UNIT-4 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

• Algebraic systems.
• Semi groups and Monoids.
• Groups.
• Subgroups.
• Homomorphism.
• Normal subgroups and Cosets.
• Lagrange’s theorem.
• Rings and Fields
 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

A System consisting of a non-empty set

and one or more n-ary operations on the set is

called an algebraic system. An algebraic

system will be denoted by *𝑺, 𝒇𝟏 , 𝒇𝟐 , … . . . . +,where

S is the non-empty set and 𝒇𝟏 , 𝒇𝟐 , … . . are n-ary

operations on S.
• We will mostly deal with algebraic systems

with n= 0,1 and 2,containing one or two

operations only. Though we will mostly deal

with one algebraic system only.

General Properties:

Let {S, ∗ , ⨁ } be an algebraic system,

where ∗ and ⊕ are binary operations on S.

1. Closure property :

For any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑺, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑺

For example, if 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝐙, 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ Z and 𝒂 × 𝒃 ∈ Z,

where + and × are the operations of addition and

multiplication.

2. Associative property :

For any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ S, (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄)

For example 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ Z

(𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 = 𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒂 × 𝒃) × 𝒄 = 𝒂 × (𝒃 × 𝒄)
3. Commutative property :

For any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑺, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂

For example, if 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁,

𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒃 × 𝒂

4. Identity element :

There exists a distinguished element 𝒆 ∈ 𝑺 ,

such that for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑺, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂.

The element 𝒆 ∈ 𝑺 is called the identity

element of S with respect to operation ∗.
For example 𝟎 and 𝟏 are the identity elements of
𝒁 with respect to the operations of addition and
multiplication respectively, Since for any 𝒂 ∈ Z

𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝒂 = 𝒂 and 𝒂 × 𝟏 = 𝟏 × 𝒂 = 𝒂.

5. Inverse element :

For each 𝐚 ∈ 𝑺 , ∃ an element 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑺 such

that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝐞 and 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝐚 = 𝐞. The element 𝒂−𝟏 is
called the inverse of a under the operation ∗ .
 For example for each 𝐚 ∈ 𝒁, −𝒂 is the inverse of
a under the operation of addition, since

𝒂 + −𝒂 = −𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝟎, where 𝟎 is the identity

element of Z under addition.

6.Distributive property :

For any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑺, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃⨁𝒄 = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ⊕ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒄)

In this case the operation ∗ is said to be

distributive over the operation ⨁.

For example the usual multiplication is distributive

over addition. Since 𝒂 × 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 × 𝒃 + (𝒂 × 𝒄).
7. Cancellation property :

For any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑺, and 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎

𝒂∗𝒃=𝒂∗𝒄 ⇒ 𝒃=𝒄

𝒃∗𝒂=𝒄∗𝒂 ⇒ 𝒃=𝒄

For example, cancellation property

holds good for any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝒁 under addition
and multiplication.
8. Idempotent element :

An element 𝒂∈𝑺 is called an

idempotent element with respect to the
operation ∗, if 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂.

For example 𝟎 ∈ 𝒁 is an idempotent element

under addition since 𝟎 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 and

𝟏∈𝒁 are idempotent element under

multiplication, since 𝟏 × 𝟏 = 𝟏.
 SEMIGROUP

If S is a non-empty set and * be a binary

operation on S, then the algebraic system {S,*}
is called a semi group, if the operation * is
associative.
(i.e) If for any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑺
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄)
Example:
If E is the set of positive even numbers,
then 𝑬, + 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬,× are semi groups.
 MONOID

If a semi group {M,∗} has an identity element

with respect to the operation ∗, then 𝑴 ,∗ is
called a Monoid.
(i.e.) If for any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑴
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄)
and if there exists an element 𝒆 ∈ 𝑴 such
that for any
𝒂 ∈ 𝑴, 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒂, then the algebraic
system 𝑴,∗ is called a Monoid.
For example if N is the set of natural
numbers, then 𝑵, + 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵,× are monoids
with identity elements 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏 respectively.

Note :

The semi groups 𝑬, + and 𝑬,× are not

monoids.
 GROUP

If G is a non-empty set and * is a binary

operation of G, then the algebraic system
*𝑮,∗+ is called a group if the following
conditions are satisfied.

(i) For all 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑮

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄) (Associative property)
(ii) ∃ an element 𝒆 ∈ 𝑮 such that, for any

𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂. (Existence of identity)

(iii) For every 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, ∃ an element 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑮,

such that
𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝐚 = 𝐞. (Existence of inverse)

Example :

𝒁, + is a group under usual addition.

 ABELIAN GROUP

A group in which the binary operation * is

commutative, is called a commutative
group or abelian group.

Example :

The set of rational numbers excluding 𝟎 is

an abelian group under usual
multiplication.
 Order of a Group

When G is finite, the number of elements

of G is called the order of G and denoted
by 𝒐 𝑮 or 𝑮 .
If the element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, where 𝑮 is a group
with identity element e, then the least
positive integer 𝒎 for which 𝒂𝒎 = 𝒆 is
called the order of the element 𝒂 and
denoted as 𝒐 𝒂 . If no such integer exists,
then a is of infinite order.
Example :
Let 𝑮 = 𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊, −𝒊 .

Then 𝐆 is a group under multiplication.

In this group,
𝑶 𝟏 =𝟏
𝑶 −𝟏 = 𝟐
𝑶 𝒊 =𝟒
𝑶 −𝒊 = 𝟒
1. If ∗ is the binary operation on the set R of
real numbers defined by 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃, show
that 𝑹, ∗ is a commutative semi group.

Solution :

(i) Closure :

Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 then 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑹

(i.e.) 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑹

∴ ∗ is a binary operation on 𝑹.

So, Closure property is satisfied.

(ii) Associative :
Let 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑹

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 ∗ 𝒄

= 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝒄

= 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂𝒄 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄 + 𝟒𝒂𝒃𝒄

= 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂𝒄 + 𝟒𝒂𝒃𝒄 → (𝟏)

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄

= 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄

= 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒄 + 𝟒𝒂𝒃𝒄

= 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝟐𝒃𝒄 + 𝟐𝒂𝒄 + 𝟒𝒂𝒃𝒄 → (𝟐)

From 1 and 2 , we say that
The operation ∗ is associative.
Hence 𝑹,∗ is a semi group.
Further, Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒂𝒃
= 𝒃 + 𝒂 + 𝟐𝒃𝒂
=𝒃∗𝒂
⇒ The operation ∗ is commutative.
Hence 𝑹,∗ is a commutative semi group.
2. Show that the set N of natural numbers
is a semi group under the operation
𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒙, 𝒚 . Is it a Monoid?
Solution :

(i) Closure :

Let 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑵

Then 𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑵

∴ N is closed under ∗.

⇒ Closure property is satisfied.

(ii) Associative :

Let 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 ∈ 𝑵

𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 ∗ 𝒛 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒙, 𝒚 ∗ 𝒛

= 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒙, 𝒚 , 𝒛

= 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 ---- (1)

𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 ∗ 𝒛 = 𝒙 ∗ 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒚, 𝒛

= 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒙, 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒚, 𝒛

= 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 ---- (2)

From (1) and (2), L.H.S = R.H.S

⇒ Associative property is satisfied.

Hence, 𝑵,∗ is a semigroup.

(iii) Identity element :

Let 𝒆 ∈ 𝑵, then

𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒂, 𝒆 = 𝒂

𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝒆, 𝒂 = 𝒂

⇒ 𝒆 ∈ 𝑵 is the identity element.

Hence 𝑵,∗ is a Monoid.

3. Prove that 𝒁𝟓, ×𝟓 is a commutative monoid,
where ×𝟓 is the multiplication modulo 5.
Solution :

𝒁𝟓 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒

The Cayley’s table for multiplication modulo 5 is

given in the table.
[0] [1] [2] [3] [4]
[0] 0 0 0 0 0
[1] 0 1 2 3 4
[2] 0 2 4 1 3
[3] 0 3 1 4 2
[4] 0 4 3 2 1
(i) Closure :

All the entries in the table belongs to 𝒁𝟓 .

Hence 𝒁𝟓 is closed under ×𝟓 .

(ii) Associative :

If 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝒁𝟓 , it is easily verified that

𝒂 ×𝟓 𝐛 × 𝟓 𝐜 = 𝐚 ×𝟓 𝐛 ×𝟓 𝐜

𝟑 ×𝟓 𝟏 ×𝟓 𝟐 = 𝟑 ×𝟓 𝟐 = 𝟏

𝟑 ×𝟓 𝟏 ×𝟓 𝟐 = 𝟑 ×𝟓 𝟐 = 𝟏

Thus, Associative law is satisfied.

(iii) Identity element :

𝟏 ×𝟓 𝐚 = 𝐚 ×𝟓 𝟏 = 𝐚 , for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝒁𝟓

Hence 𝟏 is the multiplicative identity of 𝒁𝟓 .

(iv) Commutative :

The entries in the first row are same as that

of the first column.

Hence 𝒁𝟓 is commutative with respect to ×𝟓 .

Thus (𝒁𝟓 ,×𝟓 ) is a commutative monoid.

3. Show that (𝑸+ ,∗) is an abelian group where ∗ is
𝒂𝒃
defined by 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = ,∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑸+ .
𝟐

Solution :

(i) Closure :

Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑸+

𝒂𝒃 ∈ 𝑸+

𝒂𝒃
∈ 𝑸+
𝟐

Therefore, the operation ∗ is closed.

(ii) Associative :
Let 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑸+

𝒂𝒃
𝒂∗𝒃 ∗𝒄= ∗𝒄
𝟐

𝒂𝒃𝒄
= --- (1)
𝟒

𝒃𝒄
𝒂∗ 𝒃∗𝒄 =𝒂∗
𝟐

𝒂𝒃𝒄
= --- (2)
𝟒

From 1 and 2 , L.H.S.=R.H.S.

Therefore, Associative property is satisfied.
(iii) Identity element :

Let 𝒆 ∈ 𝑸+

Then for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑸+ ,

𝒂∗𝒆=𝒂
𝒂𝒆
=𝒂
𝟐

𝒆 = 𝟐 ∈ 𝑸+

Therefore, 2 is the identity element.

(iv) Inverse element :

Let 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑸+

Then for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑸+

𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒆

𝒂𝒂−𝟏
=𝟐
𝟐

𝟒
𝒂 −𝟏
= ∈ 𝑸+ (if 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎)
𝒂

Thus, Inverse element exists.

Hence (𝑸+ ,∗) is a group.

(v) Commutative :

Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑸+

𝒂𝒃
Then 𝒂∗𝒃= --- (3)
𝟐

𝒃𝒂 𝒂𝒃
𝒃∗𝒂= = --- (4)
𝟐 𝟐

From (3) and (4), L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Therefore, Commutative property is satisfied.

Hence (𝑸+ ,∗) is an abelian group.

 𝒂 𝒂
4. Examine whether 𝑮 = :𝒂 ≠ 𝟎 ∈ 𝑹 is a
𝒂 𝒂
commutative group under matrix multiplication,
where R is the set of real numbers.

Solution :

(i) Closure :

𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃
Let , ∈𝑹
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃

𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃
Then = ∈𝑹
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃
Therefore, Matrix multiplication is closed.
(ii) Associative :

Matrix multiplication is associative.

(iii) Identity element :

𝒂 𝒂
Let ∈𝑹
𝒂 𝒂

𝒂 𝒂
Then for any ∈ 𝑹, we have
𝒂 𝒂

𝒂 𝒂 𝒆 𝒆 𝒂 𝒂
=
𝒂 𝒂 𝒆 𝒆 𝒂 𝒂
𝟐𝒂𝒆 𝟐𝒂𝒆 𝒂 𝒂
=
𝟐𝒂𝒆 𝟐𝒂𝒆 𝒂 𝒂
𝟐𝒂𝒆 = 𝒂
𝟏
𝒆=
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
Hence the identity element is 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
(iv) Inverse Element :
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃
Let , ∈𝑹
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃
𝟏 𝟏
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 𝟐 𝟐
=
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐 𝟐
=
𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝒂𝒃 = ⇒ 𝒃= ∈𝑹
𝟐 𝟒𝒂

𝟏 𝟏
𝟒𝒂 𝟒𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
Therefore, is the inverse of .
𝟏 𝟏 𝒂 𝒂
𝟒𝒂 𝟒𝒂

Hence 𝑮,× is a group.

(v) Commutative :

𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃
Let , ∈𝑹
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃

𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃
= --------(1)
𝒂 𝒂 𝒃 𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃

𝒃 𝒃 𝒂 𝒂 𝟐𝒃𝒂 𝟐𝒃𝒂
=
𝒃 𝒃 𝒂 𝒂 𝟐𝒃𝒂 𝟐𝒃𝒂

𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃
= ---------(2)
𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝟐𝒂𝒃
From (1) and (2) we see that

Commutative property is satisfied,

Hence (𝑮,×) is a commutative group.

5. Prove that a group G is abelian if and only if
(𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 ∗ 𝒃𝟐

Solution :

Given 𝑮,∗ is an abelian group, we have

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 ------(1)
(𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃

= 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒃 (By Asso. Law)

= 𝒂∗ 𝒂∗𝒃 ∗𝒃 (By (1))

= 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃 (By Asso Law)

= 𝒂𝟐 ∗ 𝒃𝟐
Conversely,

(𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 ∗ 𝒃𝟐

𝒂∗𝒃 ∗ 𝒂∗𝒃 = 𝒂∗𝒂 ∗ 𝒃∗𝒃

𝒂∗𝒃∗𝒂∗𝒃=𝒂∗𝒂∗𝒃∗𝒃

Pre multiplying by 𝒂−𝟏

𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃

𝐞 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒆 ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒃

(𝒃 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒃 = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒃
Post multiplying by 𝒃−𝟏

(𝒃 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ) = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 )

𝒃∗𝒂 ∗𝒆= 𝒂∗𝒃 ∗𝒆

(𝒃 ∗ 𝒂) = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)

Therefore, 𝑮 is an abelian group.

Hence the result.

6. In a group 𝑮,∗ , prove that (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)−𝟏 = 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏
Hence prove that is abelian if every element
in 𝑮 has self inverse.

Solution :

Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮

Then (𝒂 ∗ 𝐛) ∗ (𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 )

= 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 (By Asso. Law)

= 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏

= 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏

= 𝒆 ---------(1)
Similarly,

(𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ) ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝐛)

= 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 (By Asso. Law)

= 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒆 ∗ 𝒃

= 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝐛

= 𝒆 ------------(2)

From (1) and (2) we have

(𝒂 ∗ 𝐛) ∗ (𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ) = (𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ) ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝐛) = 𝐞

Hence, (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)−𝟏 = 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏

Given every element in a group 𝑮,∗ has its own
inverse.
(i.e) 𝒙−𝟏 = 𝒙 if 𝒙 ∈ 𝑮
Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮
Then 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒂 , 𝒃−𝟏 = 𝒃 , (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃)−𝟏 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃
Now 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 −𝟏

= 𝒃−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏
=𝒃∗𝒂
Therefore the operation ∗ is commutative.
Hence 𝑮,∗ is an abelian group.
 SUBGROUP

If 𝑮 , ∗ is a group and 𝑯 ⊆ 𝑮 is a non-empty

subset, that satisfies the following conditions
(1) For 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 , 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯
(2) 𝐞 ∈ 𝐇 where 𝐞 is the identity element of 𝐆 ,∗
(3) For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯, then 𝑯, ∗ is called a
subgroup of 𝑮 , ∗ .
Example :
𝒁+ , + is a subgroup of 𝒁, + .
1. Prove that the necessary and sufficient
condition for a non empty subset 𝑯 of a
group 𝑮 ,∗ to be a subgroup is
𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⟹ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯.

Solution :

(i) Let 𝑯 be a subgroup.

Then if 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯
Therefore, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯 by closure property.
Hence, 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 ⟹ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯.
Thus, the condition is necessary.
ii. Let 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯, where 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯, where 𝑯 is
not empty subset of 𝑮.
If 𝒃 = 𝒂, the given condition gives
𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯
𝒆 ∈ 𝑯 ---------(1)
Using the given condition for the pair
𝒆, 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, we have
𝒆 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯
𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯 -------(2)
Using the given condition for the pair 𝒆, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯, we
have
𝒆 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯
𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯 -------(3)
Using the given condition for the pair 𝐚, 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯,
we have

−𝟏 −𝟏
𝐚∗ 𝒃 ∈𝑯

𝐚 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯 -------(4)
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), it follows that 𝑯,∗ is a
subgroup of 𝑮,∗ .
Thus the condition is sufficient.
2. Show that the union of two subgroups of a
group 𝑮 is a subgroup of 𝑮 iff one is contained
in the other.

Solution :

Let 𝑯𝟏 and 𝑯𝟐 be two subgroups of 𝑮.

Let 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 be a subgroup of 𝑮.

Assume that 𝑯𝟏 ⊈ 𝑯𝟐 and 𝑯𝟐 ⊈ 𝑯𝟏

Let 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏 ⟹ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 and 𝒂 ∉ 𝑯𝟏

and 𝐛 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯𝟐 ⟹ 𝐛 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝐛 ∉ 𝑯𝟐
Thus 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 where 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 is a subgroup of 𝑮.
Then
𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 ⟹ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐
(By closure property)

If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏
Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃, 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏
Now, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏
𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 ∈ 𝑯𝟏
𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 , which is a contradiction.
If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 and 𝐚 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃, 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

Now, 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

𝐞 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

𝐛 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 , which is a contradiction.

Hence, if 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 is a subgroup of 𝑮, then

either 𝑯𝟏 ⊆ 𝑯𝟐 or 𝑯𝟐 ⊆ 𝑯𝟏 .
Conversely,
If 𝑯𝟏 ⊆ 𝑯𝟐 ,
Then 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 = 𝑯𝟐 , which is a subgroup of 𝑮.
If 𝑯𝟐 ⊆ 𝑯𝟏 ,
Then 𝑯𝟏 ∪ 𝑯𝟐 = 𝑯𝟏 , which is a subgroup of 𝑮.
Hence, the union of two subgroups of a
group 𝑮 is a subgroup of 𝑮 iff one is
contained in the other.
3. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups
of a group 𝑮,∗ is again a subgroup of 𝑮,∗ .

Solution :

Let 𝑯𝟏 and 𝑯𝟐 be two subgroups of a group 𝑮.

𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is a non empty set since atleast the

identity element is common to both 𝑯𝟏 and
𝑯𝟐 .

Let 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 , then 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

𝐛 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 , then 𝐛 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝐛 ∈ 𝑯𝟐
Since 𝑯𝟏 is a subgroup of 𝑮

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∵ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 --------- (1)

Since 𝑯𝟐 is a subgroup of 𝑮

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 ∵ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 --------- (2)

From (1) and (2), we have

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐

(i.e) 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 implies 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 .

Hence, 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is a subgroup of 𝑮.
 Semigroup Homomorphism

If 𝑺 ,∗ and 𝑻 , ∆ are any two semigroups,

then a mapping 𝒈 ∶ 𝑺 → 𝑻 is called a
semigroup homomorphism if for any two
elements 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑺

𝒈 𝒂∗𝒃 =𝒈 𝒂 ∆𝒈 𝒃
1. If 𝑺 = 𝑵 × 𝑵 , the set of ordered pairs of
positive integers with the operation ∗ defined by
𝒂, 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄, 𝒅 = 𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄 , 𝒃𝒅 and if 𝒇 ∶ 𝑺 ,∗ →
𝒂
𝑸 , + is defined by 𝒇 𝒂 , 𝒃 = then show that 𝒇
𝒃

is a semigroup homomorphism.

Solution :
Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒅 ∈ 𝑺

Then 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒅 ∈ 𝑵

𝒂𝒅 , 𝒃𝒄 , 𝒃𝒅 ∈ 𝑵
 𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄 ∈ 𝑵
𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄 , 𝒃𝒅 ∈ 𝑵 × 𝑵 = 𝑺
Therefore, the operation ∗ is a binary
operation on 𝑺.
Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒅 , 𝒆 , 𝒇 ∈ 𝑺
𝒂 ,𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ,𝒅 ∗ 𝒆 ,𝒇 = 𝒂, 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄𝒇 + 𝒅𝒆 , 𝒅𝒇
= 𝒂𝒅𝒇 + 𝒃 𝒄𝒇 + 𝒅𝒆 , 𝒃𝒅𝒇
= 𝒂𝒅𝒇 + 𝒃𝒄𝒇 + 𝒃𝒅𝒆 , 𝒃𝒅𝒇 ------(1)
 𝒂 ,𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ,𝒅 ∗ 𝒆 ,𝒇
= 𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄 , 𝒃𝒅 ∗ 𝒆 , 𝒇

= 𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄 𝒇 + 𝒃𝒅𝒆 , 𝒃𝒅𝒇
= 𝒂𝒅𝒇 + 𝒃𝒄𝒇 + 𝒃𝒅𝒆 , 𝒃𝒅𝒇 -----(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ,𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ,𝒅 ∗ 𝒆 ,𝒇 = 𝒂 ,𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ,𝒅 ∗ 𝒆 ,𝒇
Therefore, the operation ∗ is associative.
Hence, 𝑺 ,∗ is a semigroup.
Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑸

Then, 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝑸

Therefore, the operation + is closed.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Let , , ∈𝑸
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟕 𝟏𝟑
+ + = + = ------(3)
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟑
+ + = + = ------(4)
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟏𝟐
From (3) and (4), we have

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + = + +
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

Therefore, the operation + is associative.

Hence, 𝑸 , + is a semigroup.

Given 𝒇 ∶ 𝑺 ,∗ → 𝑸 , + such that

𝒂
𝒇 𝒂 ,𝒃 =
𝒃
Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒅 ∈ 𝑺

𝒇 𝒂 ,𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ,𝒅 = 𝒇 𝒂𝒅 + 𝒃𝒄 , 𝒃𝒅

𝒂𝒅+𝒃𝒄
=
𝒃𝒅

𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒄
= +
𝒃𝒅 𝒃𝒅

𝒂 𝒄
= +
𝒃 𝒅

𝒇 𝒂 ,𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ,𝒅 = 𝒇 𝒂 ,𝒃 + 𝒇 𝒄 ,𝒅

Hence, 𝒇 is a semigroup homomorphism.

 Monoid Homomorphism

If 𝑴 ,∗ , 𝒆𝑴 and 𝑻 , ∆ , 𝒆𝑻 are any two

monoids, where 𝒆𝑴 and 𝒆𝑻 are identity
elements of 𝑴 and 𝑻 with respect to the
corresponding binary operations ∗ and ∆
respectively, then a mapping 𝒈 ∶ 𝑴 → 𝑻 is
called monoid homomorphism if for any two
elements 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴

𝒈 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒈 𝒂 ∆ 𝒈 𝒃 and 𝒈 𝒆𝑴 = 𝒆𝑻
1.Show that monoid homomorphism
preserves the property of invertibility.

Solution :

Given 𝒈 ∶ 𝑴 ,∗ , 𝒆𝑴 → 𝑻 , ∆ , 𝒆𝑻 is a monoid
homomorphism.

If 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴, then

𝒈 𝒂 ∗𝒃 =𝒈 𝒂 ∆𝒈 𝒃 ------- (1)

𝒈 𝒆𝑴 = 𝒆𝑻 ------- (2)
Let 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑴 be the inverse of 𝒂 ∈ 𝑴.

Then

𝒈 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒈 𝒆𝑴 = 𝒆𝑻 [By (2)] ------- (3)

Also 𝒈 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒈 𝒂 ∆ 𝒈 𝒂−𝟏 [By (1)] -------(4)

From (3) and (4), we have

𝒈 𝒂 ∆ 𝒈 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒆𝑻

Hence, 𝒈 𝒂−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒈 𝒂 .

 Group Homomorphism

If 𝑮 , ∗ and 𝑮′ , ∆ are two groups, then a

mapping 𝒇 ∶ 𝑮 → 𝑮′ is called a group
homomorphism if for any two elements
𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮
𝒇 𝒂∗𝒃 =𝒇 𝒂 ∆𝒇 𝒃

A group homomorphism 𝒇 is called group

isomorphism if 𝒇 is one-to-one and onto.
1. Show that group homomorphism preserves
identity, inverse and subgroup.

Solution :
If 𝒇 ∶ 𝑮 → 𝑮′ is a group homomorphism from
𝑮 ,∗ to 𝑮′ , ∆ , then
(i) 𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒆′ , where 𝒆 and 𝒆′ are the identity
elements of 𝑮 and 𝑮′ respectively.

(ii) For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒂 −𝟏

(iii) If 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮, then

𝒇 𝑯 = 𝒇 𝒉 /𝒉 ∈ 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮′ .

Proof :

(i) 𝐟 𝐞 ∗ 𝐞 = 𝐟 𝐞 ∆ 𝐟 𝐞

[By definition of homomorphism]

𝒇 𝒆 =𝒇 𝒆 ∆𝒇 𝒆

(i.e) 𝒇 𝒆 ∆ 𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒇 𝒆

Therefore, 𝒇 𝒆 is an idempotent element

of 𝑮′ , ∆ .
But the only idempotent element of a
group is its identity element.

Hence, 𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒆′

(ii) For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑮

Therefore, 𝒇 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏

𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏

𝒆′ = 𝒇 𝒂 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏

(i.e) 𝒇 𝒂 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒆′ --------- (1)

Similarly, 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂

𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂

𝒆′ = 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂

𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂 = 𝒆′ ----------(2)

From (1) and (2), we have

𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒇 𝒂

Hence, 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒂 −𝟏 .
(iii) Let 𝒉𝟏 , 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝑯
′ ′
Then 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒉𝟏 and 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒇 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝒇 𝑯

Now

′ ′ −𝟏 −𝟏
𝒉𝟏 ∆ 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒇 𝒉𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒉𝟐

= 𝒇 𝒉𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒉𝟐 −𝟏 [By (ii)]

= 𝒇 𝒉𝟏 ∗ 𝒉𝟐 −𝟏 [By homomorphism]

= 𝒇 𝒉𝟑 , where 𝒉𝟑 = 𝒉𝟏 ∗ 𝒉𝟐 −𝟏 ∈ 𝑯

as 𝑯 is a subgroup.
 ′ ′ −𝟏
(i.e) 𝒉𝟏 ∆ 𝒉𝟐 ∈𝒇 𝑯

Thus
′ ′ ′ ′ −𝟏
𝒉𝟏 , 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝒇 𝑯 ⟹ 𝒉𝟏 ∆ 𝒉𝟐 ∈𝒇 𝑯

Hence, 𝒇 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮′ .
 COSETS
If (H,∗) is a subgroup of a group (G,∗), then the
set 𝒂𝑯, where 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 defined by

𝒂𝑯 = *𝒂 ∗ 𝒉/𝒉 ∈ 𝑯+ is called the left coset

of H in G generated by the element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮. 𝒂 is called
the representative(element) of the left coset 𝒂𝑯.

Similarly, the set 𝑯𝒂 defined by

𝑯𝒂 = *𝒉 ∗ 𝒂/𝒉 ∈ 𝑯+ is called the right coset

of H in G generated by 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮. 𝒂 is again called the
representative (element) of 𝑯𝒂.
Find all cosets of subgroups 𝑯 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 of a group

𝑮 = 𝟏, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 under usual multiplication where

𝒂𝟒 = 𝟏.

Solution :

Given 𝑮 = 𝟏, 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑

and 𝑯 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐

Left cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮 are given by

𝟏 × 𝑯 = 𝟏 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏 × 𝟏, 𝟏 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐

𝒂 × 𝑯 = 𝒂 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂 × 𝟏, 𝒂 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂, 𝒂𝟑
𝒂𝟐 × 𝑯 = 𝒂𝟐 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟒 = 𝒂𝟐 , 𝟏

𝒂𝟑 × 𝑯 = 𝒂𝟑 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟑 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟑 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒂𝟓 = 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒂

Right cosets of 𝑯 in 𝑮 are given by

𝑯 × 𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝟏 = 𝟏 × 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝟏 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐

𝑯 × 𝒂 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂 = 𝟏 × 𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂 = 𝒂, 𝒂𝟑
𝑯 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏 × 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟒 = 𝒂𝟐 , 𝟏

𝑯 × 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏 × 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒂𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒂𝟓 = 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒂
State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem.

Statement :
The order of a subgroup of a finite group
divides the order of the group.
Proof :
Let 𝑮,∗ be a finite group of order n.
𝐎 𝑮 =𝒏
Let 𝑯,∗ be a subgroup of 𝑮 of order 𝒎
𝐎 𝑯 =𝒎
To Prove: Set of all left cosets of 𝑯 form a
partition for 𝑮.

Let 𝒂𝑯 and 𝒃𝑯 be two left cosets of 𝑯.

We shall prove either 𝒂𝑯 = 𝒃𝑯 Or

𝒂𝑯 ∩ 𝒃𝑯 = ∅

Suppose 𝒂𝑯 ∩ 𝒃𝑯 ≠ ∅

Then say 𝒄 ∈ 𝒂𝑯 ∩ 𝒃𝑯

⟹ 𝒄 ∈ 𝒂𝑯 and 𝒄 ∈ 𝒃𝑯

⟹ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 where 𝒉𝟏 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮
⟹ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 where 𝒉𝟏 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 ------(I)

and 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒉𝟐 where 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮 -----(1)

−𝟏
Post multiplying (I) by 𝒉𝟏 , we have
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝒄 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 ∗ 𝒉𝟏
−𝟏
𝒄 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 =𝒂∗𝒆
−𝟏
𝒄 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 =𝒂∗𝒆
−𝟏
𝒄 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒂 -------(2)
Take an element 𝒙 from 𝒂𝑯
𝒙 ∈ 𝒂𝑯
𝒙 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟑 where 𝒉𝟑 ∈ 𝑯
𝒙 = 𝒄 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 −𝟏 ∗ 𝒉𝟑 [By (2)]

𝒙 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒉𝟐 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 −𝟏 ∗ 𝒉𝟑 [By (1)]

𝒙 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒉𝟒 where 𝒉𝟒 = 𝒉𝟐 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 −𝟏 ∗ 𝒉𝟑 ∈ 𝑯
𝒙 ∈ 𝒃𝑯
Therefore, 𝒂𝑯 ⊆ 𝒃𝑯 --------(3)

Similarly, 𝒃𝑯 ⊆ 𝒂𝑯 --------(4)
From (3) and (4), we have
𝒂𝑯 = 𝒃𝑯
Moreover, 𝒂𝑯 ⊆ 𝑮

𝒂∈𝑮 𝒂𝑯 ⊆𝑮 ------(5)

Since 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒂 ∈ 𝒂𝑯

Now 𝒂 ∈ 𝒂∈𝑮 𝒂𝑯

𝑮⊆ 𝒂∈𝑮 𝒂𝑯 -------(6)
From (5) and (6), we have

𝒂∈𝑮 𝒂𝑯 =𝑮
To prove : There is a one to one correspondence
between any two left cosets of H in G
Define 𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝒂𝑯 by
𝒇 𝒉 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉 where 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯 and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮
Let 𝒇 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒉𝟐
𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟐
𝒉𝟏 = 𝒉𝟐 [By left cancellation]
Therefore, 𝒇 is one-one.
Let 𝒚 ∈ 𝒂𝑯

𝒚=𝒂∗𝒉

Take preimage 𝒙 = 𝒉 in 𝑯.

𝒇 𝒙 =𝒇 𝒉

𝒇 𝒙 =𝒂∗𝒉

𝒇 𝒙 =𝒚

Therefore, 𝒇 is onto.

Since 𝒇 is both one-one and onto,

𝑯 and 𝒂𝑯 have same number of elements.

⟹ 𝑯 = 𝒂𝑯 = 𝒎.

To prove: 𝑶 𝑯 |𝑶 𝑮

Assume that there are 𝒌 disjoint left cosets of

𝑯 in 𝑮.

Say, 𝒂𝟏 𝑯, 𝒂𝟐 𝑯, … , 𝒂𝒌 𝑯 are 𝒌 distinct left cosets

of 𝑯.
𝒂𝟏 𝑯 ∪ 𝒂𝟐 𝑯 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝒂𝒌 𝑯 = 𝑮
𝒂𝟏 𝑯 ∪ 𝒂𝟐 𝑯 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝒂𝒌 𝑯 = 𝑮
 𝒂 𝟏 𝑯 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑯 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒌 𝑯 = 𝒏
[Since all 𝒌 left cosets are distinct]
𝒎 + 𝒎 + ⋯ + 𝒎(𝒌 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔) = 𝒏
𝒏
𝒌𝒎 = 𝒏 ⇒ 𝒌=
𝒎

𝒎|𝒏
(i.e) 𝑶 𝑯 |𝑶 𝑮
Hence, the order of a subgroup of a finite
group divides the order of the group.
 NORMAL SUBGROUP

A Subgroup *𝑯,∗+ of the group 𝑮,∗ is called

a normal subgroup, if for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒂𝑯 = 𝑯𝒂

((i.e.) the left and right cosets of H in G generated

by 𝒂 are the same).

Note:

𝒂𝑯 = 𝑯𝒂 does not mean that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉 = 𝒉 ∗ 𝒂 for any

𝒉 ∈ 𝑯, but it means that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒉𝟏 = 𝒉𝟐 ∗ 𝒂

for some 𝒉𝟏, 𝒉𝟐 ∈ 𝑯.

The necessary and sufficient condition for

a non empty subset 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 ,∗ to be

a normal subgroup is

𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯 ⟹ 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒉 ∗ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯.
1. Prove that intersection of two normal
subgroups of a group will be a normal subgroup.

Solution:

Let 𝑯𝟏 and 𝑯𝟐 be two normal subgroups of G.

Then 𝑯𝟏 and 𝑯𝟐 are subgroups of G.

First we have to prove that 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is a

subgroup of G.

𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is a non empty set since the identity

element is common to both 𝑯𝟏 and 𝑯𝟐 .
Let 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 then 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 then 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐

since 𝑯𝟏 is a subgroup of G.

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 (since 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ) ------(1)

Since 𝑯𝟐 is a subgroup of G.

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 (since 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 ) ------(2)

From (1) and (2) we have

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐

Hence 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is a subgroup of G.
 Now let 𝒙 be any element of G and 𝒉 be any
element of 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 .
Then 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 and 𝒉 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 .
since 𝑯𝟏 is a normal subgroup of G, we have
𝒙−𝟏 ∗ 𝒉 ∗ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 -------(3)
since 𝑯𝟐 is a normal subgroup of G, we have
𝒙−𝟏 ∗ 𝒉 ∗ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯𝟐 -------(4)
From (3) and (4) we have
𝒙−𝟏 ∗ 𝒉 ∗ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 .
Hence 𝑯𝟏 ∩ 𝑯𝟐 is a normal subgroup of G.
 Kernel of a Homomorphism

If 𝒇 ∶ 𝑮 ⟶ 𝑮′ is a group homomorphism
from 𝑮 ,∗ to 𝑮′ , ∆ , then the set of
elements of 𝑮 which are mapped into 𝒆′ ,
the identity element of 𝑮′ is called the
kernel of homomorphism 𝒇 and denoted by
𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇 .
1.If 𝑮𝟏 and 𝑮𝟐 are groups and 𝒇 ∶ 𝑮𝟏 → 𝑮𝟐 is a
homomorphism, prove that the kernel of 𝒇 is a
normal subgroup of 𝑮𝟏 .

Solution :

Given 𝒇 ∶ 𝑮𝟏 → 𝑮𝟐 is a group homomorphism

𝒇 𝒆∗𝒆 =𝒇 𝒆 ∆𝒇 𝒆
(By definition of group homomorphism)
(i.e) 𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒇 𝒆 ∆ 𝒇 𝒆
𝒇 𝒆 ∆𝒇 𝒆 =𝒇 𝒆
𝒇 𝒆 is an idempotent element of 𝑮𝟐 , ∆ .

But the only idempotent element of a

group is its identity element.

Therefore, 𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒆′

Since 𝒇 𝒆 = 𝒆′ where 𝒆 and 𝒆′ are the

identities of 𝑮𝟏 and 𝑮𝟐 .

𝒆 ∈ 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇

(i.e) 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇 is a non-empty subset of 𝑮𝟏 ,∗ .

Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇

Then 𝒇 𝒂 = 𝒆′ and 𝒇 𝒃 = 𝒆′

(By definition of kernel)

Now 𝒇 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∆ 𝒇 𝒃−𝟏

=𝒇 𝒂 ∆ 𝒇 𝒃 −𝟏

(∵ 𝒇 is a group homomorphism, we have

for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒂 −𝟏 )

𝒇 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 = 𝒆′ ∆ 𝒆′ −𝟏
 𝒇 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 = 𝒆′ ∆ 𝒆′

= 𝒆′
Therefore, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇

Thus when 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇 , we have

𝒂 ∗ 𝒃−𝟏 ∈ 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇

Hence, 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇 is a subgroup of 𝑮𝟏 .

Now for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 and 𝒌 ∈ 𝑲,
𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒌 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∆ 𝒇 𝒌 ∆ 𝒇 𝒂

= 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∆ 𝒆′ ∆ 𝒇 𝒂

(By definition of kernel)

= 𝒇 𝒂 −𝟏 ∆𝒇 𝒂

(∵ 𝒇 is a group homomorphism, we have

for any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒂 −𝟏 )

𝒇 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒌 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒆′
 Therefore,

𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒌 ∗ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑲

(∵ if 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮𝟏 and 𝒌 ∈ 𝑲 implies that

𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒌 ∗ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑲)

Hence, 𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒇 is a normal subgroup of 𝑮𝟏 .

 Cyclic Group

A group 𝑮,∗ is said to be a cyclic group , if

there exists an element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 such that
every element 𝒙 of 𝑮 can be expressed as
𝒙 = 𝒂𝒏 for some integer 𝒏.

In such a case, the cyclic group is said to

be generated by 𝒂 or 𝒂 is a generator of 𝑮.

𝑮 is also denoted by 𝒂 .
1.Prove that every cyclic group is an
abelian group.

Solution :
Let 𝑮,∗ be a cyclic group with 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 as
generator.

Let 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑮

Then 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒎 and 𝒄 = 𝒂𝒏 for some integers

𝒎 and 𝒏.
 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒏

= 𝒂𝒎+𝒏

= 𝒂𝒏+𝒎

= 𝒂𝒏 ∗ 𝒂𝒎

=𝒄∗𝒃

Therefore, 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒄 ∗ 𝒃

The operation ∗ is commutative.

Hence, 𝑮,∗ is an abelian group.

2. Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group 𝑮
is cyclic.

Solution :

Let 𝑮 be a cyclic group generated by the

element 𝒂.

Let 𝑯 be a subgroup of 𝑮.

If 𝑯 = 𝑮 or 𝒆

Evidently, 𝑯 is a cyclic group.

If not, the elements of 𝑯 are non-zero
integral powers of 𝒂.

Since, if 𝒂𝒓 ∈ 𝑯, then 𝒂−𝒓 ∈ 𝑯

Let 𝒎 be the least positive integer such that

𝒂𝒎 ∈ 𝑯 --------- (1)

Now let 𝒂𝒏 be any arbitrary element of 𝑯.

When 𝒏 is divided by 𝒎, let 𝒒 be the quotient

and 𝒓 be the remainder, then 𝒏 = 𝒎𝒒 + 𝒓
where 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒎 ------ (2)
Since 𝒂𝒎 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂𝒎 𝒒 ∈𝑯

(i.e) 𝒂𝒎𝒒 ∈ 𝑯

Then 𝒂𝒎𝒒 −𝟏 ∈𝑯

As 𝑯 is a subgroup, inverse exist.

𝒂−𝒎𝒒 ∈ 𝑯

Now 𝒂𝒏 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂−𝒎𝒒 ∈ 𝑯

𝒂𝒏−𝒎𝒒 ∈ 𝑯

𝒂𝒓 ∈ 𝑯 [By (2)]
From (1) and (2), we have

𝒓=𝟎

𝒏 = 𝒎𝒒

𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎𝒒

𝒂 𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎 𝒒

Thus every element 𝒂𝒏 ∈ 𝑯 is of the form 𝒂𝒎 𝒒

Hence,

𝑯 is a cyclic subgroup generated by 𝒂𝒎 .

 Permutation Group

Permutation :

Let 𝑺 be a non-empty set. A bijective function

𝒇: 𝑺 → 𝑺 is called a permutation.

If 𝑺 has 𝒏 elements, then the permutation is

said to be of degree 𝒏 . Usually we take
𝑺 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … , 𝒏 .

The set of all permutations on a set of 𝒏

symbols is denoted by 𝑺𝒏 .
𝑺𝒏 is a group under composition of
functions as operation.

The group 𝑺𝒏 is called the permutation

group on 𝒏 symbols.

It is also known as symmetric group of

degree 𝒏 and 𝑶 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒏!.
 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
If 𝒇 = and 𝐠 = .
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐
Find 𝒇−𝟏 𝒈𝒇 and 𝒈𝒇𝒈−𝟏 .

Solution :
Given

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝒇= and 𝐠 =
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝒇−𝟏 = ;𝒈 =
−𝟏
𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑
𝒇−𝟏 𝒈𝒇

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
=
𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
=
𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟏
𝒈𝒇𝒈−𝟏

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
=
𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
=
𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟏
 Rings

An algebraic system 𝑹, +, ∙ , where 𝑹 is a

non-empty set and + and . are two closed
binary operations which may be different
from ordinary addition and multiplication
is called a ring, if the following conditions
are satisfied.
1. 𝑹, + is an abelian group

2. 𝑹, ∙ is a semigroup.

3. The operation ∙ is distributive over +

(i.e) for any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑹

𝒂 ∙ 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∙ 𝒃 + 𝒂 ∙ 𝒄 and

𝒃+𝒄 ∙𝒂=𝒃∙𝒂+𝒄∙𝒂

Example :

Set of integers 𝒁 , real numbers 𝑹 , rational

numbers 𝑸 and complex numbers 𝑪 .
Commutative Ring :
If 𝑹 ,∙ is commutative, then the ring
𝑹 , + ,∙ is called a commutative ring.
Ring with identity or unity :
If 𝑹 ,∙ is a monoid, then the ring 𝑹 , + ,∙ is
called a ring with identity or unity.
Zero divisors :
If 𝒂 and 𝒃 are two non-zero elements of a
ring 𝑹 such that 𝒂 ∙ 𝒃 = 𝟎, then 𝒂 and 𝒃 are
divisors of zero or zero divisors.
Example :

If 𝑹 is the set of integers modulo 𝟔 under

addition and multiplication modulo 𝟔, the
elements of 𝑹 are 𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟓 .

Now 𝟐 ×𝟔 𝟑 = 𝟎 but 𝟐 ≠ 𝟎 and 𝟑 ≠ 𝟎.

Therefore, 𝟐 and 𝟑 are zero divisors in 𝑹.

(i.e) in a ring, 𝒂 ∙ 𝒃 = 𝟎 with neither 𝒂 = 𝟎

nor 𝒃 = 𝟎.
 Integral Domain

A commutative ring with unity (containing

atleast 2 elements) and without zero
divisors is called integral domain.
Example :
The ring of integers is an example of an
integral domian, whereas 𝒁𝟔 , +𝟔 ,×𝟔 is not
an integral domain since it has zero
divisors.
 Field

A commutative ring 𝑹 with multiplication

identity, containing atleast two elements is
called a field, if every non-zero element of 𝑹
has a multiplicative inverse in 𝑹.
Example :
The ring of rational numbers 𝑸 ,+ , ∙ is a
field, since it is a commutative ring with
identity and the multiplicative inverse of
every non-zero element of 𝑸 is in 𝑸.
1. Prove that 𝒁𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 is a commutative ring
with respect to the binary operation +𝟒 and ×𝟒 .

Solution :

The composition table for +𝟒 and ×𝟒 are given as

follows,

[0] [1] [2] [3] [0] [1] [2] [3]

[0] 0 1 2 3 [0] 0 0 0 0
[1] 1 2 3 0 [1] 0 1 2 3
[2] 2 3 0 1 [2] 0 2 0 2
[3] 3 0 1 2 [3] 0 3 2 1
From the composition table, we observe the
following

(i) All the entries in both the table belongs to 𝒁𝟒 .

Hence 𝒁𝟒 is closed under +𝟒 and ×𝟒 .

(ii) The entries in the first row are same as those

of the first column. Hence 𝒁𝟒 is commutative
with respect to both +𝟒 and ×𝟒 .

(iii) If 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝒁𝟒 , it is easily verified that

𝐚 +𝟒 𝐛 +𝟒 𝐜 = 𝒂 +𝟒 𝐛 +𝟒 𝐜
𝐚 ×𝟒 𝐛 ×𝟒 𝐜 = 𝒂 ×𝟒 𝐛 ×𝟒 𝐜
For example, 2, 3, 1 ∈ 𝒁𝟒 ,

𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 +𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟎 = 𝟐

𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 +𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟏 +𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐

∴ 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 +𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 +𝟒 𝟏

Hence, +𝟒 is Associative.

Similarly,

𝟐 ×𝟒 𝟑 ×𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐 ×𝟒 𝟑 = 𝟐

𝟐 ×𝟒 𝟑 × 𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐 ×𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐

∴ 𝟐 ×𝟒 𝟑 ×𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟐 ×𝟒 𝟑 ×𝟒 𝟏

Hence, ×𝟒 is Associative.
(iv) If 𝒂 ∈ 𝒁𝟒 ,

𝟎 +𝟒 𝐚 = 𝐚 +𝟒 𝟎 = 𝐚
𝟏 ×𝟒 𝐚 = 𝐚 ×𝟒 𝟏 = 𝐚
Hence, 𝟎 & 𝟏 are the additive and multiplicative
identities of 𝒁𝟒 .

(v) The additive inverses of 𝟎 , 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 are

𝟎, 𝟑, 𝟐, 𝟏 respectively.

(vi) If 𝒂, 𝐛, 𝐜 ∈ 𝒁𝟒 , then it can be verified that

𝐚 ×𝟒 𝐛 +𝟒 𝐜 = 𝒂 ×𝟒 𝐛 +𝟒 𝒂 ×𝟒 𝒄
Let 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 ∈ 𝒁𝟒
𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 = 𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟑 = 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 = 𝟏
∴ 𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟑 = 𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟐 +𝟒 𝟏 ×𝟒 𝟑

Hence, ×𝟒 is distributive over +𝟒 in 𝒁𝟒 .

Hence,

𝒛𝟒 , +𝟒 ,×𝟒 is a commutative ring (with

identities).
2. Show that 𝒁, +,× is an integral domain where
𝐙 is the set of all integers.

Solution :
Given 𝒛 is the set of all integers.
(i) If 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝐳, then 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝐳.
(ii) If 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝐜 ∈ 𝐳, then 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝐜 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄.
(iii) If for every 𝒂 ∈ 𝐳, 𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝒂 = 𝐚
(iv) If for every 𝒂 ∈ 𝐳, there exists −𝒂 ∈ 𝐳 such that
𝒂 + −𝒂 = −𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝟎
(v) For 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝐳, 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝐚
Therefore, 𝒛, + is an abelian group under multiplication
operation.
For any 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝒁

𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝒄 = 𝒂 × 𝒃 × 𝒄.

For any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝒁

𝒂×𝒃=𝒃×𝒂

For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝒁

𝒂 × 𝟏 = 𝟏 × 𝒂 = 𝒂.

Hence 𝒁,× is a monoid.

Also for 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝒁, we have

𝒂 × 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 × 𝒃 + (𝒂 × 𝒄)
𝒃 + 𝒄 × 𝒂 = 𝒃 × 𝒂 + (𝒄 × 𝒂)
Hence multiplication operation is distributive
over addition.

Hence (𝒁, +,×) is a commutative ring with identity.

If 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎 in Z then we know 𝒂𝒃 ≠ 𝟎.

So, Z is without zero divisors.

Hence (𝒁, +,×) is an integral domain.

 TYPES OF HOMOMORPHISM

Let 𝒇: 𝑮 → 𝑮′ be a homomorphism of groups.

(i) If f is one to one then f is called a
Monomorphism.

(ii) If f is onto then f is called an

Epimorphism.

(iii) If f is one to one and onto then f is called

an Isomorphism.
3. Let G be a group and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 .Show that the
map 𝒇: 𝑮 → 𝑮 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙𝒂−𝟏 ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑮
is an Isomorphism.

Solution :

Let G be a Multiplicative group.

Given:𝒇: 𝑮 → 𝑮 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙𝒂−𝟏 ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑮

To prove: f is Homomorphism
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑮,

𝒇 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙𝒚 𝒂−𝟏
𝒇 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙𝒚 𝒂−𝟏

= 𝒂 𝒙𝒆𝒚 𝒂−𝟏

= 𝒂𝒙(𝒂−𝟏 𝒂)𝒚𝒂−𝟏

= (𝒂𝒙𝒂−𝟏 )(𝒂𝒚𝒂−𝟏 )

= 𝒇 𝒙 𝒇(𝒚)

∴ 𝒇 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒇(𝒚)

Therefore, f is a Homomorphism.
To prove: f is one to one

Suppose f(x)= f(y)

𝒂𝒙𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒂𝒚𝒂−𝟏

By left and Right cancellation laws

𝒙=𝒚

Therefore, f is one to one.

To prove: f is onto
𝑰𝒇 𝒚 ∈ 𝑮 𝑪𝒐𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Then 𝒂−𝟏 𝒚𝒂 ∈ 𝑮
Let 𝒙 = 𝒂−𝟏 𝒚𝒂

𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙𝒂−𝟏

= 𝒂𝒂−𝟏 𝒚𝒂𝒂−𝟏

= 𝒆𝒚𝐞 ⟹𝒇 𝒙 =𝒚

Therefore, f is onto.

Hence f is an Isomorphism.
Prove that every finite group of order 𝒏 is
isomorphic to a permutation group of order 𝒏.
(OR) State and prove Cayley’s representation
theorem.
Proof :
Step 1 :

Let 𝑮 ,∗ be a group.

∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, define 𝒇𝒂 ∶ 𝑮 → 𝑮 by

𝒇𝒂 𝒙 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒙
Claim : 𝒇𝒂 is a permutation
(i.e) to prove 𝒇𝒂 is one-one and onto.
𝒇𝒂 is one-one :
Let 𝒇𝒂 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒂 𝒚
Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒚
Pre-multiplying by 𝒂−𝟏 , we have
𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒚
𝒆∗𝒙=𝒆∗𝒚
𝒙=𝒚
Therefore, 𝒇𝒂 is one-one.
𝒇𝒂 is onto :
Let 𝒚 ∈ 𝑮
Taking a prei-mage for 𝒙
𝒙 = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒚 ∈ 𝑮
𝒇𝒂 𝒙 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒙

= 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒚

= 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒚
=𝒆∗𝒚
=𝒚
(i.e) 𝒇𝒂 𝒙 = 𝒚
Therefore, 𝒇𝒂 is onto.
Hence, 𝒇𝒂 is a permutation.
Step 2 :
𝑷 = 𝒇𝒂 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔/𝒂 ∈ 𝑮
𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒂 𝒇𝒃 𝒙
= 𝒇𝒂 𝒃 ∗ 𝒙
=𝒂 ∗ 𝒃∗𝒙
= 𝒂∗𝒃 ∗𝒙
𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒂∗𝒃 𝒙

𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 = 𝒇𝒂∗𝒃

Claim : 𝑷 ,∘ is a group.

(i) 𝑷 ,∘ is called a permutation group.

Let 𝒇𝒂 , 𝒇𝒃 ∈ 𝑷 where 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮

Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮

So, 𝒇𝒂∗𝒃 ∈ 𝑷

𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 = 𝒇𝒂∗𝒃 ∈ 𝑷

So, composition is a binary operation on 𝑷.

𝒊𝒊 Associative :

Let 𝒇𝒂 , 𝒇𝒃 , 𝒇𝒄 ∈ 𝑷
Then 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 ∘ 𝒇𝒄 = 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃∗𝒄

= 𝒇𝒂∗ 𝒃∗𝒄

= 𝒇 𝒂∗𝒃 ∗𝒄

= 𝒇𝒂∗𝒃 ∘ 𝒇𝒄
= 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 ∘ 𝒇𝒄
(i.e) 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 ∘ 𝒇𝒄 = 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃 ∘ 𝒇𝒄
So, Composition operation is associative.
𝑖𝑖𝑖 Existence of Identity :
𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒆 = 𝒇𝒂∗𝒆 = 𝒇𝒂

𝒇𝒆 ∘ 𝒇𝒂 = 𝒇𝒆∗𝒂 = 𝒇𝒂

𝒇𝒆 ∈ 𝑷 which is the identity element.

(iv) Existence of Inverse :

If 𝒇𝒂 ∈ 𝑷, then 𝒇𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑷

Now 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇𝒂∗𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒇𝒆 ∈ 𝑷

𝒇𝒂−𝟏 ∘ 𝒇𝒂 = 𝒇𝒂−𝟏 ∗𝒂 = 𝒇𝒆 ∈ 𝑷
So, 𝒇𝒂−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒇𝒂 .

As 𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒇𝒂−𝟏 ∈ 𝑷
Therefore, 𝑷 ,∘ is a group.
Step 3 :
Define 𝝋 ∶ 𝑮 , ∗ → 𝑷 , ∘
by 𝝋 𝒂 = 𝒇𝒂
(i) 𝝋 is one-one :
Let 𝝋 𝒂 = 𝝋 𝒃
𝒇𝒂 = 𝒇𝒃
 𝒇𝒂 𝒙 = 𝒇𝒃 𝒙

𝒂∗𝒙=𝒃∗𝒙

𝒂 = 𝒃 [By right cancellation law]

Therefore, 𝝋 is one-one.

(ii) 𝝋 is onto :

Let 𝒚 ∈ 𝑷 for some 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮

Then 𝒚 = 𝒇𝒂
Guess a pre-image 𝒙 = 𝒂

𝝋 𝒙 =𝝋 𝒂

= 𝒇𝒂

=𝒚

Therefore, 𝝋 is onto.

(iii) 𝝋 is homomorphism :

𝝋 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒇𝒂∗𝒃

= 𝒇𝒂 ∘ 𝒇𝒃
 = 𝝋 𝒂 ∘ 𝝋 𝒃

(i.e) 𝝋 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝝋 𝒂 ∘ 𝝋 𝒃

Therefore, 𝝋 is homomorphism.

Since 𝝋 is one-one, onto, homomorphism.

𝝋 is an isomorphism.

Hence, 𝑮 ,∗ ≅ 𝑷 ,∘ .