practitioner at Jingjal Market of West Garo Hills District
Photo 2.34 A truck load of timber on the way to local saw mill, Markasa, West Khasi Hill
Photo 2.35 A Truck transporting furniture made of Pine timber
Photo 2.36 A saw mill in West Khasi Hills District

14
 Abbreviations

ADCs Autonomous District Councils

CEM Chief Executive Member

FSI Forest Survey of India

HDI Human Development Index

HPI Human Poverty Index

GDDP Gross District Domestic Products

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHADC Garo Hills Autonomous District Council

GSDP Gross State Domestic Product

JHADC Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council

KHADC Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council

MAPs Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

MECOFED Meghalaya State Cooperative Marketing and Consumers’

federation Ltd.,

MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forests

MPs Medicinal Plants

MT Metric Tonne

NTFP Non-Timber Forest Products

PWD Public Works Department

SFD State Forest Department

TEK Traditional Ecological Knowledge

TI Traditional Institution

15
Chapter 1 MEGHALAYA

The state of Meghalaya is situated in the north-eastern region of India. It is a land locked
territory lying between the latitudes of 25°47’N and 26°10’N and longitudes of 89°45’E and
92°47’E. The state is made up of three hills namely, Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills.
The altitude of the state varies between 100 to 1900 m from mean sea level. Meghalaya has a
496 km. long international boundary with Bangladesh in the south and west. The state of Assam
surrounds the state in north and east (Figure 1.1). The Meghalaya plateau is highly dissected and
has irregular terrain in the western and northern sides. A continuous escarpment with steep
slopes marks the southern side. With an area of 22,429 sq km, it is predominantly inhabited by
tribal people who account for eighty nine percent of the population of 23,06,069 persons (Census
of India, 2001). The state has seven districts and thirty eight Blocks.

Fig.1.1 Location map of Meghalaya

The state is mainly inhabited by two main tribal groups (i) the Hynniewtrep tribe consisting of
the four ethnic groups Khasi, Jaintia, Bhoi and War, and inhabiting the eastern region of the
states covering the four districts of East Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, West Khasi Hills and Ri Bhoi
District (ii) the Garo tribe inhabiting the three districts of West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills and
South Garo Hills. The National Human Development Report (2001) has ranked Meghalaya at 24
and 28 positions respectively in term of the Human Development and Human Poverty Indices.

The climate of the state varies with the elevation and distribution of physical relief. The spring
season (March – April) is characterized by moderate temperature, occasional thunderstorms and
high velocity wind. In this season, the average maximum temperature goes as high as 23.8°C in
the capital city of Shillong, 26.1°C at Barapani, 25.0°C at Jowai and 30.7°C at Tura. The mean
annual rainfall varies considerably from place to place, ranging from about 1300 mm in Barapani
to over 10,000 mm in Mawsynram –Cherrapunjee region. The soil of Meghalaya varies from
dark brown to dark reddish-brown in colour, and depth varies from 50 to 200 cm. Soil texture
varies from loamy to fine loamy. The soils are rich in organic carbon with high nitrogen

16
supplying potential, but deficient in phosphorus and potassium. Soil reaction is acidic and varies
from pH 4.5 to 6.0.

17
FORESTS OF MEGHALAYA
Meghalaya is endowed with rich natural vegetation, which varies greatly with the altitudes in the
state. The richness and variety of vegetation ranging from sub-tropical to tropical is due to
diverse topography and variations in rainfall, soil and temperature. The flora of the state, is
therefore, extremely rich and interesting for botanists. The Garo hills are endowed with grassy
vegetation, which is absent in Khasi and Jaintia Hills. In the state, the dense tropical forests
occur on the southern and northern low hills and sub-tropical forests in the higher reaches of the
Tura-Nokrek range in Garo hills. On the upper hills, above 1500 m especially in the central
plateau of Khasi hills, pine (Pinus kesiya) forest is prominent. This type of forest extends further
east up to Jowai and Passi in Jaintia Hills. But the growth of the pine trees in the drier regions is
stunted and trees do not reach their average height. Oaks and rhododendrons are common at
higher altitudes. The north face is covered with forest containing rhododendrons and orchids.

On the hills between 900-1200 m altitudes sub-tropical forests and grasslands abound. Similar
dense sub-tropical semi-evergreen forests are found in Nongkhlaw region of West Khasi hills,
especially along the valley of river Khri and Umtrew and below the Mawsynram and Cherra
plateau. Among other trees, bay leaf (Cinnamomum tamala) is found in abundance on the
southern slopes. Deciduous forests and grasslands also occur at many places on both northern
and southern sides of the state. In Garo Hills, such forests are found around Balphakram,
Nongkra, Akame, Ampatigiri, Chokpot, Simsangsiri and Adokgiri. The undergrowth consists of
thick shrubs and bushes. The important trees are Artocarpus chaplasa, Shorea robusta, Gmelina
arborea, Albizia procera and Tectona grandis. The hills are covered with mixed evergreen and
sal forests and bamboo brakes. In the lower foothills and terai region thick tropical forests are
found in patches at different places. Canes and bamboos form rich undergrowth in the forests on
lower hills

Photo.1.1 Pine forest in the outskirt of Shillong town.

Photo.1.2 Sub tropical evergreen forest in Pynursla, East Khasi Hills

Forest Types

18
According to Champion and Seth (1968), the forests of Meghalaya have been classified into the
following types:

 Sal Forests: Sal forests in the state can be grouped into two types.

(a) Alluvial Sal: This type conforms to the type of North Indian Tropical Moist
Deciduous Kamrup Alluvial Sal Forests [(3c / c2d (iv)]

(b) Foot hill and plateau Sal: This type conforms to the type of North Indian Tropical
Moist Deciduous Eastern Hill Sal Forests (3c / cla).

 Mixed Deciduous Forests: North Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous (East Himalayan
Moist Forests (3c / c3b).

 Evergreen Forests: These forests conform to the type of Northern Tropical Semi
Evergreen Forests and Assam Alluvial Plain Semi Evergreen Forests. (2B / cla).

 Bamboo Forests: This type conforms to the type of Northern Tropical Semi Evergreen
Forests and Secondary Moist Bamboo Brakes (2B / 151).

 Grasslands: Northern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests and Low Alluvial Savannah
Woodland (3 / 151).

 Very Moist Sal Bearing Forests: East Himalayan Sal (3c / cla(i).

 Eastern Himalayan Moist Deciduous Forests (3c / c3b).

 Assam Sub-Tropical Pine Forests (9 / c2).

Tropical moist deciduous forests constitute about ninety percent of the total forest cover of the
state. The subtropical broadleaved forests and subtropical pine forests occupy 1,018 sq. km and
633 sq. km, respectively (Darlong et al. 1992). About seventy one percent of the total forest
(11,722 sq. km) is situated below 600m above mean sea level. Dense forests occupy only thirty
five percent of the total forestland and fifty six percent of the forests are open forests. The open
forests are highly degraded either because of shifting cultivation or due to felling of trees for
timber, fuel-wood and other purposes.

Forest cover
According to the State of Forest Report (Anonymous, 2003) the actual forest cover of the state is
16,839 sq. km, which corresponds to about 75% of state’s landmass (Figure 1.2). District-wise

19
forest cover is presented in Table 1.1. Dense forest accounts for only twelve percent of the total
forest cover, whereas open forest covers an area of fifty two percent. Per capita forest and tree
cover in the state is 0.74 hectares, and 92% of the forest area belongs to the community, which
has different management strategies for differently demarcated forestland. The total recorded
forest area is 9,496 sq. km. The reserve and protected forests account for 1,124 sq. km, which
fall under the jurisdiction of the State Government, whereas 8,372 sq. km belong to the
Unclassed Forest, which is managed by the Autonomous District Councils and private owners.

Fig.1.2 Forest cover of Meghalaya (Source: State of Forest Report 2003).

Table 1.1 District-wise forest cover in Meghalaya (Area in sq km)

Forest Cover
Geographic Total
District Dense Open Percentage
Area forest
forest forest
East Garo Hills 2,603 653 1,486 2,139 82.17
South Garo Hills 1,849 599 858 1,457 78.80
East Khasi Hills 2,820 643 1,234 1,877 66.56
Jaintia Hills 3,819 1,006 1,451 2,457 64.34
Ri Bhoi 2,376 863 1,230 2,093 88.09
West Garo Hills 3,715 1,172 1,787 2,959 79.65
West Khasi Hills 5,247 1,555 2,302 3,857 73.51

Total 22,429 6,491 10,348 16,839 75.08

(Source: State of Forest Report-2003, FSI, Dehradun)

Forest Change Over Time

During past about one and half decade (1985-86 to 2001-2003) the forest cover of the state has
not changed significantly. It has mostly fluctuated within one percent from the mean except a
relatively sharp decline in the year 1987-89 and a significant increase in 2001-2003 (Fig 1.3).
The loss in the forest cover is attributable mainly to shifting cultivation and recent increase in
forest cover can be attributed to natural regeneration and regulation on the timber extraction
following Supreme Court of India order of December. 1996.

20
Fig.1.3 Change in Forest Cover of Meghalaya

21
FOREST OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

During the pre-colonial era majority of the forests in the state were managed and controlled by
the community and traditional institutions (TIs) viz., village council, clan council, Syiem Hima,
Syiem Raid and Dolois in Khasi and Jaintia Hills and by the Nokma in the Garo Hills (as
described in the subsequent section). Forests, including water bodies, were managed as a
common property resource, accessible by all the people living within the jurisdiction of the TIs.
After the introduction of “so called” scientific management, large tracts of forests were notified
as reserve forests thus bringing in a change in the ownership of forests (Appendix 1). Another
significant development which had significant impact on the ownership of forests was the
establishment of district councils and subsequent enactment of Autonomous District Council
(Management and Control of Forests) Act (1958). The Act provided a definition and
classification of the forests in the state and requires that them to be registered with the respective
district council.

In the past few decades, large areas of community forests have been converted into private
property, particularly in areas where the practice of shifting cultivation has stopped. Many of
these areas have been converted into plantations and have become private property. Such
instances are very common in South Garo Hills and Ri Bhoi Districts of the state. However, due
lack of cadastral survey in the state, data and authentic record pertaining to the private ownership
of forests are not available. In the government records, all such forests are mentioned as
unclassed forest. The official classification of forests based on ownership is briefly described
hereunder.

Classification of Forests Based on Ownership

The ownership of forest land is determined by Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India. Forest
land can be broadly classified into one of six categories. These are i) forest land owned,
controlled and managed by clans, lineage, families or individuals ii) forest land owned,
controlled and managed by community say village durbar iii) District Councils forest iv) State
Government forests (Reserve Forest and protected forests) v) forest land owned, controlled and
managed by religion-based organizations and vi) forest land owned, controlled, and managed by

22
autonomous institutions or agencies. As per the records of the State Forest Department, the
forests of Meghalaya have been classified into six categories based on the ownership and the
areas covered by each one of them are as follows:

Table 1.3 Classifications of Forests Based on Ownership

Type of Forest Area (sq. km)

a Government Forests (including 993.0

Reserved Forests, National Parks and
Sanctuaries)
b Unclassed Forests 7,146.5
c Private Forests 384.0
d Protected Forests 179.0
e Village Forests 25.9
f Community (Raid) Forests 768.0
(Source: State Forest Department, Meghalaya)

Photo.1.3 Broom grass plantation in Umden village, Ri Bhoi district.

Photo 1.4 A change in land use pattern in Nongkhlaw Syiemship, West Khasi Hills

Institutions Involved in Forest Management

The two major institutions responsible for forest management in Meghalaya are the State Forest
Department and Autonomous District Councils. As shown in the table above, Meghalaya has an
estimated recorded forest area of 9496 sq. km, of which only 983.00 sq. km are under the control
of the State Forest Department. The remaining areas are under the direct/indirect control of the
District Councils of the State.

State Forest Department

The State Forest Department of Meghalaya manages the forest areas under its control by
classifying it into Reserved, Protected and Unclassed forests. Besides these, National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries have been constituted for wildlife management. The reserved forests are

23
managed under the prescription of the ‘working plans’ prepared by the state forest department
and the protected forests are mainly managed for preservation of the catchment areas of water
resources. (Appendix 1).

District Councils
The District Councils are constituted by the members representing the District Council
constituencies, who are elected to office through a regular election like Members of the
legislative assembly of the state. The leader of the party, which gets maximum representation in
the district council, is appointed by the Governor of Meghalaya as its Chief Executive Member
(C.E.M.). On the advice of the C.E.M., the Governor appoints some members as the executive
members.

The District Councils have their own Forest Wing with personnel responsible for management of
forests. The State Forest Department, however, arranges for training of the personnel of the
District Councils on various aspects of forestry education. Sometimes it also deputes senior
Forest Officers to the District Councils.

The District Council has the authority to regulate use and management of about 8,500 sq. km of
forestlands . as per provision of the Section 3 (a) of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of
India. However, in practice, the real authority and control is exercised by owners and TIs, as per
the customary laws and practices prevalent in the state since times immemorial.. The District
Councils can exercise real control only over the erstwhile-protected ‘Sirdarship’ and ‘B-mahal’
forests. In case of forests in the ‘Akhing’ land in Garo Hills, the Nokmas exercise the real
authority over these forests. About 788 ha of Raid (community) forest located in different parts
of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills are controlled by the ‘community’ concerned.

These forests are subjected to various biotic interferences like shifting cultivation, fire, grazing
and unscientific felling and thus most of them have become unproductive and degraded. ‘Sacred
groves’ (Law Lyngdoh/Law Kyntang Law Niam) are found scattered at different places of the
Khasi and Jaintia Hills generally below the hill brows. Traditionally, every village of Meghalaya
has a Sacred Grove. Tiwari et al (1998) have inventorised 79 such groves covering an area of

24
about 10,511.7 ha These groves are considered to be the storehouse of variety of plant genetic
resources.

The forests to which the United Khasi –Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council (Management
and Control of Forests) Act 1958 applies are classified under the following categories:
(i) Private Forests: These forests belong to clans or joint clans and are grown on inherited
recognized private lands (Ri-Kynti).
(ii) Law Ri-Sumar: These forests belong to an individual clan or joint clans and are grown on
inherited or village or common raid lands.
(iii) Law Lyngdoh, Law Kyntang, Law Niam (Sacred groves): These forests are set aside for
religious purposes and are managed by the Lyngdohs (religious heads) or other persons to whom
the religious ceremonies for the particular locality are entrusted.
(iv) Law Adong (Prohibited Forest) and Law Shnong (Village Forest): These are village
forests reserved for the village and managed by the Sirdars, or headman with the help of the
village dorbar.
(v) Protected forests: These are areas already declared protected for the growth of trees for
the benefit of the local inhabitants and also forests that may be so declared by rules under this
Act.
(vi) Green block: These are forests belonging to an individual family or clan or joint clans
and raid lands already declared as Green Block by Government for aesthetic beauty and water
supply of the town of Shillong and its suburbs and also forests that may be so declared by rules
under this Act.
(vii) Raid Forests: These are forests looked after by the heads of the Raid and are under the
management of the local administrative head.
(viii) District Council Reserved Forests: These are forests that may be so declared by the
Executive Committee, under this Act or the rules made there under.
(ix) Unclassed Forests: These are forests known as unclassed state forests before the
commencement of the Constitution of India. They are directly managed and controlled by the
Government and include any other forest(s) not falling within any of the above classification.
However, most forests falling in this category are either under the control and management of
village communities or under jhum.

25
Forest administration in Syiemships

Although the institutional arrangements for forest administration at Syiemship level is by and
large weak throughout the state, as an exception, the forest administrative structure in Mylliem
Syiemship has been traditionally strong and forests under it are comparatively better managed
than that of any other Syiemship. The Syiemship has total staff strength of 150, of which
following are the forestry staff:

 Forest Myntri (Forest Ministers) – 2 Nos.

 Forest Officers – 4 Nos.
 Range Officers – 4 Nos.
 Forest Guards – 2 Nos.

Photo.1.5 Prohibited forest (Law Adong) Pynursla East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya

Land Ownership Patterns

The ownership and access to different type of land use including forest lands is determined by
the traditional/customary laws which may vary from tribe to tribe or even from village to village.
The ownership pattern and accompanying laws in Meghalaya are quite different from those in
other parts of the country and the classification of land varies according to use, ownership,
acquisition etc.

Broadly, land ownership in Meghalaya is of two system, viz. 1) Riotwary and 2) Customary land
tenure system. The principle of Riotwary system is that the Government deals directly with the
actual land holder without the intervention of intermediaries. In customary land tenure, the right
to use or to dispose use right over land depends on whether such rights have been recognized as
legitimate or not by the community. The rules governing the transmission of these rights are
usually explicit and generally known within community.

26
The three important tribes of Meghalaya, viz. Garo, Khasi and Jaintia have different socio-
economic traditions and accordingly, the land ownership pattern in the three tribes also varies
considerably.

Ownership system among Garo

In Garo Hills, Riotwary system is prevalent in the mauzas, which have plain lands, and
customary land tenure system is prevalent in the hill mauzas. The existing pattern of land
ownership in Garo Hills is related to the type of cultivation practiced in the area. Among the
Garo practicing shifting cultivation, private ownership is restricted and everybody has the
usufructory right on land, i.e., they have the right to use land without possessing the actual
ownership. But with the introduction of wet-rice cultivation, which makes private ownership of
the land essential, the private ownership is on increase. In many cases private ownership is
associated with permanent holdings. But, unlike other peasant societies in the plains elsewhere in
India, the Garo, even if they possess some sort of permanent holding cannot transfer it to
outsiders (non-natives) if the holding, is a part of Aabhang land, i.e., the village territory under a
Chief.

Ownership system among Jaintia

In Jaintia Hills, there is no rigid, uniform or regular ownership system worth the name.
However, the land can be placed under the following categories (Lahiri, 1975).Ri Kynti or
private land-Total area under this category is 7266 acres and they are known as “Biniai”.Raij
Land-All Raij lands, which have been brought under wet-rice cultivation, are subject to payment
of annual revenue. The revenue is fixed according to the fertility of the soil.

Total area of land under this category in Jaintia hills district is 19709 acres. Land under
Zamindars-In the border areas (War area) there are some big landholders who are locally known
as Zamindars. There is no record of the number of such Zamindars or the areas of land held by
them. Generally the Zamindars lease out their land on the basis of rent in cash or kind.

In Jaintia Hills the Doloi elected from among the male members of the original clan or clans
(Kurs) who were the earliest settlers of Raij in the pre-British period, had the power and
authority to grant license and patta for cultivation of newly terraced wet-rice cultivation. This

27
privilege remains with the Doloi even today. The individuals granted such new patta for their
wet-rice cultivation have to pay a yearly fee to the Doloi. The Doloi and his deputies share such
payments. In some villages where abundant forests for the jhum cultivation in the Raij lands are
available, the village headman with the help of other village officials distributes the land to all
the families and ensures that all get their due share. The jhum land is divided among the
cultivators according to the ability of each family to cultivate (Gassah, 1980).

Ownership system among Khasi

In Khasi custom, there are many laws related to land and its ownership. Therefore, the
classification of land ownership is extremely complicated (Haloi, 1984). Following four types of
land ownerships have been identified in Khasi Hills.

1) Private Land: The land over which the single owner or individual family enjoys all the right
at will and in no case it is subjected to the control of any superior authority is defined as the
private land. Bareh (1967) described that the owner of this type of land enjoys all the rights over
the land. The owner can sell or buy it at will. No owner needs to pay any revenue to any
authority. The Land Reforms Commission (1974) clarified that the State Assembly or any other
Assembly has no control over the private land except with regard to the settlement of dispute
when they are brought to the Assembly of the village.

The Ri Kynti or private land system endows Ka-Khatduh (youngest daughter) with absolute
possession of land. If the parents of the family do not have any daughter, then the family brings a
‘Ka Khatduh’ from the sister’s family immediately to the mother. In her absence, the family
prefers a cousin daughter from the mother’s side. Through Pynbem (a land distribution
ceremony) land is distributed among the sisters of the family. The mother with an uncle or a
brother living in her house, or with husband or alone may apportion the land among her children.
In case of her death before apportioning the land, the Ka-Khatduh by herself cannot dispose of
the property. Ka-Khatduh as the custodian of the ancestral property is to be assisted by her elder
sisters or brothers in its management. A purchased plot of land also becomes an ancestral
property of the family just after one or two generations.

28
2) Group and Clan Land: The land, over which the owner’s right, especially the transferable
right, is subjected to the control of group-assembly, can be defined as the group land. The group
may consist of a branch of a clan or a group of clans. The members of each and every group are
the owners of the land. Each and every group has its own Dorbar (Assembly). As described by
Chowdhari (1978), all members of the concerning group enjoy user right, occupancy right and
heritable right at will over their land but no one is entitled to sell the land individually.
According to the Land Reform Commission (1974), the right of transfer rests upon the decision
of the concerned assembly or the group.

3) Community Land: The community land cannot be transferred by user or even by the
community assembly, and all other rights pertaining to the land are subjected to the control of the
community assembly. A community may consist of one clan or more than one clan. It may cover
a single village or many villages. Each and every member of the community can enjoy user-
right, occupancy right, and sometimes even heritable right, but only after having the approval of
the Raid-Dorbar or community assembly. The Raid-Dorbar has the authority of allocation and
distribution of community land but cannot sell the community land. Community land is not
heritable or transferable. However, exceptions exist. Roy (1934) explains the situation like this:
if one fails to use and occupy the land after three consecutive fallow years, then the land
automatically goes to the community assembly and the assembly allots user-right and
occupancy-right to others. But if the occupant maintains its use, he can inherit it to his
descendents, but in no case he can enjoy the rights of transfer. According to the Land Reform
Commission (1974), if one has made permanent improvement through the cultivation of
permanent crops and by raising fruit trees or converting the land into wet paddy fields or by
making permanent buildings etc., he may be endowed with transferable rights. Of course a
person loses all rights if he leaves the plot or lets it become a jungle growth. The community
assembly decides the period after which the property may be treated as having reverted back to
the community.

4) Government Land: The community land that has been leased, purchased or acquired under
various rules issued from time to time by the Government can be defined as Government land.
According to the rules, the Government enjoys all rights over the land. The Government land can
be of the following types: Exchanged land, purchased land, leased land and acquired land.

29
Forest Management Practices

Traditional management practices of forests in the state are in vogue since time immemorial and
are closely associated with the land tenure system. The villagers invariably allocate a portion of
land for forest growth while they use the rest of the land for various other purposes. These
traditionally managed forests are under the jurisdiction of the District Council. They bear
different nomenclature with respect to the system of management of the forest area. In the case
of land ownership, in the Khasi Hills itself there are about eleven types of community owned
land and nineteen different types of private land ownership having diverse control and
management systems. The community lands are generally accessible to all the members of the
community /village/clan. However, in case of private land the accessibility is either only to the
owners or in some cases is open to the others for non commercial purposes, such as fuel wood
and NTFP collections.

The issue of land and forest ownership and management form part of the social organization of
these societies. The state has no jurisdictions in the ownership and management of land and
forest owned by the domestic groups or by the clan or by the community. This is because of the
political legitimacy enjoyed by these societies as per the Constitution of India. According to the
beliefs and practices of the tribes, land belongs to the people. Land means both what is above
and inside the land. The government does not own land (except those lands known as the British
areas/villages or government land). The government of Meghalaya or the agencies of the
government of India have to buy land or pay compensation or receives land as contribution from
the community if it is for social service.

Unique socio-political systems and their impact on forest management

Meghalaya falls under the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India. A three-
tier system for political administration is in place. These are: The Legislative Assembly, the
Autonomous District Councils (ADCs), and the Traditional Institutions. Paragraph 12 (a) of the
Sixth Schedule states that the power and authority of the legislative assembly is above the ADCs.
The ADCs have been given with the authority over the traditional institutions, forest, town

30
committee, land, agriculture, veterinary, primary education, land taxes, non-tribal trading license,
and law making relating to customs and traditions as well as administration of justice. The
traditional institutions are directly under the control of the ADCs.

Unlike other states of India where Gram Panchayats form the lowest administrative tier, in
Meghalaya there are traditional institutions. In many ways, this recognition of traditional
institutions legitimizes customary practices.

Traditional institutions are the local administrative units which look after the well being of the
communities as well as management of natural resources of the area under their jurisdiction. The
main task of the TIs is to formulate rules and laws for smooth administration and for managing
the common property resources. The village is the basic unit in the traditional institutions. It is
the centre of community life and activities. Within the village, the village council is the authority
in controlling and managing its affairs. The activities of the village council range from law and
order, protecting customary beliefs and practices, and initiating developmental programmes.
Each village is governed, managed and controlled by the village councils. A headman chairs and
represents the village council. Adult male members of the domestic groups are members of the
village council as per the traditions. Every permanent resident of the village and belonging to a
clan is recognized socially and enjoys the right of protection from the village council and also the
use of common property resources. The functional aspects of the village councils are
maintenance of law and order, settling of intra -village disputes, settling of disputes in the
village, community development, and interaction with government departments and
implementation of government schemes.

Box 1.1 Three types of Political Administration in Meghalaya

The State Government and its various departments/units
The Autonomous District Councils
The Traditional Institutions known in various local terms for example:
 Garo Hills – Nokmaship
 Jaintia Hills – Doloiship
 Khasi Hills – Syiemship, Lyngdohship, Wahadadarship
Under each of the traditional institutions there are village councils run and managed by a
representative head referred as Headman/Goan Bura

31
32
ECONOMY AND LIVELIHOODS

The majority of the population of the state lives in the rural area. As per the 2001 Census of
India, the rural area covers ninety nine percent of the total geographical area and accounts for
eighty percent of the population. Between the period 1981 to 2001, the rural population of the
state marginally decreased by only two percent indicating a very slow rate of urbanization, which
in turn indicates the lack of structural transformation in the economy and high dependence of the
population on rural based livelihood, namely agriculture and allied activities (Table 1.7).

Table 1.3 Area, population, decadal growth rate and population density in different
districts of Meghalaya.

Area Population
Districts

Sq. km Combined Rural Decadal growth rate Population

population (%) (1991 to 2001) Density (2001)
East Khasi Hills 2748 660923 56 22.88 241
West Khasi Hills 5247 296049 88 33.59 56
Jaintia Hills 3819 299108 92 34.12 78
Ri Bhoi 2448 192790 93 51.44 79
West Garo Hills 3677 518390 89 27.98 141
East Garo Hills 2603 250582 86 31.10 96
South Garo Hills 1887 100980 91 28.59 54
22429 2318822 80 29.94 103
Meghalaya

(Source: Census of India, 2001)

All the districts have a rural population of well over eighty five percent except in East Khasi
Hills where it is fifty six percent. While the density of population of the state as a whole is 103
persons per sq km, there is wide variation amongst the districts with East Khasi Hills at 231 and
South Garo Hills at 54. About eighty five percent of the total 5600 villages are very small in size
with population of less than 500. Further, in most villages located in the interior areas, the
population is very small and the households widely scattered from one hill to another depending

33
upon the availability of cultivable land. The average size of the households is 5.5. This dispersal
of the rural population poses a challenge for the extension of infrastructure and required services
to the people.

Economy of Meghalaya

The study of the structural variables at the state and inter-state levels through indicators such as
gross domestic product and per capita income quantifies the growth of the economy over a
period of time. The relative importance of the different economic activities to the economy, both
at the state and districts level, can also be analyzed. This section looks at the available data for
the whole State as well as specific areas in order to examine at the current livelihood activities
and their importance to the economy.

The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) at current prices for 2002-23 (GOM, 2003) is
estimated at Rs. 43429.2 million, with the per capita income at current prices for the
corresponding period at Rs.18065. A study of the real growth of the economy through a review
of the estimates of the GSDP at constant (1993-94) prices of the state of Meghalaya during the
1993-94 –2002-03 indicates wide fluctuation in the growth rate (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4 GSDP at constant (1993-94) prices (in Millions)

1993-94 1995-96 2002-03

RS. 15110.5 Rs. 17310.4 RS. 26422.7

The real per capita income at constant (1993-94) prices shows that during the period 1993-94 to
2002-03 it increased from Rs.7957 to Rs.10991. The per capita income for the state is the lowest
when compared to the other smaller states of the country (Debroy, 2002). In 1999-2000, the
share of East Khasi Hills was the largest in the GSDP (GoM, 2003) at thirty seven percent
followed by West Garo Hills (seventeen percent), and Jaintia Hills (sixteen percent). The share
of the other districts was below ten percent of the GSDP. From the estimates of the real per
capita GSDP of the districts, the three districts of West Khasi Hills, East Garo Hills, West Garo
Hills and Ri Bhoi can be clubbed together as those with lower real per capita of below Rs. 8500,
while the other districts have higher real per capita of around Rs. 13000. The macro indicators of

34
the state economy shows that like the rest of the country the tertiary sector dominates the sectoral
contribution and accounts for fifty three percent of the GSDP during the years 2002-2003 at
constant (1993-94) prices. The contribution of the primary and secondary sector for the same
period was thirty-two and fifteen percent respectively. An analysis of the temporal changes in the
sectoral contribution shows that during the period 1993- 94 to 2002-03 there have been marginal
changes in the relative contribution of the three sectors (Table 1.5).

Table 1.5 Sectoral Contribution to GSDP for 1999-2000 at constant (1993-94) prices

Districts % Share of % sectoral share in the Gross

the Districts Domestic Products
districts in Primary Secondary Tertiary
the GSDP
East Khasi Hills 37 16 15 69
West Khasi Hills 9 33 20 47
Jaintia Hills 16 52 10 38
Ribhoi 7 37 23 40
West Garo Hills 17 39 13 48
East Garo Hills 8 40 14 46
South Garo Hills 6 62 9 29
Meghalaya 100 32 15 53

A review of the different economic activities shows that for the state agriculture is the main
activity contributing twenty four percent of the GSDP in 1999-2000 at constant (1993-94) prices.
The other main contributors to the state economy are Trade and Hotel Industry (fourteen percent)
followed by public administration (thirteen percent), Real estate, Ownership of dwelling and
Business services (ten percent) construction (nine percent ) and Mining and quarrying (eight
percent). The share of manufacturing was at dismal low of two percent.

At the inter-state level there is wide variation in the relative importance of the different economic
activities to the district economy. We found that in Jaintia Hills district mining and quarrying (at
thirty two percent) is the largest contributor to the GDDP. This activity is also important for
South Garo Hills contributing twenty nine percent to the GDDP. About half of the contribution
of the manufacturing sector to the GSDP originates from East Khasi Hills and one fifth from Ri
Bhoi district. Also, the district accounts for sixty one percent of the contribution of public

35
administration to GSDP. In West Khasi Hills and Ri Bhoi districts, the contribution of
agriculture to the district economy is the highest at twenty-five and thirty four percent
respectively of the respective GSDP.

The impact of the Supreme Court order of December 1996 on logging can be seen on the
declining share of Forestry and Logging in the GSDP. Before the order in 1995-96, the
contribution of this sector to the GSDP, though not very high, was about two percent in 1995-96
at constant (1993-94) prices. This has come down and in 1999-2000 it was less than one percent.
Amongst the districts, the share of this activity in the GDDP is very small with the highest
contribution being in the economy of West Khasi Hills (five percent of GDDP). With seventy
five percent of the state’s geographic area covered by forest, there is a very strong dependency of
the rural community, especially the poor rural households, on forest. This range from the supply
of vast quantities of NTFP for diverse end uses for subsistence and cottage industries, to
providing a source of food, fodder, fuel wood (as per 2001 census ninety four percent of the rural
households use firewood for cooking) for making household articles, implements and for
construction materials (Tiwari, 2000).

In all the three Garo Hills districts about one third of the GDDP originates from agriculture
making it the most important economic activities. In all the districts of the state, the two
activities categorized as Trade/Hotel/ restaurant and construction play an important role in terms
of their contribution to the district economy. The lack of industrial development is clearly seen in
the contribution of this activity to the state income at a paltry two percent only.

Main Livelihood Activities of the Population

The above analysis clearly shows that the state economy is heavily dependent on agriculture
followed by the services sector. This trend is also evident in the number of people working in the
different sectors of the economy as shown in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6 Distribution of working population. (In percentage)

Work force Main Cultivators Agriculture Households Other

36
 participation workers laborers Industries Workers

Meghalaya 41.8 32.6 48.1 17.7 2.2 32

East Khasi 38.8 33.2 23.5 13.7 1.6 61.2

Hills

West Khasi 43.6 33.0 60.2 23.3 1.6 14.9

Hills

Jaintia Hills 42.4 32.6 47.1 28.6 2.1 22.2

Ri bhoi 46.4 37 56.7 18.4 1.8 23.1

West Garo 40.2 31.4 54.4 16.4 3.2 26.1

Hills

East Garo 44.7 31.4 67.9 12.1 2.9 17.1

Hills

South Garo 47.4 31.0 61.2 12.6 2.0 24.3

Hills

(Source: Census of India, 2001).

The data in table 1.6 shows a worker participation rate of forty two percent with high
participation of female in economic activities in all categories of workers except for services
sector. About two third of the working population depend on agriculture and allied activities. In
rural Meghalaya, this figure is even higher with seventy five percent of the working population
employed in this sector. Thus, while the primary sector contributes about one third of the GSDP,
it provided employment to two third of the workers. This clearly poses a question as to the
number of people who are gainfully employed in agriculture in the state.

Apart from agriculture, the services sector is another important source of employment in the
state. In the urban area the majority (eighty nine percent) of the workforce are involved in
services sector. Even in rural area the importance of this sector can be gauged from the fact that
twenty two percent of the workforces are employed in this sector.

For the districts, the trends of worker participation in economic activities correspond to that of
the State, except of East Khasi Hills where we find that majority of workers are involved in the

37
services sectors (sixty one percent). The share of the workers involved in industries for the state
was a low of two percent showing the failure of industries to absorb the surplus labour that is
currently employed in agriculture and other activities.

Another source of data for the study of the participation of work force in different activities,
especially the non-agriculture sector, is the Economic Census undertaken by the state
government periodically. According to the result of the latest census (GoM, 1998), there were
56,497 enterprises in the state employing 184453 persons usually working. Of these, ninety six
percent consisted of non-agriculture activity and the rest of enterprises engaged in agriculture
activities (other than crop production). In terms of employment ninety seven percent of those
usually working in these enterprises are engaged in the non-agriculture activities.

Table 1.7 Economic Census Government of Meghalaya (1998)

No. of Rural Areas Urban Areas Persons Agriculture Non

Enterprises usually activity Agriculture
working activity

56,497 3.70 % 96.30 % 184453 2.53 % 97.47 %

A comparison of the result with the last two Economic censuses (1980 and 1998) shows that
between the period 1980 and 1998, there has been a fall in the number of agriculture enterprises
which is accompanied by an almost doubling of non agriculture activities. When this result is
analyzed with the other data discussed above it reflects that the rural population is increasing
who are dependants on cultivation and plantation. This thus presents an opportunity for the
development of agriculture based enterprises such as livestock production and allied activities
the development of which have been affected by the concentration of the people in trade and
business services activities (NABARD, 2004-05). In fact in the non-agriculture enterprises the
three activities consisting of wholesale and retail trade, community/social/and personal services
and restaurants and hotels are the three most important activities, both in rural and urban areas, in
terms of no of enterprises and also employment. A high percentage of the enterprises are small-
scale operations employing less than six persons (ninety five percent of all the enterprises) and

38
not using power or fuel (eighty four percent). It shows that the high growth of small enterprises
in activities like retail trade and restaurants is a result of distress diversification in the absence of
alternative livelihood opportunities in the state.

Agriculture in Meghalaya

With two third of the population engaged in agriculture and allied activities any discussion of the
economy and livelihood opportunities will not be complete unless we analyze the current
position of this key activity. The topography of the state is such that it consists predominantly of
mountainous terrain with narrow valleys in between and strips of plain land in the southwest and
north bordering Bangladesh and Assam respectively. The diversity in topography is further
extended to the climate with the state being divided into five agro-climatic sub zones as per the
Working group of Zonal Planning Team, Eastern Himalayan Region. The nature of the terrain
makes the net availability of land for cultivation at only ten percent of the total geographical area
and the possibility of mechanized cultivation limited. Over the years more land has been brought
under cultivation as the net area sown has increased considerably between 1973 and 2003.
Agriculture in the state is highly dependent on the monsoon with the irrigation coverage being
only nineteen percent of the total cropped area.

Paddy is the main food-crop grown in the state. Besides maize, wheat, millets and pulses, potato,
jute and mesta, cotton, mustard, ginger, turmeric, areca nut and betel leaf are some of the
important cash crops produced in the state. Among the horticultural crops, banana, pineapple,
citrus fruits mainly oranges are grown in abundance in medium and lower altitude regions and
fruits like plum, pears and peaches are grown in the high altitude temperate region. Though the
state is deficit in terms of food grains production, there are surplus cash crops and horticultural
crops.

The total food grains productions in Meghalaya stands at 223728 tones. Paddy is the most
important cereal being produce in all the districts and whose contribution in the total food grains
production being almost eighty five percent. In spite of the increase in the food grain production
over the years, the state still faces a deficit in food grain production.

39
Photo1.6 Agricultural land near Mawdiangdiang village, East Khasi Hills.

In the production of cash, commercial and horticulture crop such as Potato (grown mainly in East
Khasi Hills), jute and mesta, short staple cotton, turmeric, areca nut, betelvine, banana,
pineapple, oranges, tea, coffee and also different vegetables, the state has constantly recorded an
increase with some of these crops like ginger becoming an important export item (NABARD,
2004-05). Today, a major chunk of the bank credit to agriculture goes to plantation and
horticulture activities.

The development of the economy of the state is closely linked to the progress of the agriculture.
Due to the limitation on availability of agricultural land, the strategy to be adopted is to enhance
per unit production through scientific management practices and get the substantial income
through value addition. This will not only sustain agriculture rather it will create employment
opportunity and thereby improve the socio-economic standard of the people of the state.

Despite the crop diversification that has occurred, there are many farmers in the state, especially
those in the interior that has remain untouched by the changes. These subsistence farmers still
practice shifting cultivation and are yet to embark on market led production. Data on the number
of families practicing shifting cultivation are given in Table 1.8.

Table 1.8 District-wise number of shifting cultivator (S.C.) families in Meghalaya

Name of Total No. of Population Percentage of the Annual Percentage of
District Population families dependent SC population Area under annual SC area
(Rural) dependent on jhum from the total SC in Sq from the total
on jhum rural population km. geographical
area.
East Khasi 383027 721 3605 0.94 6.20 0.23
Hills
Ri Bhoi 179630 4351 21755 12.11 27.40 1.53
West Khasi 260595 5374 26870 10.31 46.19 0.88
Hills
Jaintia Hills 270669 1366 6830 2.52 11.74 0.31
East Garo 211652 13630 68150 32.20 117.15 4.50
Hills
West Garo 457422 18086 90430 19.77 155.45 4.19
Hills
South Garo 90462 7900 39500 43.66 67.87 3.67
Hills
TOTAL: 1853457 51428 257140 13.87 432.00 1.97
(Source: Soil & Water Conservation Department, Government of Meghalaya, 2000)

40
There are many factors impeding the growth of agriculture such as the lack of marketing
infrastructure, primitive mode of cultivation, ignorance and the lack of knowledge and of
awareness amongst the farmers, low level of mechanization, lack of supporting institutions,
small land holdings, and the land tenure system. These issues have to be addressed to enable the
farmers to improve their conditions.

Not only can agriculture and allied activities help in development of agro-based industries, but
also in promoting the growth of other activities in the rural non-farm sector. For example, the
promotion and production of bamboo in the district of Ri Bhoi and West Garo Hills of the state
has served as a catalyst in the over all prosperity of the farmers in these areas. No wonder it is
now very popular and its cultivation is spreading in other districts. The rearing of animals is
another important activity that has enormous potential to provide gainful livelihood to the rural
population. It has been found during our study that in many villages of West Khasi Hill district
animal husbandry fetches more income than the agriculture. The dietary habits of the people
provide a ready market for the livestock reared, which are as of now largely imported from
outside the state.

Forest and Livelihood

About seventy five percent of landmass of the state is under forest cover (FSI Report, 2003) with
ninety percent of the total forest cover occupied by tropical moist deciduous forests. Dense
forests occupy only thirty eight percent of the total forestland and sixty two percent of the forests
are open forests. The presence of this rich forest cover favoured development of traditional
management practices that are closely associated with the land tenure system. The villagers
invariably allocate a portion of land for forest growth while they use the rest of the land for
various other purposes.

The forests of the state are the source of livelihood for many poors as well as landless people,
who do not have any alternate livelihood options. They provides subsistence livelihood to a vast
section of population, by way of labour in extraction and processing of timber, charcoal making,
collection and marketing of NTFP/MAPs and government sponsored afforestation projects.
Bamboo, cane and wood-based handicraft and furniture units play a key role in providing

41
livelihood to most of the rural poor. Majority of the populace, who live in the rural areas in the
vicinity of the forests solely rely on the collection and commercialization of timber, fuelwood
and many other Non Timber Forest Products for their livelihood. According to a study (Tiwari,
2002) there are 380 different types of NTFPs which are collected by the people of the state.
Another study on the occupational composition of the people in the state shows that almost fifty
seven percent of the sample households in rural area are engaged in NTFP collection (CUTS
2002). The forests of the state are very rich in NTFP and there is enough scope for increasing
income by using scientific management techniques in harvesting, cultivation, processing, value
addition and marketing of these products. Some important causes for low benefit accruing to
people from forests include: nonexistence of any management plan for the forests out side
jurisdiction of state forest department and poor mechanism for transfer of technology and
management skills to forest owning communities.

Photo 1.7 Rural communities engaged in collection of firewood

Photo 1.8 Bamboo mat weaving in Tangmang village, Pynursla.

Type of Forest Produce Commonly Used

The forests of Meghalaya are not valuable only for the timber they produce but substantial
quantities of NTFPs for diverse end uses as well as for subsistence and cottage industries are
extracted everyday from these forests. In addition to many timber tree species, the people of the
state use several hundreds of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) which are used as food, fodder,
fuel wood, for making household articles, implements and for construction materials. The
following pie chart -shows a glimpse of the importance of NTFP in Meghalaya (Fig. 1.4).
Important non timber forest products of the state can be categorized into two classes i)
Commercial forest products and ii) Subsistence forest products. Many species of Bamboo and
Cane, Broom grass, Firewood, Bay leaf, bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Amla (Emblica)
fruits, Wild pepper, Wood lichen, Stone lichen, Charcoal and medicinal plants fall in the first
category. Forest product which are mostly used for subsistence but which have equally good
market potential are Honey, Phoenix spp., Luffa spp., pine cones and seeds, edible nuts like
Castanopsis hysterix (Sohot), edible fruits like Prunus nepalensis (Sohiong), Myrica nagi

42
(Sohphie nam), Eleagnus khasianum (Sohshang), Flemengia vestita (Sohphan), Docynis indica
khasiana (Soh Phoh Khasi), Zanthozylum khasianum (Jaiur), ornamentals like Orchids,
Rhododendrons,

Fig. 1.4 End uses of NTFPs in Meghalaya

Mushrooms, Pine seeds and Torchwood. A number of these products have a very good market
within the state as well as outside the state also. People preferences, climate suitability and
market availability of some NTFPs of the state is given in Table 1.9.

Table 1.9 Climate suitability, market availability and people’s preference of some NTFPs of
Meghalaya ( Rank score: 0=Poor, 1=Average, 2=Good, 3=V.Good, 4=Excellent)
Sl Local/Species Name Months of Climate Market People’s Total
No. Harvest Preference score
1. Calamus sp. Jun-Sep 3 4 1 8
2. Bambusa sp. Year round 3 3 2 8
3. Phrynium sp. Year round 4 2 3 9
4. Apis sp. Nov-Mar 2 4 3 9
5. Cinamomum tamala Oct-Feb 2 3 3 8
6. Eurya acuminata Nov-Mar 3 4 2 9
7. Piper khasianum Mar- Jun 3 3 2 9
8. Mushrooms Apr-Oct 3 4 2 9
9. Orchids Year Round 3 4 2 9
10. Thysanolaena maxima Feb-Apr 2 3 1 6
11. Flemingia vestita Nov- Mar 3 3 3 9
12. Phoenix sp Oct-Mar 3 4 3 10
13. Luffa sp. Sept- Nov 3 3 2 8
( Source: RC:NAEB, NEHU, Shillong)

Dependence of people on the forest

43
The availability of forest in neighborhood, occupation of the household, remoteness of the place
and level of income of the household determine degree of dependence of people on forest. The
rural people and in particular, shifting cultivators, herbal medicine practitioners, marginal
farmers and agricultural laborers are most dependent on the forests. One of the important
products extracted from the forests is fuel wood, as most rural and a sizeable section of urban
population use fuel wood for cooking and space heating. The community forests, (viz.,
LawShnong, Law Raid and Law Kur) are the important source of fuel wood.
Photo 1.9 Women collecting wild yam from a jhum fallow in Garo Hills.
Photo 1.10 Water source from forest in Saitbakon village, Pynursla.

A section of rural population also make their living by collection and selling of fuelwood. The
collection of leafy vegetables, mushrooms, edible fruits and tuber from forests is a common sight
in rural Meghalaya. During periods of food scarcity particularly in remote villages, the
dependence of people on edible products from forests increases to a great extent (Tiwari and
Rani, 2004). There are thousands of herbal medicine practitioners in Meghalaya who are the
backbone of health care system of rural as well as some urban centers of the state. A significant
section of society still depends on the folk medicines collected from forests (Tiwari et al 2004).
People of Meghalaya also collect water from the forests and look to the forests as source of clean
water as rural people often believe that water from the forest is sweeter than the tap water. A
number of villages of Meghalaya have sacred forests which are also viewed as abode of village
deity who protects the village from natural calamity, famine and disease (Tiwari et al 1998).
Thus people also look at the forests for spirituality and divine blessings. However, during recent
years the degree of dependency on the forests for fuel wood, edibles, and medicines is on
decline. This has several reasons: easy access to other source of fuel like kerosene and LPG
particularly in cities and towns, development of market network and easy availability of food
grains and allopathic medicines. Except few surveys conducted by the researchers at NEHU, no
data is available on the extent of dependence of people on forest and also change, if any.
Therefore, there is a need to undertake a study using standard research tools to further investigate
the people forest interface in the sate.

Identification of forest based livelihood opportunities

44
Subsistence agriculture which provides livelihood to about eighty percent people in rural
Meghalaya is practiced on less than ten percent of the land at any given point of time. Therefore
there is very little scope of providing any additional job to rapidly growing population of the
state in agriculture sector. In comparison to this, seventy five percent of landmass of the state is
under forest cover, thus there is ample scope to develop livelihood opportunities for the rural
people in this sector. The forests are providing subsistence livelihood to a vast section of
population, by way of labour in extraction and processing of timber, charcoal making, collection
and marketing of NTFP and MAPs, and government sponsored afforestation projects. Ninety two
percent of forests of the state are out side control of state forest department. This can be taken as
an opportunity as the benefits of these forests can reach directly to the people who own and
manage the forests. Some social groups viz., War Khasis and War Jaintias have standardized
well developed system of forest gardens (Ka Bri) which are economically remunerative and
ecologically sound for the particular edapho-climatic conditions. Such traditional ecological
knowledge also adds to the forest based livelihood opportunities of the state. However, only a
miniscule of real potential has been realized. The forests of the state are very rich in NTFP and
MAPs and there is enough scope for increasing income by using scientific management
techniques in harvesting, cultivation, processing, value addition and marketing of these products.
Some important causes for low benefit accruing to people from forests include: nonexistence of
any management plan for the forests out side jurisdiction of state forest department and poor
mechanism for transfer of technology and management skills to forest owning communities.
These are also the most important causes for low biomass productivity of forests and their
degradation.

Thus, there exists ample forest based livelihood opportunities in terms of rich biological
resources, management regimes as well as in the field of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
which can be used for enhancing the quality of life of rural poor. Through research input and
introduction of appropriate technology and management, the productivity of the forests of the
state can be increased manifold and thereby create new employment opportunities for the people
in all sectors of state’s economy and also help maintain a healthy ecosystem.

45
Products cultivated (C) or nurtured (N)
People of Meghalaya have developed a traditional method of cultivating and nurturing plants of
economic value within the forests. Several economically important and socially useful product
yielding forest plants and a variety of mushrooms are cultivated or nurtured by the local
communities in their community and private forests. Most common among these are: Trees-
Artocarpus heterophyllus (N), Baccaurea sapida (N), Bambusa tulda(N&C), Bambusa
auriculata(N&C), Castanopsis indica(N),Citrus maxima(C), Cinnamomum tamala(N), C.
zeylanicam(N), Dendrocalamus giganteus(N), Docynia hookeriana(C), Emblica indica(N),
Eurya acuminata(N), Gynocardia odorata(N), Phoenix sylvestris (N), Litsea citrata(N), Myrica
indica(N), Psidium guajava (N), Tamarindus indica (N), Citrus karma (C), Litchi chinensis (C),
Saraca asoca(N),Climbers- Calamus floribundus(N)), Entada scandens(N) Elaegnus
conferta(N), Hodgsonia hiteroclita(N), Luffa aegyptica(C), Piper longum (C) , P. griffithii,(C)
Smilax perfoliata (N), Tinospora cordifolia(N), Trichosanthes lepiniana(C), Shrubs/Herbs-
Viburnum foetidum (N), Fagopyrum cymosum (C&N), Impereta cylendrica (N), Calamus
arborescens (N), Gaultheria fragrantissima (N), Thysanolaena maxima (C), Phrynium pubinerve
(C), Zizyphus mauritiana (N&C) Solanum indicum (N&C) and Flemingia vestita(C),.

People of Meghalaya also use forests for cultivation of commercial crops such as betel leaf, betel
nut, jack fruit, pineapple, ginger, broom grass etc. In local language such forests are known as
Ka Bri and can be of different types (Appendix 3).

46
POLICIES AND REGULATIONS

Forest policies are required in order to achieve sustainable forest management. The forest
legislations, acts or laws are the vehicle for implementation of the forest policies. It empowers
the authorities to protect the forest and regulate extraction and movement of forest products. In
practice, legislations are accompanied and guided by various rules, codes, procedures, directives,
standing instructions, etc. of the government or appropriate authority in the government. Like in
any other parts of India, in Meghalaya also a number of legislations have been enacted by the
Central as well as the State government so as to deal with the diverse dimension related to
forestry and wildlife in the state.

Key policy milestones related to ownership of land and forest

Article 244 and 244 A of the Constitution of India specify that provisions of fifth and sixth
schedules shall apply to the administration and control of scheduled areas, scheduled tribes and
tribal areas including autonomous district councils of Meghalaya ( i.e. Khasi, Jaintia and Garo).
All the areas (barring a few ha of commercial lands in Shillong) in Meghalaya fall under the
jurisdiction of one of the three Autonomous District Councils. Thus, very little forest areas are
under the control of the forest department and by virtue of the sixth schedule, tribal people of
Meghalaya own about ninety two percent of the total forest land and resources on such lands.
Other important regulations and acts governing the land and forest ownership in the state are:
The Garo Hills District (Jhum) Regulation, 1954, Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills District (Forest)
Acts, 1958, Garo Hills Regulations, 1882 and Land Transfer Act, 1776. The following Acts are
the most important concerning the extraction and utilization of forest produce in the state:
 Meghalaya Forest Regulation, 1980 (Adopted from Assam Forest Regulation, 1890)
 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
 The United Khasi and Jaintia Hills Autonomous District (Management and Control of
forest) Act, 1958,
 Garo Hills Autonomous District Council Forest Act, 1958

47
 The Garo Hills Regulation, 1882 (Regulation 1 of 1882)
 Meghalaya Forest Regulation (Application and Amendment) Act, 1973
 Meghalaya Forest (Removal of Timber) Regulation Act, 1981
 Meghalaya Tree Preservation Act, 1976
 Meghalaya Protection of Catchment Areas Act, 1990
 The Bengal Cruelty to Animal Act, 1869
 The Meghalaya Wild Animal and Birds Protection Act, 1971 (Act 9 of 1971)
 Garo Hill District (Forest) Act, 1958
 Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981
 The Wildlife (Transaction and Taxidermy) Rules, 1973
 The Wildlife (Stock declaration ) central Rules, 1973
 The Wildlife (Protection) Licensing (additional matters for consideration) Rules, 1983
Besides, Joint Forest Management Guidelines of 2003 and Guidelines for Forest Development
Agencies, 2003 have also direct impact on the sharing of usufructs and benefits out of plantation
forestry.

Supreme court order

The portions of the Supreme Court order (dated 12 December, 1996) that has direct relevance to
the forests of Meghalaya are reproduced here under verbatim.
Order: “………………It has emerged at the hearing, that there is a misconception in certain
quarters about the true scope of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (for short the ‘Act’) and the
meaning of the word “forest” used therein. There is also a resulting misconception about the
need of prior approval of the Central Government, as required by section 2 of the Act, in respect
of certain activities in the forest area which are more often of a commercial nature. It is
necessary to clarify that position. The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted with a view to
check further deforestation which ultimately results in ecological imbalance; and therefore, the
provisions made therein for the conservation of forests and for matters connected therewith,
must apply to all forests irrespective of the nature of ownership or classification thereof. The
word “forest” must be understood according to its dictionary meaning. This description covers
all statutorily recognized forests, whether designated as reserved, protected or otherwise for the
purpose of section 2(i) of the Forest Conservation Act. The term “forest land”, occurring in

48
section 2, will not only include “forest” as understood in the dictionary sense, but also any area
recorded as forest in the Government record irrespective of the ownership. This is how it has to
be understood for the purpose of section 2 of the Act. The provision enacted in the Forest
Conservation Act, 1980 for the conservation of forests and the matters connected therewith must
apply clearly to all forests so understood irrespective of the ownership or classification thereof.
…………………..”

General Clause 1: In view of the meaning of the word “forest” in the Act, it is obvious that prior
approval of the Central Government is required for any non-forest activity within the area of any
“forest”. In accordance with section 2 of the Act, all on-going activity within any forest in any
State throughout the country, without the prior approval of the Central Government, must cease
forthwith. It is, therefore, clear that the running of saw mills of any kind including veneer or ply-
wood mills, and mining of any mineral are non-forest purposes and are, therefore, not
permissible without prior approval of the Central Government. Accordingly, any such activity is
prima facie violation of the provisions of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980. Every State
Government must promptly ensure total cessation of all such activities forthwith.

Clause 3: The felling of trees in all forests is to remain suspended except in accordance with the
Working Plans of the State Governments, as approved by the Central Government. In the
absence of any Working Plan in any particular State, such as Arunachal Pradesh, where the
permit system exists, the felling under the permits can be done only by the Forest Department of
the State Government or the State Forest Corporation.

Clause 4: There shall be a complete ban on the movement of cut trees and timber from any of the
seven North-Eastern States to any other State of the country either by rail, road or waterways.
The Indian Railways and the State Governments are directed to take all measures necessary to
ensure strict compliance of this direction. This ban will not apply to the movement of certified
timber required for defence or other Government purposes. This ban will also not affect felling in
any private plantation comprising of trees planted in any area which is not a forest.

49
Further in its order dated 15th January, 1998, the Supreme Court directed as follows (only
relevant and important clauses are quoted):

Clause 23: Working plans for forest divisions shall be prepared by the State Governments and
got approved from the Government of India. Forest working shall be carried out strictly in
accordance with the approved prescriptions of the working plans. The working plan should be
prepared within a period of two years. During the interregnum the forest shall be worked
according to an annual felling programme approved by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF) which shall be incorporated in the concerned working plan. In case a working plan is not
prepared within this time frame, future felling will remain suspended till the regular working
plan is prepared and got approved.

Clause 24: The forests under the District, Regional and Village Councils shall be worked in
accordance with working schemes which shall specify both the programme for regeneration and
harvesting and whose period shall not be less than 5 years.

Clause 25: The maximum permissible annual yield in the ad interim measures suggested above,
shall not exceed the annual harvestable yield determined by Ministry of Environment and
Forests. The plantation schemes raised on private and community holdings shall be excluded
from these requirements but shall be regulated under respective State rules and regulations.

Clause 26: The States shall identify ecologically sensitive areas in consultation with leading
institutions like the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Wild Life Institute of
India, North-Eastern Hill University, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and
Technology, leading NGOs etc., and ensure that such areas are totally excluded from any kind of
exploitation. The minimum extent of such areas shall be ten percent of the total forest area in the
state. ……………..”

In its order dated 12th May, 2001 the Supreme Court further reiterates:

………..Clause “3: Felling of trees from forests shall be only in accordance with working

50
plans/schemes or felling schemes approved by Ministry of Environment and Forests as per this
Court’s Order dated 15.0±.1998. It is again clarified that such working plans/schemes shall also
be needed for felling of trees from any non-government forest area including the lands which are
required to be treated as “forest” as per this Court’s order dated 12.12.1996. While implementing
the working plans/schemes approved by the Central Government, State Government or the
Concerned Authority, as the case may be, shall ensure that no felling is done unless and until
sufficient financial provisions exist for regeneration of such areas as per this Court’s direction
dated 29.9.2000. For felling of trees from non-forest area including in respect of plantations on
non-forest areas, detailed guidelines/rules shall be framed by the concerned State Governments
which shall come into effect after the same are concurred with modification, if any, by the
Ministry of the Environment and Forests. The guidelines/rules shall also include provision for
penalties and mode of disposal in respect of any felling done in violation of such
guidelines/rules. Till such guidelines/rules become effective, no felling from any area other than
under approved working plans/schemes or felling schemes shall be permitted. The schemes,
guidelines/rules which shall be framed by the concerned State Government within three months
and decision thereon shall be taken by the Ministry of Environment & Forests within one month
of the date of receipt.”

“Clause 13: State of Meghalaya wanted that the natural forests including artificially generated
pine plantations on private holdings in Meghalaya may be allowed to be harvested in accordance
with the time honoured customary and traditional rights subject to the rules and regulations
framed by the concerned autonomous district councils under the provisions of their management
and Control of Forest Act, 1958, read with the provisions of the Meghalaya Forest (Removal of
Timber) Regulation Act, 1981, and prescribed norms as per duly approved working schemes.
Ministry of Environment & Forests will give its response to this request at the next date of
hearing.” ………………….
The Supreme Court intervention for regulating the extraction of forest produce from all types of
forests irrespective of their ownership has created considerable resentment among the
communities particularly the forest owners. This often has been viewed as a contradiction to the
rights and privileges given to them vide sixth schedule of the Indian Constitution. On the other

51
hand, the conservationists view the Supreme Court order as a welcome step to protect the forests
of the state.

Role of State Forest Department and District Council

State Forest Department

Although there is no formal forest policy adopted yet in the state (a draft policy paper was
prepared in 1980 but not yet approved), the policy of the state forest department has been to
increase the forest cover of the state by discouraging and regulating the felling in all categories
of forests and greening the barren areas which are under the constitutional jurisdiction of the
District Councils. Attempts are also being made to streamline the administration of the forest and
forestland under a single umbrella christened as ‘unified control and management of the forests’
of District Councils and the State Forest Department. Many rounds of discussions have taken
place between the authorities of the District Council and the State Government but no tangible
result has come out so far. Besides, it is also the intention of the Department to create village
reserve forests all over the State, in the same manner as the erstwhile village forests established
by the people themselves during the pre-British period. The policy, inter alia, also lays stress
upon the regulation of shifting cultivation, which is one of the major factors causing
deforestation in the state

The existing Assam Forest Regulation adopted by the state as the Meghalaya Forests Regulation
is far from adequate to achieve the aims and objectives of the policy. Therefore, a few other acts
have been legislated like the Meghalaya (Removal of Timber) Regulation Act, 1981, the
Meghalaya Tree Preservation Act, 1976 etc. The Meghalaya Tree Preservation Act, 1976 was
legislated with the prima facie objective of preventing the felling of trees within a radius of 10
km from the heart of Shillong. There is also an enabling provision to extend the same to the other
district headquarters. However, the enforcement of the provisions of most of the Acts has been
far from satisfactory.

Normally, as per provision of the Sixth schedule of the Constitution of India, it is not possible for
the State Government to interfere with the administration of forests in the Sixth scheduled areas.

52
But through separate legislation, the State Government Acts and Rules can supercede the
existing District Councils Acts also. Therefore, to discourage the felling of small trees in the
District Council areas, the Acts attempt to regulate the marketing of the forest produce outside
the state. This has been done based upon the logic that about eighty percent of the timbers
extracted from these forests go outside the state and the people of the state utilize hardly twenty
per cent. Likewise, to conserve and preserve the forests in the critical catchment areas of the
important rivers of the state, the Meghalaya Protection of Catchment Areas Act, 1990 has been
enacted which regulates tree felling in these forests.

District Council
The District Councils have legislated separate forest acts and rules more or less in line with and
in the same pattern as that of the State Forest Regulation. One of such acts is the United Khasi-
Jaintia Hills Autonomous District (Management and Control of Forests) Act, 1958. According to
the preamble of this Act, “it is expedient to make laws relating to the management and control of
forests in the areas of the Autonomous United Khasi Jaintia Hills District within the jurisdiction
of the District Council as specified in the Sixth scheduled of the constitution of India”.
Unfortunately, this provision of the Acts could not be enforced and implemented so far in the
true sense of the term.

Community forest laws on management of forests

Most of the acts and laws passed by the Govt. of India, Govt. of Meghalaya and Autonomous
District Councils remained less effective in managing the forests of the state. Contrary to it, the
traditional institutions such as Syiemships, Doloiships, Sirdarships and Nokmaships have been
forceful and effective till recently in managing the forests under their jurisdiction following
customary laws. For instance, for Tangmang community forests, the following restrictions for
forest management have been imposed under the customary law by the village durbar and they
are quite effectively enforced.

 No entry to the forests without permission from the durbar

 Tree felling allowed only for construction of community halls and other
community works

53
  Fuelwood collection only by hand for bonafide domestic use

 Extraction of NTFPs is allowed only for personal consumption

 Hunting inside the community forest is not allowed

 Violators of the above restrictions and miscreants are fined.

Such unwritten customary laws exist in most villages of the state. In some more developed
villages (for instance Mawphlang in East Khasi Hills) such laws have been codified and are
enforced almost on the pattern of government regulations. In many villages of Nongkhlaw
Syiemship, West Khasi Hills even the private forests are open for collection of dead and fallen
wood and NTFPs by the poor and needy living in the village. Thus the customary forest laws at
times take care of the issue of equity as well as protection of forests.

54
Chapter 2 FOREST PRODUCTS

This is chapter presents findings of the survey of important forest products namely, Bamboo,
Charcoal, Dalchini (Cinnamomum zeynalicum), Fuel Wood, Timber, Bay Leaf (C. tamala),
Broom Grass (Thysanolaena maxima), Medicinal Plants, Packing Leaf (Phyrnium puvinerve),
Wild Pepper (Piper peepuloides) and Wood Lichen (Usnea sp.). These products have ready
market and provide livelihood support to the rural poor of Meghalaya. The role of these products
in the livelihood of the rural poor and the revenue earned by the government from the trade of
these products has also been discussed. Each product has been described under the heads of
distribution, production, marketing and economics, potentials and constraints. Recommendations
for the improvement of forest product sector to enhance income of the poor and to make the
production and trade of forest products more sustainable is also given.

An extensive survey of the available literature on forest products, their marketing system and
livelihood linkages of the people of Meghalaya was carried out. Relevant data were collected
from the State Forest Department, Autonomous District Councils and entrepreneurs and
interviews were held with officials of the different departments and institutions associated with
marketing and trade of forest products. Survey of timber and non-timber forest products was
carried out at randomly selected market places and roadside vendors on the major road routes
near international boundaries. Resource utilization, annual out turn, employment generation and
livelihood linkages were quantified through interviews held with the proprietors and employees
of the forest product based industries.

55
Bamboo

Bamboo is a group of woody perennial plant grass family Poaceae. Bamboos are either
clumping or running type. Bamboo shoot varies both in girth 35cm to 1 cm and height upto 30m
in Dendrocalamus giganteus to 1 metre in Arundinaria suberecta. Bamboos grow in diverse
climatic and soil conditions but are most abundant in tropical and subtropical climate on
disturbed habitats. However it grows best in moist, rich soil. It is one of the fastest growing plant
species in which new shoots grow to their full height and thickness within 4 to 8 weeks.
Generally, the species with longer shoot grow better in full sun and those with shorter shoot
perform better under partial shade.

Photo 2.1 Bamboo placed along the roadside ready for

transportation in Bhoi Area (Photo by: H. Tynsong)

Bamboo stems or “culms” are used for making garden fences, in building construction, water
pipe, fishing poles, furniture, tools and implements, mats, handicrafts etc. Its tender shoots are
edible. Their dense root systems make them very effective in control of soil erosion. Soil under
bamboo is generally rich in organic matter on account of its extensive root system which
prevents leaching of nutrients. Studies carried out in Puerto Rico revealed that 83% of the roots
of Bambusa tulda are confined in the upper one foot of the soil and therefore are very effective in
checking soil erosion (White and Childers, 1945). Extensive growth of Melocanna baccifera in
Mizoram has helped in conservation of soil on hill slopes subjected to repeated burning and
cultivation.

Distribution
Over 1500 species of bamboo belonging to 75 genera are found in the world. Asia is rich in
bamboos with approximately 65 genera, of which 12 are endemic to the region. India is the
second richest country in the world, after China, in bamboo resources both in terms of the
number of species and their distribution. India has 130 species of bamboo belonging to 23
genera, out of which 90 species falling under 19 genera are found in the northeastern region
(Bhatt et al., 2005).

56
In Meghalaya 5,863 sq. km, 26 % of the total geographical area of the state, is under bamboo
forest (Trivedi and Tripathi, 1984). The state with seven Arundinaria species emerges as the
richest Arundinaria supporting state in India. Meghalaya has 12 genera and 43 species of
bamboo of which Arundinaria hirsute, A. mannii, Bambusa jaintiana, B. pseudopallida,
Phyllostachyis mannii, Schizostachyum griffithii, S. mannii, S. pallidum and Thamnocalamus
prainii are endemic to Meghalaya (Rawat and Khanduri, 1999).

Photo 2.2 A bamboo forest in Umkon Village of Ri-Bhoi District

(Photo by: H.Tynsong)

The largest area of naturally growing bamboo species is in Garo Hills District, followed by Ri-
Bhoi District, West Khasi Hills District, and Jaintia Hills District. The East Khasi Hills District
has the smallest area under bamboo forest. Ri Bhoi District has the largest area under bamboo
plantation. In East Khasi Hills artificial cultivation of bamboo has just started in few areas.
Bamboo forests are commonly found in Lailad, Umsalem, Tasek, Darigiri, Bonsamgiri, Rongra,
Bokmagiri, and Dinadubi areas of the state. The common bamboo species in Meghalaya are
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. giganteus, Bambusa bambos, Chepalostachyum latifolium,
Chimonobambusa khasiana, and Melocanna bambusoides. Bambusa balcooa, Melocanna
baccifera and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii are the main commercial edible bamboo species in
Meghalaya (Bhatt et al., 2005). While Melocanna baccifera and Bambusa balcooa is confined
mainly in Garo Hills’ districts of Meghalaya; Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, is found throughout the
state. Commercially important bamboo species found in Jaintia Hills are Bambusa pallida, B.
tulda, B. griffithi, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Pseudotachyum
polymorphum, Cephalostachyum palladium, Cephalostachyum oxidlatum, Arundo karka and
Arundo donax.

Production
The annual production of bamboo in India is estimated to be around about 4.6 million tonnes per
year. In Meghalaya, about 5073258 bamboo stems/shoots were produced during 2000-04 (Forest
Resource Survey, Government of Meghalaya). The bamboo production in the Khasi Hills during
1995-2005 was 12370947 (KHADC, 2006) (Fig.2.1). In Garo hills 4674500 tonnes bamboo was

57
produced during 1995-2005 (GHADC, 2006) (Fig.2.2). The range wise production of bamboo is
given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Range wise production of bamboo in Garo Hills during 2004-2005
Name of Forest Range Quantity (MT)
1. Baghmara 84.51
2. Angratoli 263.68
3. Siju 30
4. Rajasimla 152
5. Dhima 123.6
6. Songsak 155.2
7. Dambu 129.01
8. Rongrengiri 730
9. Dibru Hills 311.04
10. Dilma 5.04
11. Ildek 38
12. Chimabangshi 60
13. Darugiri 30
(Source: GHADC, Tura)

Fig. 2.1 Production of bamboo in Khasi Hills

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 Fig. 2.1 Production of bamboo in Garo Hills

Uses & Trade

Bamboos have varied uses. It is used as food, as housing material, for making tools and
implements and household articles and as water conduits. Bamboos are used for the manufacture
of a large number of value added goods, handicrafts and articles which have high potential of
improving the economic condition of the people involved in such works. Bamboo mats
(Shylliah), baskets (Shang), Khasi umbrella (Knup), and winnowing tray (Prah), are used by the
local people, while decorative items and mats are sold to the out side market. Artistic baskets
known as meghum khoks made by the Garo tribe are used to store clothes and valuable items.
Garo people also make pokerwork designs, which are carved on the bamboo with a pointed red-
hot iron rod. Bamboo is the most important raw material in the manufacture of paper and
newsprint. There is huge demand of bamboo in paper mills. A large rural population in
Meghalaya lives in thatch and wood made houses using bamboo as the principal construction
material. The use of processed bamboo for making pre-fabricated panels and other building units
could open new vistas in the field of low cost housing. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii is widely
utilized for charcoal production. Bamboo mats are used for paneling, ceilings, partitions, walls
and floors. The leaves of bamboo are also used as fodder for cattle. Bamboo is also extensively

59
used as fuel wood yielding more than 7000 kilocalories per kilogram. Some of the major uses of
Bamboo in the state is given in Fig.2.3.

Fig.2.3 End Users of marketable bamboo

Market and Economics

A large quantity of bamboo is sold to the paper mills in neighboring state of Assam. Accodinig
to the data obtained from paper mills, about 50,000 tonnes of bamboo was sold to the Nagaon
Paper Mill, Jagirod in 2006. Another 20,000 tonnes was sold to the Cachar Paper mill,
Hailakandi District of Assam during the previous years. Total annual out turn is about Rs 50
million by exporting bamboos in raw form alone. Within the state bamboo are used for
construction purposes, handicraft, and manufacture of plywood and as food item. Young tender
bamboo shoots are sold in the markets in all the districts.

In addition, bamboo shoot pickles and fermented sliced bamboo are also sold. About 39 tonnes
of fermented bamboo shoots are sold in Meghalaya annually (Bhatt et al., 2005).

Photo 2.3 A truck laden with bamboo ready for transport to paper mill.

Contribution to State Exchequer

In Khasi Hills royalty is levied on the produce that comes from forests under the management
and control of the KHADC. Even on forest produce of the private forests royalty is collected by
the KHADC. The rates of royalty levied on bamboos vary from species to species (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 Rate of royalty for bamboos in Khasi Hills (Source: KHADC, 2007)

Sl.No. Species Name Rates (Rs / 100 numbers)

1. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii 15.00
2. Bambusa tulda 12.00
3. Bambusa vulgaris 25.00
4. Bambusa balcona 25.00
5. Bambusa palada 15.00

60
 6. Melocanna bambusoides 6.00
7. Dendrocalamus strictus 10.00
8. Other bamboos 5cm and 5.00
above in diameter
9. Other bamboos of 2.5-5cm 2.50
in diameter
10. Other bamboos less than 2.00
2.5cm in diameter

In Garo hills also the rate of royalty on bamboo differs from species to species. For Bambusa
vulgaria, B. tulda, B. balcooa the rate is Rs 75 per hundred stems. For Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii it is Rs 40 and for Melocanna bambusoides it is Rs 17 per hundred stems (GHADC,
Tura). In Jaintia hills the royalty is Rs 60 per 100 stems (JHADC, Jowai).

State government collects royalty on the bamboo extracted from the forests falling under their
control. The State government rate for one hundred stems is: Bambusa tulda (Jati bamboo) Rs
250 , Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (kako) Rs 150 and for other species above 5cm or 2.5cm
diameter the rate is Rs 66.

Potential & Constraint

Bamboo is a valuable, fast renewable natural resource of the state. There is excellent scope for
establishment of bamboo-shoot processing units in the state. As per the records of the Directorate
of Industries, Govt of Meghalaya, there were 323 units of bamboo and cane based handicraft
units in the state till March 2005. These units have immense potential to provide jobs and
improve the economic condition of the people in the state.
Lack of market information is the key barrier to the growth of bamboo trade. The rural poor do
not have access to market information about price, demand, major bamboo handicraft markets
and consumer’s needs and preferences. quality handicrafts and furniture productivity is low
because of the limited knowledge of market, lack of skill, inadequate infrastructure and non
availability of modern machine and tools that could increase productivity of quality products as
per the market demands.

BROOM GRASS

61
Broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima), is an important minor forest produce of hilly regions of
north-east India. It is collected from wild as well as cultivated mainly for broom, used for
cleaning and sweeping purposes. Besides, the leaves are used as fodder and stem as raw material
in paper industry and small scale cottage industry for making mats (Tiwari, 2001). However, full
potential of the broom stem is yet to be explored. In addition to the economic value, its fibrous
roots are good soil binder and therefore, check soil erosion.

Photo 2.4 View of a covered with broom grass plantation. (Photo by: H.
Tynsong).

Broom grass grows well on sandy to sandy loam soil. It can even grow in rock crevices with very
little soil. Broom grass grows in tussocks. On an average 4-5 tussocks may be found in 10 m x
10 m area (Barik et al., 1996). The culms arise centrifugally during June-July and bear
inflorescence at the end of vegetative growth. The appearance and growth of culms in a tussock
depict a characteristic order which probably controls the position and extent of growth of culms,
size, number and also length of leaves and the overall shape. The height of tussock increases up
to 3 years but basal girth and number of culms continue to increase even after that and at a
considerably faster rate (Table 2.3).

Photo 2.5 Closer view of Broom grass plantation (Photo by: H. Tynsong).

Table 2.3 General growth pattern of Thysanolaena maxima (Rozb.) O.Ktze.

Age (Year)
Growth parameters
1 2 3 4
Height of tussocks (cm) 75 100 180 178
Basal girth of tussocks (cm) 48 83 108 170
No. of culms/tussock 24 67 312 428
Basal area/culm (cm2) 1.3 1.9 2.8 3.5
Source: Tiwari et al., 1993

Distribution
Broom grass grows in almost all parts of South and Southeast Asia up to an elevation of 1,600 m
in tropical to subtropical climate. It grows wild in the hills of north-eastern region and in
Darjeeling (Patel, 1992) and Sikkim Himalayas (Tiwari, 1992). In Meghalaya it grows in almost

62
all parts of the state such as Ri Bhoi region, War region, Jaintia Hills, almost in the whole of
Garo Hills and part of West Khasi Hills having warmer climatic conditions (Fig 2.4).

In these areas it has been found naturally colonizing on the recently exposed soils such as slip
areas, road sides, abandoned quarries, abandoned jhum areas and waste lands. However, in the
past two decades, due to an increase in demand for brooms from various parts of the country,
large areas has been brought in to broom grass plantation. Ri Bhoi and East Khasi Hills districts
account more than 70% of the total production of brooms in Meghalaya.

Fig. 2.4 Distribution of Thysanolaena maxima in Meghalaya

Plantation and Management

Though broom grass grows wild in the forests, for commercial purposes, cultivation requires
considerable amount of care. Broom grass cultivation is carried out in places where other
agricultural practices are difficult to carry out. These include abandoned jhum land, steep slopes,
rocky places, wasteland and areas covered by tall grasses. At lower altitude (400-800 m), after
slashing and burning of vegetation broom grass comes

Photo 2.6 Pure Broom grass plantation (Photo by: H. Tynsong).

out naturally. At higher altitude (800 m) in areas with poor soil plantatison is done. The broom
grass rhizomes are collected from wild areas and planted in the cleared field. Cleaning and
weeding is done one month after burning of the field. In this operation all plants except few trees
are removed. Thereafter weeding is done twice a year.

Production

The production depends on the age of the plant, fertility of the soil and management practices.
Our data collected from survey of broom grass in Meghalaya showed that the highest production
is obtained in the 3rd, 4th and 5th year, thereafter it begins to decline. After 5th or 6th year the
whole plantation is burnt for regeneration of fresh shoots. One hectare broom grass plantation
with proper management (i.e. weeding twice in a year), produces on an average 300-500 kg of
dry broom per year. The unmanaged plot yields only 150-200 kg/year. Ninety percent of the

63
brooms produced are exported outside the state. The production of broom in Khasi and Jaintia
Hills Districts during the year 2000-2005 is given in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Production of broom (MT) in Khasi and Jaintia hills

(Source: KHADC, GHADC & JHADC)

Year Khasi Hills Garo Hills Jaintia Hills

(MT) (MT) (MT)
1995-96 129045 90000 -
1996-97 17725 110000 354.54
1997-98 1735 50000 213.37
1998-99 16913 150000 282.42
1999-00 18323 70000 250.81
2000-01 20452 80000 492.06
2001-02 17586 60000 543.28
2002-03 28843 130000 615.47
2003-04 70401 170000 293.4
2004-05 18766 220000 856.52
Total (1995-05) 339789 1130000 3901.87

Since broom grass is considered as a forest product, royalty is levied at the rate of Rs 360/tonne
to the District Council for the purpose of its trading outside the state. Once the royalty is paid, a
transit pass is issued which is applicable till the destination. The traders face problems due to
presence of illegal check gates especially in Assam. According to the local traders about Rs
6000- 7000 per truck load is spent on these illegal check posts. As a result, the price of the
broom sent from the state becomes higher than those coming from Nepal and Bhutan. In order to
compete with the cheaper goods of other counties, traders in Shillong reduce the price paid to the
collectors or producers.

Economies and markets

The yield of broom grass depends upon the soil fertility and management of plantation. On dry
soil and rocky substrata, stalk of the inflorescence becomes thin and therefore not suitable for the
broom. The quality of broom also depends on the harvesting time of the inflorescence. Shorter
inflorescence at a very early stage of development is considered better. Based on the quality,
broom grass can be classified into three categories:

64
 (a) Class-(I) or the best quality are those collected in the month of January-February prior
flowering.

(b) Class-(II) or the medium quality which are collected in late February-March immediately
after flowering.

(c) Class-(III) or the inferior quality which are collected in the month of April-May.

The price of broomstick depends on the quality of the product and change as per the demand and
supply position in the market. In the year 2004, the price ranged between Rs 5 and 10/kg. During
2006 it was Rs 8-15/kg. Cost and return analysis of broom grass cultivation has revealed that on
a production cost of Rs 9,450, farmers earn an income of Rs 35,520 from one hectare land in one
year (Table 2.5). Since most of the cost is in the form of labour which comes from the family, the
income is reasonably good and farmers find broom grass cultivation quite remunerative. In fact
this forest species has transformed the economy of rural Meghalaya, particularly south Ri Bhoi
and War areas of the state during the past two decades.

Table 2.5 Cost and returns (Rs) analysis of broom grass cultivation in one hectare area

Particulars Year
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Total
Revenue 3,000 5,200 95,70 12,350 4,500 900 35,520
Production cost 3,700 1,400 1,550 1,550 850 400 9,450
Labor
Site Clearance 1,000 1,000
Weeding (2 per year 1,200 1,200 1,200 1200 650 250 5,700
Harvesting (once/year)
Pit digging and rhizome 800 800
planting
Transportation to godown 200 200 350 350 200 150 1,450
Material
Small tools and implements 500 500
Net Income -700 3,800 80,20 10,800 3,650 500 26,070
Benefit Cost Ratio at 10% AIR = 3.46 (Source Tiwari 2004)
Benefit Cost Ratio at 15% AIR = 3.32
Benefit Cost Ratio at 20% AIR = 3.19

The brooms produced in Khasi Hill, Jaintia Hills and Ri Bhoi area is exported via. Guwahati
while those produced from Garo Hills are exported through Dhudnei. In Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills
and Ri Bhoi area the brooms produced are bought by middlemen and wholesalers on the site or

65
these are brought to Shillong by the farmers and sold to the wholesalers. The wholesalers export
the brooms to other part of India either by road or rail transport (Fig.2.5).

Fig.2.5 Market linkages of broom grass produced in Khasi, Jaintia and Ri Bhoi Districts

In Garo Hills the villagers collect the broom grass from the wild and store near roads. From here
middlemen and wholesalers buy it and transport directly to Dhudnei. From Dhudnei the brooms
are transported to various parts of the country by road (Fig.2.6)

Fig. 2.6 Market linkage of broom grass produced in Garo Hills

Photo 2.7 Brooms ready for sale (Photo by: H. Tynsong)

Contribution to State Exchequer

Large amount of broom grass is transported from Shillong to other parts of the country through
road and rail. The broom sticks are sent in unprocessed form to various parts of India covering
almost twenty states. It is also exported to other countries like Pakistan, Middle East, France,
Italy and Germany. On an average, about 3512 tonnes of broom stick is exported annually to
these countries. In addition to this, very large amount of unrecorded broom stick is also exported
from the state. The quantity of broom stick exported from Meghalaya via Guwahati during 1997-
2001 is given in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Amount of broom grass exported from Meghalaya via Guwahati

Sl. No. Year Quantity (MT)

1. 1997 10800
2. 1999 13338
3. 2000 43200
4. 2001 2295
(Sources: Agradoot Transport Agency, Lalmati, Beltola, Guwahati and Outward booking counter
B.G. Terminus, New Guwahati.)

The quantity of broom exported in the year 2001 to other part of the country is given in Table
2.7.

66
Table 2.7 Amount of broom grass sent by road to different towns of India during 2001

Sl. State Cities/Towns Quantity

No. (MT)
1. Andhra Pradesh Vijaywada, Hyderabad 90
2. Bihar Patna 4.5
3. Delhi Delhi 180
4. Goa Panaji 4.5
5. Gujarat To all districts 180
6. Haryana Faridabad, Ishahar, Rohtak 22.5
7. Karnatka Bangalore, Oogly, Cuddalore 135
8. Kerela Mahe 4.5
9. Maharashtra Mumbai, Nasik, Nagpur, Pune, Aurangabad, 225
Solapur
10. Madhya Pradesh Bhopal, Jabalpur, Indore 270
11. Orissa Bhubaneshwar 90
12. Punjab Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Chandigarh 225
13. Rajasthan Jaipur, Bikaner, Udaipur, Kota 720
14. Tamil Nadu Chennai 90
15. Uttar Pradesh Kanpur, Agra, Bareilly, Meerut, Saharanpur. 45
16. West Bengal Kolkata 9

Potential & Constraint

 It has a high potential for economic development of the state due to low production cost, less
labour intensive and quick return.
 The major constraints are inadequate of credit and storage facilities to the collectors and
growers.
 The collectors and growers of the broom stick often suffer due to low price paid to hem by
the local traders.
Broom grass cultivation has a high benefit-cost ratio and it has a very good market. As
processing and value addition facilities are also coming up in nearby trading centres, broom
grass cultivation is expanding rapidly. Even without any external intervention, the farmers are
getting good returns. Those villages where farmers have taken up the cultivation of this plant,
within thirty years, it has occupied all the lands previously used for shifting cultivation.

BAY LEAF
Cinnamomum tamala Fr.Nees family Lauraceae grows wild in south and south-east Asia. It
grows naturally in the subtropical humid forests of northeast India. In War and Bhoi regions of

67
Meghalaya, it has emerged as a husbanded wild tree, growing in poly-culture with betel-nut,
betel-leaf, jackfruit and other timber trees. It is a medium size tree about 15 m high with dense
foliage; leaves 8-20 x 3-5 cm, scented, oblong-lanceolate, acute or acuminate; flower grey-
yellow; Flowering occurs during January- March; fruiting occurs in the month of December and
August. Fruits are globose, fleshy, about 12mm long, black when ripe, containing a single stone
(Bose et al., 1998).

Photo 2.8 Bay Leaf (Cinnamomum tamala) plant

(Photo by: H.Tynsong)

Distribution
In Indian subcontinent it is distributed in tropical and sub-tropical Himalayan tract, and outer
ranges from the Jumna eastwards, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura; Myanmar at altitudes
ranging between 100 and 1200 meters above mean sea level. It is also planted as a spice crop
(Bose et al., 1998).

Production
The production of bay leaf from small trees ranges from 30-40 kg/tree/harvest and for the bigger
trees it ranges from 55-65 kg/tree/harvest. It has been estimated that the average yield ranges
between 25,900-44,400 kg/ha/harvest in the forests at lower altitude. The production of bay leaf
is low at higher altitude. Here, the average production ranges between 12,950 and 22,200 kg/ ha/
harvest (Tiwari, 2002). The amount of bay leaf that reaches the Mawiong Regulated Market,
Shillong is 2800 MT per year (Tiwari, 2005).The total production of bay leaf in the state during
the period 1995-2005 was 318978.5 MT (Table 2.8). On an average production is 31897 MT per
year.

Table 2.8 Bay leaf production (MT) in the state during 1995-2005 as recorded
by the District Councils

Year KHADC JHADC GHADC

(MT) (MT) (MT)
95-96 4441.4 0 28,100
96-97 100.7 0 12,100
97-98 1520 0 32,500
98-99 6060 0 41,300
99-00 6550 2.5 21,700

68
 00-01 6860 0 61,200
01-02 5680 4.0 1,10,000
02-03 7291 9.0 0
03-04 6780 0 51,400
04-05 7380 0 18,000
Total 52,663 15.5 2,66,300

Uses
The leaves of C. tamala are used as condiment. Leaves are carminative; and are used to relieve
colic pain and diarrhoea. Both leaves and bark yield essential oil.

Photo 15: Inflorescence of C. tamala

Harvesting
Leaves are harvested during November to February. The older branches that have attained a
particular diameter are cut, while younger ones are left. Harvesting can be done after a gap of
one to two years depending on the age of the tree and fertility of soil. After harvesting, they are
threshed by beating. The cut/plucked branches are left to wither, after which they are spread out
on a sloping ground for about two weeks to reduce the moisture content of the leaves by about
50%. Withering and drying is done in such a way that the leaves retain their light green colour
and luster. Infected, discolored and broken leaves are removed manually. The leaves are then
loosely packed in gunny bags weighing approximately 30 kg each. The bags are then transported
to the market.

Production and marketing of bay leaf involves a number of stakeholders’ viz., forest owners,
skilled and semi-skilled labourers, village traders, women workers, wholesalers, transporters,
small scale industry owners, regional traders and exporters. The small forest owners do pruning,
weeding, harvesting, threshing, etc by themselves. However, large forest owners engage
labourers for various operations. The labourers are normally poor villagers who do not have their
own plantations and include both men and women. The prevailing daily wages of the workers
are: skilled labourers (men) = Rs 120/-, Unskilled labourers (men) = Rs 80/- and Women = Rs
40/-. The labourers are employed for a number of activities such as harvesting, drying, plucking,
packing, carrying to roadsides, sorting, repacking, loading and unloading and transporting. Thus
it is a labour intensive business and therefore creates employment for the poor and disadvantaged
section of the society. Most labour force come from the village itself or from the neighboring

69
villages. After processing, the packed-leaves are sold to village traders. The village traders then
sell to the regional traders who dispatch the goods in bulk to major traders outside the state.

Market & Economics

The growers usually sell their produce to the two types of traders: those who sell the produce
within the state and those who transport and sell the produce outside the state. Market demand
and price depends upon the quality and availability of goods. The local market of bay leaf has
not developed properly and it is by and large controlled by the external demands. The price of
bay leaf is generally determined by the regional traders who control the market. Rich growers,
who can afford to store their produce, sometimes bargain for a better deal. The producers
generally do not have any say in deciding the price. They sell to the local trader at a price fixed
by them. The local traders buy the goods at the price fixed by the regional traders. It is the
regional trader who has access to the market information and thus controls the market and price
to a large extent. The local traders send the goods to Shillong. From here it goes to other states
via Guwahati. No information is available about its export to other countries, except a small
quantity to Bangladesh. The market channels for bay leaf is depicted in Fig.2.7.
Producers/Collector Local Traders
Export to Bangladesh
(Informal and small)

Wholesalers (Shillong)
Consumers Retailers &
Industries
Regional Traders (Guwahati)

Wholesalers in -
Mumbai
Consumers Retailers & New Delhi
Industries Kanpur
Bihar
Kolkata
Ahmedabad
Fig. 2.7 Marketing channel of bay leaf

70
The price of bay leaf depends on its color. Light lustrous green leaf is considered best and hence
fetches a higher price. The color of the leaf depends on the conditions at the time of drying. Dry
and covered places are ideal for drying the leaves. Damaged leaves fetch a lower price therefore
the leaves are loosely packed in the bags. The price and cash flow during bay leaf trade is given
in Fig. 2.8.

i. Growers @ Rs 7.00/ kg Local traders/Wholesalers @ Rs 13/kg Outside State

ii. Wholesalers @ Rs 13.00/ kg Small Cottage Industries/ Retailers @ Rs 30.00/kg

Consumers (Shillong)

Fig. 2.8 Pricing mechanism of bay leaf

Contribution to State Exchequere

Bay leaf is a notified forest product and therefore, it attracts royalty and high taxes. In Khasi
Hills, traders have to pay these taxes to Syiem (Traditional Chief), District Council and the State
Government. However, in Garo and Jaintia Hills district they have to pay to the district council
and state government only. Besides these taxes, alleged illegal collections from the transporters
at various check points are responsible for low sale price at the grower level. The state
government collects tax at two levels (i) during purchase from the growers and ii) sale to outside
agency.

Potential & Constraint

Considering the amount of bay leaf produced in the state there is a need for setting up processing
units and small scale industries for preparing bay leaf powder and extraction of oil. These
industries will help in generating employment for the local people. These processing units will
be able to produce good quality finished product which may fetch higher price and generate
employment.

Growers store their product in their traditional godowns, without proper storage and drying
facilities and hence the leaves tend to turn brown giving lower price to them. The existing
method of packing the leaves during transportation is rather cluttered and hence the leaves tend

71
to get damaged and fall off by the time it reaches its destination. Other major constraints include
lack of information on price and markets and credit facilities.
Storage and credit facilities may fetch better price to the grower. Promotion of micro-credit
facilities can make the trade more profitable to the growers. Information on price and markets
will help them to take right decisions. Development of communication network is required for
market information accessibility.

PACKING LEAF (SLA SONGDOH)

Phrynium pubinerve B. L. Enum., locally known as ‘Sla Met’. It is an undergrowth shrub. A
fully grown plant bears six to seven leaves and attains a height of ½ -1 m. The size of leaf varies
a great deal (30-60 cm in length and 15-35 cm in width) depending on the edaphic and climatic
conditions. It grows well in the forests and valleys along the streams. Its growth is particularly
abundant in forests with sparse tree cover.

Photo 2.10 Forest garden of Nongkwai village where

Phyrnium puvinerve is grown (Photo by: H. Tynsong)

Distribution
In Meghalaya, it grows in all the districts at an altitude range of 100-800 m above mean sea level
(Fig. 2.9). However, it is mostly exploited as commercial product in north-western Ri Bhoi
district, Ri-War areas of East Khasi Hills, and the War-Jaintia areas of Jaintia Hills due to its
extensive use in wrapping of betel leaves produced in these areas.

Productions
The total production of Phyrnium pubinerve based on the market survey was found to be 2123.52
MT/year. The income to the collectors may be to the tune of about Rs 135765, while the traders
earns about Rs 8615992 annually.

72
Fig.2. 9 Distribution of Phyrnium pubinerve in Meghalaya

The product selling in Jowai, Dawki and Nongpoh markets comes from different villages of
these areas and is consumed locally. The arrival of Phyrnium leaves in different local markets of
Meghalaya is shown in Table 2.9. In Shillong it comes mainly from Pynursla and Mawlat. From
here it is marketed to Mawkyrwat and Nongstoin.

Table 2.9 Arrivals of Phyrnium leaves in different local markets of Meghalaya

Market Arrival/market day (Kit) No of market Arrival/ Arrival/

Approx. days/week Month (Kit*) Year (Kit)
Dawki (Jaintia Hills) 40-55 2 380 4560
Jowai (Jaintia Hills) 35-40 2 300 3600
Mawkyrwat (W. K. Hills) 30-40 2 280 3360
Nongpoh (Ri Bhoi) 20-24 2 176 2112
Nongstoin (W.K.Hills) 35-45 2 320 3840
Pynursla (E.K. Hills) 80-100 2 720 8640
Shillong (E. K. Hills) 150-200 6 4200 50400
*Kit= 700-800 leaves

Uses
The leaves of Phrynium pubinerve are the most common wrapping and packaging material used
by the people of Meghalaya. It is a household item in the rural areas. In Khasi Hills, it has been
in use since time immemorial for packing and wrapping of edible items such as common salt,
jaggery (gur), daal, fresh and dry fish, meat, betel-leaves, fruits, vegetables, lime and channa
(gram) etc. The leaf is also used during religious ceremonies of the Khasis viz., Ka Niam Khasi,
Ka Niam Tynrai and Jaintias viz., Ka Niam Tre.

Collection Photo 2.11 A leaf of P. puvinerve.

It is usually collected by women and children from uncultivated private forests, community
forests, forest garden, betel leaf and betel nut plantations. The older leaves are collected leaving
two leaves and a bud for regeneration. In about three months time the plant produces the same
number of leaves and is fit for collection. The leaves from the wild are collected by hand
plucking, and the collectors return to the same spot after 4-5 month when the new leaves are

73
ready for plucking. Its collection from forest gardens is generally sustainable since out of 6-7
leaves/plant, only 3-4 leaves are collected. In forest gardens the plant is semi-domesticated and
its growth is promoted by pruning of tree branches to increase light condition and by weeding of
the forest floor.

Photo 2.13 Baskets of Phyrnium leaves at Mawlat

village ready to be transported to Shillong (Photo
by: H.Tynsong).

Market & Economics

The price of Phrynium leaves in various markets of Khasi and Jaintia Hills is given in Tables
2.26 and 2.27. The leaves are classified and sold in two main grades based on their size, viz.,
small and big. Ten to twenty leaves are rolled length wise and tied in small rolls (shi song).
About 30 – 40 of these rolls form a large bundle (shi kit) weighing approximately 30-40 kg. In
Iew Duh (Barabazar), Shillong it fetches best price (Table 2.27). Here traders from all districts
come to sell and buy the leaves due to better communication between Shillong and other places.

Photo 2.12 Small children involved in making rolls

(shi song) of Phyrnium leaf (Photo by: H.Tynsong).

Case Study of Nongkwai Village

In this village one person collect about 700-800 leaves per day, equivalent to one kit. The labour
cost of carrying one kit from the village to the road is Rs 35 and from here to the market by
motor vehicles it costs Rs 10. The labor charges for collection ranges between Rs 35 and 45 per
day. Thus, for one kit the total expenditure including labor charge and transportation comes to
about Rs 80-90. The market rate of one kit is approximately Rs 200. Thus a person earns a net
profit of about Rs 110-120 from one kit of Phyrnium leaves in one day.

Unlike other forest products, there is no tax collection for this product, either by the state
government or by the district council. The leaves are in high demand, since local people prefer
Phyrnium leaf packed food items over polythene packing because of it’s a capacity of retaining
moisture and keeping the edibles fresh for longer times. As of now almost all the leaves reaching

74
the market are sold at a reasonable price. Since most of it is used locally, the price remains
almost stable. The selling price and whole sale rate for Phrynium pubinerve in various markets of
the state is given in Table 2.10 and 2.11.

Table 2.10 Selling price (in Rs.) of Phrynium pubinerve in various markets of Meghalaya

Market Rate/100 laeves

Small Big
Dawki (Jaintia Hills) 12.5 34.375
Jowai (Jaintia Hills) 12.5 28.125
Mawkyrwat (W. K. Hills) 17.5 34.375
Nongpoh (Ri Bhoi) 12.5 28.125
Nongstoin (W.K.Hills) 22.5 34.125
Pynursla (E.K. Hills) 12.5 28.125
Shillong (E. K. Hills) 22.5 43.75

Table 2.11 Wholesale market price (Rs.) of Phrynium pubinerve in various markets
of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya
Rate/100 leaves
Market
Small Big
Dawki (Jaintia Hills) 16.33 22.87
Jowai (Jaintia Hills) 16.33 23.8
Mawkyrwat (W. K. Hills) 18 18
Nongpoh (Ri Bhoi) 16.33 16.33
Nongstoin (W.K.Hills) 16.33 16.2
Pynursla (E.K. Hills) 16.33 20.47
Shillong (E. K. Hills) 21.66 27.33

The marketing channel of Phrynium pubinerve is simple and short (Fig. 2.10). The shelf life of
the leaves is about two to three months during winter which is slightly less during summer
depending on humidity and temperature. The dried or semi-dried leaves lose their market value
but not their utility. Dry leaves are used to wrap lime, tobacco, dry fish, etc. From May to
December the market is flooded with leaves, but during winter its availability is minimal.

75
 Fig 2.10 Marketing channel of Phyrnium in Khasi Hills

Potential and constraint

Considering the adverse environmental impacts of plastics and polythene bags, it is desirable to
continue and promote use of Phyrnium leaves as packing material. Almost all year round
availability of the leaves makes it a suitable packing material for meat, vegetables and fruits.
Increased emphasis of development agencies on fruits production show brighter future for this
forest product. There is some scope of its export to Bangladesh from southern Meghalaya and to
the neighboring states from Ri Bhoi area.

Phrynium pubinerve is a fast growing evergreen species. Though there is no management

practice, people of Ri-war areas of Khasi and Jaintia Hills know the value of the plant and
therefore do not uproot it. This helps in its regeneration. Deforestation and forest fire are major
threats for its growth and regeneration. Unsustainable harvest from the wild is also causing
damage to its natural population. Its cultivation has been initiated in the forest gardens of War
Khasi and War Jaintia region but greater attention is needed for the conservation of wild germ
plasm of Phyrnium in the state.

DALCHINI
Dalchini (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn)It is a small to medium sized, evergreen tree, 8-12 m
high. Leaves are opposites, or sub-opposite, or rarely alternate, ovate, or ovate lanceolate, 10-16

Photo 2.14 Dalchini (Cinnamomum

76Tynsong).
zeylenicum) (Photo by: H
cm long, sub-acute, or shortly acuminate, base cuneate, or round, hard and coriaceous, glabrous,
shining above, slightly paler beneath, main nerves 3-5 from the base. Flowers grey-silky, 4 mm
across, numerous, in sub-silky pubescent, lax panicles, usually longer than the leaves; peduncles
long; often clustered; perianth 5-6 mm long; segments oblong, or somewhat obovate. Dark-
purple fruits are oblong, or oblong-ovoid, 12-16 mm long, minutely api- culate and surrounded
by enlarged campanulate perianth. The tree grows well in warm humid climate and flowers in
November-March (Bose et al., 1998).

Distribution
Dalchini is found in plenty in the Ri-Bhoi district probably due to the favourable climate. People
of Umden village in the Ri-Bhoi district grow this tree on a large scale. Dalchini is also found in
Khasi Hills and Garo Hills.

Production
As per the statistical statement of the Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC), 96.55
tonnes of Dalchini was produced and transported from the state during 2000-2005. According to
the forest resource survey of Meghalaya the total amount of Dalchini produced and transported
to other areas of the country during the same period was 445.25 tonnes (Table 2.12).

Table 2.12 Production of Cinnamomum zeylenicum in Meghalaya

YEAR QUANTITY PRODUCED (tonnes)
KHADC AREA* FOREST
2000-01 16.4 16.4
2001-02 25.2 26.2
2002-03 3.4 340.0
2003-04 42.15 62.65
2004-05 9.4 N.A
TOTAL 96.55 445.25
*Includes East Khasi Hills, West Khasi Hills and Ri-Bhoi Districts

77
Uses
Bark is extensively used as a spice or condiment. It is considered as astringent, stimulant and
carminative and checks nausea. Powdered bark is used in chocolates, dentifrices, incenses and
perfumes. Bark yields an essential oil, ‘cinnamon bark oil’, which is used for flavoring
confectionery and in pharmaceuticals and soaps.
Photo 2.15 Bark of C. zeylanicum being sold in the roadside
at Umden Village (Photo by: H.Tynsong).

Dalchini is often produced by private growers. It is a preferred species as it takes only about 4
years to mature. The trunk and branches are used as fuelwood after the bark has been peeled off
for commercial sale. If grown at a spacing of 1 m on the margins of farm lands it also serves as a
fence and prevents cattle from entering farmlands.

Market & Economics

The bark of the tree extracted by the growers is collected by local traders from the source at the
rate of Rs 5 per kilogram. It is then transported to the MECOFED godown near Shillong town.
The local traders sell this bark at the rate of Rs 7-10 per kg depending on the availability and
quality of the product. From the MECOFED Godown this is sent to other places by the whole
sellers at the rate of Rs 80 per kg (Fig. 2.11)

PRODUCER Rs 5/ kg MIDDLEMEN Rs 7-8/ kg MECOFED

Rs 80/kg TRADERS (Guwahati, Calcutta, Delhi)

Fig. 2.11 Market chain of Dalchini

The rate of royalty fixed by the Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council for this forest product
is at Rs 950/MT.

One four year old tree yields about 4 kg of bark, and two stacks of fuelwood. These are sold at
around Rs 40 (Rs20 for bark and another Rs 20 for fuelwood). If plant is grown at 1 m spacing,

78
there will be 10,000 trees per ha. Therefore, a cultivator may earn upto Rs 4.0 lakh in four years
from from one ha Dalchini tree plantation.

Potential & Constraint

The tree takes a maximum time of 4 years to mature and hence if cultivated in block rotations a
huge amount of revenue can be earned. It will also meet the fuelwood requirements of the rural
people. The block rotation cultivation will ensure sustainability of the product as well as
plantation.

The main constraint is unorganized market channel for the villagers. The local traders often
under-price the product. And since the producers are unaware of any market channel except for
the local markets, they sell their products at a low price.
Much can be done to improve Dalchini trade. Plantation of the species on large areas is
necessary to increase bark production which has a good demand from regions outside the state.
The direct trade and transportation of the product without middlemen can pave the way for
higher profit to the rural producers.

WILD PEPPER

Wild Pepper (Piper longum Linn ) is a slender aromatic climber that needs support of other tree
species for growth. The stems are jointed with distinct nodes and internodes; the leaves ovate and
cordate, entire and glabrous; the spikes cylindrical, male spikes larger and slender; the fruits
small and black.
Photo 2.17 View of a branch of Wild Pepper

Photo 2.18 A closer view of the fruit of Wild

Pepper

Distribution

It grows wild in the forests of southern parts of Meghalaya, known as War area (part of Jaintia
Hills, Khasi Hills and West Khasi Hill districts)(Fig. 2.13). The soils in the area are red, yellow

79
and alluvial type. The area receives annual rainfall ranging from 6,000-10,000 mm. Due to its
high market demand this plant is widely grown by the people in their forest gardens as an
additional crop besides main crops: Piper catechu, P. betel and Cinnamomum tamala. Mostly it
is grown by the rich farmers who have a large forest garden. The villages with high production of
wild pepper includes: Nohwet, Nongjri, Mawryngkang, Mawriang, Balat, Shella, Tyrna etc.

Fig.2.12 Distribution of wild pepper in the state

Production
The wild pepper is harvested from March till the end of the year. April-June is the peak
production time. Annual production figures for the last ten years are given in Table 2.12.
However, according to the wholesalers in Shillong its annual production is approximately 150
metric tons.

Table 2.13 Production of wild pepper in Khasi Hills

(Source: Khasi Hill District Council)
Production
Sl. No. Year
(Metric tonne)
1. 1995-96 4.966
2. 1996-97 2.7875
3. 1997-98 12.34
4. 1998-99 8.17
5. 1999-00 9.30
6. 2000-01 18.55
7. 2001-02 13.0585
8. 2002-03 13.0425
9. 2003-04 9.90
10. 2004-05 14.85
Total 1995-05 106.9645

Uses

Wild pepper is used in a variety of Ayurvedic medicines. Local people use powdered dry seeds
mixed with honey and egg yolk in severe cough.

Market & Economics

The growers usually sell their produce to the local traders at a fixed price. The local traders then
sell these to the regional traders or dealers who control the market. Demand, quality and
availability determine price of the pepper. The local traders also purchase it from local markets

80
viz. Balat, Mawkyrwat, Mawsynram, Sohra, Pynursla and Dawki. They transport the goods to
dealers in Shillong. From Shillong it goes to out side state via regional traders based in
Guwahati. A small quantity of produce is sold in Shillong.

The price depends on the quality of the goods. Proper storage is required to protect the product
from attack of fungi. A well dried and uninfected product fetches maximum price. The price and
cash flow is given in the Fig 2.13.

Growers @ Rs 77.50/kg Local traders

Local traders @ Rs 83.50/kg Dealer

Dealers @Rs 89.50/kg Regional Traders and Retailers

Retailers @ Rs 200/kg Consumers (Shillong)

Fig.2.13 Pricing mechanism and average price of the product

Producers Local Traders Dealers Regional Traders

(Shillong) (Guwahati)

Consumers Retailers

Wholesalers in -
Calcutta,
Bangalore,
Retailers & Hyderabad &
Consumers Industries Chennai.

Fig.2.14 Marketing channel of wild pepper

Royalty

81
Wild pepper is a notified forest product and therefore, it attracts royalty and taxes. The traders
have to pay the royalty to district council. The prevalent rate of royalty is Rs100/quintal. Alleged
illegal collections from the transporters at various check points are also prevalent.

Potential & Constraint

This product has a very good price in the market as compared to other forest products. As it is a
subsidiary crop in the forest gardens or grows wild in forests, therefore it does not require
additional investment and management protocol. Cultivators earn a good amount of money from
this product even though the price is not in their control.
The traders control the market and are often the major determinants of the price therefore the
harvesters do not get the appropriate monetary benefit. Lack of market information is a major
constraint for the producers; therefore they are unable to value their goods. Lack of proper
storage facilities to keep the product dry and free from fungal attack is another constraint.

WOOD LICHEN

Wood lichen (Family: Usneaceae) are very slow growing plant and occur on rocks and trees.
Lichen is a household item in India. Lichens collected from the temperate region of Himalayas
are both used indigenously and also exported to other countries. The Indian subcontinent harbors
a rich lichen flora representing about 2,450 species (Awasthi, 2002). Wood Lichen is one of the
important NTFPs of Meghalaya. The whole amount of wood lichen which the State produces is
exported to other parts of India for processing.
Photo 2.19 Drying of wood lichen

Photo 2.20 Sorting and packing of Wood Lichen in Shillong

Wholesale shop.

Distribution

Jaintia and West Khasi Hills produce large amount of wood lichen (Fig.2.16). A small quantity
also comes from Cachar district of Assam. Wood lichen (Usnea sp.) is also reported from
Uttaranchal, Utter Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya

82
Pradesh, Sikkim and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Dalip et al., 2005). In West Khasi Hills
wood lichen is mostly collected in Mairang, Markasa, Phlangdilion and Nongkasen villages.

Fig.2.16 Distribution of Wood Lichen in Meghalaya

Production
Wood lichen production in Meghalaya, during 1995-2005, was 328 tonnes, with an average
annual production of 32.8 MT (Table 2.14). Annually Rs 44185 is collected as royalty by the
District Councils from this product. However, according to the information shared by the
wholesalers in Shillong, annually not less than 150 tonnes of wood lichen is transported from
Shillong to other parts of the country.

Table 2.14 Production wood lichen in Meghalaya

Sl.No. Year KHADC (MT) JHADC (MT)

1. 1995-96 12.72 0.00
2 1996-97 10.10 0.00
3 1997-98 12.28 18.52
4 1998-99 13.74 0.00
5 1999-00 15.46 37.07
6 2000-01 12.44 38.54
7 2001-02 1.614 44.46
8 2002-03 16.61 10.02
9 2003-04 16.16 40.28
10 2004-05 12.17 16.08
Total 1995-2005 123.30 204.97
(Source: KHADC and JHADC)

Collection
Traditionally, collection is done by landless and very poor villagers, who sell it to the local
traders at a very low price Rs. 30/kg. Collections and processing is done mainly by the women
folk.

Uses
Wood lichen is used in preparing spices. However, in Meghalaya, this is used in making gun-
powder (U Nongsain Hima, 2006).

83
Market & Economics
The collectors sell their produce to the local traders who transport the produce to Shillong and
sell it to the dealers. The collectors often bring it in a unprocessed form, it is here that the
material is dried, sorted, graded, labeled and distributed through out the country and abroad.
From Shillong it is sent to Mumbai, Chennai and Pune for further processing. It is also exported
to the Middle East countries like Iraq, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates. The price and cash
flow is shown in Fig. 2.17.
@ Rs.30/kg
Grower Local traders
@ Rs.40/kg
Local traders Dealers

@ Rs 55-60/ kg
Dealers Wholesalers
NA
Wholesaler Retailer
@ Rs.200/kg
Retailer Consumer

Fig.2.17 Price of wood lichen at different steps in market channel

Producers Local Dealers

Traders (Shillong)

Middle East:
Kuwait, Whosaler in
Iraq Mumbai,
UAE etc. Chennai and
Pune

Retailers
Retailers

Consumers
Consumers
Fig.2.18 Market chain of wood lichen

84
Contribution to State Exchequer
Local traders and dealers pay royalty to the Khasi Hills District Council at the rate of Rs. 100/quintal,
while the Jaintia Hills District Council collects it at Rs 150/quintal.

Potential and constraint

Since plant grows in wild it needs no investment. As of now the people in the West Khasi Hills
have benefited a lot from this product and there is still scope for further development.
Sustainable collection can bring sustained income to rural poor. There is a scope for increasing
the share of benefit to the collector through market interventions. Deforestation is a great threat
to production of this valuable spice of Meghalaya.Setting up of value addition and processing
plant in the state may help the rural poor of the state to fetch better price.

CHARCOAL

Charcoal is a black porous solid substance consisting mainly of elemental carbon (FAO, 1985).
Charcoal can be made from organic materials such as wood, bamboo, coconut shells, rice husks
and bones. Wood, however, is the most common and best charcoal yielding raw material.

Photo 2.22 Charcoal produced from waste

wood in a saw mill in Ri-Bhoi District (Photo
by: H.Tynsong)

Charcoal made out of hard wood and burns cleanly and slowly whereas charcoal made from
softwood is light and porous. It burns quickly and is prone to breakage during transportation.
Charcoal is much preferred by the masses owing to easy handling and cleaner combustion.
Meghalaya produces considerable quantity of charcoal and has emerged as an important charcoal
producing state in the country. It is one of the important forest produce of the state.

Method of Charcoal Making and Distribution

Generally, Charcoal is made by burning tree stem and branches in a specially dug pit. It is then
packed in sacks and sold in the markets. The quality of charcoal depends upon the tree species

85
from which it is made. Schima wallichii, Quercus spp., and Castanopsis indica produces the best
quality and fetches good price while charcoal made from Litsea sp., Stereospermum griffithii,
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Bombax ceiba, Bischofia javanica etc. fetches lesser price. Charcoal
making is prevalent in the West Khasi Hills, East Khasi Hills and Ri-Bhoi Districts. A huge
quantity of charcoal is also produced as a by-product of saw mills and furniture workshops.

Production
The total production of charcoal in the Khasi Hills during 1995-2005 was about 76064 tonnes
(Fig.2.19). The annual production varies from year to year. For instance, the amount produced
during 2002-2003 was around 12458 tonnes and in 2003-2004 about 24914.5 tonnes. In Jaintia
Hills 14581.47 tonnes of charcoal were produced during 1995-2005 (Table 2.15). For Garo Hills
the data was available only for 2005-06 when only 50 tonnes of charcoal was produced. As per
the records of the State Forest Department, the total annual production of charcoal is ca. 24124
tonnes and its total estimated value is Rs 6.0 crore.

Table 2.15 Production of charcoal in Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills.

Quantity (tonnes)
Year Total
Khasi Hills Jaintia Hills
1995-96 336 N.A 336
1996-97 97.7 891.37 989.07
1997-98 560.69 817.74 1378.43
1998-99 7111.1 819.58 7930.68
1999-2000 4832 1239.86 6071.86
2000-01 4100.2 1452 5552.2
2001-02 3578 2280.77 5858.77
2002-03 12458.45 2050.14 14508.59
2003-04 24914.5 2109.64 27024.14
2004-05 18075.55 4970.51 23046.06

Due to a spurt in production of charcoal during the period are accounted to Supreme Court of
India order (December 1996) regulating timber export and establishment of industries in
Byrnihat following adoption of new industrial policy in the state that use Charcoal as raw

86
material. The increased demand and fairly good income margin has encouraged illicit felling of
trees for producing charcoal in many districts of the state.

Fig.2.19 Charcoal productions in Khasi Hills

Uses

Charcoal is a major fuel used for cooking. It is also used as raw material in Ferro-Quartzite
Industries, in Ri-Bhoi District. In addition, charcoal is widely used for space heating during the
winter season, by goldsmiths for designing and carving of jewellery and by blacksmiths for
making local traditional tools and implements like spade (mohkhiew), knife (wait), lock and keys
etc. Charcoal is also used for ironing clothes in households and small laundry units.

Market & Economics

Charcoal has a ready market in the local Ferro-Quartzite Industries and for space heating. It is
estimated that more than 20,000 tonnes of charcoal is consumed by these industries annually.
Price of charcoal varies from place to place depending on local demand, availability, income
levels of sellers and customers and availability of cheaper alternative energy source.

In East
Photo 2.23 Charcoal being sold in Gunny Bags at Lad Rymbai, Jaintia Hills Khasi
(Photo by: L.B. Singha)
Hills the
average rate is Rs 8000 per tonne, in West Khasi Hills charcoal is sold at comparatively lower
rate of Rs 6500. In Ri Bhoi District the rate is Rs 7000 per tonne and in in Garo Hills the rate of
charcoal is Rs 6000 per tonne. The above rates are at which charcoal is sold by the regional
traders to consumers within and outside the state. The rate at which charcoal is sold by the
producers/local traders to regional traders is given in Table 2.16. Evidently the regional traders
sell the product at a price higher than what they pay to the producers for.

87
The main charcoal markets in the state are Iewduh (Shillong), Cherrapunjee, Mawngap,
Pynursla, Laitlyngkot, Smit and Mawkynrew in the East Khasi Hills District and Nongpoh,
Umsning, Byrnihat, Umden in the Ri-Bhoi district. In the West Khasi Hills the main markets are
Nongstoin, Mawkyrwat, Mairang, Balat and Sohiong. In Jaintia Hills the main markets are
Ummulong, Lad Rymbai and Dawki.

Table 2.16 Market price, annual sale and revenue accrued from charcoal production
District Market price Quantity sold Gross Revenue to
(Rs/tonne) (tonne/year) income/year state’s
(Rs) exchequer
Ri Bhoi (Umsamlem)*
a) 2100 a)36 a) 75600 10800
West Khasi Hills Nongriat*
Markasa* Shyrluang* a) 2000 a)12 a)24000 3600
b) 2100 b)36 b) 75600 10800
c) 2000 c)24 c) 48000 7200
Jaintia Hills
Khleriat* a) 1800 a) 48 a) 86400 3600
Ladrymbai* b) 1800 b) 36 b) 64800 2700
Jowai* c) 2000 c) 96 c) 192000 7200
East Khasi Hills
Bara Bazar* a) 4000 a) 120 a) 480000 36000
Nongthymmai* b) 3800 b) 60 b) 228000 18000
Mawlai* c) 3000 c) 72 c) 216000 21600

*Locality; a, b, c = individual shop/vendor.

Contributions to State Exchequer

Charcoal has emerged as a major source of income for the district councils of the state.
In Jaintia Hills the royalty levied on charcoal is Rs 100 per metric tonne. In the Khasi Hills it is
Rs 300 per tonne (KHADC & JHADC). The royalty fixed by the State government is Rs 60 per
tonne. In the Garo Hills the rate fixed by the Garo Hills Autonomous District Council is Rs 600
per tonne (GHADC). The revenue incurred from charcoal during the period 1995-2005 was Rs
2.28 crore in the Khasi hills and Rs 16.6 lakh in Jaintia Hills.

Potential & Constraint

88
The state receives a huge amount of revenue from charcoal alone. Producing more charcoal by
utilizing the rich bamboo resources available in the state can enhance the charcoal trade
immensely by using more efficient charcoal-producing technologies. Raising of tree plantations
for production of charcoal can provide sustained income to the people involved in this industry.

Discussion with the charcoal producers revealed that a minimum of 7-10 trees of approximately
70 cm girth and about 20 meter height are needed to produce 1 quintal of charcoal. Though
charcoal is more expensive than firewood, it is often a preferred house hold fuel as it is easier to
transport and convenient to use and produces less smoke. Most urban households neither have
the space nor provision to burn fire wood in the kitchens. Therefore, people often compromise
cost for the sake of convenience. Approximately 180000 quintals charcoal was produced from
Khasi Hills during 2004-2005. Based on the above mentioned estimates, this means that 22,000
average size trees might have been felled. Since most of the wood used for the production of
charcoal comes from the degraded and regenerating hard wood forests, several hundred of
hectares of forests are denuded every year in the state for this purpose. Charcoal making is
therefore a serious threat to the forests in the state.

For sustainability of charcoal industry in the state which employs thousands of rural people,
reliable data on production, distribution and consumption, markets and marketing practices and
charcoal based enterprises is desirable. Such data is particularly scarce in Garo Hills. It is also
desirable to assess the impact of charcoal industry on the state’s forest resource.

Most charcoal production is unsustainable since wood is coming from regenerating forest.
Charcoal production is therefore, detrimental to forest. The state government is aware of the
problem and is working in this direction. A draft rule regulating the production of charcoal is
ready with the government.

FUELWOOD
According to World Bank study (2006) the estimated demand for fuelwood in India stands at 139
million tones, far above the supply from regulated and sustainable sources. Hence shortage in the

89
supply of fuelwood is predicted in the near future. The rural areas account for the bigger portion
of total fuelwood consumption. In Meghalaya, about 80% of the total population resides in the
rural areas whose main energy source is fuelwood. Besides, fuelwood is a source of household
income to the rural poor, as wood harvesting is one of the most important economic activities in
the rural areas.

Photo 2.24 Fuelwood stacked on road side for sale (Photo by H.Tynsong)

Fuelwood collection and its sale provide employment to a good number of poor people of the
state. In a family, women and children also collect fuelwood. Earlier only dead trunks and
branches were collected for domestic use, but now even green trees are felled for fuelwood. Data
regarding production and harvest of fuelwood is not available for the state. Such data is essential
to assess the sustainability of forest resources of the state.

Uses

Fuelwood is mainly used for cooking purposes. Besides utilization at the household level, it is
used in bakeries present all over the state. The Public Works Department (PWD) uses a huge
amount of fuelwood to melt the coal tar during construction/metalling of roads.

Photo 2.25 Use of fuelwood in road construction.(Photo by L. B. Singha)

It is a well-established fact that rural households account for greater fuelwood consumption. The
rural households collect fuelwood from the nearest forest. The urban households, however,
purchase it from the market. Few urban households collect as well as purchase fuelwood.
Fuelwood and total energy consumption is largely determined by the household income. With
increasing income people in urban areas are shifting to modern fuels like kerosene and LPG. In
rural areas high-income households generally buy fuelwood, while the lower income households
collect it from nearby forest.

Preferred fuelwood species in various Agro-Ecological Regions

90
Meghalaya is divided into four broad Agro-Ecological Regions viz, 1. Western Region, 2. Central and
Upland Region 3. Northern Undulating Hill Region and 4. South Precipitatious Region (Fig.2.20).

Fig.2.20 Various Agro-ecological regions of the state.

i) Western Region: In this region some of the preferred fuelwood tree species are Schima
walichii, Quercus spp., Castanopsis indica, Betula alnoides, Callicarpa vestita, Bauhinea semla,
Aporusa sp. and Macaranga denticulata.

ii) Central and Upland Region: Schima walichii, Quercus lancefolia, Quercus dealbata, Quercus
spicata, Betula alnoides, Callicarpa vestita, Bauhinea semla, Pinus kesiya, Albizzia lebbek,
Macaranga denticulata, Styrax serrulatum, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and Bambusa sp are
preferred species in this region.

iii) Northern Undulating Region: In this region Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Bambusa sp.,
Actinodaphne ovota, Antidesma khasianum, Schima walichii, Eleocarpus sp., Glochidion
khasicum, Ilex sp., Macaranga denticulata, Sarcosperma griffithi and Cinnamomum tamala are
commonly used for fuelwood.

iv) South Precipitatious Region: The common fuelwood species in this region are Phoebe
cooperiana, Lithocarpus fenestratus, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Eurya acuminata, Macaranga
denticulata, Styrax serrulatum, Schima walichii, Ligustrum robustum, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii
and Bambusa sp.

Production

Fuelwood production in Garo Hills is high to meet local needs as well as demand from
neighboring Assam. In Jaintia Hills local consumption of fuelwood is low therefore the
production is also low. In the Khasi Hills fuelwood is consumed both at local level as well as for
transport outside the state, hence production is high (Fig.2.21, 2.22).

Fig.2.21 Year wise production of fuelwood in Garo Hills (Source: GHADC)

91
 Fig.2.22 Year wise production of Fuelwood in Jaintia Hills (Source: JHADC)

Consumption
Fuelwood consumption was found to be highest among Khasi community (5.81 kg/capita/day),
followed by the Garo (5.32 kg/capita/day) and Jaintia (3.90 kg/capita/day) irrespective of their
socio-economic status (Bhatt and Sachan, 2003). According to official records the average
quantity of fuelwood produced during 1995-2005 was 56148.04 tonnes in Khasi Hills, 486000
tonnes in Garo Hills and 99.86 tonnes in Jaintia Hills. The estimated value of the fuelwood was
Rs 13.47 crore (@ Rs 2400/tonne), Rs 21.87 crore (@ Rs 450/tonne) and Rs 89874 (@ Rs
900/tonne), respectively in the three regions. The average annual production in all the districts is
542247.9 MT and the gross income is valued at Rs 67.78 crore at an average market rate of Rs
1250/tonne.

Fuelwood consumption pattern varies with the purpose e.g. for domestic use, bakeries, industries
and road construction. The fuelwood consumption pattern in the state is shown in Table 2.17.

Table 2.17 Fuelwood consumption pattern (tonnes) in Meghalaya during 2004-2005

(Source: KHADC)
District Household Bakery Road Lime
construction Industry
East Khasi Hills 125567 27648 N.A 1050
West Khasi Hills 50035 6048 116160 N.A
Ri-Bhoi 34844 7776 N.A N.A
Jaintia Hills 49918 13248 42400 70
East Garo Hills 45062 9504 N.A N.A
West Garo Hills 95524 13248 62080 N.A
South Garo Hills 17900 3456 N.A N.A
Total 418850 80928 220640 1120
N.A: data not available

The pie chart diagram (Fig. 2.24) shows that fuelwood consumed by household forms the highest
percentage out of the total fuelwood consumption in the state.
Fig.2.24 Fuelwood consumption pattern in Meghalaya

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Photo 2.26 (a) A Fuelwood shop at Umran, Ri -Bhoi District and (b) A Site within the forest where
fuelwood is sold at Siatbakon, War area. (Photo by: H.Tynsong)

Market & Economics

Fuelwood is one of the most important marketable forest produce of the state. The average
market rate of fuelwood in East Khasi Hills, West Khasi Hills and Ri-Bhoi District is Rs 2400
per tonne. In Jaintia Hills the rate is Rs 900 per tonne; in Garo Hills it is Rs 450 per tonne.

The markets for fuelwood in the state are: Iewduh in Shillong, Cherrapunjee (Sohra), Mawngap,
Pynursla, Laitlyngkot, Smit and Mawkynrew in the East Khasi Hills District Nongpoh, Umsning,
Byrni hat, Umden, in the Ri-Bhoi district. Nongstoin, Mawkyrwat, Mairang, Balat, Sohiong in
the West Khasi Hills. Ummulong, Lad Rymbai, and Dawki in Jaintia Hills. Ampati, New
Garobadha, Old Garobadha, Phulbari, Raksamgre in the West Garo Hills. Bajengdoba,
Rongjeng, Rongre in the East Garo Hills and Chokpot, Siju 105 km, Simsang Balkal and
Moheshkola in South Garo Hills. The principal trading centers of fuelwood in the state are
Shillong, Nongstoin, Nongpoh, Jowai, Tura, Williamnagar, and Baghmara.

The price of fuelwood differs in different regions and at different levels (Table 2.18). The price
fixed by the local traders is low compared to that fixed by the regional traders. This is due to the
fact that regional traders sell their product to other states of the country unlike the local traders
who sell the fuelwood to the local consumers. In Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills the selling price of
fuelwood at the two levels is the same (Table 2.19). In these two places the local consumption is
low and almost all fuelwood is either sold outside the state from Garo Hills or to the richer local
consumers as in Jaintia Hills.

Table 2.18 Fuelwood prices at various levels

Districts Market rate Market Rate
(Rs/tonne) (Rs/tonne)

(Local traders) (Regional traders)

East Khasi Hills 1000 2400
West Khasi Hills 1000 2400
Ri-Bhoi 1000 2400

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 Jaintia Hills 900 900
East Garo Hills 500 450
West Garo Hills 400 450

Table 2.19 Market rate and income to the local traders selling the fuelwood to local consumers in
various districts of the state

District Market Quantity sold Gross Financial Net income Average net
rate (Rs by the trader income investment (Rs) income
per (tonne/yr) (Rs) purchase/tran
tonne) sportation etc (Rs)
(Rs)
East Khasi 1000 a)60 a)60000 a)35000 a)25000
Hills 42500
b)180 b)180000 b)120000 b)60000
West Khasi 1000 a)120 a)120000 a)75000 a)45000
Hills 38500
b)72 b)72000 b)40000 b)32000
Ri Bhoi 1000 a)576 a)576000 a)384000 a)19200
0
b)240 b)240000 b)130000 151000
b)11000
0
Jaintia Hills 900 a)120 a)1080000 a)60000 a)48000

b)60 b)54000 b)20000 b)34000 39200

c)84 c)75600 c)40000 c)35600

East Garo 500 a)72 a)36000 a)5000 a)31000
Hills 22750
b) 36 b)18000 b)3500 b)14500
West Garo 400 a)216 a) 86400 a)1000 a) 76400
Hills 78500
b)36 b)105600 b)25000 b)80600

2.9.6 Marketing Channel

Fig.2.25 Path of fuelwood from producer to the consumer

The flow chart above shows the existing market chain for fuelwood (Fig.2.25). The fuelwood
sold directly by the collector to the consumers is prevalent in the rural areas (1). The collector
may sell the fuelwood to the local trader who sells it to the consumers in villages and urban areas
(2). In the third type of market chain the collectors sell it to the local trader, from here it goes to
the retailers in urban areas and finally to the end users (3). Local traders may sell the fuelwood to

94
regional traders who then sell it to traders in other states through which it reaches the consumers
(4).

Contribution to State Exchequer

The rate of royalty on fuelwood varies in the three district councils of the state. In Jaintia Hills it
is Rs 37.50 per tonne, in Khasi Hills it is Rs 38 per tonne and in Garo Hills it is Rs 23 per tonne.
As per official records the annual contribution to state exchequer Rs 11178 from Garo Hills , Rs
2133626 from the Khasi Hills, and Rs 3745 from Jaintia Hills.

Potentials & Constraint

Our field survey indicates that fuelwood is a steady source of income. The average net annual
income in West Garo Hills District is Rs 10466. In East Khasi Hills, West Khasi Hills and Ri-
Bhoi Districts, where the market rate of fuelwood is Rs 1000/tonne, the average net annual
income is 42500, 38500 and 151000 respectively. A large number of people are involved in
production and sale of fuelwood. The fuelwood collectors are mainly women and children whose
parents cannot afford to send them to school. They are paid by the traders and allowed to use
fuelwood free of cost for family use.

In Nongshyrngan, Siatbakon, Mawpran, Mawlyndun, Shiliangjashar and Rangthylliang villages

of southern Meghalaya, only few households (about 10-15) are engaged in fuelwood collection.
They sell the fuelwood at cheap rate. A stack of twigs and branches of 0.80 m length and 1.30 m
circumference are sold at Rs. 30.

Villagers face problems of transporting and marketing of the fuelwood stacks. They have to
carry the load themselves. Finding a customer is another problem. They sell it at local markets
and if sold to retailers or regional traders they face the problem of “under pricing” by the
middlemen. Lack of proper storage facility is another problem.
Since most people in the rural areas still depend on fuelwood as the sole source of energy for
cooking and other purposes, its demands is ever rising. Therefore to meet the demand switching
over to fast growing fuelwood species like bamboo is a viable option. Large scale plantation of
multi-utility tree species like Cinnamomum zeylanicum tree would be able to meet the fuelwood

95
requirements on one hand and provide economic benefits on the other. This will also help in
checking deforestation.

License for trade in fuelwood should be issued to the collectors and producers only to prevent
illegal trading. Only those with licenses should be allowed to transport fuelwood to the
marketing point. Information regarding rural and urban trading network is important for the rural
people whose major source of income is fuelwood.

Box 2.1 To lease or not to lease???

In recent years, in some villages community forests are being leased out to fuelwood
contractors for a certain period of time during which they can fell trees and/or produce charcoal.
For example, in Mawpran (Clan Forest) and Lyngkyrdem (Raid Forest) villages of East Khasi
Hills district all such forests were clear felled during the year 2000 by the contractors. The
contractors did not bother about the consequence of their action as their sole objective was to
earn maximum profit.

MEDICINAL PLANTS

Medicinal plants are an important source of raw material for traditional medicines and a large
number of people derive employment and income from the collection, processing and trade of
these plants (Tiwari, 2000). According to World Health Organization estimate 80% of the
population of developing countries rely on traditional medicines, mostly plant drugs, for their
primary health care needs.
Photo 2.27 Mahonia pycnophylla

Demand for medicinal plant is increasing in both developing and developed countries due to
growing recognition of natural products, being non-narcotic, having no side-effects, easily
available at affordable prices and sometimes the only source of health care available to the poor.
Medicinal plant sector has traditionally occupied an important position in the socio-cultural,
spiritual and medicinal arena of the lives of rural and tribal people of India. For the rural poor of

96
hill regions, like the state of Meghalaya, medicinal plants are as important as food they eat
everyday and that they cannot survive without herbal medicines which are consumed both as
preventive curative of specific ailments. More than 200 forest plants are used by the people of
Meghalaya for food, medicine, dye and for ornamental and constructional purposes (Tiwari and
Tynsong, 2004). Ethnomedicines and medicinal plants of Meghalaya have received some
attention of researchers compared to other products (Rao 1981, Dolui et al., 2004). However,
most of these studies are restricted to documentation of uses of plants by the tribal people.

Distribution
Medicinal plants are found in nature all over the state. List of species found in the four agro-
ecological zones viz., (i) Western Region, (ii) Central and Upland Region (iii) Northern
Undulating Hill Region and (iv) South Precipitatious Region (Fig.2.20) is given below.
Insert map here

Western Region
The Western Region includes Garo Hills, Baghmara and some adjoining areas of the West Khasi
Hills constituting an area of 8,164 sq. km. The altitude of the area ranges between 400 and 1,260
m with an annual rainfall varying from 1,600 to 4,000 mm. The soil is laterite and red loamy in
the hills and alluvial in the plains bordering Bangladesh. The Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest,
Sub-Tropical Forest and Sal Forest are important forest types of the region. A total number of 56
wild and domesticated medicinal plants are used by the people living in this region. Some of the
commonly used medicinal plants include: Achyranthus aspera, Bombax ceiba, Calotropis
gigantea, Emblica officinalis, Ophiopogon sp., Phlogacanthus tubiflorus, Terminalia chebula
etc. The medicinal plants recorded in this region are listed in Box 2.2

Box 2.2 Medicinal Plants of Western Region

Abroma angusta, Acanthus leucostachys, Achyranthus aspera, Anthocephalus chinensis,
Antidesma bunius, Bombax ceiba, Butea monosperma, Calotropis gigantea, Canscora

97
andrographioides, Capparis assamica, Cassia fistula, Chonemorpha fragrans, Clematis
montana, Desmodium laxiflorum, Disporum calcaratum, Dracaena ensifolia, Emblica
officinalis, Fagopyrum cymosum, Globba clarkei, Hedychium gracile, Hedyotis scandens,
Holarrhena antidysentrica, Homalomena aromatica, Ixora acuminata, Jasminum lanceolaria,
Justicia gendarusa, Lasia spinosa, Litsea citrata, Melia composite, Molineria recurvata, Mycetia
longifolia, Oenanthe stolonifera, Oldenlendia sp., Ophiopogon sp., O. japonicus, Paedaria
foetida, Phlogacanthus tubiflorus, Pilea lancifolia, Plumbago zeylanica, Pogostemon parviflorus,
Polygonum chinensis, P. nepalense, Pothos kunstleri, Pouzolzia indica, Rhaphidophora hookeri,
Rhus semialata, Rubus moluccanus, Smilax prolifera, Spatholobus roxburghii, Spilanthus
acmella, Strobilanthus scaber, Symplocos racemosa, Tacca laevis, Terminalia chebula,
Thunbergia coccinea and Valeriana hardwickii

Central and Upland Region

The East Khasi Hills, parts of West Khasi Hills, Ri Bhoi and Jaintia Hills districts make up the
Central and Upland Region. The altitude ranges from 400-1961 m and the average annual
rainfall varies from 1,600-4,000 mm. The soil in the region varies from red loamy,
Photo 2.28 Swertia chitrata at Mawphlang village (Photo by: H.
Tynsong).

laterite soil to red and yellow soils. Three major forest types viz., Tropical Semi-evergreen
Forest, Sub-Tropical Evergreen Forest and Sub-Tropical Pine Forest are found. The region is
very rich in medicinal plants and many traditional healers entirely depend on them for the
medicines. Some of the important plants of medicinal value that are commonly used are Calamus
arborescens, Clerodendron colebrookianum, Entada scandens, Mahonia nepalensis and Litsea
citrata. One hundred three plant species that are used for the treatment of various ailments by the
people of this region are given in Box 2.3
Box 2.3 Medicinal Plants of Central and Upland Region
Adenostemma lavenia, Ajuga bracteosa, Albizzia chinensis, Allium hookerii, Alysicarpus
monilifer, Ambrosia artimisifolia, Anaphalis adnata, Anemone rivularis, Astilbe rivularis,
Baccaurea sapida, Bauhinia variegata, Begonia josephii, B. palmata, B. rubrovenia, Berberis
wallichiana, Betula alnoides, Brassica campestris, Brugmansia suaveolens, Calamus latifolius,
Callicarpa sp., Cannabis sativa, Capsicum annum, Chloranthus brachystachyus, Cinnamomum
pauciflorum, C. tamala, Clematis sp., Clerodendron colebrookianum, Colocasia esculenta,
Conyza bonariensis, Crossocephalum crepidioides, Curcuma angustifolia, C. longa, Cyanodon
sp., Daphne bholua, Delphinium altissimum, Dendrobium mochatum, Desmodium gangeticum,
Dichrocephala bicolor, Drymeria cordata, Eleusine indica, Elsholtzia blanda, Emblica
officinalis, Engelhardtia spicata, Entada scandens, Erigeron karvinskianus, Eriobotrya sp.,
Eriosema chinense, Erythrina arborescens, Eucalyptus sp., Ficus pomifera, F. virens, Galingsoga
ciliate, Garuga pinnata, Geranium nepalense, Glochidion khasianum, Gmelina arborea, Helicia
erratica, Hodgsonia heteroclita, Hydnocarpus kurzii, Hypocharis radicata, Indigofera tinctoria,
Ipomoea uniflora, Leucas linifolia, Lindera pulcherrima, Litsea citrata, Loranthus odoratus,
Mahonia nepalensis, Mahonia pycnophylla, Mallotus philippensis, Melia azedarach, Melothria

98
heterophylla, Musa sapientum, Myrica esculenta, Osbekia crinita, Pandanus tectorius, Panicum
maximum, Parochetus communis, Phyrnium puvinerve, Pieris hieracioides, Piper griffthii,
Pithecellobium bigeminum, Plantago major, Polygonum serratum, Pouzolzia hirta,
Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum, Psidium guajava, Rorippa indica, R. nasturtium-aquaticum,
Rubia cordifolia, Rubus ellipticus, Saurauja sp., Schefflera hypoleuca, Schima khasiana, S.
wallichii, Schisandra axillaries, S. discolor, Sida rhombifolia, Synotis cappa, Tainia viridifusca,
Talauma phellocarpa, Thysonalaena maxima, Toddalia asiatica, Torenia sp., and Vitex negundo.
Photo 2.29 Osbekia capiteta at Jarain village
(Photo by: H. Tynsong).

Northern Undulating Hill Region

This region includes most parts of the Ri Bhoi District and some parts of the West Khasi Hills. It
is characterized by the undulating hills towards the Brahmaputra valley. The altitude of the
region varies between 800 and 1,200 m. The soil is laterite and alluvial in the northern most part.
The area receives about 1,600 mm annual rainfall and support Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest.
People in this region use a large numbers of medicinal plants to cure their ailments. Some
important medicinal plants of this region are: Acorus calamus, Adiantum phillipense, Averrhoa
carambola, Hedychium sp., Panax pseudoginseng and Zanthoxylum khasianum. A total of 53
medicinal plants are used by the people living in this region (Box 2.4).

Box 2.4 Medicinal Plants of Northern Undulating Hill Region

Acorus calamus, Adiantum phillipense, Aegle marmelos, Ageratum conyzoides, Allium
tuberosum, Amomum aromaticum, Antidesma thwaitesianum, Arisaemia sp., Aristolochia
cathcartii, A. saccata, Asparagus filicinus, Averrhoa carambola, Azadirachta indica, Biophytum
sensitivum, Cassia tora, Centella asiatica, Chromolaena odorata, Cinnamomum camphora,
Curcuma domestica, Emblica officinalis, Fagopyrum cymosum, Flemingia vestita, Gaultheria
fragrantissima, Gomphostemma parviflora, Hedychium uncinella, Hedyotis verticillata,
Holmskioldia sanguinea, Houttuynia cordata, Kaempferia sp., Nepenthes khasiana, Oxalis
corniculata, Paederia sp., Panax pseudoginseng, Peliosanthes teta, Pholidota imbricata,
Polygonum nepalense, Rhododendron sp., Rhus semialata, Solanum barbisetum, S. khasianum,
S. xanthocarpus, Sonchus asper, Swertia chirata, Taxus baccata, Tinospora cordifolia, Viburnum
foetidum, Vitis capreolata, Zanthoxylum acanthopodium, Z. khasianum, Zingiber officinalis, Z.
rubens, Z. zurumbet and Zizyphus mauritiana.

Photo 2.30 Nepenthes khasiana at Jarain village

(Photo by: H. Tynsong).

South Precipitatious Region

This region is characterized by steep slopes; and is popularly known as the War Area. The area
includes most of the southern part of West and East Khasi Hills, part of the Jaintia Hills and a

99
small area of South Garo Hill district. The altitude ranges from below 400-1200 m and the
important soil types found there are red, yellow and alluvial soils. The area’s annual rainfall
ranging from 6,000-10,000 mm. Cherrapunjee-Mawsynram Plateau which receives highest
rainfall in the world is located in this region. Tropical Moist Deciduous forest is the dominant
vegetation of the region. The region is very rich in medicinal plants and traditional healers. Some
important plants of medicinal value include: Aristolochia cathcartii, Citrus medica,
Clerodendrum viscosum, C. colebrookianum, Gaultheria fragrantissima, Smilax sp. and
Trichosanthes lepiniana. A total of about 93 medicinal plants are found to be widely used by the
people in this region (Box 2.5).

Box 2.5 Medicinal Plants of South Precipitatious Region

Acacia pennata, Acorus calamus, Adenostemma lavenia, Adiantum philippense, Albizzia
chinensis, Alchornea latifolia, Amorphophallus bulbifer, Ampelocissus latifolia, Aristolochia
saccata, A. tagala, Artimesia vulgaris, Averrhoa carambola, Baccaurea sapida, Brassica
campestris, Begonia josephii, B. palmata, B. picta, Clerodendron angustifolia, C.
colebrookianum, C. serratum, Curcuma aromatica, C. longa, Cinnamomum camphora, C.
tamala, C. wallichii, Calamus latifolius, Camellia kissi, Canabis sativa, Capsicum annum,
Caryota urens, Cassia tora, Centella asiatica, Chromolaena odorata, Cissus repens, Citrus
latipes, C. medica, Clematis buchaniana, Colocasia esculenta, Costus speciosus, Davallia
trichomanoides, Dendrobium mochatum, Drymeria cordata, Elephantopus scaber, Embelia ribes,
Engelhardia spicata, Entada scandens, Erigeron karvin, Gonatanthus pumilus, Hedychium
coccineum, H. gracile, H. uncinella, Houttuynia cordata, Hydnocarpus kurzii, Ipomoea
involucrata, Ixora acuminata, Lindernia ruelloides, Litsea citrata, Macropanax dispermus,
Mimosa pudica, Murraya paniculata, Mussaendra frondosa, M. glabra, M. roxburghii,
Nepenthes khasiana,Osbekia capiteta, Pilea umbrosa, Piper griffthii, P. peepuloides,
Polygonum nepalense, P. serratulum, Psidium guajava, Rorippa indica, Rubus ellipticus,
Saurauja punduana, Schima khasiana, S. wallichii, Schisandra axillaries, Smilax sp., Solanum
barbisetum, S. Xanthocarpus, Tainia viridifusca, Talauma phellocarpa, Terminalia chebula,
Thysanolaena maxima, Tinospora cordifolia, Trichosanthes lepiniana, Viburnum foetidum,
Zanthoxylum acanthopodium, Z. alatum, Z. khasianum, Zingiber officinalis, Z.rubens, Z.
zerumbet and Zizyphus mauritiana.

Collection and use of Medicinal Plants

Photo 2.31 Harvesting of Cinnamomum camphora bark in the forest
fo Pynursla village. (Photo by: H. Tynsong).
Medicinal plants are generally used at the household level in a self-help mode. The health
practitioners use medicinal plants in both preventive and curative applications. Every village of
the state has at least one or more herbal practitioners who have acquired most of their knowledge
about medicine from their forefathers through oral traditions of transmittance of knowledge.
There is no data regarding the total number of herbal health practitioners in the state but their

100
number is estimated in thousands. Most local practitioners collect the MPs from the forests and
fallow lands. Sometimes their family members also collect MPs. The most collected MP species
in Meghalaya are Taxus baccata, Panax pseudoginseng, Rauvolfia serpentina, Centella asiatica,
Swertia chitrata and Nepenthes khasiana. The levels of collection of wild edible and medicinal
plants are very high in all Agro-ecological regions of the state. The methods and quantity of
harvesting differ from species to species. In most cases the harvesting is not sustainable as it is
aimed at short term benefit. The plant collectors are mostly illiterate villagers often uproot the
whole plant instead of collecting only the required parts, thus posing a threat to the viability
genetic stocks. Some important MP species which have become rare particularly in the South
Precipitatious Region (War Area) of the state are Gaultheria fragrantissima, Tinospora
cordifolia, Calamus arborescens, Entada scandens and Hodgsonia hiteroclita due to over
harvesting and destruction of their natural habitats. The processing like drying, cutting, grinding
etc. is done manually by the practitioners themselves or by their family members.

Market and Economics

Very few medicinal plants are sold in the market. Majority of them are collected from wild and
used for household purposes only. Following plant species were seen being sold at market places
in the state during the survey: Begonia josephii, Centella asiatica, Clerodendron
celebrookianum, Cinnamomum tamala, Curcuma aromatica, C. longa, Entada scandens,
Houttuynia cordata, Myrica esculenta, Mentha spicata, Potentilla fulgens, Phyllanthus emblica,
Trichosanthes lepiniana, and Zingiber officinalis.

Photo 2.32 Medicinal plants being sold in village market in Garo

Hills Market (Photo: H. Tynsong).

In Shillong market, which is the biggest market in the state Centella asiatica, Cinnamomum
tamala, Curcuma longa, Houttuynia cordata, Mentha spicata, Myrica esculenta, Phyllanthus
emblica, Piper peepulsoides, Potentilla mooniana, Zanthoxylum khasianum and Zingiber
officinalis are sold by retailers to the consumers. The market rate of some of the important
medicinal plants in Meghalaya is given in Table 2.20.

Table 2.20 Wholesale rates of some medicinal plants in Meghalaya

101
 Sl.No. Scientific Name Price/kg (1997-1998)
1. Abroma augusta 28
2. Andrographis paniculata 25
3. Bacopa monnieri 35
4. Blumea lacera 15
5. Boerhavia diffusa 45
6. Cinchona spp 150
7. Coscinium fenestratum 25
8. Costus speciotus 18
9. Datura metel 30
10. Emblica officinalis 90
11. Ficus religiosa 50
12. Hemidesmus indicus 65
13. Hypnocarpus kurzii 45
14. Ichnocarpus frutescens 28
15. Mucuna pruriens 65
16. Phyllanthus emblica 45
17. Picrorhiza kurrooa 18
18. Piper longum 150
19. Saraca asoca 25
20. Smilax spp 150
21. Solanum nigrum 180
22. Solanum virginiatum 45
23. Swertia chitrata 170
24. Terminalia bellirica 12
25. Tinospora cordifolia 18
26. Withania somnifera 120
27. Wrightia tinctoria 110
Source: Mishra and Dutta (2003)
There is no information about how many species of medicinal plants are sent from Meghalaya to
other parts of India and have national or international markets. However, seizure of more than 20
trucks of plant parts of Terminalia arjuna, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Oroxylum indica, Litsea
chinensis, Rouvolfia serpentine, Taxus baccata and rhizome of various Zingiberous species
during 2004 in the Aie Valley Division of Forests, Bongaigaon is a proof of flourishing illegal
trade of medicinal plants in the north-east region (Biolink, 2004). A good amount of these plants
might have their actual origin in the state. There are reports of illegal international trade of a
large number of medicinal plants which includes: Chinchona sp, Panax pseudoginseng, Piper
peepuloides, Rouvolfia serpentine, Taxus baccata and Terminalia sp.

Herbal Practitioners

102
 The existence of herbal practitioners in almost all villages and the towns of the state provide
ample evidence of large scale usage of the medicinal plants at the local level. They have been
effective in curing innumerable diseases including cancer and tuberculosis at its earlier stages.
These practitioners believe that their profession is predestined by the Almighty and hence
majority of them, especially in the rural areas take little or no monetary benefit out of it.
However, some of them are recognized by the Government and they charge for it. According to
them many medicinal plants with better properties are in the threat of extinction. They believe
that the plants collected from wild are more effective than the cultivated ones.

Photo 2.33 Herbal practitioner at Jingjal Market of West

Garo Hills District (Photo by: H. Tynsong.)
Extent of .
dependence of the people on MPs

The levels of collection of medicinal plants are very high in all Agro-ecological Regions of the
state, as most health care needs of rural people are met from plant products. Most of the
medicinal plants are collected from the forests and very few species are enriched or
domesticated. There are very few medicinal plants which are cultivated in the home-stead and
home garden. The commonly grown species are: Clerodendron viscosum, Psidium guajava,
Smilax sp., Hemidesmus indicus, Fagopyrum cymosum, Houttuynia cordata, Cannabis sativa,
Kaempferia foetida, Piper peepulsoides, Zanthoxylum khasianum, Zingiber rubens, Zingiber
officinalis, Hedychium sp., Trichosanthes lepiniana, Citrus karna, Piper betel, etc. Harvesting
of MPs is not sustainable particularly for species which are in great demand; this may cause
severe depletion of species populations in nature. Some of the species whose population is
dwindling in nature are: Gaultheria fragrantissima, Tinospora cordifolia, Calamus arborescens,
Entada scandens etc. A list of important MPs found in the forests and wastelands of the four
agro-ecological regions and their uses is given the Table 2.21, 2.22, 2.23and 2.24.

Table 2.21 Important medicinal plants found in the Western Region

Sl. Scientific Name Local Name Family Uses

No.
(G)
1. Abroma angusta Sam sikal Acanthaceae The oil extracted from the seed is
consumed for fever and also
applied externally for ring worm

103
 and scabies.
2. Acanthus NA Acanthaceae Leaves are pounded and applied as
leucostachysis poultice.
3. Achyranthus aspera Minamkachi Amaranthaceae The powder of roots mixed with
snails is applied to cure leprosy.
4. Anthocephalus Mi-bol Rubiaceae Leaves decoction is .used for
chinensis gargling in aphthea or stomatitis;
the stem bark is astringent,
fabrifugel and anti-diuretic
properties and is given in cough.
5. Antidesma burnius Bol-aborak Euphorbiaceae The leaves are eaten with rice for
treating syphilitic ulcers.
6. Bombax ceiba Bolchu Bombaceae The flowers are used for astringent
and are applied in coetaneous
troubles, bark is mucilaginous and
its infusion is given as a
demulcent, emetic and tonic, and
its aqueous extract mixed with
curd is used to check blood
dysentery.
7. Butea monosperma Dhak Papilionaceae Powdered seed, mixed with juice
of the rhizome of Cyperus
rotundus, administered for
delirium.
8. Calotropis giganteus Akom-aring Asteraceae For malaria extract of fresh leave
is consumed orally.
9. Canscora Sak sre Gentianaceae Paste of roots and leaves is applied
andrographioides on cuts and wounds and applied
externally in skin disease.
10. Capparis assamica Mantori Capparaceae For headache and general body
pain the extract of dried leaves and
roots mixed together with the fresh
leaves of Artemisia vulgaris is
consumed orally.
11. Cassia fistula Soneru Caesalpiniaceae Root, bark, the pulp from fruits,
seeds and leaves, a decoction of
these is used as purgative tonic
and febrifuge.
12. Chonemorpha Kotchibeta Apocynaceae The powdered root and stem are
fragrans given for stomach disorders, chest
pain, and rheumatism.
13. Clematis montana NA Ranunculaceae Roots are very effective against
cough and cold.
14. Desmodium Bhutu hom Papilionaceae Roots and leaves are of medicinal
laxiflorum importance for dysentery.
15. Disporum Tike jakriting Liliaceae Aqueous extract of tubers is used
calcaratum for eyes.
16. Dracaena ensifolia Milam Liliaceae Decoction of leaves and roots is
taken orally for cold, malaria and
rheumatism.

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17. Emblica officinalis Amalaki Euphorbiaceae As medicine for skin diseases,
blood pressure.
18. Fagopyrum NA Polygonaceae Leaves are used as medicinal
cymosum salad.
19. Globba clarkei Dike holdiram Zingiberaceae Aqueous extract of leaves and
roots is consumed orally for
dysentery.
20. Hedychium sp. Zingiberaceae Tubers are used in respiratory
NA disorder.
21. Hedyotis scandens Sam rating Rubiaceae Decoction of the dried leaves is
taken for cough and cold.
22. Holarrhena Bol-matra Apocynaceae Dried bark and seeds are soaked in
antidysenterica water and the decoction is taken
amoebic dysentery.
23. Homalomena Roathi Araceae Decoction of its rhizome is applied
aromatica externally in case of swelling,
pimples, skin sores.
24. Ixora acuminate Saoltua Rubiaceae Aqueous extract of leaves and
flowers is consumed orally and
also used as blood purifier.
25. Jasminum Pipli Oleaceae For ringworm extract of leaves and
lanceolaria roots is applied externally, used
only in case of children.
26. Justicia gendarussa Dochenpok Acanthaceae Decoction of leaves is taken for
body pain.
27. Lasia spinosa Timulona Araceae Decoction of the rhizome is used
as an antidote for poison/toxins
28. Litsea khasiana NA Lauraceae Aromatic oil used as deodorants.
29. Melia composite Sural Meliaceae Aqueous extract of leaves either
boiled or raw is consumed for
gastric ulcers.
30. Molineria recurvata Rekosi Hypoxidaceae Fresh leaves and tubers paste is
taken orally for diarrhea and
dysentery.
31. Mycetia longifolia Janthro Rubiaceae Extract of leaves and roots are
applied on forehead for high fever
or blood pressure.
32. Notsiatum NA Icacinaceae Whole plant is of medicinal
herpeticum importance and is used to treat
influenza.
33. Oenanthe Bopo goli ting Apiaceae Fresh leaves are taken orally for
stolonifera stomachache, constipation etc.
34. Oldenlendia diffusa Chenong Rubiaceae Leaves and tender leaves are
boiled in water and after cooling
the decoction is applied as eye-
drop for sore eyes and other eye
diseases.
35. Oldenlendia Chenogn-ri Rubiaceae For general debility, leaves extract
nudicaulis is taken orally.
36. Ophiopogon Ticea ohik Liliaceae Leaf paste is applied on minor cuts

105
 intermedius and wounds.
37. Ophiopogon Samachik Rubiaceae Decoction of roots and leaves is
subcapitata mixed with honey and is taken
orally for fever, sore throat, tonsils
and also for facial blemishes.
38. Paedaria foetida Gandharadal Rubiaceae Either juice of the leaf or the leaf
itself is fried with rice powder and
given to cure dysentery or
indigestion.
39. Pagostemon Sam-sanum Lamiaceae Extract of fresh leaves is
parviflorus consumed orally for headache.
40. Phlogacanthus Som rongtek Acanthaceae Leaves extract is taken orally
tubiflorus during high fever.
41. Pilea Sam-rongtek Urticaceae For fever decoction of leaves is
lancifolia administered orally to children;
also used as antidandruff.
42. Plumbago zeylanica Agea Plumbaginaceae For general debility in children a
piece of root is tied on the neck.
43. Polygonum Samichang Polygonaceae For urinary disorders aqueous
chinensis extract of root and the leaves of
Hedyotis scandens is consumed
orally.
44. Polygonum Samichang Polygonaceae Medicinal salad for control of
nepalensis blood pressure.
45. Pothos kunstleri Garore Araceae For toxicity extract of fresh leaves
and stem is taken orally.
46. Pouzolzia indica Fakruom Urticaceae For urinary and spleen disorders
decoction of root and leaves is
taken orally.
47. Rhaphidophora Dhukentri Araceae For snake and dog bite paste of
hookeri leaves and root is extracted. The
extract is taken orally; paste is
applied on the injury.
48. Rhus semialata Khitma Anacardiaceae Ripe fruits are taken to relieve
diarrhea and dysentery.
49. Rubus moluccanus Thekhi-sembok Rosaceae Paste of root is applied on cuts for
blood clotting and to prevent
swelling.
50. Smilax Marangwa Liliaceae Hot root poultice is used for
prolifera hydrocoel. Aqueous extract of
leaves and roots along with banana
flowers is consumed orally for
labor pain.
51. Spatholobus Maribata Papilionaceae The bark is used for toothache and
roxburghii gum ailments.
52. Spilanthus acmella Sam atching Asteraceae Fresh leaves mixed with mustard
oil are made into paste which is
applied as poultice on forehead for
fever.
53. Strobilanthas scaber Sam siphra, Acanthaceae Extract of young leaves is applied

106
 bimchat for itching.
54. Symplocos racemosa Boligpok Symplocaceae Decoction of barks is consumed
orally for indigestion and impaired
blood circulation.
55. Tacca Colbere Taccaceae Tubers are boiled, mixed with
laevis honey and bark of Shorea
assamica and made into powder.
Decoction is taken orally.
56. Terminalia chebula Artak, salukal Combretaceae Decoction of dry fruits is taken
orally for diarrhea, stomach pain,
and spleen disorders.
57. Thumbergia Kakku budu Acanthaceae Leaves and roots are pounded and
coccinea applied as poultice for bone
fracture.
58. Valeriana NA Valerianaceae The plant juice is applied against
hardwickii poisonous stings of insects and
scorpions.

Table 2.22 Important Medicinal plants found in the Central and Upland region

Sl. Scientific Name Local Name(K) Family Uses

No.
1. Soh byrthit Leaves paste is applied to cuts and
Adenostemma Compositae wounds; also applied to treat bites of
lavenia poisonous insects and caterpillars.
2. Tiew khmut Lamiaceae Crushed leaves are used as astringent
Ajuga bracteosa tuta to stop bleeding. Leaf decoction with
honey and ginger juice is used for
high fever and respiratory congestion.
3. Dieng phallut Mimosaceae Bark decoction is applied on
Albizzia chinensis ringworm and also as antidote to
insect bite.
4. Ja ut Liliaceae Bulbs are crushed and applied on
Allium hookerii burns.
5. NA Fabaceae Whole plant is made to a paste with
Alysicarpus ginger and mustard oil and used as
monilifer antidote for snake bite.
6. Kynbat japan Asteraceae Young leaves are crushed and applied
Ambrosia rit on wounds and cuts to stop bleeding
artimisifolia and to promote healing.
7. Skhor blang Asteraceae Paste made of leaves and lime applied
Anaphalis adnata to cure moematomia.
8. Bat-sohpliah Ranunculaceae Leaf-paste applied on warts; also used
Anemone rivularis to soften and extract thorns form the
body which cannot be removed by
other means; excessive use can result
in burning the skin.

107
9. Sohmyndong Euphorbiaceae Its juice is a good medicine for
Baccaurea sapida rheumatism.
10. Dieng tharlong Flowers are boiled and eaten for piles
Bauhinia variegate Caesalpiniaceae for dysentery for 6-7 days.
11. Jajew The bulbs are eaten raw incase of
Begonia josephii Begoniaceae stomach pain and indigestion.
12. Jajewmaw Begoniaceae Stems and leaves are eaten raw as an
Begonia palmate antidote for poisoning and vomiting.
Stem and leaves are eaten raw for
stomach troubles also applied on cuts
& wounds.
13. Jajew shilliang Begoniaceae Tastes sour; used in dysentery and
Begonia diarrhea.
rubrovenia
14. Dieng Decoction of young twigs mixed with
Berberis niangmat Berberidaceae leaf juice of Oxalis richardiana is
wallichiana given for dysentery, diluted decoction
of leaves is used for conjunctivitis.
15. Dienglieng Root extract is given for indigestion
Betula alnoides Betulaceae and flatulence.
16. Sla-toh-toh Solanaceae Leaves dried on fire mixed with
Brugmansia leaves of Solanum torvum and tubers
suareolens of Flemingia sp. Ground to a paste is
rubbed on body in case of bodyache
and also applied on boils.
17. Tynriew Palmae Antidote for mushroom poisoning and
Calamus other food poisoning.
arborescens
18. Jalyngkhan Verbenaceae Applied on the whole body to relieve
Callicarpa sp. body aches.
19. Kynja The leaves and fruits are applied for
Cannabis sativa Cannabiaceae skin diseases and stomach disorder.
20. Soh-mynken Solanaceae Fruits mixed with leaves of
Capsicum annum syiar Dendrobium bakeril, Ficus sp.,
Grewia disperma., Neyraudia
meyraudiana, Tinospora cordifolia
and tubers of Zingiber sp, and a
Vitaceae member Kumbatlatnut
(Khasi) are ground to a paste and
applied on snake bite.
21. Pathai Khubor Chloranthaceae Used as a medicine for cough.
Chloranthus
brachystachyus
22. Sohniar Lauraceae Decoction of leaves and inner bark is
Cinnamomum given in fever, cold and cough. Fruit
glanduliforum paste is applied on rheumatic joints,
also used for treating of tumor and
cancer.

108
23. Dieng tarthia Lauraceae Extract of bark and young shoots
Cinnamomum mixed with coconut oil is used as an
pauciflorum antiseptic.
24. Sladienglum Ranunculaceae A crushed root powdered with pepper
Clematis is effective remedy in cough and
loureriana common cold.
25. Sohjarem Verbenaceae Tender leaves used as vegetable;
Clerodendron decoction of leaves used in high
colebrookianum blood pressure, rheumatism and body
aches.
26. La wang Araceae Tender leaves tied on forehead in case
Colocasia of high temperature due to fever.
esculenta Partially cooked corms for rickets
disease.
27. Kynbat symbai Asteraceae Decoction and residue of leaves are
Conyza bonariensis pum pum used as astringents on cuts.
28. Jali Leaves are crushed and the juice is
Crossocephalum taken to treat constipation and other
crepidioides stomach disorders.
29. Khniang-soh- Zingiberaceaae Paste of rhizome and leaves boiled in
Curcuma pet water and given to children for gripe.
angustifolium
30. Shynrai stem Zingiberaceae Rhizome paste with leaves of
Curcuma longa Limdera latifolia and fruits of Piper
longum applied for various skin
disease; paste of rhizome of this plant,
ginger and mustard oil applied and
tied around fractures to set the bone;
also used in cough, boils & as spice.
31. Santapai Poaceae Used for dysentery.
Cyanodon sp.
32. Thymelaeaceae Roots are used in intestinal troubles.
Daphne bholua
33. Bad soh-plihrit Ranunculaceae Leaves are made into paste and are
Delphinum applied as plaster to glandular
altissimum swellings.
34. Tiew dieng The leaves juice is used as the ear-
Desmodium Orchidaceae drops in ear pain.
gangeticum
35. Bat Nongrim Medicine is used for burns injuries of
Dichrocipalan minor and major intensity.
latifolia
36. Liang poh tiew Asteraceae Paste made of young leaves is applied
Dichrocephala to wounds and cuts to stop bleeding
bicolor and quick healing.
37. Jawieh Raij Caryophyllaceae This plant mixed with flower of
Drymeria stillaria Datura stramonium, bamboo leaves
and leaves of Gaultheria

109
 fragrantissima is used for treating
rheumatism & arthritis.
38. Lang krai Poaceae Root juice is used for treating
Eluesine indica jaundice.
39. Bat-skain The juice of the leaves is applied for
Elsholtziz blanda Lamiaceae mosquito bites and as mosquito
repellant.
40. Jabuit Myrsinaceae Used for stomachache.
Emblica
floribunda
41. Dieng Iyba Juglandaceae Fine paste made from inflorescence
Engelhardia and young leaves is applied on
spicata scabies and other skin diseases.
42. Ka Nub Fabaceae Seed kernel used as soap to clear off
Entada scandens dandruff.
43. Kynbat tiew Asteraceae Crushed leaves are applied on cuts or
Erigeron star wounds as an astringent.
karvinskianus
44. Bat thlong Rosaceae Poison antidote.
Eriobotrya
angustifolia
45. Sohpen Fabaceae Bark used as treatment of diarrhoea.
Eriosema chinense
46. Dieng-song The leaves are made into paste with
Erythrina Papilionaceae ginger and applied for skin diseases
arborescens of pig.
47. Bat Tyrphin Myrtaceae Its roots are used as medicine for
Eucalyptus sp. various ailments such as chest pain,
stomach pain etc.
48. Soh-tynjob Moraceae This is used for ailments related to the
Ficus pomifera ears.
49. Dieng soh Moraceae Leaves are boiled and given in loss of
Ficus virens phohkhlaw appetite.
50. Bat Pyrshaw Compositae Used for healing wounds.
Galingsoga ciliata
51. Dieng khiang Burseraceae Fruit juice is given to treat
Garuga piñatas indigestion, stem juice is applied in
conjunctivitis and leaf juice with
honey is given for asthma.
52. Bat niangdait Geraniaceae Used for scabies
Geranium
nepalense
53. Jalwai Euphorbiaceae Leaves eaten for dysentery and
Glochidion associated stomach troubles.
khasianum
54. Dieng laphiang Verbenaceae Berries are used as a purgative. Root
Gmelina arborea juice is used as antidote for snake bite
and insect stings.

110
55. Mei soh Araliaceae Berries are used as purgative. Fine
Heda nepalensis poramshre paste made from tender leaves is
applied on mumps.
56. Sohsyrtet Protenceae Used for blood clotting.
Helicia erratica
57. Sohlap Flacourtiaceae Its seeds are used for curing sores.
Hydnocarpus
kurzii
58. bat jhur kthang Asteraceae Tender leaves are eaten raw or boiled
Hypocharis to control stomach upset.
radicata
59. NA Papilionaceae Powdered roots are made into paste
Indigofera tinctoria and applied to heal wounds
60. Tiew turoi Convolvulaceae Aqueous extract of leaves is taken
Ipomea uniflora orally for cholera, vomiting.
61. Jamynsleh Lamiaceae Used for washing the head to clear
Leucas linifolia Khlaw dandruff.
62. Sia-sia The bark is made into a paste and
Lindera Lauraceae applied to wounds of various types
pulcherrima also rubbed on the body to relieve
rheumatic pains.
63. Diengs’ying Lauraceae For treating fever, also used as spice.
Litsea citrata
64. Mangkariang Loranthaceae Good medicine for accidents
Loranthus odoratus (wounds) and fracture.
65. Dieng-tiang- The green peel of bark is scraped and
Mahonia mat Berberidaceae crushed and the juice is diluted with
nepalensis water. Then the solution is used as
eye drops for curing various eye
diseases.
66. Ningmat Berberidaceae The juice of the bark and leaves
Mahonia diluted with distilled water and used
pycnophylla as an eye disease.
67. Dieng chandan Euphorbiaceae Powdered fruits with little sugar is
Mallotus given for treating tapeworm
philippensis
68. Dieng ja rasong Meliaceae Barks is used as an anthelmintic,
Melia azedarach leaves and fruits are used as febrifuge
to cure malarial fever, flowers are
crushed and applied as poultice on
skin eruption.
69. Jrumshiah Cucurbitaceae The tuber of this plant helps to ease
Melothria constipation.
heterophylla
70. Ka kait Musaceae Rhizome used as medicine for curing
Musa sapientum dysentery.
71. Sohphie Myricaceae Juice good for treatment of diarrhoea,
Myrica indica dysentery.

111
72. Soh-lyngkthut Leaves paste is applied on wounds,
Osbekia crinita Melastomaceae against snake bites, diarrhea, and
dysentery and also used to stop nose
bleeding.
73. Shlan The juice applied on skin diseases,
Pandanus tectorius Pandanaceae including leprosy.
74. Lang-ator Poaceae Leaves boiled in water and vapor
Panicum maximum inhaled as an effective remedy for
headache.
75. Khia-knoi The plant is wrapped in a big leaf and
Parochetus Papilionaceae put in hot ashes until it becomes soft
communis and half boiled. Then it is squeezed to
extract the juice, which is mixed with
water and sugar and is given to babies
for curing stomachache and other
stomach disorders.
76. Jarmi bin Caesalpiniaceae Seeds extract is applied as a
Phonera khasiana khlaw demulcent in dried and cracked skin
during winter.
77. U Lakud Cannaceae Applied on fresh cuts or any fresh
Phyrnium wounds.
pubinerve
78. Jakhain khasi Asteraceae It is bitter in taste, used to cure
Pieris hieracioides constipation and also as an appetizer.
79. Mrit khlaw Piperaceae Dried seeds powdered and mixed with
Piper peepulsoides honey and the yolk of egg and this is
taken for relieving severe cough.
80. Dieng yap yar Mimosaceae Seeds are boiled and taken as blood
Pithecellobium purifier.
bigeminum
81. Riew-kai, The crushed plant is used as an
Plantago major skhor blang Plantaginaceae ointment for burns, helps in blood
clotting in cases of the deep cuts,
leaves heated over fire and wilted is
kept pressed on boils for quick burst
and removal of puss.
82. Jasat Polygonaceae Good medicine for skin diseases in
Polygonum pigs.
serratutum
83. Memsleh The roots are used as hair tonic. The
Pouzolzia hirta Urticaceae roots are crushed or boiled in water
which is then used in the bath to
promote good hair growth.
84. Tiew kubi Asteraceae Leaves decoction is used as an
Pseudognaphalium astringent to stop bleeding from cuts
luteoalbum or wounds and also applied on gouty
and rheumatic joints.
85. Soh priam Myrtaceae The leaves are crushed and the extract
Psidium guajava is drunk in case of chronic dysentery.

112
86. Tyrso khlaw Paste made from seeds is rubbed on
Rorippa indica Brassicaceae bleeding gums in scurvy.
87. Tyrso-um Whole plant is taken boiled or raw as
Rorippa Brassicaceae a tonic usually during pneumonia or
nasturtium- other pulmonary ailments.
aquaticum
88. Rhoi The leaf paste is applied for ulcer and
Rubia cordifolia Rubiaceae the crushed roots for poisonous stings
of insects and caterpillars.
89. Soh-shiah The fruits and crushed roots are used
Rubus ellipticus Rosaceae to cure dysentery and diarrhoea.
90. Lympied Ternstroemiaceae Leaf-paste is used to stop bleeding of
Sauranja sp. major cuts & wounds.
91. Sla tymphu Decoction of tender roots is given as a
Scheffera Araliaceae tonic after child birth.
hypoleuca
92. Diengngan Theaceae Medicine for pigs with skin diseases.
Schima khasiana khasi
93. Diengngan Theaceae Young leaves are boiled and
Schima wallichii decoction is taken to cure flatulence
also used for killing flies.

94. Mi-saw Magnoliaceae Infantile naval infectious disease.

Schisandra
axillaries
95. NA The leaves are boiled in water and
Schisandra Magnoliaceae when this water turns reddish it is
discolor given for high fevers. Often it is given
in combination with other plants.
96. Bat baidoh Malvaceae It stops bleeding and helps in the
Sida rhombifolia clotting of blood.
97. Tiew kubi sla Paste made up of young leaves is
Synotis cappa lieh Asteraceae applied on boils.
98. Lakud shidiap Orchidaceae Applied on burns heals quickly
Tainia varidafusca without leaving a scar (locally
considered as the best medicine for
burns); also applied on sores and
boils.
99. Langsnam Magnoliaceae Applied on itching skin.
Talauma
phellocarpa
100. Lynnai Poaceae Liquid from the young stems are
Thysonalaena squeezed and used as medicine for
maxima eye problems.
101. Soh sat khlaw Rutaceae Decoction of root bark is
Toddalia asiatica administered to cure malarial and
ether periodic fevers.

113
 102. Bat Ksain Scrophulariaceae This is a good medicine to cure
Toronia violaca disease of hoofs of cattle. It is
pounded with some slaked lime and
then applied on the skin.
103. Lapata Verbenaceae For healing wounds.
Vitex negundo

Table 2.23 Important medicinal plants found in the northern undulating hills of Meghalaya

Sl.No Scientific Name Local Name Family Uses

(K)
1. Ubet Root extracts are used for treating
Acorus calamus Araceae cough and cold.
2. Tyrkhang Paste is applied to fractured bones.
Adiantum khyllai Adiantaceae
phillipense
3. Sohbel Fruits are eaten for treating stomach
Aegle marmelos Rutaceae disorders.
4. Slatiewtung Compositae. Leaf paste is applied on cuts and
Ageratum wounds.
conyzoides
5. Jyllang Alliaceae. Medicinal salad for cough and cold.
Allium tuberosum

6. NA Alliaceae During nausea and vomiting, the

Amomum rhizome is crushed to make paste in
aromaticum hot water and taken orally.
7. Soh-syllai Patients suffering from pains in the
Antidesma Euphorbiaceae joints are given bath with the water
thwaitesianum boiled with leaves.
8. Hadembsein Araceae Extracts of ripe fruits is used as
Arisaemia sp. insecticide, larvicide.
9. Patiksang Aristolochiaceae Extract of the roots is used as antidote
Aristolochia for food poisoning.
cathcartii
10. Krahlahit Aristolochiaceae Tuber extract is used for treating
Aristolochia stomachache. Leaves are used as
saccata vegetable.
11. Batniang Liliaceae. Extract is used as medicine for gripe
Asparagus sohpet in infants.
filicinus
12. Sohpyrshong Averrhoaceae Ripe fruits or juice taken as medicine
Averrhoa to cure jaundice
carambola

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13. Nim Meliaceae Boiled leaves extracts are used to
Azadirachta indica treat diarrhoea and dysentery
14. NA Oxalidaceae. Leaf-paste is applied on the forehead
Biophytum of the patient suffering from
sensitivum giddiness, headache and fever.
15. NA Caesalpiniaceae. Leaf paste is applied on ringworms
Cassia tora and other skin disease.

16. Batmoina Apiaceae. Freshly eaten to cure dysentery and

Centella asiatica diarrhoea.

17. Langiong Leaf paste is applied on wounds.

Chromolaena
adenophorum
18. Diengbiks Lauraceae Leaf extract is taken to relieve cough,
Cinnamomum cold, fever, etc.
camphora
18. Shynrai Zingiberaceae. Spice and medicine for cough, cold,
Curcuma allergy, boils.
domestica
19. Soh Mylleng Euphorbiaceae Edible and used as medicine in skin
Emblica officinalis disease; and in pickle etc.

20. Jarain Polygonaceae Medicinal salad.

Fagopyrum
cymosum
21. Soh Phlang Fabaceae Edible and used as anti-helminthic
Flemingia vestita agent.
22. Lathynrait Ericaceae Leaf extract of methyl salicylate is
Gaultheria used as medicine for treating arthritis,
fragrantissima rheumatism and other joint ailment.
23. Labiatae Leaf-paste is applied on the forehead
Gomphostemma of the patient suffering from
parviflora giddiness, headache and fever.
24. Shynrai khlaw Zingiberaceae Directly taken as medicine during
Hedychium sp. respiratory failure.
25. Rubiaceae Leaf paste is massaged on the whole
Hedyotis body to reduce temperature.
verticillata
26. Verbenaceae. Root extracts are used to relieve
Holmskioldia fever.
sanguinea
27. Jamyrdoh Piperaceae. Medicinal salad for lowering blood
Houttuynia sugar.
cordata

115
28. Ingsmoh Taken raw as vegetables as well as
Kaempferia sp. Zingiberaceae medicine for curing stomach
disorders, loss of appetite and
indigestion; is a general tonic.
29. Tiewrakot Nepenthiaceae Extract from the pitcher is taken to
Nepenthes relieve indigestion.
khasiana
30. Jabuit Oxalidaceae Used as medicine for diarrhea.
Oxalis corniculata
31. Batiewtung Rubiaceae Stems extract is used in stomach
Paederia sp. disorders.
32. Jynseng Araliaceae. Extract as general tonic to relieve
Panax stress.
pseudoginseng
33. NA Liliaceae Tuber paste is taken with cold water
Peliosanthes teta to bring down body temperature.
34. NA Orchidaceae Bulb paste dissolved in water is taken
Pholidota to relief navel pain.
imbricate
35. Ja-ut Polygonaceae Medicinal salad is eaten to control
Polygonum blood pressure.
nepalensis
36. Tiewsaw Ericaceae Eaten raw to control blood pressure.
Rhododendron sp.
37. Sohma Fruits are eaten raw for treating
Rhus semialata Anacardiaceae diarrhea and dysentery.
38. Sohshiah Solanaceae Medicinal salad for lowering blood
Solanum pressure and blood sugar.
barbisetum
39. Sohpdok Solanaceae The fruit is known to contain
Solanum solasodine, a very potent fertility
khasianum steroid.
40. Sohngang Solanaceae Berries are taken to lower blood
Solanum pressure.
xanthocarpus
41. Jalynniar Asteraceae Medicinal salad for lowering blood
Sonchus asper pressure and blood sugar.
42. Batwieh, Gentianaceae Cooked leaves are taken as
Swertia chirata Sherita vermicide.

43. Kseh blei Taxaceae The compound taxol extracted from

Taxus baccata the bark possesses anti-cancer
properties.
44. Jyrmibteng Menispermaceae Oil extracts used as ointment in
Tinospora fractures and dislocated bones.

116
 cordifolia
45. Sohlang Caprifoliaceae Fish baits. Medicine for skin diseases.
Viburnum
foetidum
46. NA Vitaceae Pasted leaves are applied on wounds,
Vitis capreolata boils to discharge pus.
47. Ja-iur Rutaceae Medicinal spice for stomach
Zanthoxylum disorders, fish poison, insecticide and
acanthopodium vermicide/vermifuge.
48. Jaiur Rutaceae Medicinal spice; insecticide,
Zanthoxylum vermicide.
khasianum
49. Ingbah Zingiberaceae Medicinal spice used for treatment of
Zingiber officinalis fever, cough and cold.
50. Ingmakhir Zingiberaceae Medicinal spice used for treatment of
Zingiber rubens fever, cough and cold.
51. Ing-Blei Zingiberaceae Fresh rhizome are eaten to relieve
Zingiber zurumbet stress
52. Sohbroi Indicator for chicken plague.
Zizyphus Gramineae
mauritiana

Table 2.24 Important medicinal plants found in the south precipitatious region of Meghalaya

Sl. Scientific Name Local Family Uses

Name(K)

1. Ubet Root extract are used for treating cough

Acorus calamus Araceae and cold.
2. NA Root pulp used in eczema treatment.
Ampelocissus Vitaceae Tubers used in wounds inflammation and
barbata body pain.
3. NA Aristolochiaceae Extracts of the roots are used as antidote
Aristolochia for food poisoning.
cathcartii
4. Krahlahit Aristolochiaceae Tuber extract are used for treating
Aristolochia stomachache. Leaves are used as
saccata vegetable.
5. Sohpyrshong Ripe fruit are taken as medicine in
Averrhoa Averrhoaceae jaundice and urinary infection.
carambola
6. Soh bel Leaves are used in diabetes. Fruits
Aegle Rutaceae astringent, digestive and stomachic and
marmelos also used in diarrhoea and dysentery.

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7. Soh-byrthit Leaf paste is applied to cuts and wounds.
Adenosterma Compositae
lavenia
8. Tyrkhang Paste of the leaf is applied to fractured
Adiantum khyllai Adiantaceae bones.
philippense
9. Dieng phallut Mimosaceae Bark decoction is applied on ringworm
Albizzia and used also as an antidote to insect bite.
chinensis
10. Hadembsein Araceae Fruits used as insecticide.
Artimesia
vulgaris
11. Sohmyndong Euphorbiaceae Its juice is a good medicine for
Baccaurea rheumatism.
sapida
12. Tyrsu Brassicaceae Used for wounds and major hurt.
Brassica
campestris
13. Jajew The bulbs are eaten raw in case of
Begonia Begoniaceae stomach pain and indigestion.
josephi
14. Jajewmaw Begoniaceae Stems and leaves eaten raw as an antidote
B. palmata of poisoning and vomiting, and in
stomach troubles, also applied on cuts &
wounds.
15. Tynriew Palmae Antidote for mushroom poisoning.
Calamus
latifolius
16. Kynja The leaves and fruits are applied in skin
Canabis sativa Cannabiaceae diseases and stomach disorder.
17. Soh-mynken Solanaceae Fruits are very good in stomach problems.
Capsicum syiar
annum
18. Soh larmo Root decoction is used in diabetes and
Casearia Samydaceae pile.
esculenta
19. Tiew blei Caesalpiniaceae In skin diseases.
Cassia tora
20. Batmoina Apiaceae Used for treatment of dysentery and other
Centella stomach ailments, and as brain tonic and
asiatica dysentery.
21. Chloranthus Pathai Chloranthaceae Used in making medicine for cough.
brachystachyus Khubor
22. Diengbiks Lauraceae Leaf extracts are taken to relieve cough,
Cinnamomum cold, fever, etc.
camphora

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23. La tyrpad Lauraceae Leaves fried in mustard oil and used in
C. tamala toothache.
24. NA Decoction of dried are tubers is diuretic
Cissus sp. Vitaceae and powdered roots are applied on cuts
and fractures.
25. Sladienglum Ranunculaceae Crushed root powdered with pepper is an
Clematis effective remedy for cough and common
buchaniana cold.
26. Sohkymphor Rutaceae Fruit juice is taken as an appetizer;
Citrus latipes crushed leaves are applied on gouty and
rheumatism joints. Juicy slices of fruit are
rubbed on rashes and ringworm.
27. Sohkwit Rutaceae An effective medicine for fever and
Citrus diarrhea. It is also used to relieve eye
macroptera infection.
28. Jarem Sniang The leaf is applied to treat tumour and
Clerodendrum Verbenaceae pain in the neck.
viscosum
29. Sohjarem Verbenaceae Tender leaves are used as vegetable;
C. decoction of leaves is used in high blood
colebrookianu pressure, rheumatism and body aches.
m
30. La wang Araceae Tender leaves tied on forehead in case of
Colocasia high temperature. Partially cooked corms
esculenta are used for rickets disease.
31. Sla pangmat Zingiberaceae Powdered rhizome is taken against
Costus bronchitis, inflammation, anemia and
speciosus rheumatism.
32. NA Rhizomes stimulant, carminative,
Curcuma Zingeberaceae stomachic also yields an essential oil.
zedoaria
33. Khniang-soh- Zingiberaceaae Paste of rhizome and leaves boiled in
Curcuma pet water and given to children for gripe.
angustifolia
34. Shynrai stem Zingiberaceae Rhizome paste with leaves of Limdera
C. longa latifolia and fruits of Piper longum is
applied on various skin disease; paste of
rhizome, ginger and mustard oil is applied
and tied around fractures to set the bone;
also used for cough, boils & as a spice
35. Tiew dieng The leaf juice is used as the ear-drops for
Dendrobium Orchidaceae ear pain.
mochatum
36. Bat pylon Caryophyllaceae Used in urinary disorders.
Drymeria iong
cordata

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37. Jawieh Raij Caryophyllaceae Plant mixed with flower of Datura
D. stillaria stramonium, bamboo leaves and leaves of
Gaultheria fragrantissima is used for
treating rheumatism & arthritis.
38. Kynbat skrut Asteraceae Aqueous extract is given orally to induce
Elephantopus sriang abortion, also to treat urinary disorders
scaber and also used as contraceptive.
39. Jabuit Myrsinaceae Used for stomach ache.
Embelia sp.
40. Dieng Iyba Juglandaceae Fine paste made of inflorescence and
Engelhardia young leaves is applied on scabies and
spicata other skin diseases.
41. Ka Nub Fabaceae Seed kernel used as soap to clear off
Entada dandruff.
scandens
42. Kynbat tiew Asteraceae Crushed leaves are applied on cuts or
Erigeron star wounds as an astringent
karvinskianus
43. Thynrait Relieve body pain/ache. It is also used for
Gaultheria Ericaceae flu.
fragranticssima
44. Shynrai Zingiberaceae Rhizome is used in respiratory disorders.
Hedychium sp. khlaw
45. Ground leaves taken in gastric troubles;
Hedyotis Rubiaceae Decoction of the dried leaves is taken in
uncinella cough and cold.
46. Tiew turoi Convolvulaceae Aqueous extract of leaves is taken orally
Ipomea for treatment of cholera, vomiting.
involucrate
47. Dieng soh Ripe berries is used as a vermifuge and
Mesea indica jala Myrsinaceae taken orally.
48. Soh Bark and leaves are used in skin disease.
Melastoma Melastomaceae
malabathricum
49. Kynthem- Decoction of dried leaves and shoots is
Mussaenda tlang Rubiaceae given to children in cough. Roots
frondosa demulcent is used in white leprosy and
also in eye troubles.
50. NA Decoction of dried leaves and shoots I
Mussaenda Rubiaceae given to children for cough. Roots
glabra demulcent used for white leprosy and also
eye troubles.
51. Tiewrakot Nepenthaceae The juice of unopened pitchers mixed
Nepenthes with rice beer (ka kyiad) is taken to cure
khasiana stomachache, eye sores or urinary
troubles.

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52. NA Leaves, bark and root are tonic and
Murraya sp. Rutaceae stomachic infusion of these is used in
vomiting and as febrifuge. Also in
diarrhoea and dysentery.
53. Tympew Leaf is used in asthma, bronchitis,
Piper betle Piperaceae dysentery and cuts and injuries as
antiseptic.
54. Jamyrdoh Piperaceae. Medicinal salad for lowering blood sugar.
Houttynia
cordata
55. Sohlap Flacourtiaceae Its seeds are used for curing sores.
Hydnocarpus
kurzii
56. Diengs’ying Lauraceae Used in fever and also as a spice.
Litsea citrate
57. Mrit khlaw Piperaceae Dried seeds powdered and mixed with
Piper honey and egg yolk and taken in severe
peepulsoides cough.
58. Ja-ut Polygonaceae Medicinal salad for control of blood
Polygonum pressure.
nepalensis
59. Jasat Polygonaceae Good medicine for skin diseases in pigs.
Polygonum
serratulum
60. Soh priam Myrtaceae The leaf juice is given in chronic
Psidium dysentery.
guajava
61. Tyrso khlaw Paste made from seeds is rubbed on
Rorippa indica Brassicaceae bleeding gums in scurvy.
62. Soh-shiah The fruits and crushed roots are used to
Rubus ellipticus Rosaceae cure dysentery and diarrhea.
63. Lympied Ternstroemiaceae Leaf-paste is used to stop bleeding of
Sauranja sp. major cFuts & wounds.
64. Diengngan Theaceae Medicine for pigs with skin diseases.
Schima Khasi
khasiana
65. Diengngan Theaceae Young leaves are boiled and the extract is
Schima given to cure flatulence, also used for
wallichii killing flies.

66. Mi-saw Magnoliaceae Used in infantile naval infectious disease.

Schisandra
axillaries
67. Krot Liliaceae Treatment of ringworm.
Smilax sp.

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68. Sohshiah Solanaceae Used for decreasing blood pressure.
Solanum
barbisetum
69. Sohngang Solanaceae Used for lowering blood pressure.
Solanum
xanthocarpus
70. Lakud Orchidaceae Applied on burns; considered as the best
Tainia shidiap medicine for burns; also applied on sores
varidafusca and boils.
71. Langsnam Magnoliaceae Applied on itching skin.
Talauma
phellocarpa
72. Soh salukah Combretaceae Fruits are roasted and eaten as a diuretic.
Terminalia Root paste is used in conjunctivitis.
chebula
73. Lynnai Poaceae Juice extracted from young stems is used
Thysanolaena in eye problems.
maxima
74. NA Leaf poultice is applied on sore.
Tetrastigma Vitaceae
lanceolarium
75. Sohmyngkho The leaf and root of the plant is used for
Trichosanthes ng Cucurbitaceae treatment of nerves.
lepiniana
76. Used in some cancer like condition.
Trichosanthes Cucurbitaceae
dioica
77. Sohlang Caprifoliaceae Fruit edible and help in skin disease.
Viburnum
corylifolium
78. Vitaceae Used in eye sores.
Vitis lanata
79. Ja-iur Medicinal spice for stomach disorders,
Zanthoxylum Rutaceae fish poison, insecticide and vermicide.
acanthopodium
80. Jaiur Rutaceae Relieves tooth pain.
Zanthoxylum
alatum
81. Jaiur Rutaceae Fruits are used in treatment of cough &
Zanthoxylum cold.
khasianum
82. Ingbah Zingibereceae Rhizome is used in treatment of cough,
Zingiber cold & fever.
officinalis
83. Ingmakhir Zingibereceae Rhizome is used in treatment of cough,
Zingiber rubens cold & fever

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84. Ing-Blei Zingibereceae Rhizome is used in treatment of cough,
Zingiber cold & fever.
zerumbet
85. Sohbroi Indicator of chicken plague.
Zizyphus Graminae
mauritiana

Potentials & Constraint

There is immense opportunity for cultivation and setting up of medicinal plant based industries
in the state. The MPs of Meghalaya have not been properly researched and documented.
Scarcity of data on the herbal practitioners, quantity of MPs marketed and used locally are major
constraint towards developing a suitable conservation strategy and policy for their sustainable
use.

The current practice of collection of medicinal plants from nature is adversely affecting the
natural populations. Therefore there is a need to train the collectors about sustainable harvesting
practices. The processing of medicinal plants using crude tools and technique often leads to
wastage of the produce. Setting up of small processing units and scaling up of processing will
reduce wastage and provide employment to local people. The collectors and local traders have
very little say in the business. Greater awareness about demand and prices of the MPs among the
local collectors or traders may help them in selling their materials at a remunerative price.
Herbal practitioners of the state should be registered and provided with financial assistance to
raise their herbal gardens. This will improve their livelihood and will also help in the
preservation of traditional knowledge and conservation of the MPs.

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TIMBER

Photo 2.34 A truck load of timber on the way to local saw mill, Markasa, West Khasi
Hill.
The forest of Meghalaya is a rich source of timber, bulk of which originates from private forests.
Timber trade is a vital component of the economy of Meghalaya. Valuable timber trees like
Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Terminalia myricarpa, Gmelina arborea, Pinus kesiya,
Michelia champaca, Toona ciliata etc., are found in the State. At higher altitudes of the Khasi
and Jaintia Hills, pine trees abound. There is abundance of luxuriant Sal forests offering quality
timber in the lower reaches of the Garo Hills. Morus alba, Quercus semiserrata play an
important role in the economy of the state, being the host plants for rearing of silk worms for
sericulture. There are 75 saw and veneer mills and 6438 furniture and handicraft units operating
throughout the state (Anonymous 2005). However, the actual number may be much higher as a
good number of mills are not registered and thus not included in government records.

Extraction of timber
Extraction of timber is more from the unclassed forest of the state less from in the reserved
forest. The State Forest Department (SFD) maintains data only for extraction of timber from
reserved forests whereas for the other forests, data on annual extraction of timber are maintained
by the Khasi Hills Autonomous District Councils (KHADC), the Jaintia Hills Autonomous
District Councils (KHADC) and the Garo Hills Autonomous District Councils (GHADC). The
quantity of timber extracted during past ten years is given in Table 2.25.

Table 2.25Annual timber production in Meghalaya (cu. m).

Year SFD KHADC JHADC GHADC Meghalaya
1995-96 1872.56 NA 0 6325 8197.56
1996-97 2131.51 NA 21828.5 5250 29210.05
1997-98 945.25 NA 0 NA 945.25
1998-99 607.08 NA 0 NA 607.08
1999-00 213.38 NA 0 NA 213.38
2000-01 782.93 NA 0 NA 782.93
2001-02 17677.8 NA 12.2125 NA 17689.97
2002-03 4633.93 NA 49.3125 NA 4683.24

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 2003-04 1366.08 NA 181.163 NA 1547.24
2004-05 N.A NA 15.6125 NA 15.61
Total 30230.5 0 22086.8 11575 63892.32
Source: State Forest Department and the Autonomous District Councils.
N.A: data not available

Production
The timber production in the state during 2001-2004 was 12,70,958.64 cu.m. Out of this Sal
accounted for 1180250.68 cu.m and non Sal species accounted for 90,707.964 cu.m. During
2002-2003, Meghalaya State Forest Department harvested about 4633.7 cu.m timber of different
classes from the forests falling under their jurisdiction which had an estimated value of Rs 97.07
lakh. The production of timber of different classes in Garo Hills is given in Fig.2.26.

Fig.2.26 Production of Timber in Garo Hills District (Source: State Forest Department)

Photo 2.35 A Truck transporting furniture made of Pine timber

Uses & Trade

Timber is mainly used for house construction and furniture making. There is a great demand of
timber both within and outside the State. The timbe of hardwood species like Sal, Teak, Champa
etc are sent to Mendipathar, Dudhnoi, Tura, in Garo Hills. Soft wood species like Simul, Ghugra,
Champa, Poma and Gamari are in great demand for furniture. These are also in great demand by
the forest based industries in the neighboring state of Assam for production of plywood and
matchwood. A list of important tree species and uses is given in Table 2.26.

Table 2.26 Some important tree species of the state and their principal uses

Timber Species Albizzia lebeck, Artocarpus integrifolia, Dipterocarpus

macrocarpus, Gmelia arborea, Mesua ferra, Michelia
champaca, Phoebe goalparensis, Pinus kesiya,
Quercus spp., Schima wallichi, Terminalia myricarpa,
Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis etc..
Pulpwood species Bichofia paliathum, Bombax ceiba, Duabanga indica,
Shorea assamica.

Plywood species Bombax ceiba, Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Mangifera

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 indica, Schima wallichi, S. khasiana.

Artocarpus integrifolia, Duabanga sonneratioes,

Constructional Gmelia arborea, Mesua ferra, Michelia champaca,
species Phoeba goalparensis, Schima wallichi, Shorea
assamica, Terminalia myriocarpa.

Photo 2.36 A Saw mill in West Khasi Hills District.

There are a number of sawmills and veneer mills in different districts of the state which consume
huge quantity of timber. Very few of them have been given license by the Government. Highest
number of sawmills/ veneer mills is in the Garo Hills (Table 2.27).
In the Khasi Hills there are 24 saw/veneer mills which the Government has granted license and
most of them are located in the Ri-Bhoi district. For commercial purposes, timber is also
extracted and used as poles, beams, scaffolding and ladders for coal and limestone mining. For
domestic purposes timber is mainly extracted for house construction. Coal mines of the state
consume huge quantity of poles.

Table 2.27 Licensed saw/veneer mills in the state.

District Number of Saw/Veneer Mills

Ri-Bhoi District 20
West Khasi Hills 4
Jaintia Hills 14
East Garo Hills 16
West Garo hills 21
Total 75
(Source: Working Plans for Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills)

Market and Economics

The market rate of timber varies from species to species. Teak is sold in Ri-Bhoi District at Rs
15750 per m3, in West Garo Hills at Rs 12250 per m3 and in East Garo Hills at Rs 9800 per m3.
The market rate of Sal in East Khasi Hills, Ri-Bhoi, West Garo Hills and in East Garo Hills

126
District is Rs 11950, Rs 12250, Rs10500 and Rs10500 per m3 respectively. The market rate of
Pine is Rs 4200 per m3 in East Khasi Hills, Rs 3150 per m3 in West Garo Hills and Rs 3500 in
Jaintia Hills District. The rate of Non sal species, in East Khasi Hills is Rs7000 per m 3, in West
Garo hills is Rs 5950 per m3 , in Ri-Bhoi is Rs6300 per m3 and in both West Khasi Hills and in
East Garo Hills the rate is Rs 5250 per m3.

Informal International Trade of Timber

Large quantity of timber is illegally transported outside from the state. This illicit timber trade is
prevalent along the Indo-Bangladesh border. The modus operandi of the timber smugglers in the
state is that they cut trees at night, mark them with initials known to their counterparts at the
receiving end and float the timber on the waterways which act as passage for transportation. This
is particularly done during the monsoon period. The major rivers which are used for this purpose
are Lubia, Harai and Paru Rivers in Jaintia Hills; Umngot or Piang river in Dawki; Dulai river in
Hathimara, Umew in Shella, Khasimala in Rynkua, Thamalia in Balat, Jhadukata in Ghomaghat
and Chira in Lalghat near Borsara. Timber and bamboo worth Rs 78.57 lakh was seized in 2006.
In Khasi- Jaintia Sector, the seizure of timber in 2005 was to the tune of Rs 1.56 crores. The
amount of timber seized is alarming and most often the seized timber is left in the remote jungles
due to lack of transportation (Anonymous 2006). The total timber smuggled from the state in the
year 2005 was worth Rs 2.34 crore. This figure is only a small fraction of the actual smuggled
timber since most of it goes undetected.

Contribution to State Exchequer

The royalty on timber varies from species to species and with the log size as well as the location
(Table 2.28 and 2.29). The royalty on Pine is Rs 18.50 per square of round logs, for Michelia
champaca and Gmelina arborea the rate is Rs 87.75 per cu.m. For Schima wallichii and Betula
alnoides the royalty is Rs 29.55 per cu.m. For other timber species the royalty is Rs 7.50 per
cu.m.

Table 2.28 Royalty (in Rs.) on timber logs per cubic metre in Garo Hills
Classes Girth >45 cm Girth >90 cm Girth over 160 Remarks
and < 90 cm and <160 cm cm

127
 1. Special Same rate for
a. Carpinus 2500 2500 2500 all girth classes
b. Teak, Khoir 2300 3500 4500
2. A I 1000 2000 2400
3. A II 1000 2500 3000
4. B 600 1200 1400
5. C 200 700 800
6. D 150 500 600
7. E 100 300 400
(Source: GHADC, Tura)

In the Khasi Hills the rate of royalty on various types of timber is shown in the Table 2.29. Class
I species includes Sal, Michelia champaca, Morus lavaegata etc while class II includes Red
Pine, Hollock, Poma, while White pine and Birch falls in class III category. Class IV includes
species like Virex, Lagerstroemia, Mangifera, Taxus baccata etc. Class V timber includes
Prunus sp., Grewia sp., Litsea sp., Sterculia sp., etc

Table 2.29 Royalty (in Rs) on timber logs per cubic meter in Khasi Hills)
Timber Classes Mid Girth Mid Girth
(0.61m to 1.22m) (above 1.22m)
1. Special .
a. Teak 950.00 1185.00
b. Carpinus (for all sizes) 1185.00 1185.00
2. I 131.65 263.25
3. II 88.65 177.25
4. III 66.60 133.35
5. IV 43.85 88.65
6. V 35.45 70.85
(Source: KHADC)

The state’s earnings from timber have decreased following the ban by the Supreme Court on
felling of trees. Despite this the state earns an unexpectedly high amount of revenue. The
amount of revenue earned in 2003-04 from teak was Rs 7.05 crores, from sal the amount was Rs
5.70 crore and from non-sal species it was Rs 31.03 lakh. The total revenue earned from timber
in the year 2003-04 was Rs 13.07 crore in Khasi Hills, Rs 14493 in Jaintia Hills and Rs 57.04
lakh in Garo Hills (KHADC, JHADC & GHADC).

128
After the ban imposed on timber in December 1996, records show decline in timber extraction
from the forest in the state except for the Reserved Forest. This may be one of the reasons for
increase in forest cover in the state as shown by the FSI Report, 2003.

129
SUMMARY
The study has revealed that annually (average of ten years: 1994-1995-2004-2005) the state
marketed and sold to out side state 471587.7MT of bamboo, 9069 MT of charcoal, 9 MT of
Dalchini, 542247.9 MT of fuel wood, 76670 Cu.M of Timber, 3807 MT of bay leaf, 14541 MT
of broom, 2123 MT of Phyrnium, 11 MT of wild pepper and 33 MT of wood lichen. The
computation of the market price of these products showed that forest products worth more than
Rs 1926 million are traded out side the state annually. According to government records
presently, the contribution of forest products to state GDP is 1.07 percent which is an
underestimation, as based on the above estimation it comes to about 3.36% of state GDP of 2005
(Rs 57370 million). The estimation do not account for the household consumption and illegal
and informal trade which can be much higher than the amount traded through formal routes.
Thus this study for the first time provides data based evidence on the contribution of marketable
forest products in the economy of the state. A summary of average (1994-95 to 2004-05)
production, rate/unit and total value of eleven products is given in Table 2.29.
Table 2.29 Annual production, rate per unit and the total estimated value of forest products of
Meghalaya
Sl.No. Forest Product Production/yr Data source Rate /Unit Total Value
(Rs) (Rs)
1. Broomgrass (Thysanolaena 14541 MT ADCs 16500
maxima ) 239926500
2. Fuel wood 542247.9 MT ADCs 1250 677809875
3. Timber 76670 Cu.M ADCs+SFD 3710 284445700
4. Dalchini (Cinnamomum 9 MT ADCs 950 8550
zenalycum)
5. Charcoal 9069 MT ADCs 6875 62349375
6. Bamboo 471587.7 MT ADCs 1275 601274317.5
7. Bay leaf (C. tamala) 3807 MT ADCs 13000 49491000
8. Wood lichen (Usnea sp.) 33 MT ADCs 57500 1897500
9. Packing leaf (Phyrnium 2123 MT SS 4058 8615992
pubinerve)
10. Wild pepper (Piper 11 MT ADCs 89500 984500
peepuloides)
Total 1926803310

ADC-Autonomous District Councils, SFD-State Forest Department, SS- Self Surveyed

130
Thus, there are ample forest based livelihood opportunities in the judicious utilization and
transparent trade of the forest products. Sustainable management and better marketing facilities
of these products can improve the quality of life of rural poor. Through research input, better
management and introduction of technology, the productivity of the forest produce of the state
can be increased manifold and thereby create new employment opportunities for the people and
also help maintain a healthy ecosystem.
The most important marketed forest product is fuelwood with a net production of 542247.9 MT
per year and valued at about Rs 68 crore. This is probably due to the fact that majority of the
rural poor are involved in this activity and also because fuelwood is in high demand in
neighboring states.

The second most important traded product fetching a return of Rs 60 crore per annum is
Bamboo. This is in high demand both for local consumption (food, construction etc) as well as
for commercial purposes (paper industries, handicraft sector) both within and outside the state.

The least marketed forest product documented in this study is Dalchini which fetches only about
Rs 8550 revenue per year. But the demand for this product is far greater than the supply.

Timber has now taken a back seat following the Supreme Court’s ban order, of 1996. Its net
worth is Rs 28.5 crore with an annual production rate of 76670 cu.m. This figure will be much
higher if the quantity of illegally traded timber is also taken into account which still continues in
the areas bordering Bangladesh.

It may be concluded that forest products play a very important role in the lives the rural poor of
the state. However, much of the benefits go to the traders who control the market. Besides above
mentioned products, there are hundreds of other minor forest products which contribute to the
income of the rural poor such as mushrooms, leafy vegetables, tubers, nuts, berries, gums, resins,
pine cones, barks, orchids etc.

With this study we now have an idea of what forest product goes out of the state, what role these
products play in the livelihood of people and what can be done to improve the current scenario.

131
Chapter 3 FUTURE PROSPECTIVE

In Meghalaya, ninety two percent of forests belong to community or individuals. Although such
forests are supposed to be managed according to the provisions of the respective Autonomous
District Council Forests Acts, in practice, there hardly exists any management system. District
Councils virtually have no control over these forests and generally no scientific management
system is in vogue. Selection felling is practised only in some community forests, most of these
forests are harvested using clear felling when the need arises and are quite often over exploited
under the influence of some dominant/influential community members. Weakening of traditional
and customary laws, gradual conversion of community lands into private lands and diminishing
influence of the traditional institutions over the society have resulted into either very little control
or no control regime for the community forests. All these have contributed to unregulated tree
felling in these forests. In addition, because of the low productivity (in absence of scientific
forestry) and long gestation period, many of these community forests are being converted to cash
crop plantation areas such as Broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima), Rubber (Havea brasilensis)
and Areca nut (Areca catechu). Substantial areas of community forests are also being converted
into horticultural crops such as pineapple, ginger, turmeric, orange orchards (Citrus spp.) and
often Lichi (Litchi chinensis), Cashew nut ( Anacardium oxidentale) and Bay leaf (Cinamomum
tamala) mixed with forestry tree species. All these activities though commercially beneficial,
have a direct impact on the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at a landscape level. Besides,
these activities mostly benefit a few land/forest owning community at the cost of the poor whose
livelihood options are severely affected due to continued depletion of multi-species community
forests.

The sacred forests supposed to be the repository of state’s biodiversity, are fast vanishing. It has
been that baring only one percent of the total sacred forest areas of the state, all other sacred
forest areas are moderate to highly degraded (Tiwari et al. 1998). It is often argued that the
indigenous forest management systems are time-tested and are adequate for the sustainability of
the community/private owned forests. As a testimony to this statement, there exist certain
patches of well-conserved/preserved community forests in several villages of the state. This has
been primarily possible because the regulatory mechanism generally enforced by village durbar

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is still in existence. However, the number of such patches is depleting year after year indicating
the inadequacy of self-governed traditional institutions (factors are many and some of the factors
have already been discussed) to sustain the community forests. This is also apparent from the
overall scenario of the condition of forests in the state, which have considerably degraded both
quantitatively and qualitatively over the years. In general, the primary forests have shrunk over
last five decades and these areas have been colonized by secondary Pine forests in the plateau
areas of the state. In the absence of long-term research based data covering whole state, on
change in forest health (e.g., growing stock), empirically it may not be possible to prove this
point. However, when discussed with knowledgeable elderly persons having exposure to the
forestry issues and from our own field observations over the years, the above statement appears
to project most realistic scenario of forest dynamics in the state. Although the FSI data over a
decade shows more or less constant forest cover in the state, it does not indicate the temporal
variation in growing stock thereby remaining generally silent on the conditions of forest health
and type.

The land owning communities, private forest owners and the management systems in place are
generally responsible for such decline in quality of the forests of the state, as the government do
not have much of a role in the management of most forests of the state. In fact, in Meghalaya,
before the intervention of Supreme Court, there was absolutely no control of the state in relation
to the use and disposal of forest produce extracted from the forests owned by communities and
private individuals. Therefore, it is amply clear that there are some lacunae in the regulatory
mechanism of the traditional management systems resulting in the qualitative change in the
forests of the state. It could also be due to growing need of the land/forest owning communities,
operating market forces, seer human greed and aspiration for adopting a modern life style,
leading to the degradation of the forests. Even in places where the traditional forest management
system is still strong, the forests have not been able to withstand the pressure arising from these
factors.

All these facts bring to home one point, i.e. there is a need to strengthen the forest management
mechanism through external intervention. The Supreme Court verdict in this context is a
welcome measure. In fact, in its series of verdicts/judgments, the Supreme Court has tried to

133
regulate the indiscriminant tree felling and has attempted to introduce scientific management in
the community forests through introducing the concept of working schemes for achieving
sustained yield. Thus, the Supreme Court verdict should not be seen as a setback to the ‘greater
autonomy of the forest management by the institutions of self-governance’ (Nongbri 2001). Of
course, a lot still need to be done to implement and operationalize the verdict in its right spirit.
For instance, the myth about the Supreme Court rulings such as (i) complete ban of tree felling
from the forest and (ii) the Supreme Court is facilitating the increased state control over the
community forests etc. need to be clarified in the minds of the people. Besides, preparation of
working schemes for such a huge forest track is not an easy task to be accomplished within given
time framework. Recently working schemes have been prepared for some forest divisions of the
state and several forests are being registered under the scheme but its tangible effect of ensuring
scientific and sustainable management of community and private forests is yet to be seen. The
state forest department at present does not have adequate man power to accomplish the task
neither the village communities have the capacity to undertake such task. Therefore, there is a
need to work out a well-planned policy outlining the strategies to be adopted for achieving the
broader objective of sustainable forest management in community/private owned forest areas.

Research needs/gaps
There is no quantitative information on the size of market of the forest products and their trade.
There is also a need to study the dependency of the rural poor on forest products. Researchers
should examine the conditions under which commercialization of forest products in general and
NTFPs in particular contributes to poverty alleviation, the impact of commercialization of
NTFPs on the rural poor, women’s livelihoods, natural resources and access and benefit sharing
from forest resources. These problem specific researches will help enhance further development
of trade of these products and in taking suitable steps so as to make the market work for the poor.

The dependency of the rural poor on forest resources

134
There is a need to study the dependency of the rural poor households on NTFP, especially the
potential of NTFP/MAPs as a source of income and gainful livelihood to the rural poor
households. Edible forest products play an important role in meeting the dietary requirements of
the rural poor, especially among the poor households during food deficit periods. The
identification of main edible forest products in the different region, their importance as a food
and medicine, availability, and seasonal demand needs to be analyzed. The dependence of local
health care system on the forests as a source of herbs also needs to be investigated.

Inventorization
There is very little qualitative and quantitative data available on range of NTFP/MAP that are
extracted and used by the people. The volume of trade in these products is also not known. Less
than one percent share of forest products in state GDP reflects that forest products other than
timber are not accounted for such computations; possible reason being non availability of data on
non-timber products. Also, we do not know if the natural populations of these plants are viable?
Whether, extractions are sustainable? Therefore, there is an urgent need to take up research on
inventorization of NTFP/MAP so as to understand the real value of forests and status of goods
and services provided by the forests, which cover such a vast area of state’s landmass.

Market survey and local need assessment

Local communities use hundreds of NTFP/MAPs and very many of these have a ready market.
However, the information on demand and supply position of most such products is not available.
In some cases the location and size of market is kept a trade secret by the traders, which is not in
the interest of poor forest dependent communities. For any intervention leading to
entrepreneurship development in the areas of cultivation or value addition, market information is
essential. The state has a long international border with Bangladesh; it would be worthwhile to
explore international market as well.

Nursery Technology and Management

A large number of NTFP/MAP can be cultivated, however their nursery technique and crop
management are either not known or if known (e.g., by CIMAP, Lucknow), the same may need

135
standardization for local edapho-climatic conditions. Research on botanical and
agronomic/silviocultural aspects of these plants is needed for any NTFP based livelihood
enhancement programme in the state. The plantations of native tree species are not being raised
in most parts of the state mainly because the nursery technology and management of these
species are not readily available.

Domestication of economically important forest products

Domestication of forest products is highly feasible. Bamboo, bay leaf and dalchini have a high
market demands and income is assured. In fact, these products have to some extent been
domesticated. This needs to be encouraged and policy and legal impediments in the process need
to be removed. This will fetch a better income to the growers while it will also meet the market
demands and serve the consumers.

Developing an effective forest policy

In order to effect sustainable forest management practices in the community forests, specific
areas of intervention and the extent of intervention are required to be identified very carefully. A
people-friendly policy need to be developed by the government that would ensure a favourable
environment for government and community participation in conserving the community and
private forests. The areas where regulatory mechanisms need to be strengthened and strategies
for strengthening the traditional institutions for effective forest management need to be identified
for formulation of an effective and implementable community forest policy of Meghalaya need
to identified through a policy research. While identifying such areas of intervention, sensitivity
regarding government interference in community affairs and autonomy of traditional institutions
should be kept in mind. The fear of land alienation due to government interference in people’s
mind and the issue of possible alteration of land ownership must be given top priority while
undertaking such an exercise for developing the appropriate policy.

Removing the irritations in the existing rules and acts

Research needs to be taken up to identify the bottlenecks and deterrents that retard the spirit of
forest conservation among the communities. In order to create a favorable environment for

136
communities to work towards sustainable forestry, all the existing acts, rules and regulations
need to be critically reviewed and points for amendment need to be identified in close
consultation with the communities. There is a need to find the reason why many acts and
regulations of the state relating to conservation of forests are not being implemented in their true
spirit.

Rationalization of royalty and taxes for forest products

Taxation policies are generally not favorable for forest product trade as it is generally levied
considering that the forest products as free good collected from public lands. Rates of royalty
levied are generally too high compared to the cost involved in the collection and processing of
the same. For example, in the case of charcoal the rate of royalty is Rs 600/ tonne in Garo Hills.
This rate is a on the higher side as charcoal makers find it unprofitable to make charcoal owing
to this reason. Therefore, to encourage charcoal making and trade in the rural areas royalty rates
has to be reduced to ensure that charcoal making business is profitable. Many forest products
(Bay leaf and Dalchini) are currently mostly produced in forest gardens, homesteads and
plantations but they are subjected to a high rate of royalty equivalent to the products collected
from wild making domestication of these products less remunerative. There is a need to
rationalize this and make it more favourable to the growers. In many states (e.g. Madhya
Pradesh) the forest products like NTFPs are not subjected to tax.

Hence, there is an urgent need to evaluate the policies, acts and laws of the state related to forest
management in general and NTFP/MAP management in particular. There is a need to amend or
reformulate policies that favour poor and help sustain forests. Research input in this area is most
desirable for influencing policy makers and planners of the state.

Forest product market

Local communities use hundreds of NTFP/MAPs and very many of these have a ready market. A
study on the forest product marketing in the state revealed that this sector is faced with a number
of constraints that need to be addressed in order to make the market friendlier to the rural poor
who depend on the forests for their livelihood. Some of the issues that emerged prominently are

137
enlisted and measures to be taken in order to make the market work for the poor are suggested
hereunder.

Market information
One of the main impediments to the marketing of forest products is lack of market information,
transparency and equal opportunity to all players. The rural poor do not have access to market
information like price, on/off peak season demand, major regional, national markets and the
consumer’s needs and preferences. To assure a remunerative price to the producers and
collectors of forest products, necessary market information should be made available to them at
an appropriate time. The National Informatics Centre of the Government can set up a network of
market information kiosk, in main market places, block or district headquarters. This will ensure
that all stakeholders have equal access to basic market information and help avoid exploitation of
the rural poor by the middlemen and traders.

Minimum support price

For most forest products, the pricing is done by the middlemen or regional traders and often it is
seen that they are the ones who benefit the most. At times the items are under priced and the
growers/collectors are always at receiving end. For instance in the case of broom grass, there is
no fixed minimum floor price and therefore the local traders distort the markets in their favour.
The market rate varies from Rs 7/ kg to Rs 30/ kg from year to year. During certain years the
price goes so low that even harvesting cost is not recovered putting the growers/collectors at loss.
Hence to remove this discrepancy/inconsistency, regulation of prices needs to be carried out by
the concerned government authorities. Fixing of minimum support price by the government is
also desirable in case of lichen, medicinal plants, and pipli (Piper longum), so that producers and
growers have some sense of security about their returns.

Transport facility
In most interior villages where basic infrastructure like road and transport facility is lacking, the
producers face a huge problem in transporting their goods from the site of production to the road

138
side or main markets. Owing to this most of the perishable goods like bay leaf, leafy vegetables,
fruits, etc often get blemished before they actually reach the market place and this in turn fetches
a lower price. Many raw materials for forest product based handicrafts are found in interiors of
the state. Cost of their transport makes them economically less viable hence they remain under
utilized. Therefore, to cater to the needs of such villagers’ better public transport should be made
available. In places like southern Meghalaya where settlements and production sites are often
located deep down in the valley, the people have to carry the load manually uphill, which poses
as a major constraint when it comes to bulky goods. In areas like these, ropeways can help solve
the problem.

Storage facility
Most forest goods are bulky and perishable for example, bay leaf, wild pepper, lichen,
mushrooms, packing leaves etc. Storage facilities for these products are required so that the
growers do not incur any losses due to stress sale. Broom grass is a forest product whose trade is
hampered by the lack of storage facilities as it is produced in millions of tonnes and requires
large godowns for storage. The warehouse of the state government at Mawiiong, Shillong is too
small to serve the need. Setting up of warehouses with modern facilities at the places of large
scale production of broom grass and bay leaf e. g., Pynursla and Nongpoh is necessary for
enhancing the share of benefit of the poor.

Collection center
Collection center on the pattern of Mandi established by various Indian states ( e. g. Haryana)
for sale of agricultural produce can be set up to facilitate selling of forest goods in particular of
small producers and collectors. While the producers can be free from hassles of transport of
goods to long distances, the traders find the produce in good quantity at one point. These centers
can be linked with the warehouses and information centers as stated above.

Capacity building
Considering the need of practicing scientific forestry in community and private forests, which is
viewed to be a viable strategy to ensure the continued existence of forests on community and
private land, and given the limitations of the state forest departments in terms of number of

139
forestry personnel vis-à-vis the large forest areas under community/private ownership, it is
desirable to train the representatives of village durbars on various aspects of technical forestry.
Research needs to be taken up for identifying the areas and topics for capacity building
programme for the communities. The modus operandi to implement such programme also needs
to be worked out.

Skill improvement and capacity building

The local craftsmen have the basic necessary skill required in many areas like furniture and
handicrafts making, processing of edible items and medicinal plants. However to cater to the
needs of the diverse consumers, skill upgradation and capacity building is essential. Trainings
and exposure trips from time to time can improve their expertise in these areas. Such skill
creation and upgradation according to the changing need of the market is essential in order to
remain a key player in the highly competitive market of a globalized economy.

Technology enhancement

Value addition and processing

Almost all forest products are sold in raw form and value addition is done outside the state. At
least in case of items produced in bulk such as broom grass and bay leaf, the value addition
facility needs to be developed in the state. Another problem faced by the people involved in
forest product collection and trade is their ignorance about the value added services.
Popularization of technologies for processing of timber and bamboo to convert them into high
value products fetching more income to rural poor has not been taken up in the state. For
example, bamboo shoots can be efficiently dried and pickled since bamboo shoot pickle has a
huge demand in international market but the local producers and even market players are not
trained to produce the value added products for such markets hence less benefits. Value addition
at the village level will also provide employment opportunities besides assuring a higher income
to the producers.

Technology upgradation

140
In many villages the local artisans and crafts men have very good skills for production of items
of day to day use such as bamboo handicraft and furniture as well as decorative items and show
pieces. There is a need to upgrade technology so as to enhance the productivity and quality of the
finished materials; also to cater to the needs of high end consumers. If appropriate and modern
technologies are introduced, the forest products of Meghalaya can suitably cater to the
consumer’s needs and can also successfully compete with other manufacturing units out side the
state.

Cooperative development and micro credit

Growers cooperatives and Self Help Groups (SHGs)
The non-timber forest products are mostly undervalued and are not optimally utilized to help the
poor people who are involved in collecting and rearing them. This situation can be rectified if the
people involved in this trade come together and establish a Growers Cooperative or Self Help
Groups which will function as a regulatory body. They can take up issues like large scale
production, processing, and marketing of the highly valued forest products (e.g. medicinal plants,
and spices) and ensure reasonable prices to the collectors and growers. This will enhance the
livelihood of growers’ by increasing their bargaining power and at the same time help in the
conservation of the important species by promoting sustainable harvesting.

Micro-Credit and Bank Loans

Most rural people are poor and require financial assistance for starting any forest-based
enterprise. Setting up of microcredit facilities and linking them with banks for providing loans to
the people at reasonable interest rates is desirable. This will encourage the rural people to start
their own forest based businesses and help reduce poverty in the rural areas. For example, the
women folk involved in lichen and mushroom collection can group themselves in SHGs through
which the micro-credits can be facilitated.

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Further Reading

Anonymous, 1998. Review of Policy, Legal Framework and Management Strategies for forests
and related Natural Resources in North East India, ICFRE, Dehradun and North East India
Society for Man and Environment, Guwahati.

Anonymous, 2002. Agriculture Profile Meghalaya 2002, Directorate of Agriculture, Shillong.

Anonymous, 2002. Basic Statistics of North Eastern Region, North Eastern Council Publication,
Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India.
Anonymous, 2002. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, 2002, Government of Meghalaya,
Shillong.

Anonymous, 2002, The Scope of Crop Diversification in Increasing Productivity to Support

Livelihood of Mountain Communities in India, Consumer Unity and Trust Society, Calcutta.
Anonymous, 2004. National Forestry Action Programme, Forestry Statistics of India: (1987-94,
1995, 1996, 2000), ICFRE, Dehra Dun.

Anonymous, 2006. Monsoon boon for timber smuggling across border, The Shillong Times,
August 28, 2006, Vol LX11 No. 18, Shillong Times Press, Shillong.
Anonymous, 2006. Abstract on Statistical statement on minor forest produces during the
year1995-2006, Garo Hills Autonomous District Council, Tura
Anonymous, 2006. Abstract on Statistical statement on minor forest produces during the year
1995-2005, Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council, Jowai.
Anonymous, 2006. Abstract on Statistical statement on minor forest produces during the year
1995-2005, Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council, Shillong.
Balakhrishnan, N. P. 1981-1983. Flora of Jowai, Meghalaya, Vol. I & II. Botanical Survey of
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Bhattacharya, U. 1980. Local Government in Khasi Hills. Vivek Publishing Company, New
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Biological Resources in Himalaya. Oxford IBH, New Delhi, pp-467-475.

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Bonney, P. H. S. 2002. Forest Resources in Meghalaya: Problems and Prospects, In: Forest
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APPENDICES

150
 APPENDIX 1
Reserved forests in Meghalaya
(a) Jaintia Hills

Sl. Name of the Reserved Gazette Notification No. and date Area (ha)
No Forests
1. No. 26 of 25/07/1876 & No. 5 of 15,035.308
Saipung 17/10/1877
2. No. 3978 F of 17/06/1906 B1.I 6,241.880
Narpuh (Block I)
3. No. 1106 R of 09/03/1918 B1.II 9,867.870
Narpuh (Block II)
Total 31,145.058

(b) East Garo Hills

Sl. Name of the Gazette Notification No. and Area (ha)

No Reserved Forests date
1. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 and for 2,328.484
Chimabangshi Sectt/492/63/9 dt. 22/12/1965
2. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 & 3715 R of 2,071.993
Dhima 11/08/1904
3. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 258.999
Dilma
4. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 & 665 R of 1,812.994
Rajasimla 15/02/1899
5. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 258.999
Idek
6. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 & 373 R of 1,035.996
Darengiri 29/01/1932
7. No. 28 of 19/06/1883 & 375 R of 3,625.988
Rongrengiri 29/01/1932
8. No. 22 of 12/03/1880 & 4276 R of 1,812.994
Dambu 14/10/1962
9. No. 29 of 01/10/1885 & 3583 R of 2,330.992
Songsak 05/09/1902
Total 15,537.439

151
(c) West Garo Hills

Sl. Name of the Area (ha)

No Reserved Gazette Notification No. and
Forests date
1. No. 28 dt. 19/06/1883 & 3526 R of 1,502.195
Dribru Hills 10/12/1930
2. No. 12 dt. 24/02/1887 4,428.886
Baghmara
3. No. 3 dt. 07/11/1883 & 2478 R of 3,010.865
Angratoli 15/06/1915
4. No. 44 dt. 07/11/188 & 1699 R of 647.497
Rewak 26/07/1932
5. No. 44 dt. 07/11/1883 & 1699 R of 828.797
Emangiri 26/07/1932
6. No. 44 dt. 07/11/1883 & 2323 R of 517.998
Sirju 26/07/1932
7. No. For 10/75/32 dt. 23/06/1982 R 418.631
Turu Peak of 29/01/1932
Catch
Total 11,354.869

(d) East Khasi Hills

Sl. Name of the Gazette Notification No. and date Area (ha)
No Reserved
Forests
1. No. 806 R of 05/03/1892 & 4287 R 391.331
Riatkhwan of 01/09/1892
2. No. 4692 F of 23/07/1909 & 864 G. 12,590.841
Nongkhyllem J. of 04/02/1939
3. No. G. F. R. 234/46/3 of 43.706
Umsaw 16/12/1946
4. No. 179/80/187 of 28/03/1988 44.160
Shyrwat
5. No. For 179/80/187 of 28/03/1988 204.660
Riat Laban
Total 13,274.698

152
Protected Forests in Meghalaya

Sl. Name of the Protected Forests Area (ha)

No
1. Upper Shillong 799.474
2. Short Round 133.312
3. Laitkor 324.920
4. Umkhuti 13.640
5. Green Block No. 2 20.749
Total 1,239.095

National Parks in Meghalaya

Sl. Name of the Gazette Notification No. and date Area (ha)
No National Park
1. Balphakram No. For. 103/84/354 dt. 15/02/1986 22,000.000
National Park
2. Nokrek National No. FOR. 23/86//204 dt. 29/11/1986 4,748.000
Park (Preliminary)
Total 26,748.000

Wildlife Sanctuaries in Meghalaya

Sl. Name of the Gazette Notification No. and Area (ha)

No Wildlife date
Sanctuaries
1. Nongkhyllem No. For. 25/81/5 dt. 2,900.000
25/03/1981
2. Siju No. MGF. 66/4, dt. 30/03/1979 518.000
3. Baghmara Pitcher No. FOR. 79/84/5, dt. 2.700
Plant 24/05/1984
Total 3,420.700

153
 APPENDIX 2
BAMBOOS OF MEGHALAYA

Sl. No. Botanical name Mode of Utilization

1. Arundinaria callosa Arrows, ekra walls, Construction material
2. Arundinaria griffithiana Do
3. Arundinaria hirsute Do
4. Arundinaria hookeriana Do
5. Arundinaria mannii Do
6. Arundinaria phylostachya Do
7. Arundinaria polystachya Do
8. Arundinaria prainii Do
9. Arundinaria suberecta Do
10. Bambusa nutans Do
11. Bambusa villosa Fishing rods
12. Bambusa bambos Construction
13. Bambusa khasiana Do
14. Bambusa pallida Shoots as vegetable, culm as construction material
15. Bambusa tulda Shoots as vegetable, culm as construction material
16. Bambusa vulgaris Shoots as vegetable, culm as construction material
17. Cephalostachyum capitatum Ekra wall, arrows
18. Cephalostachyum palidum Do
19. Chimonobambusa khasiana Do
20. Dendrocalamus hookerii Shoots as vegetable, culm as construction material
21. Dendrocalamus giganteus Construction
22. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Construction
23. Melocanna baccifera Shoots as vegetable, culm as construction material
24. Melocanna bambusoides Shoots as vegetable, culm as construction material
25. Oxynanthera nigrociliata Fencing, etc
26. Phyllostachys manii Fencing, etc.
27. Pseudostachyum polymorphum Construction
(Source: NaEB)

154
 APPENDIX 3

Types of Bri Raid (commuity land), rights to use and control and management in Khasi
Hills,

Type Meaning Right to Use Control and

Management
Ri Shnat/Ri Kuna Common Common Raid
Mynsain/Lamsain/ No man’s land Dividing none
Somraid boundaries
Ri Pud between different
land owners
Ri Lynter Land acquired by war or by litigation Common Raid
Ri Bam Syiem Land set apart for the clan of a ruling Clan of a ruling Clan of the
Chief Chief ruling Chief
Ri Shnong Land of the village Villagers Village
Council
Ri Ialeh Mokutduma A tract of land of the elaka which was Common Raid
acquired by winning a litigation either
against a certain clan within its own
elaka or from another elaka
Ri Umsnam/Ri Land acquired by war Common Raid
Bamlang/Ri Iapduh
Ri Aiti Mon Land is given as Gift by different land Common None
Sngewbha owners for construction of public
footpaths
Nongmei-Nongpa Plot of land in Ri Bhoi which have The domestic Raid
been converted to permanent group
cultivation over generations
Riphlang - Ribamduh Barren land in Cherra Syiemship Permanent Hima/Raid/S
residents has the hnong
right to use and
occupy
Ridiengsai-diengjin Buffer land in Cherra Syiemship Common Hima
between the uplands and the slopes to
the ‘War’ area

The category of political units controlling and managing Bri Raid

Category Type User
Village Village land Residents of the village
Raid (Cluster of villages) Raid land Resident of constituent
villages
Elaka (comprises of villages Elaka land Residents of the Elaka
and Raid)

155
Types of Bri Kynti (Private land) in Khasi Hills

Type Meaning Right and access Ownership, Control

and Management
Ri Kur Undivided land of a clan or a Members of a Council of a clan or
lineage or a family clan or lineage or lineage or family
family
Ri Land which has been divided and Members of Council of a lineage
Nongtymmen inherited from the previous two lineage or family or family
or three generations
Ri Maw Land acquired by purchased or by Owner(s) Owner(s)
apportioned within a clan or
family
Ri Seng Undivided land inherited over Income generated Council of the clan
generations from such lands is
equally
distributed
amongst different
families of the
clan
Ri Khain Similar as Ri Seng People not Council
belonging to the
clan can also hold
land or rights of
working in vacant
parts of it by
purchasing shares
from the owners
of the land
Ri Duwar Land purchased by the clan. It is Owners Clan council
usually situated on the way to the
market areas or river ghats giving
their owners to collect tolls from
whoever passes through to attend
market for trading therein
Ri Khurid Land sold by the original clan to The buyer has New owner
someone outside the clan proprietary,
heritable and
transferable rights
Ri Bitor - 1 Land alienated by the owner to The receiver has New owner
another person on receipt of a proprietary,
ceremonial bottle of liquor heritable and
transferable rights
Ri Bitor - 2 The occupant of community land The receiver has New Occupant
has made permanent heritable and
improvements over it thereby transferable rights
creating inheritable and
transferable rights. The occupant

156
 handed over to another person on
receipt of a ceremonial bottle of
liquor
Ri Dakhol Land obtained by right of Owner Owner
occupation and making
permanent improvement or by
purchase or by winning a
litigation
Ri Shyieng Land set aside for the youngest Youngest Council of the clan,
daughter to enable to meet the daughter’ family/ lineage or family
expenses connected with the clan/ lineage
performance of religious rites
Ri Phniang - 1 Land given to a female relation of Female relation Council of the family
the family who stay in the and the family
ancestral home acting as its
keeper and custodian and
assisting in preparing for religious
rites and practices
Ri Phniang - 2 Land acquired by male of the clan Female relation Council of the family
or family and is gifted to a female and family or clan
relation of the family who stay in
the ancestral home acting as its
keeper and custodian and
assisting in preparing for religious
rites and practices. it also for her
to look after the members of the
family in difficult circumstances
Ri Iapduh Land belonging to an extinct clan Common Elaka
or family and taken by the chief
and converted it into community
land
Ri Lyngdoh Land of the Lyngdoh clan of the Lyngdoh clan Clan
traditional state
Ri Syiem Land of the Syiem clan Syiem clan Clan
Ri Sniak Portion of the land acquired by a Clan Clan
married male given away to his
clan
Ri Spah/Ri Land given on lease. The lessee Lessee enjoys Owners
Lamdung pays rent and ceases the right if proprietary,
the lessee does not pay the rent inheritable, and
transferable rights
Ri Kut Land which cannot be divided Members of Council of the
different families families

Types of land in Jaintia Hills District

Type Meaning Right Ownership, Control

and Management
Ri Puja Land on which religious rites User pays fee to the Doloi/Lyngdoh/ Raid
and rituals are performed and controlling authority

157
 have been set aside over but cannot be taxed
generations for the upkeep of
the officials of the Elaka
Ri Kynti Privately owned land Owner(s) Owner(s)
Ri Raj or Land which are levy with tax User have to pay tax Jaintia Hills
Hali or Hot and enjoys permanent, Autonomous District
hali transferable of right to Council
use, inheritable and
occupancy
Ri Bam or Land set aside for the Doloi, Officials of the elaka Officials of the elaka
Ki Rek Pator and other officials of the
traditional institutions
Ri Kur/ Ri Privately owned land belonging Proprietary rights and Owners
Kynti to the clan or family or permanent ownership
individual. It is found mostly in with the owners
southern belt of Jaintia Hills
(Source: U Khasi Mynta bad Ki Riti Tynrai)

APPENDIX 4
List of Khasi terms used in the book

Iew Market
Ka Niam Khasi/ Ka Niam Tynrai Traditional Religion of the Khasis
Ka Niam Tre Traditional Religion of the Jaintias
Knup khasi umbrella made from bamboo
Latyrpad bay leaf
Mohkhiew Spade-like tool used for tilling
Prah winnowing tray
Ri-war
Shang basket
Shi song a pack of 16-20 leaves
Shi kit 30-40 kgs
Shylliah bamboo mats
Snep maw Wood lichen
Wait knife

158
 INDEX
Biodiversity
Clan land
Collector
Commercialization
Communities
Community forests
Conservation
Cultivation
Customary practices
Customary laws
Demand
Dependence
Economy
Edible
Forest resources
Gross State Domestic Product
Herbal practitioner
Indigenous forest management systems
Intermediaries
Inventorisation
Livelihood
Management practices
Market
Middlemen
Non-timber forest products
Ownership
Plantation
Poverty
Processing
Protected forest
Riotwary system
Royalty
Sacred grove
Scientific management system
Shifting cultivation
Strategy
Subsistence
Supreme Court
Sustainable harvesting
Sustainable Management
Tenure system
Traders
Traditional institutions

159
Value addition
Village dorbar
Village forest

Ownership
Autonomous district councils
Key policy
Regulation
Forest Conservation Act, 1980
Section 2
Clause 1
Clause 3
Clause 4
Clause 23
Clause 24
Clause 25
Clause 26
District Council

Bamboo
baskets
culms
Distribution
Plantation
Production
Uses
Trades
Market
Economy
Potential & Constraints
Charcoal
Method of Charcoal Making and Distribution
Productions
Uses
Market & Economics
Contributions to State Exchequer
Potential & Constraints
Fuelwood
Uses
Preferred fuelwood species in various Agro-Ecological zones
Western Region
Central and Upland Region
Northern Undulating Region

160
 South Precipitatious Region
Production
Consumption
Market & Economics
Marketing Channel
Contribution to State Exchequer
Potentials & Constraints
To lease or not to lease
Timber
Extraction of timber
Production
Uses & Trade
Market and Economics of timber
Market rates of timber
Earnings from timber
Informal International Trade of Timber
Contribution to State Exchequer
Dalchini
Distribution
Production
Uses
Market & Economics
Potential & Constraints
Bay Leaf
Distribution
Production
Uses
Harvesting
Market & Economics
Marketing channels
Contribution to State Exchequere
Potential & Constrains
Broom Grass
Distribution
Plantation and Management
Production
Market & Economies
Marketing Channels
Contribution to State Exchequer
Potential & Constrains
Medicinal Plants
Distribution
Western Region
Central and Upland Region
Northern Undulating Hill Region

161
 South Precipitatious Region
Collection and use of MPs
Market & Economics
Herbal Practitioners
Extent of dependence of the people on MPs
Potentials & Constrains
Recommendations
Packing Leaf(SLA SONGDOH)
Distribution
Productions
Uses
Collection
Market & Economics
Case Study of Nongkwai Village
Marketing Channel
Potentials
Reccomendations
Wild Pepper
Distribution
Production
Uses
Market & Economics
Marketing channel
Royalty
Potential & Constrains
Recommendations
Wood Lichen
Distribution
Production
Collection
Uses
Market & Economics
Marketing Channels
Contribution to State Exchequer
Potentials
Recommendations

162