HCS – SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

LECTURE- 8 SPACE SCIENCE

Space Technology:
• Space technology is technology for use in astronautics, for purposes
such as spaceflight or space exploration.
• Space technology includes spacecraft, satellites, space stations, and
support infrastructure equipment, and procedures and space
warfare.
Types of Orbit: On the Basis of Altitude
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
• A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) lies at an altitude range between 160 km to 2000 km above the surface of
Earth.
• Objects that are placed in the Low Earth Orbit are Subject to atmospheric drag. Atmospheric drag is
the atmospheric force (friction) acting opposite to the relative motion of an object.
• Beyond 1000 km above the Earth’s surface, there is “Van Allen Radiation Zone”.
▪ It is a very sensitive zone, filled with energetic charged particles from solar winds and cosmic
rays, that are captured by the Earth’s magnetic field leading to varying levels of radiation.
▪ Theses highly charged particles pose a hazard to sensitive components of satellited subjected
to this radiation belt.
• LEO is most commonly used for satellite imaging, as being near the surface allows it to take images
of higher resolution.
• The International Space Station (ISS) is also located in LEO, as it is easier for astronauts to travel to
and from ISS at a shorter distance
• Satellites in this orbit travel at a speed of around 7.8 km per second; at this speed, a satellite takes
approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth, meaning the ISS travels around Earth about 16 times a day.
• Individual LEO satellites are less useful for tasks such as telecommunication because they orbit very
fast making it difficult to track from ground stations. Thus, a large combination or constellation, of
multiple satellites to give constant coverage.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
• It lies at an altitude range between 2000 km to 35786 km above the surface of Earth.
• In MEO, two medium orbits are notable: the semi-synchronous orbit and the Molniya orbit.
• Semi-synchronous orbit
▪ It is a near circular orbit at about 20,200 kilometers above the Earth’s surface.
▪ A satellite at this height takes 12 hours to complete an orbit i.e. half the rotation of Earth (thus
the name semi-synchronous).
▪ In 24-hours, the satellite crosses over the same two spots on the equator every day.
▪ This orbit is consistent and highly predictable and used by the Global Positioning System (GPS)
satellites.
Molniya orbit
• It is a highly elliptical orbit used for observing high latitudes.
• Satellites in a geostationary orbit are parked over the equator, so they don’t work well for far
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northern or southern locations. This limitation is handled by putting satellites in Molniya orbit.
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 ▪ Being a highly eccentric orbit, the satellite moves very quickly when it is close to the Earth and
as it moves away, its speed slows. So, it spends about two-thirds of that time over one
hemisphere.
▪ A satellite in a Molniya orbit takes 12 hours to complete its orbit, but it spends about two-thirds
of that time over one hemisphere.
• In MEO, with the increase in altitude as compared to LEO, propagation delay will begin to creep into
the transmission of signals. The power required to transmit the signal also increases.
• The purpose of most of the satellited in the MEO are communication and navigation.
High Earth Orbit (HEO)
• At about 36,000 kilometers from Earth’s surface, a satellite enters a sort of “sweet spot” in which its
orbit matches Earth’s rotation.
• As the satellite orbits at the same speed as the Earth’s rotation, the satellite seems to stay in place
over a single longitude. This special, high Earth orbit is called geosynchronous.
• The time it takes for the Earth to rotate on its axis i.e. about 24 hours is the same as it takes a satellite
in geosynchronous orbit.
• This makes geosynchronous satellites particularly useful for telecommunications and other remote
sensing applications. It is also helpful for monitoring weather and surveillance of a particular area on
Earth.
• Satellites in an orbit beyond the geostationary orbit (36000 km) have an orbital period longer than
twenty-four hours. Since Earth rotates at a faster speed, satellites in such high Earth orbits appear to
be heading in the opposite direction.
Types of Orbit: On the Basis of Application
Polar Orbit
• Satellites in polar orbits usually travel from north to south rather than from west to east. Thus, in
Polar Orbit satellites pass roughly above Earth’s North and South poles on each revolution.
• Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.
• These Orbits are used for Earth-mapping, Earth observations, weather forecast, and navigation
(GPS), satellites.
Sun-synchronous Orbit (SSO)
• Sun-synchronous orbit is a type of polar orbit. Satellites in SSO, travelling over the polar regions, are
synchronous with the Sun i.e. they are synchronized to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative
to the Sun.
• The orbital plane of the satellite always remains at the same constant angle relative to the sun-Earth
line during all seasons. This means that the satellite always visits the same spot at the same local
time - for example, passing the city of Mumbai every day at noon.
• This enables to monitor an area by taking a series of images of a certain place across many days,
weeks, months, or even years. It allows scientists to track changes over time and investigate changes
in weather patterns.
Geostationary Orbit (GSO)
• Geostationary orbits fall in the same category as geosynchronous orbits, but it is parked over the
equator.
• While the geostationary orbit lies on the same plane as the equator, the geosynchronous satellites
have a different inclination.
• The satellite in the geostationary orbit has the same orbital period as the rotation of the Earth around
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its axis, making it appear stationary relative to fixed spot on the Earth.

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 • This orbit is used for providing television broadcasting. Weather monitoring and communications
services.
Transfer Orbit
• Transfer orbits are intermediate elliptical orbits that are used to get a satellite or other object from
one orbit to another.
• Polar Transfer Orbit (PTO)
▪ It is an object at an altitude of about 100 km below the Polar or Low Earth Orbit.
▪ Remote Sensing Satellites are launched into this orbit first and then using their own propulsion
system the satellites lift themselves to the desired orbit.
• Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO)
▪ This orbit is located at a height of about 200 km below the geostationary orbit.
▪ GTO is a high eccentric orbit which traverses low Earth orbit (LEO) and geostationary orbit (GSO).
▪ Geosynchronous satellites are first injected into a GTO and then lift themselves using their own
propulsion system to a geostationary Earth orbit (GEO).
Hohmann Transfer Orbit
• Named after German scientist, Wolfgang Hohmann, it is a fuel efficient path of transferring a satellite
or a spacecraft from Earth to an outer planet such as Mars using the least propellant possible.
• Hohmann transfer orbit id one half of an elliptic orbit that starts from the lower circular orbit (Earth)
from where a satellite or spacecraft is launched and ends at the higher circular orbit (Mars) that one
targets to reach.
• Hohmann Transfer Orbit was used in Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) of India to put spacecraft on Mars’
orbit.
INDIAN SPACE PROGRAMME
A historical Perspective
• In India, Space research activities were initiated during the 1960s under the leadership of Dr. Vikram
Sarabhai, the founding father of Indian space programme.
• Indian National committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was initiated in 1962 under the
leadership of Dr. Sarabhai and Dr. Ramanathan.
• INCOSPAR set up the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thiruvananthapuram
for upper atmospheric research. Thumba was selected because the geomagnetic equator of the
Earth passes over Thumba.
• On November 21, 1963, the first sounding rocket was launched form TERLS. The first rocket, a Nike-
Apache, was procured form the US. India’s first indigenous sounding rocket, RH-75, was launched on
November 20, 1967. A sounding rocket is a rocket which is intended for assessing the physical
parameters of the upper atmosphere.
• In 1969, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was founded by the Government of India by
superseding the erstwhile INCOSPAR.
• The Government of India constituted the Space Commission and established the Department of
Space (DoS) in June 19722 and brought ISRO under DoS in September 1972.
• During 1975-76, Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was conducted. It transmitted
development oriented programmes using the American Technology Satellite (ATS-6) and benefited
people of 2400 villages of six states.
• India’s first spacecraft ‘Aryabhata’, completely designed and fabricated in India, was launched by a
Soviet Kosos-3M rocket from Kapustin Yar in 1975.
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• India developed her first launch vehicle SLV-3 with Rohini on board (1979) had failed to place the
satellite in orbit.

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 • During the experimental phase of 1980s, Bhaskara-I & II missions were pioneering steps in the
remote sensing area whereas Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE) became the forerunner
for future communication Satellite system.
• In April 1984, the first Indo-Soviet manned space mission was launched. Rakesh Sharma became
the first Indian citizen to go into space. He flew abroad the Soviet rocket Soyuz T-11, as part of a
three member Soviet- Indian crew.
• During the operational phase of 1990s, India developed major space infrastructure under two broad
classes:
▪ Indian National Satellite system (INSAT) for communication, broadcasting and meteorology.
▪ Indian Remote sensing Satellite (IRS) system for monitoring and management of natural
resources and disaster management support.

• The development and operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geo-
synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) were significant achievements during that period.
• India successfully sent its Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft to the noon in November 2008 to explore the
lunar surface.
• In September 2014, India successfully placed an unmanned spacecraft in an orbit around planet
Mars.
• In July 2019, India launched Chandrayaan-2, its second lunar exploration mission after Chandrayaan-
1. It comprised an Orbiter, Lander and Rover to explore the unexplored South Pole of the Moon.
Organisational Setup
Space Commission of India
• The Space Commission Formulates the policies and oversees the implementation of the Indian space
programme by the Department of Space (DoS) through the ISRO and other associated institutions
including:

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

• The prime objective of ISRO is to develop an indigenous space technology and its application to
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various national needs.

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 • ISRO functions through six major centres and several other units, agencies, facilities and laboratories
spread across the country.
▪ Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram: It develops launch vehicles.
▪ Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad,
▪ National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) in Tirupati,
▪ North Eastern-Space Applications Centre (NE-SAC) in Shillong,
▪ Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL) in Chandigarh,
▪ Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) in Thiruvananthapuram, and
▪ Antrix Corporation in Bengaluru (a government owned company to market the space products
and services).
▪ New Space India Limited (NSIL)in Bengaluru (a government owned company to enable Indian
industries take up high technology space related activities)
▪ U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), Bengaluru, formerly known as ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC):
Satellites are designed and developed at ISAC.
▪ Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC – SHAR) at Sriharikota: Integration and launching of Satellites
and launch vehicles are carried out form SDSC.
▪ Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore and Mahendragiri:
Development work on liquid stages including cryogenic stage is carried out.
▪ Space Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad: Development of sensors for communication and
remote sensing satellites and applications aspects of space technology.
▪ National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad: It carries out reception, processing and
dissemination of data from remote sensing satellites.
• ISRO is headquartered in Bengaluru. Chairman of ISRO also serves as the Secretary of the Department
of Space and the Chairman of Space Commission.
III. SATELLITES
What is a Satellite?
• A satellite is an object that orbits around a bigger object.
• Satellites are of two types: natural and artificial. Earth (with respect to sun) and the moon (with
respect to Earth) are examples of natural satellites.
• Artificial satellites are man-made machines orbiting around Earth, moon and other celestial objects.
For example, International Space Station (ISS) is moving in an orbit around the earth. Sputnik 1 was
the first artificial satellite in space launched by the Soviet Union in 1957.
Components of a Satellite
• According to the purpose of a satellite, its shape, size, and components are decided. Nevertheless,
there are some components common to all types of satellites.
Power System
• A satellite needs electricity for the functioning of instruments and its directional control.
• The main source of power is sunlight, which is harnessed by the satellite’s solar panels. A satellite
also has batteries to provide power when the sunlight is not available.
Payload
• All instruments like antennas, cameras, radar carried by a satellite for its operation is called payload.
• Payload varies according to the purpose and type of a satellite.
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 Housing (Bus)
• Housing also called bus, is the infrastructure of a satellite, that provides locations for the payload.
• It holds all components of the satellite together and provides electrical power, computing power and
propulsion for functioning of the satellite.
• It is constructed from strong materials that can withstand the harsh space environment.
Transponder
• The transponder is a communication system which included the receiving antenna to pick-up signals
from the ground stations, an input multiplexer, and a frequency converter which is used to reroute
the received signals through a high powered amplifier.
• Transponder receives the signals at certain frequencies from the Earth, performs frequency
conversion, amplifies them and retransmits them to be received on the Earth’s surface.
Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC)System
• Due to the gravitational forces from the sun, moon and other planets, a satellite may deviate from
its orbit.
• Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) system consists of rocket motors that help in placing a satellite into
the right orbit.
• It is also helpful in giving proper direction to antennas, which are of narrow beam type and point
towards Earth of some other space bodies like sun, moon etc.
Telemetry, Command and Monitoring System
• It is the operational heart of a satellite that commands, controls, and monitors every aspect of the
satellite and receives commands from Earth for operations.
• It consists of antennas and computers on board of the satellite what to do and to monitor the
temperature, electrical voltage, and other important parameters of the satellite.
IV. Applications of Satellite Technology
Communication Services
• Use of satellite communications services has been widely diversified that includes applications like
telecommunications, television broadcasting, outdoor-broadcast DSNG (Digital Satellite News
Gathering) and VSAT (very Small Aperture Terminal), etc.
▪ VSAT is a two-way satellite communication system with a dish antenna that serves home and
business users.
• The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic communication satellite
systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication satellites placed in geo-
stationary orbit.
• The INSAT system has more than 200 transponders in the C and Ku-bands that provide services to
telecommunications, televisions broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, weather forecasting, disaster
warning and search and rescue operations.
Navigation Services
• Satellite navigation is a space-based radio positioning system that included a constellation of
satellites that provides three-dimensional position, velocity and time information to properly
equipped users anywhere on, or near, the surface of Earth.
• For example, ISRO in coordination with Airport Authority of India (AAI) developed GPS Aided Geo
Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system to meet navigation services requirement for civil aviation.
• To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services, ISRO is developing
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indigenously a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
(IRNSS).

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 Earth Observation
• Earth observatory satellites, also called remote sensing satellites equipped with varieties of
instruments, provide necessary data in a diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to
cater to different user requirements.
• The data from these satellites are used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources,
urban planning, rural development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and
disaster management.
• For example, RISAT-2B (Radar Imaging Satellite-2B), an Earth observation satellite launched by ISRO
in December, 2019 helps in agriculture, mining, forestry and coastal management, soil monitoring,
disaster management support and round the clock border surveillance.
Weather Forecasting
• The meteorological satellites provide a measurement of weather parameters such as winds, rainfall,
sea surface temperature etc. at frequent intervals.
• For example, Oceansat-2, launched in 2009 provides data for forecasting of sea state, sea surface
wind vector, coastal climate and weather.
• Megha-Tropiques is an Indo-French Joint Satellite Mission for studying the water cycle and energy
exchanges in the tropics. It has become the first of the eight-satellite constellation for Global
Precipitation Measurement (GPM) coordinated by NASA.
Space Exploration
• Satellites used in space exploration, provide research in areas like astronomy, astrophysics, planetary
and Earth sciences, atmospheric sciences and theoretical physics.
• For example, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) was launched in 2014 with aim of studying the Martian
surface and its mineral composition as well as scan its atmosphere for methane (an indicator of life
on Mars).
Earth Segment of Satellite System
• The Earth or ground segment system is an integrated system supporting both the launch phase and
orbital phase of a satellite system.
• It Constitutes the ground-based infrastructure necessary to launch, monitor and support the
operations of a satellite, It includes launching facilities, satellite control centres, and the end user
setups.
Launching Centre
• It provides launch base infrastructure for the space programmes.
• This centre has the facilities for solid propellant processing, static testing of solid motors, launch
vehicle integration and launch operations.
• During the launching phase, it handles telemetry, tracking and command network.
Satellite Control Centre
• It comprises computer, technical facilities, mission control& mission analysis area and dedicated
mission control area.
• At this centre, the satellite health is monitored through tele-commands uplinked towards payload
operations and configuration changes onboard.
• The pre-launch simulations are also organized from the control centre.
End User Setup
• End user setup is comprised of ground stations which include service provider like TV broadcasters
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and consumers like TV sets at homes.

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• There are two types of Earth stations communicating directly with satellite:

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 • Transmitting Earth Station: It transmits information signals to a satellite or satellite network
• Receiving Earth Station: It receives information signals from satellite.
• In some cases, an Earth station can have facilities for both transmitting and receiving purposes, for
example, telecommunication services.
Any Earth station consists of following major subsystems
• Transmitter or Receiver, or both,
• Tracking equipment,
• Antenna
Tracking Subsystem: It keeps track with the satellite and makes sure that the beam come towards it in
order to establish the communication.
Working structure of an Earth station depends on a number of factors including

• Type of Service: Fixed Satellite Service, Mobile Satellite Service, or Broadcast

• Type of communication: Telephony, data, television, etc.
• Traffic requirements: Number of channels, type of traffic-continuous or burst
Satellite Frequency Bands
• Satellites provide broadcast and interactive services using frequencies that are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
• Satellite frequency spectrum range varies from 1 GHz to 40 GHz which is further divided into various
bands (L, S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka) based on their applications.
• Lower frequencies (L, S and C band) are not much affected by heavy rainfall and are therefore used
in those parts of the world like Asia, Africa, and Latin America that experience such heavy rainfall
regularly.
• Higher frequencies (Ku, K, and Ka bands) allow smaller antennas to be used and more focused
footprints on regions or sub-regional areas.
• Lower frequencies have less bandwidth capacity than higher frequencies. It means that signals that
carry a lot of information (such as television, broadband or mobile phones) are better placed in the
higher frequency bands while simple radio (audio) signals can be carried by the low frequency waves.
L band (1-2 GHz)
• This band is used for low Earth orbit satellites, military satellites, and terrestrial wireless connections
like GSM mobile phones.
• Due to a wider beam width of L-band, the pointing accuracy of the antenna does not have to be as
accurate as the higher bands.
• This band is less affected from rain fading.
S band (2-4 GHz)
• S-band is used for satellite television, radio broadcasting and mobile broadband services.
• NASA uses this frequency band for communication with the international Space Station.
• It is less susceptible to rain fading compared to Ku and Ka bands.
C band (4-8 GHz)
• It is used for satellite communications, fixe-satellite television and data services (including
broadcasting)
• It has wider and global coverage, lower propagation delay, and less attenuation compared to other
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bands.
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 • The C-band is preferred over the Ku-band in tropical rainfall areas for satellite communications as it
is less susceptible to rain fading than ku-band.
• This requires antennas of large size, For example large white domes (antennas) are mounted on top
and the cruise ships and commercial vessels.
X band (8-12 GHz)
• X-band is used in radar applications, it supports detection of smaller particles in a radar by using
smaller antennas.
• This band is used for civil, military and government radar applications including air traffic control,
maritime vessel traffic control, defense tracking, vehicle speed detection, and weather monitoring.
• It has more attenuation than lower frequency bands (L, S, C ) due to rain, snow, and ice etc.
Ka band (12-18 GHz)
• It is used for fixe-satellite television & data services (including broadcasting)
• Ku-band supports smaller sized antennas and provides wide coverage compared to other bands.
• However, it suffers from rain fading due to absorption of electromagnetic waves by water droplets.
K band (18-26 GHz)
• It is used for broadcast satellite service and fixed satellite service.
• It supports antennas with smaller size compared to Ku band.
• K band frequencies have high susceptibility to rain attenuation.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• ITU is a specialized agency of the United Nations to regulate satellite communications.
• Based in Geneva, Switzerland, ITU receive and approves applications for use of orbital slots for
satellites.
• Every two to four years ITU convenes the World Radiocommunication Conferences, which is
responsible for assigning frequencies to various applications in various regions of the world
• Each country’s telecommunication regulatory agency enforces these regulations and awards licenses
to users of various frequencies.
• Recently, India has been elected as a Member of the ITU Council for another 4-year term (2019-2022)
The Department of Telecommunication is the modal agency for coordinating with ITU from India.
Ka ban (26-40 GHz)
• It is used for fixed-satellite television and data services including fixed and mobile two-way
broadband services.
• This band has a high frequency requiring great pointing accuracy and sophisticated
equipment.hence
• Ka band is commonly used for high definition satellite TV.
• Equipment used in Ka band are smaller and easier to install and maintain.
• Due to absorption of higher frequency electromagnetic waves by water droplets, Ka band suffers
from fading.
Evolution of Launch Vehicles in India
• Launch Vehicle or Launcher is a multistage rocket powered space transport system, used to send
satellites, manned spaceships, space stations or space probes into an orbit.
• The Launching of the first sounding rocket from Thumb (Kerala) on 21 November 1963, marked the
beginning of the Indian Space Programme, sounding rockets are used for probing the upper
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atmospheric regions and for space research.

• They also serve as platforms to test prototypes intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites.

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 • Development of launch vehicles in India can be categorised in 4 generations.
▪ 1 Generation: Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)
st

▪ 2st Generation: Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

▪ 3 Generation: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
rd

▪ 4 Generation: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

th

Location of Satellite Launching Station

• Satellite Launching Stations are generally located on the east coast as close as possible to the
equator.
• When seen from the North Pole, the Earth rotates anticlockwise i.e. from west to east as we see the
sun rising in the east and setting in the west.
• The surface velocity of rotation varies form point to point on the Earth, It is highest near the equator
and gradually reduces towards the poles, where it is practically zero,
• A satellite launched from the sites near the equator towards the east direction will get an initial boost
equal to the velocity of Earth surface. This is similar to an athlete circling round before throwing a
shot put.
• However, satellites meant for polar orbits are generally launched in south ward or north ward
direction and therefore cannot take advantage of the Earth’s rotation
• Moreover, as the acceleration due to gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the radius, the
gravitational force of attraction for a satellite is minimum near the equator.
• Additionally, across all continents, the eastward side from east coast has water bodies while the
eastward side from west coast has landmass.
• The east coast is selected so that in case of failure of the launch, the debris does not fall on built-up
hinterland.
• The stations are generally in proximity to the equator because the radius of the Earth is more at the
equator than at the poles.
• Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) or Sharika Range (SHAR) is a rocket launch centre operated by
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) It is located in Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh.
Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)
• Satellite Launch Vehicle – 3 (SLV-3) was India’s first experimental satellite Launch vehicle.
• It was an all solid fuel, four stage vehicle capable of placing 40 kg class payloads in Low Earth Orbit
(LEO), It was first Launched in 1980 when Rohini satellite Rs 1, was placed in orbit, thereby making
India the sixth member of an exclusive club of space-faring nations.
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)
• The ASLV Programme was designed to augment the payload capacity to 150 kg for low Earth Orbits
(LEO)
• The ASLV is a five stage, all-solid propellant vehicle.
• After two earlier failures, ASLV-D3 successfully put SROSS-C (106 kg) into an orbit on May 20,1992.
Stage of Launch Vehicles
• Launch vehicles have to gain escape velocity of about 30,000 km/h to place a spacecraft into orbit
around Earth.
• Similarly, to escape Earth’s gravitational pull entirely and head into deep space, a launcher needs to
attain the escape velocity of about 40,000 km/h
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• The most efficient way for launch vehicles to reach these speeds is to use staged rockets, or rockets
divided into different stages, on atop another.
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 • According to the requirement of launching a satellite based on weight, types of orbit, and distance
from Earth, Launch vehicles are designed with several stages.
First Stage
• The First stage is tasked to provide initial thrust needed to overcome Earth’s gravity.
• In some launchers, the first stage has additional rockets attached, acting as a booster to further
increase the thrust.
• When the first-stage fuels are used up, it detached from the remaining parts of the launch vehicle
and fails back to Earth, generally into the ocean or sparsely populate areas.
Second Stage
• In the second stage, the launcher carries less weight than the first stage, because the first stage has
dropped off the rocket.
• When the second stage takes over, the vehicle reaches a much higher speed.
• The second stage, however, also user up its fuel and drops off.
The Third Stage
• This stage fires and generally places the spacecraft into final orbit.
• On deep space mission the third stage allows the spacecraft to reach escape velocity and head away
from Earth.
• For some missions, even the three stages may not be adequate to launch a satellite in its orbit, For
example PSLV is a 4-stage rocket powered launch vehicle.
Solar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
• PSLV is the third generation launch vehicle of India. It is the first Indian Launch vehicle to be equipped
with liquid stage.
• After its first successful launch of a remote sensing satellite, IRS-P2 (804 KG), In October 1994, PSLV
emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India.
• This vehicle has also successfully launched two spacecrafts- Chandrakant -1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter
Spacecraft in 2013.
PSLV Capacity
• PSLV is capable of sending Payload (up to 1,750 kg) to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (up to 600 km
altitude) for example, the IRS series of satellites
• It has transported a payload of up to 1,425 kg into Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like
satellites for the IRNSS constellation.
• PSLV has three versions : PSLV Core Alone, PSLV-G, and PSLV-XL
• PSLV is a 4 stage rocket powered launcher.
▪ First State: Solid rocket motor augmented by 6 solid strap-on boosters. The strap-on motors are
used only in PSLV-G and PSLV-XL variants.
▪ Second Stage: Earth storable liquid rocket engine, known as the Vikas engine.
▪ Third Stage: Solid rocket motor
▪ Fourth Stage: Two Earth storable liquid engines.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
• GSLV is a 4 generation, three stage launch vehicles
th

• GSLV Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is one of the largest launch vehicles developed by India. The indigenously
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developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
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 GSLV Mk II Capacity
• Payload (up to 2,500 kg) to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits (GTO) : GSLV’s primary payloads are
INSAT class of communication satellites that operate from Geostationary orbits.
• Payload (5,000 kg) to LEO: GSLV’s capability of placing up to 5 tonnes in low Earth Orbits (LEO)
broadens the scope of payloads form heavy satellites to multiple smaller satellites.
GSLV Mk II is a 3-stage rocket powered launcher
• First stage: Solid rocket motor augmented by 4 liquid strap-on
• Second Stage: Vikas engine
• Third Stage: Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS)
GSLV Mk II
• It is a three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle developed by ISRO
• The vehicle has two solid strap-on, a core liquid booster and a cryogenic upper stage.
• It is designed to carry a 4 ton class of satellites into GTO and about 8 ton to LEO, which is about twice
the capability of GSLV Mk II.
Indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage
• ISRO’s Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP) envisaged the design and development of the
indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage to replace the stage procured
• from Russia and used in GSLV flights.
• A cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust for every kilogram of propellant
it burns compared to solid and Earth-storable to solid and Earth-storable liquid propellant rocket
stages.
• It comprises cryogenic propellants i.e. liquid Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen. This efficiency of more
thrust gives it a substantial payload advantage.
• However, given that Oxygen liquifies at-183 deg C and Hydrogen at -253 deg C, the cryogenic stage
is technically a very complex system due to its use of propellants at extremely low temperatures and
the associated thermal and structural problems.
• Advantages: High energy per unit mass, clean fuel, economical in the long run.
• Disadvantages: Storage, huge initial capital investment, very sophisticated technology requiring high
level of technical expertise.
Ramjet and Scramjet Engines
• Satellites are launched into orbit by multi-staged satellite launch vehicles that carry oxidizer along
with the fuel for combustion to producer thrust.
• Nearly 70% of the propellant (fuel-oxidiser combination) carried by today’s launch vehicles consists
of oxidisers. Therefore, in order to reduce the launch cost, the next generation launch vehicles must
use a propulsion system which can utilise the atmospheric oxygen during their fight.
• A Ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to compress
incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor.
• A Scramjet (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet) engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine in
which the airflow through the engine remains supersonic, or greater that the speed of sound.
• Scramjet engine uses hydrogen as fuel and the Oxygen from the atmospheric air as the oxidiser.
• The first experimental mission of ISRO’s Scramjet engine towards the realization of an Air Breathing
Propulsion System was successfully conducted in 2016 from Satish Dhawan space Centre SHAR,
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Sriharikota.
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 • With this flight, critical technologies such as ignition of air breathing engine at supersonic
speed, holding the flame at supersonic speed, air intake mechanism and fuel injection
systems have been successfully demonstrated.
• India is the fourth country to demonstrate the flight testing of a Scramjet Engine.
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RVL)
• The Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV TD) is hybrid vehicle that combines the
technologies of an aircraft and launch vehicle.
• The main objectives of the RLV TD are to reduce the cost of launch by increasing reusability and to
increase reliability by achieving a Two Stage to Orbit (TSTO) capability.
Indian Satellites
Communication Satellites
• The GSAT and INSAT series comprise the major communication satellites of ISRO.
• Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system, established in 1983 with the launching of INSAT-1B, is one
of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational
communication satellites placed in geostationary orbit.
• This system with more than 200 transponders in the C and Ku-bands provides services to
telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal applications, weather
forecasting, disaster waring and Search and Rescue operations.
Earth Observation Satellites
• ISRO has developed and launched many remote sensing satellites starting with IRS-1A in 1988.
• Currently, following are the major operational satellites:
▪ In sun-synchronous orbit – RESOURCESAT, CARTOSAT, RISAT-1 and 2, OCEANSAT, Megha-
Tropiques, SARAL and SCATSAT-1
▪ In geostationary orbit - INSAT-3D, kalpana & INSAT 3A, INSAT- 3DR.

• The data received from these satellites are used for agriculture, water resources, urban planning,
rural development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and disaster
management.

Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HySIS)

• ISRO launched the first Indian Hyperspectral Imaging Satellite (HySIS) in sun-synchronous polar
orbit at around 640 km in November 2018 from PSLV-C43.
• The satellite is used for Earth observation in applications related to agriculture, forestry, geology,
assessment of coastal zones, and environmental studies.
• The HySIS technology consists of a combination of digital imaging and spectroscopy.
• It aims to study the Earth’s surface in the visible, near infrared and shortwave infrared regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
• The Hyper-spectral or hyspex imaging is said to enable distinct identification of objects, material
or processes on Earth by reading the spectrum for each pixel of a scene from space.

Navigation Satellites
• Satellite navigation system is a system of satellites that is used to locate latitude, longitude, altitude,
velocity and time information. The two navigation Satellite systems of ISRO are GAGAN and IRNSS
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(NavIC)
• GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
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 • The Global Positioning System (GPS)is the core constellation of satellites providing signal from space
transmitting positioning and timing data.
• GAGAN is an augmentation system which augments the GPS constellation by improving accuracy,
availability, continuity and integrity. GAGAN corrects for GPS signal errors caused by ionospheric
disturbances, timing and satellite orbit errors.
• This is achieved by sending corrections and integrity information for GPS satellites to its users.
• Thus, GAGAN is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS). It was developed jointly by ISRO and
Airports Authority of India (AAI).
• It provides satellite-based navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for civil aviation
applications. It can also be used for maritime and land transport
• GAGAN has indigenous Geostationary satellites (GSAT-8, GSAT-10 and GSAT-15) broadcasting the
SBAS signals. GAGAN footprint expands form Africa to Australia
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
• IRNSS is an independent Indian Satellite based positioning system for critical national applications.
The IRNSS constellation was named as “NavIC” (Navigation with Indian Constellation).
• ISRO has built a total of nine satellites in the IRNSS series; of which eight are currently in orbit Three
of these satellites are in geostationary orbit (GEO)while the remaining in geosynchronous orbits
(GSO)
• The eight operational satellites in the IRNSS series are IRNSS-1A, 1B,1C,1D,1E,1F,1G and 1I. Due to
failure of the atomic clock in IRNSS-1A, IRNSS-1I was launched as its replacement. Thus, effectively,
NavIC is a constellation of seven satellites.
• The main objective is to provide reliable position, navigation and timing services over India and its
neighbourhood (region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary).
• The IRNSS will provide basically two types of services:
▪ Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
▪ Restricted Service (RS).
• SPS is provided to all the users and RS, which is an encrypted service, is provided only to the
authorized users. The IRNSS System is expected to provide a positions accuracy of better than 20 m
in the primary service area.

Navigation Satellite System around the World

• Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) is a global navigation satellite system of 24 satellites owned and
operated by the United States.
• BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is a regional navigation satellite system developed by
China. It is being expanded to provide global coverage by 2020.
• Galileo is a global navigation Satellite system owned and operated by the European Union (EU). It
plans to complete the system of 24+ satellites by 2020.
• GLONASS is a global navigation system of Russia. It is a fully operational with 24+ satellites.
• Quasi-Zenith satellite system (QZSS) is a regional navigation system of Japan. It complements GPS
to improve coverage in East Asia and Oceania.

Some applications of IRNSS are:

• Terrestrial, aerial and Marine Navigation
• Disaster Management
• Vehicle tracking and fleet management
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• Integration with mobile phones

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• Precision timing

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 • Mapping and Geodetic data capture
• Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
• Visual and voice navigation for drivers

Indian Navigational Satellites

Name Launch Date Launch Vehicle Orbit Type

IRNSS-1L Apr 12,2018 PSLV-C41/IRNSS-1L GSO
IRNSS-1H(Launch Aug 31,2017 PSLV-C39/ IRNSS-1H
Unsuccessful)
IRNSS-1G Apr 28,2016 PSLV-C33/ IRNSS-1G GEO
IRNSS-1F Mar 10,2016 PSLV-C32/ IRNSS-1F GEO
IRNSS-1E Jan 20,2016 PSLV-C31/ IRNSS-1E GSO
IRNSS-1D Mar 28,2015 PSLV-C27/ IRNSS-1D GSO
IRNSS-1C Oct 16,2014 PSLV-C26/ IRNSS-1C GEO
IRNSS-1B Apr 04,2014 PSLV-C24/ IRNSS-1B GSO
IRNSS-1A Jul 01,2013 PSLV-C22/ IRNSS-1A GSO

Small Satellites
• A small satellite is a satellite of low mass and size, usually under 500 kg. It is developed to provide a
platform for stand -alone payloads for Earth imaging and science missions within a quick turnaround
time.
• Based on different kinds of payloads, small satellites are developed and configured in two kinds of
buses (for housing the payloads).

ISRO’s Small Satellites

• Microsat
• Microsat is a small satellite in the 100 kg. class (IMS-1A bus) launched on Jan
12,2018
• This is a technology demonstrator and the forerunner for future satellites of
this series. The satellite bus is modular in design and can be fabricated and
tested independently of payload.
• YOUTHSAT
• It is a joint Indo-Russian stellar and atmospheric satellite mission with the
participation of student.
• Youthsat mission intends to investigate the relationship between solar
variability and thermoshphere -ionosphere changes.
• EMISAT
• It is a satellite built by ISRO on an IMS-2 class.
• EMISAT was launched in its intended sun-synchronous polar orbit of 748 km
height on April 01,2019
• It is intended for electromagnetic spectrum measurement and to read the
location of radar emitters, both ground and naval.

Indian Mini Satellite – 1 (IMS-1)

• IMS-1 bus has been developed as a versatile bus of 100 kg class which includes a payload capability
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of around 30kg. It has been developed using various miniaturization techniques.

• The first mission of the IMS-1 series was launched successfully on April 28 2008 as a co-passenger
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along with Cartosat 2A.

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 Indian mini Satellite-2 (IMS-2)
• IMS-2 bus evolved as a standard bus of 400 kg class which includes a payload capability of around
200 kg.
• IMS-2 is envisaged to be a work horse of different types of remote sensing applications.
• The first mission of IMS-2 is SARAL, a co-operative mission between ISRO and French space agency
CNES (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales).
Indian Space Exploration Missions
ASTROSAT
• ASTROSAT is India’s first dedicated multi wavelength space observatory. This mission endeavours for
a more details understanding of our universe.
• The ASTROSAT mission enables the simultaneous multi-wavelength observations (in X-ray, optical
and UV spectral bands) of various astronomical objects with a single satellite.
The objectives of ASTROSAT Include:
• To study stars birth regions and high energy processes in star systems
• To estimate magnetic fields of neutron stars
• To understand high energy processes in binary star systems containing neutron stars and black holes
• To perform a limited deep field survey of the Universe in the Ultraviolet region
• ASTROSAT was launched in September, 2015 by PSLV-C30 into a 650 km orbit inclined at an angle of
6° to the equator. The minimum useful life of the AstroSat mission is expected to be 5 years.
• The Spacecraft control centre at Mission Operations complex (MOX) of ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and
Command Network (ISTRAC), Bengaluru manages the satellite during its mission life.
• The data gathered from ASTROSAT is then processed, archived and distributed by Indian Space Data
Centre (ISSDC), Bengaluru.
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)
• Mars Orbiter Mission, also known as Mangalyaan, is Indian’s first interplanetary mission to planet
Mars with an orbiter craft designed to orbit Mars in an elliptical orbit.
• Marketing India’s first venture into interplanetary space, MOM will explore and observe Mars surface
features, morphology, mineralogy and the Martian atmosphere.
• Further, a specific search for methane in the Martian atmosphere will provide information about the
possibility or the past existence of life on the planet.
• The enormous distances involved in interplanetary missions present a demanding challenge;
developing and mastering the technologies essential for these missions will open endless possibilities
for space exploration.

How Mangalyaan Reached Mars?

• ISRO used Hohmann Transfer Orbit – or a Minimum Energy Transfer Orbit- to send the spacecraft
from Earth to Mars with the least amount of fuel possible. The spacecraft is injected into an Elliptic
Parking Orbit by the launcher.
• The spacecraft was gradually maneuvered into a departure hyperbolic trajectory with which it
escapes from the Earth’s Sphere of Influence (SOI). The SOI of Earth ends at 918347 km from the
surface of the Earth.
• The spacecraft leaves Earth in a direction tangential to Earth’s orbit and encounters Mars
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tangentially to its orbit.

• The spacecraft arrives at the Mars Sphere of Influence (SOI) (around 573473 km form the surface
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of Mars) in a hyperbolic trajectory.

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 • At the time the spacecraft reaches the closest approach to Mars (Periapsis), it is captured into a
planned orbit around Mars by imparting the Mars Orbit Insertion (MOI) manoeuvre.
• MOM has been configured to carry out observation of physical features of Mars and carry out limited
study of Martian atmosphere with following five payloads:
▪ Mars Colour Camera (MCC)
▪ Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (TIS)
▪ Methane Sensor for Mars (MSM)
▪ Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyser (MENCA)
▪ Lyman Alpha Photometer (LAP)
• MOM was launched by the PSLV-C25 rocket on November 5, 2013. It successfully got inserted into
the Martian orbit on September 24, 2014 i.e. after more than 300 days.
• India is the first Asian nation to reach the Mars orbit and the first in the world in the world to achieve
it on its first attempt.
• The success of this mission brings India into an elite club of Martian explorers that includes the US,
the includes the US, the European Space Agency and the erstwhile Soviet Union.
Chandrayaan-1
• It was India’s first mission to the Moon. It was launched using the PSLV-C11 on October 22, 2008
form SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota.
• The spacecraft was orbiting around the Moon at a height of 100 km from the lunar surface for its
chemical mineralogical and photo-geologic mapping.
• Scientific instruments carried by the spacecraft were built in India, USA, UK, Germany, Sweden and
Bulgaria.
• The mission carried five scientific payloads from India:
▪ Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC), which provided a high-resolution map of the Moon.
▪ HyperSpectral Imager (HySI), which performed mineralogical mapping.
▪ Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI), which returned information about the Moon’s
topography (height of certain features).
▪ High Energy X-ray Spectrometer (HEX), which examined radioactive elements on the surface.
▪ Moon Impact Probe (MIP), which was intentionally crashed into the moon’s south pole. The
debris from its Impact aided Chanbdrayaan-1 in its search for lunar water.
▪ After the successful completion of all the major mission objectives, the orbit was raised to
200km in May 2009.
▪ This mission was concluded when the communication with the spacecraft was lost on
August29,2009.
Chandrayaan-2
• Chandrayaan-2 was India’s second lunar exploration mission after Cahndrayaan-1. It was launched
by GSLV Mk-III from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota on July 22, 2019 and reached
lunar orbit on August 19, 2019.
• It took a six-week long journey to reach the Moon-NASA’s Apollo 11 mission took only four days 50
years ago to land humans on the Moon.
• This is because ISRO chose a circuitous route to save fuel – it took advantage of the Earth’s gravity,
which helped slingshot the satellite towards the Moon.
• The satellite then stayed in the Earth’s orbit for 23 days before it began a series of manoeuvres that
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took it into lunar orbit.

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• Chandrayaan-2 comprised a fully indigenous Orbiter, Lander (Vikram) and Rover (Pragyan).

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 • This mission aimed to expand knowledge and understanding of the origin and evolution of the moon
through a detailed study of its topography, mineralogy, surface chemical composition, thermo-
physical characteristics and atmosphere.
• It also aimed to search for deposits of Helium-3 (a source of waste-free nuclear energy) and its
potential for mining on the lunar surface.
• It was planned to have an Orbiter in 100 km x 100 km lunar orbit, Vikram Lander was expected to
separate from the Orbiter and land at the south pole of the Moon.
• The Pragyaan Rover was expected to roll out from the Lander soon after landing for investigation on
the lunar surface.
• While the Orbiter has been placed in orbit and has a number of payloads for remote-sensing the
Moon, the lander Vikram failed to land at the Moon’s south pole.
Why was the Lunar South Pole Chosen for Chandrayaan-2?
• Moon provides the best linkage to Earth’s early history. It offers an undisturbed historical record of
the inner Solar system environment. Extensive mapping of the lunar surface is essential to trace back
the origin and evolution of the Moon.
• Evidence for water molecules discovered by Chandrayaan-1, required further studies on the extent
of water molecule distribution on the surface below the surface and in the tenuous lunar exosphere.
• The Lunar South pole was chosen because it is especially interesting as this lunar area remains in
shadow much larger than the North Pole. There could be a possibility of presence of water in
permanently shadowed areas around it.
• Moreover, the South Pole region has craters that could trap and contain a fossil record of the early
Solar System.

Lagrange Points
• Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two-body system (like the
Sun and the Earth or Earth and the moon) produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
• At this location the combined gravitational forces of two large bodies equal the centrifugal force felt
by a much smaller third body. The interaction of the forces creates a point of equilibrium where a
spacecraft may be “parked” to make observations.
• These points can also be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in
position.
• L1 refers to one of 5 points in the orbital plane of the Earth-sun system. The L1 is about 1.5 million
km from Earth, or about 1/100 of the way to the Sun.
th

• L1 is home to the Solar and Heliosphere Observatory Satellite (SOBO), an international collaboration
project of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency
(ESA).

Aditya - L1
• Aditya – L1 will be the first Indian mission to study the Sun. It will be placed in the halo orbit around
the Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth systems. A Satellite placed in this place has the major
advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occultation/eclipse.
• Aditya – L1 will provide observations of Sun’s Photosphere (soft and hard X-ray), Chromosphere (UV)
and corona (Visible and NIR).
• In addition, particle payloads will study the particle flux emanating from the Sun and reaching the L1
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orbit, and the magnetometer payload will measure the variation in magnetic field strength at the
halo orbit around L1.
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 Gaganyaan
• The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is working on an Indian crewed orbital mission-
Gaganyaan - that would take Indian astronauts to space by 2022.
• The Gaganyaan is scheduled to be launched with the powerful GSLV Mk III rocket by 2022 to
commemorate the 75 year of India’s Independence.
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• In the Gaganyaan composite capsule, the crew module is mated to the Service module, and together
they are called the orbital craft. The Service module will be powered by liquid propellant engines.
• The rocket (GSLV) will inject the spacecraft into an orbit, 300-400 km above the Earth.
• The capsule will rotate around the Earth every 90 minutes and the astronauts will be able to witness
the sunrise and sunset. The astronauts will be able to see India from space every 24 hours.
• The largely autonomous spacecraft is intended to orbit in the low Earth orbit for 5-7 days and then
bring back the crew module safely.
• The Indian astronauts will be called ‘Vyomanauts’. Indian Air Force and ISRO have signed an MoU for
crew management, selection and training of Vyomanauts.
Objectives
• Technology Demonstration: The crew module configuration, crew escape system, thermal
protection, deceleration and flotation system, re-entry capability with 60-70% components and
value-added Services will be from Indian industries.
• Cost Effective: The total programme cost is expected to be within Rs. 10,000 crores, which includes
technology development, flight hardware realization and essential infrastructure establishment.
• Global Space Race: India could potentially become the fourth country to send a man in space after
the erstwhile USSR, the US and China.
Challenges
• Microgravity: As space is hostile due to lack of gravity, and atmosphere and danger of radiation,
astronauts may face medical issues. In microgravity astronauts often lose their orientation, vision,
muscle strength, aerobic capacity and bone density which could result in osteoporosis-related
fractures.
• Radiation Exposure: It may increase the risk of cancer, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, fatigue, damage
the central nervous system an weaken the immune system. Beyond Low Earth Orbit, the crew might
be at risk form high energy protons emitted by solar flares that may cause radiation sickness and
even death.
• Life Support System: In human spaceflight, and Environmental Control and Life Support System
(ECLSS) supplies the essentials, maintains the acceptable environment and deals with the
management of waste products. Its functionality needs to be full-proof.
• Launch Escape System: Travelling in a rocket is like sitting on an exploding bomb due to high velocity
with high energy density propellants. It requires a crucial escape safety technology for astronauts in
an emergency/faulty mission situation.
• Re-entry and Recovery: Re-entry of spacecraft should be very precise following pre-planned
trajectory in terms of speed and angle. It also requires a heat shield that can withstand the
temperature of thousands of degrees. Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE) was
an experimental test vehicle successfully launched in 2014.
International Cooperation
India and USA
• ISRO and its US counterpart NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) have made
significant progress in joint realisation of microwave remote sensing satellite mission, ‘NASA-ISRO
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Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR)’.

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 • Exchange of Earth observation data collected by India’s RESOURCESAT-2 data and USA’s LANDSAT-8
satellite data has been operationalized under the ISRO-USGS (United States Geological Survey)
cooperation.
• ISRO and NASA have jointly carried out a Balloon borne measurement campaign in India to
characterise Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (BATAL) in August 2017.
• ISRO’s Chandrayaan-1 mission to the Moon is an example of joint cooperation of ISRO-NASA in
discovery of water molecules on the moon surface.
India and France
• ISRO and its French counterpart CNES (National Centre for Space Studies or Centre National d’Etudes
Spatiales) have signed an agreement in 2019 to set up a joint maritime surveillance system. The two
nations will explore putting up a constellation of low-Earth orbiting satellites that will identify and
track movement of ships globally - and in particular those moving in the Indian Ocean region.
• ISRO and CN ES have also formed joint working groups in Earth observation, Planetary exploration,
Launch vehicle development, Communication and Navigation and Human spaceflight programme to
further explore cooperation opportunities.
• SARAL (Satellite with ARGOS and ALTIKA) mission, for studying the ocean from space using altimetry
(measuring altitude), was launched on February 25, 2013. CNES provided a radar altimeter
instrument called ALTIKA and an onboard relay instrument for the international ARGOS data
collection system.
• Megha-Tropiques, an Indo-French joint satellite mission, was launched in 2011 for the study of the
tropical atmosphere and climate related aspects such as monsoons, cyclones, etc
• ISRO-CNES are conducting a feasibility study on thermal infrared imager, named as TRISHNA, for
realizing an Earth observation satellite mission.
India and Russia
• A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) has been signed between ISRO and ROSCOSMOS, the
federal space agency of Russia, for joint activities in the field of Human Space Flight Program. Russia
would provide training for the proposed Gaganyaan Mission.
• ISRO and ROSCOSMOS are also working towards establishing ground stations for each other's
satellite navigation systems (Navic station in Russia and GLONASS station in India).
ASEAN Countries
• Under the ASEAN-India Space Cooperation Programme, pledged in the Delhi Declaration of the
ASEAN-India Commemorative Summit, ISRO seeks to support ASEAN countries to receive and process
data from Indian Remote Sensing Satellites and also to provide training in space science, technology
and applications.
• India has set up a Data Reception, Tracking and Telemetry station in southern Vietnam. ISRO has
another station at Biakin Indonesia. These will help India to monitor China's activities in the South
China sea.
Support to South Asian Region
South Asia Satellite (SAS)
• Indian launch vehicle (GSLV-F09) placed the South Asia Satellite (GSAT-9) into
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) in 2017. The total cost was borne by India. SAS is a
communication satellite and seeks to provide telecom, DTH, tele-education, tele-medicine and
disaster management support to neighbouring countries.
• The communication services will be availed by Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka and
the Maldives (SAARC minus Pakistan). Pakistan turned down the offer to join the SAS.
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 Other Initiatives
• India as a member of the International COSPAS SARSAT system for search and rescue
operations,provides search and rescue support to India and seven neighbouring countries, namely
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Tanzania.

Other Initiatives
UNNATI
• Launched in January, 2019, UNNATI (UNispace Nanosatellite Assembly & Training by 1SRO), is a
capacity building programme on nano satellite development.
• It is an initiative of UNISPACE+50 (the 50th Anniversary of the first United Nations Conference on the
Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space).
• UNNATI is available for participants from member countries of the UN Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).
• For capacity building, ISRO shares its facilities, expertise in the application of space science and
technology by conducting short-term and long-term courses through the Indian Institute of Remote
Sensing (IIRS) and the United Nations (UN) affiliated Centre for Space Science and Technology
Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) at Dehradun.
• India plays an active role in the deliberation at the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses
of Outer Space (COPUOS).

OTHER COUNTRIES IN SPACE

International Space Agencies
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
• Established in 1958, NASA is a space agency of the executive branch of the United States federal
government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace
research. It is Headquartered in Washington, DC, USA.
• NASA has led many space exploration missions including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the
Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle.
• NASA has developed and supported the International Space Station (ISS) and is overseeing the
development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle- designed to carry astronauts to destinations
in deep space.
• NASA is also involved in various programmes including Juno, Curiosity, Cassini-Huygens, Dawn, Mars
2020 Rover, Kepler Space Telescope, New Horizon, James Webb Space Telescope among others.

ROSCOSMOS
• ROSCOSMOS is the Russian Space Agency, established as a state corporation in August 2015 to
oversee and Implement a comprehensive reform of the Russian space industry.
• It is responsible for international space cooperation ROSCOSMOS was a part of ISS construction from
the beginning.
• Russia is jointly working with European Space Agency for a Mars mission, ExoMars. The Trace Gas
Orbiter of this mission was launched successfully in 2016.
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 Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
• JAXA, established in 2003, is responsible for all civilian space activities in Japan, with activities ranging
from basic space research to ongoing space missions.
• It launched Hinode (SOLAR-8) spacecraft in September 2006, to understand more
• about the solar corona, which is the sun's atmosphere.

LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT SPACE MISSIONS OF VARIOUS SPACE

AGENCIES:

1. MOON:
In Progress
• China's Chang'e-5 returned lunar samples to Earth in 2020, and is on an extended mission to study
the Sun and possibly asteroids.
• India's Chandrayaan-2 orbiter maps the Moon's topography, studies its composition, and scans for
water ice.
• China's Chang'e-4 performed the first landing on the Moon's far side in 2018, where it studies an
ancient region.
• NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter studies the Moon with a high-powered camera.
• NASA's Artemis program will return humans to the Moon. The first test flight, Artemis 1, is scheduled
for 2021.
2. MARS:
• NASA's Perseverance rover landed in February of 2021 and will search for past life and collect
samples for return to Earth.
• China's Tianwen-1 is an orbiter and rover mission that arrived in February 2021 to study the planet.
• The United Arab Emirates' Hope orbiter arrived in February 2021 and will build a complete picture
of the Martian atmosphere.
• NASA's MAVEN orbiter studies what happened to Mars' atmosphere.
• NASA's InSight lander studies the planet's interior.
• India's Mangalyaan orbiter is a technology demonstration mission studying the planet.
3.JUPITER
• In Progress
• NASA's Juno studies the planet's core to help us understand how planets and our solar system
formed.
4.SATURN:
• NASA’s Cassini studied Saturn from orbit for 13 years before its human engineers on Earth
transformed it into an atmospheric probe for its spectacular final plunge into the planet in September
2017. Cassini also carried ESA's Huygens Probe, which landed on Saturn's moon Titan in 2005.
Major Space Missions
S. Mission Target Country/ Space Facts
No. Agency
1. Pioneer Series Sun NASA 1960s; Observed cosmic
rays, solar flares etc.
2. Helios Series Sun NASA/ German 1970s; Observed magnetic
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Aerospace Centre field, solar flares between

Earth and Sun
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 3. Ulysses Sun NASA/ ESA 1994; Observed North and
(Europe) South poles of Sun, solar
activity cycle
4. Parker Solar Sun NASA 2018; Study of Sun’s Corona
Probe
5. Aditya L-1 Sun ISRO 2020; to study Sun’s Corona
6. Solar Orbiter Sun ESA 2020; solar and Heliospheric
physics
7. MESSENGE Mercury NASA Launch: 2004; Mercury orbit
R insertion: 2011
(Mercury Surface, Space
Environment, Geochemistry,
and Ranging);
First Space Craft to orbit
mercury
8. BepiColombo Mercury ESA/ JAXA (Japan) Launch: 2018; Study of
Mercury’s magnetic field,
interior structure, and
surface.
9. Mariner 2 Venus NASA 1962; First successful Venus
flyby
10. Venera Series Venus USSR 1960-s-1980s; Atmospheric
and magnetic studies
11. Magellan Venus NASA 1989; Global Radar Mapping
12. Akatsuki Venus JAXA 2010; Magnetic and
(Planet-c) atmospheric studies
13. Shukrayaan-1 Venus ISRO 2023; planned
14. Venus In-situ Venus NASA 2027; planned
Explorer
15. Mariner 9 Mars NASA 1971; First spacecraft to orbit
another planet
16. Mars Series Mars NASA 1970s; Magnetic and
atmospheric studies
17. MER-A Mars NASA 2004; Operated as a static
“Spirit” science station
18. Mars Mars NASA 2006; Surface imaging with
Reconnaissan HiRISE camera
ce Orbiter
19. Mangalyaan/ Mars ISRO 2014; Technology
Mars Orbiter development; study Martian
Mission atmosphere; mineralogical
mapping.
20. MAVEN Mars NASA 2014; Studying Martian
upper atmosphere
21. Insight Mars NASA 2018; Martian atmosphere;
study deep of Mars, tectonic
activity
22. Hope Mars Mars MBRSC (UAE) 2020; Planned to study
Mission martian atmosphere built by
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UAE and US institutions and

to be launched via a Japanese
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 23. Mars Global Mars CNSA 2020; planned; To study
Remote Martian atmosphere, soil and
Sensing surface morphology
Orbiter and
Small Rover
24. Galileo Jupiter NASA/ West 1989; First spacecraft to orbit
Orbiter Germany Jupiter; first spacecraft to
flyby an asteroid
25. Juno Jupiter NASA 2011; First solar-powered
Jupiter orbiter, first mission
to achieve a polar orbit of
Jupiter.
26. JUICE Jupiter ESA 2022; planned; mission to
study Jupiter’s three icy
moons Calisto, Europa and
Ganymede,
27. IHP-1 Jupiter CNSA 2014; Proposed Interstellar
(Interstellar Heliosphere Probe with
Heliosphere Jovian gravity assist
Probe)
28. Cassini Saturn NASA/ ESA/ ASI Launch: 1997; Orbital
(Italy) insertion; 2004; first
spacecraft to orbit Saturn
29. Voyager Saturn NASA 1977; Previously visited
Jupiter, went on to visit
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
30. Dawn Ceres and NASA 2007; First spacecraft to orbit
Vesta two different celestial bodies
(dwarf
planets)
31. NEAR 433 Eros- NASA 1996; Studying minerals and
Shoemaker Asteroid morphology, first human
made object to land on an
asteriod
32. Hayabusa 2 162173 JAXA 2014; Orbital insertion in
Ryugu- June 2018, sample capture in
Asteroid 2019, return to Earth in 2020
33. OSIRIS-REX Bennu- NASA 2016; Orbital insertion in
Asteroid 2018, sample capture in
2020, return to Earth in 2023
34. DART Didymos- NASA/ ASI (Italy) 2021; planned to study
Asteroid impact of a hazardous
asteroid on Earth
35. Lucy Donald NASA 2021; Main belt asteroid
johanson- flyby en route to Jupiter
asteroid Trojans
36. Luna-1 Moon USSR 1959; First spacecraft in the
vicinity of the Moon
37. Luna-2 Moon USSR 1959; First impact on Moon
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38. Luna-16 Moon USSR 1970; First robotic sample

return
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 39. Lunar Moon NASA 1998; Intentionally impacted
Prospector into polar crater at end of
mission to test to liberation
of water vappour (not
detected
40. Chang’e 1 Moon CNSA (China) 2007; 3D lunar mapping and
geological observations; First
Chinese probe to orbit a body
besides Earth
41. Chandrayaan- Moon ISRO 2008; 3D mapping; search
1 water in polar region (first
detection of water)
42. ARTEMIS Moon NASA 2020; To study the effect of
Mission the solar wind on the lunar
surface; manned mission to
moon
43. Beresheet Moon SpaceIL (Isreal) 2019; First Israeli and
(failed) privately lunar lander
44. Chandrayaan- Moon ISRO 2019; Observe lunar
2 Vikram geography and mineralogy,
Pragyan search for water molecules;
Vikram and Pragyan failed
45. Huygens Titan ESA 2005; Deployed by Cassini;
Moon First probe to land on a
satellite of another planet
46. MMX- Phobos JAXA 2024 planned, orbital
Martian and insertion in 2025
Moons Deimos
Explorer Moon
47. Kepler Solar NASA 2009; Search for extrasolar
System planets
48. James Webb Solar NASA/ ESA/ CSA 2021; Planned, infrared
Space System (Canada) astronomy
Telescope
49. New Horizons Kuiper NASA 2006; Study one or more
Belt other Kuiper belt Objects
(KBOs)
50. Euclid Outside ESA 2022; planned; Measure the
Solar rate of expansion of the
System Universe through time to
better understand dark
energy and dark matter.
51. Rosetta Churyum ESA 2004; Flybys of asteroids
ov- 2867 Steins and 21 Lutetia
Gerasime completed
nko-
Jupiter
Family
comet
25
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