CH3 Workover Fluids

SAUDI ARAMCO WORKOVER MANUAL
Drilling & Workover Engineering Department May 1999
CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS
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WORKOVER FLUIDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definitions
1.2 Selection of Fluids
1.3 Fluid Functions
2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS

2.1 Oil Fluids
2.2 Clear Water Fluids
2.3 Oil & Water Emulsions
3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID ADDITIVES

3.1 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Weighting M aterial
3.2 Characteristics of Polymers
3.3 Viscosity and Suspension
4.0 SELECTING A COMPLETION FLUID

4.1 Solids-Free High Density Fluids
4.2 Sodium Chloride Brines
4.3 Potassium Chloride Brines
4.4 Calcium Chloride Brines
4.5 Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride brines
4.6 Field Operations Utilizing Brines (Compatibility)
5.0 SPECIALLY DESIGNED BRINE/POLYMER SYSTEMS

5.1 Calcium Carbonate Fluids
5.2 Acid Soluble Bridging Material
5.3 Low Density (Oil-In-Water or Brine) Emulsions
5.4 Oil-Based Fluids or Invert Emulsions
5.5 Air/Mist/Foam
6.0 PACKER FLUIDS

6.1 Functions
6.2 Required Characteristics of Packer Fluid
6.3 Necessary Fluid Properties
6.4 Drilling Mud Packer Fluid
6.5 Solids-Free Oil Packer Fluid
6.6 Solids-Free Packer Fluid
6.7 NaCl Brines
6.8 CaCl2 Brines
6.9 Important Points to Remember
6.10 Corrosion Inhibitors
Drilling & Workover Engineering Department April 1999
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7.0 HANDLING COMPLETION FLUIDS

7.1 Transportation
7.2 Rig Preparation
7.3 Clear Brines
7.4 Fluid Maintenance
7.5 Displacement Techniques
7.6 Conditioning Mud
7.7 Displacing Mud
7.8 Displace ment of Pads/Spacers
7.9 Chemical Washes
7.10 Special Techniques
7.11 Staging Spacer Densities
7.12 General Displacement Procedures
7.13 Displacement of Water-Based Mud using Seawater Flush
7.14 Displacement of Oil-Based Mud using Seawater Flush
7.15 Balanced Displacement of Water-Based Muds
7.16 Balanced Displacement of Oil-Based Mud
7.17 Spacers
7.18 Pills
7.19 Clear Brine Completion Fluid Displacement
8.0 SAFETY
8.1 Safety Apparel
8.2 Rig Safety Equipment
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WORKOVER FLUIDS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Completion or workover fluids are those that are placed against the producing
formation while well killing, cleaning out, stimulating, or perforating. A workover
fluid is used during remedial work on a well which has been producing for some
time. Any contact of a well servicing fluid with an oil or gas reservoir rock will be a
prime source of wellbore damage. Poor performance of water source wells,
injection wells, or oil and gas production wells can almost always be traced to
undesirable characteristics of drill-in and completion fluids used. We should think of
completion fluids as tools that aid in performing a downhole operation after the well
has been drilled. As tools, these fluids are introduced in the wellbore for a
particular function and should be removed after the job. Therefore, we must try to
prevent the loss of damaging fluids into the producing zones. Completion and
workover fluids technology evolved in an effort to minimize this damage through
the use of specialized fluids. These fluids differ from drilling muds in that they are
clean, solids-free or degradable and tailored to be non-damaging to the producing
formation.
Two primary objectives must be accomplished regardless of the well

servicing operation undertaken:
? Control the well with required density and minimal leak-off

? Protect the producing formation from damage
Note: Drilling mud should be considered as the kill fluid in situations where brine
leak-off is anticipated.
1.1 Definitions
1.1.1 Completion fluids are used for downhole applications such as

? Perforating
? Wellbore cleanout
? Displacement of treating chemicals (surfactants, acids, and
solvents)
? Underreaming, gravel packing, and fracturing
? Cement and sand consolidation
? Packer fluids
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1.1.2 Workover fluids are the general-purpose fluids such as

? Kill fluids to control the well while it is open
? Milling and fishing downhole equipment or sidetracking
? Displacement of cement for zone isolation or plugging old
perforations
? Suspending wells
1.2 Selection of Fluids
Many factors must be considered before a decision is made on the type of

well servicing fluid to be used. Selection of fluid should be a logical solution
based on operational necessities and formation characteristics. The workover
engineer should communicate between the different departments (geological,
petrophysical, reservoir, drilling and workover operations and the
laboratories) to gather information, conduct the necessary studies and
laboratory tests. The proper fluid system can be selected based on the data
obtained. In most cases, this selection process requires compromises be
made. Usually, formation damage cannot be totally prevented, but certainly it
can be minimized by optimizing the favorable aspects of the fluids to be used.
Applying the technology available today, we can remove most of the "guess
work" in designing the best fluid.
1.2.1 Procedure
? Define the operational objectives.

? Identify the environment under which the fluid must perform
(bottomhole pressure and temperature, location, rig equipment,
water supply and surface temperature).
? Evaluate performance of fluids used before and problems
encountered in the field.
? Study the reservoir rock and reservoir fluid chemical
characteristics.
? Examine possible reactions between candidate fluids, rock
minerals & fluid.
? Analyze field results and assess the fluid performance after the
job.
? Recommend changes or modifications for future work.
Understanding of the physical and chemical reservoir characteristics

by all personnel involved will ensure good planning, help in identifying
problems and improve field practices. A reservoir rock sensitivity
study may be required along with measurements of the residual
damage caused by different fluids. Such a study will determine the
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degree of damage caused and the effectiveness of the remedial

measures.
SENSITIVITY STUDY
RESERVOIR FLUID RESERVOIR ROCK
Water analysis & fluid compatibility Mineral analysis & clay fraction
Scaling tendencies Grain & pore size distribution
Emulsion tendencies Porosity & permeability
1.3 Fluids Functions
1.3.1 Well control is a primary function. The fluid must be heavy enough to
create the required hydrostatic pressure to stop the well from flowing.
The fluid density determines the hydrostatic head and it should be no
higher than necessary to minimize the fluid invasion into the
subsurface formation. Fluid density is the mass per unit volume and
may be measured as pounds mass per cubic foot or pounds mass per
gallon. Density may also be expressed in terms of specific gravity or
pressure gradient. Specific gravity is the mass of fluid at a given
temperature relative to the mass of an equal volume of water at the
same temperature. The pressure gradient is the hydrostatic pressure
created by the fluid per unit of vertical depth.
Fluid densities decrease with increasing temperature. The amount of

decrease depends on the fluid composition. By way of example,
86.77 pcf (11.6 lb/gal ) CaCl2 brine at 70 °F decreases to 83 pcf (11.1
lb/gal) at 230°F. Entrapped gases will affect the measurement of fluid
density. If gas entrapment is a problem, one can use a pressurized
mud balance or deaerator to measure the fluid density. Two
instruments are in general use in the field: Mud balance and
Hydrometer ( API 13J ).
Three different types of materials are commonly used in the oil field to
increase the fluid density. These are
?? Water soluble salts

?? Acid soluble minerals
?? Insoluble minerals
Saudi Aramco's recommended practice is not to use insoluble

minerals in well servicing fluid formulations.
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1.3.2 Wellbore cleanout is another major function. Drilled cuttings,

produced sand, drilling mud residue, rust, scale, paint chips, iron
shavings and debris must be removed from the well. Solids left in the
wellbore can enter the perforation restricting the flow capacity of the
well. After the well is completed, these solids can fall on the downhole
dynamic seal assembly causing leaks and the potential need for an
expensive workover. The effectiveness of any fluid used in the well
cleanout operations depends on its carrying capacity, which is largely
a function of fluid viscosity. Rotating the workstring ( 3-10 rpm ) will
improve the removal of solids from the well while circulating. Chemical
washes ( water wetting surfactant, mutual solvent in acidic water ) will
remove organic and inorganic residue when circulated downhole
followed by high viscosity sweeping pill. Examination of tubing
recovered from wells shows that corrosion in the annulus could be
avoided had solids been effectively removed through proper
displacement.
1.3.3 Corrosion protection is an important function of all well servicing

fluids which will remain in the well for an extended period of time.
Corrosion inhibitors are added to reduce the fluid corrosion rate to
acceptable level. Oxygen scavengers, film forming amines, high
temperature inorganic inhibitors and pH buffers are effective
chemicals at low concentrations. The simplest and most common
method of corrosion control is to use a highly alkaline fluid. Static
testing in the lab for thirty days at the desired temperature and
pressure, is sufficient to determine the long term corrosivity of the fluid
1.3.4 Formation protection is a function of any fluid that may become in

contact with a producing formation. The fluid allowed to leak off to the
formation should not contain damaging solids, such as clays, silt,
barite, paraffin, asphalt, rust, pipe dope etc.,. The fluid or fluid filtrate
should be chemically compatible with the formation fluids and should
not allow the clay minerals to hydrate, swell or move. Surfactants,
such as the oil wetting corrosion inhibitors, oil-based mud emulsifiers,
and lubricants will cause emulsion blockage when introduced into a
producing formation. If excessive fluid losses are expected, water-
wetting surfactant should be included in the fluid formulation to
prevent or remove water blocking.
1.3.5 Treating chemical displacement is a very important function of the

well servicing fluids. To pump acid, mutual solvent, clay stabilizer,
injection water, etc into the reservoir rock a workover fluid is usually
employed. It must be clean and compatible with the treating
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chemicals and the formation fluids. The wellbore must be also

cleaned with properly designed spacers and chemical washes.
Electrical logging is greatly affected by the wellbore fluid. Materials

and chemicals which adversely affect the quality of the logs should be
avoided. Reservoir Engineering should be involved in the selection of
the type of workover fluid to be used. Some logs require low chlorides
content and others will produce erroneous data in the presence of
small amount of barite. Saudi Aramco's recommended practice is to
maintain the chlorides below 50,000 mg/l and not to use any barite in
the fluids while drilling and completing the payzone section.
2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS
Completion fluids are used in well operations during the process of establishing
final contact between the productive formation and the wellbore. They may be
water-based mud, nitrogen, an invert emulsion, solids-free brine, or an acid soluble
system. The most significant requirement is that the fluid is not damaging to the
producing formation. Packer fluids are used in the annulus between the production
tubing and casing. They must provide the required pressure, must be non-toxic and
non-corrosive, must not develop high gel strength or allow solids to settle out of
suspension over long periods of time, and must cause minimal formation damage.
Various types of fluids may be utilized for completion and workover operations.
Current literature relating to completion and workover fluids reveals different
approaches to classifying such fluids.
Allen and Roberts used the following categories in their discussion of completion
and workover fluids.
1. Oil Fluids: 2. Clear Water Fluids:

? Crude oil ? Formation salt water
? Diesel oil ? Seawater or bay water
? Prepared salt water
3. Solid Laden Fluids
4. Conventional Water-Base Muds
5. Oil-based or Invert Emulsion Muds
According to Gray, completion and workover fluids may be categorized as follows:
1. Water-Base Fluids:
? Fluids with water-soluble solids
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? Fluids containing oil-soluble organic particles

? Fluids with acid degradable polymers and solids
2. Oil-in-Water Emulsions (O/W density)
3. Oil-Based or Invert Emulsion (water-in-oil emulsions)
Following Allen's classification, a description of the different types of completion

and workover fluids follows:
2.1 Oil Fluids. As the name indicates, oils of different origin are sometimes used
to complete the well. Depending on availability, crude or diesel oil may be
used as the completion fluid.
2.1.1 Crude oil is a logical choice where its density is sufficient to control
formation pressure. The fluid has very low viscosity, limited carrying
capacity and no gel strength. The loss of fluid to the formation is not
harmful from the point of view of clay hydration and migration. Since it
has no fluid loss control, fine solids may enter the formation. Crude oil
always has to be checked for presence of asphaltenes and paraffins
that can damage the formation. The possibility of emulsion forming
with the formation water should be checked before it is used. The
technique described in the API RP 24 is suitable for field use. If
forming of emulsion is possible, a surfactant should be added to
prevent it.
2.1.2 Diesel oil is used when a clean and low-density fluid is necessary for
a completion and workover operation. Always check the diesel for a
possible solid contamination in order to avoid formation damage.
Emulsion and wettability problems will be avoided if the diesel is
obtained form the refinery before fuel additives are added. Diesel oil
will offer a non-corrosive environment, which makes it attractive as
packer fluid.
2.2 Clear Water Fluids. This group includes waters of diverse origin with
different salts in solution. These waters may contain solids, although the
concentration is usually very low. Based on the origin of the water, the clear
water fluids may be divided as follows:
2.2.1 Formation water is the produced reservoir water. It is a common

workover fluid, since its cost is low. Clean formation water is ideal
from the point of view of compatibility with the reservoir fluids and
minerals. Before using produced formation water as a completion and
workover fluid, a compatibility study with the reservoir rock exposed in
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the wellbore should be run. Also, the calcium content and the scaling
tendencies should be determined. Although formation water is taken
into consideration as a clean, ready to use fluid, it many times will
contains fine solids, treating chemicals, paraffins, asphalt or scale.
All these compounds, if not controlled, may cause serious formation

damage. The water should be cleaned or filtered before use and a
field check should be run using API RP 42 procedures to avoid
emulsion problems.
2.2.2 Abqaiq pit brine is a natural brine available in Abqaiq field with
density of about 77.5 pcf. This brine has high concentrations of sulfate
and bicarbonate ions. It can be used as a kill fluid to plug and
abandon a well and must not be used for preparing any other salt
solutions such as KCl or CaCl2 . Any additions of calcium chloride will
precipitate sodium chloride, calcium sulfate, and carbonates which will
cause plugging downhole.
Note:
ABQAIQ PIT BRINE SHOULD NOT BE USED FOR WELL

COMPLETION OR ACID STIMULATION OPERATIONS . IT IS NOT
CHEMICALLY COMPATIBLE WITH OTHER FLUIDS. IF USED,
CALCIUM SULFATE SCALE WILL PRECIPITATE, THE
PRODUCING ZONES AROUND THE WELLBORE WILL BE
PERMANENTLY DAMAGED AND THE WELL MAY THEN HAVE
TO BE PLUGGED AND ABANDONED.
Abqaiq pit brine analysis ( + 77.5 pcf )

Na 69,409 mg/l Cl 154,425 mg/l
Ca 480 mg/l SO4 62,790 mg/l
Mg 32,000 mg/l HCO3 683 mg/l
Sp.gr 1.242 gm / cc pH 7.2
2.2.3 Seawater is frequently used in coastal areas due to its availability.

Depending on salinity, it may be necessary to add NaCl or KCl to
avoid formation clays or shale swelling. Calcium chloride brines
should not be prepared with seawater. Calcium sulfate and carbonate
will precipitate downhole and cause plugging.
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Such so-called clear and clean fluids can be most damaging if proper steps
are not taken because:
A) They do not contain sized, well-balanced bridging particles, or fluid-loss

additives that will bridge and seal the formation to assure minimal fluid
losses.
Properly sized bridging particles minimizes fluid invasion

into permeable formation.
B) They usually contain both dissolved and undissolved solids which can
be carried deep within the formation and can damage it beyond
economical repair.
C) Sea and bay water contains living microorganisms like bacteria and
plankton, which also acts as plugging material.
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SEM photo for material ( diatoms ) filtered out of seawater.
D) Seawater usually has a high sulfate concentration (2,600 ppm) which

can, in the presence of calcium or barium, plug the well with solid
calcium and / or barium sulfate for which there is no economically
feasible treatment.
E). Many crude oils, when produced, drop out heavy hydrocarbons like
asphaltenes and waxes in myriad of small particles which are easily
injected into the formation and cause severe plugging.
F) Freshwater is quite damaging to many formations containing

appreciable clay content such as the Unayzah reservoir.
2.3 Oil and Water Emulsions
Oil and water are incompatible fluids but can be mechanically mixed under
high shear to form emulsions where one phase exists as small droplets
(dispersed phase) in the other phase (continuous phase). Invert emulsions
consist of water droplets in a continuous oil phase (water-in-oil) and normally
contain higher volumes of oil. Direct emulsions or true emulsions consist of
oil droplets in a continuous water phase (oil-in-water) and normally contain
higher volumes of water. The stability of the emulsion can be drastically
improved by the addition of chemicals called surfactants (emulsifiers). They
have the special ability to concentrate between the oil and water phases and
so stabilize the emulsion.
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Surfactant molecule
Water loving group
Oil loving group
Oil-in-water emulsion
Whether an oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion is formed depends on the

relative solubility of the emulsifier in the two phases. A preferentially water
soluble surfactant, such as sodium oleate, will form an oil-in-water emulsion
because it lowers the surface tension on the water side of the oil-water
interface, and the interface curves towards the side with the greater surface
tension, thereby forming an oil droplet enclosed by water. On the other hand,
calcium and magnesium oleate are soluble in oil, but not in water, and thus
form water-in-oil emulsion.
Stabilization of invert emulsion with surfactant emulsifier
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3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS ADDITIVES
3.1 Acid Soluble (CaCO3) Weighting Material
Conventional Water base muds (composed of bentonite, barite, caustic soda,

soda ash and lignosulfonates..etc.) should never be used except in zones to
be abandoned. These muds contain high concentrations of dispersed fine
solids and clays that can cause irreversible formation damage. Also, the
filtrate of these muds can cause dispersion, movement and swelling of the
formation clay minerals. It may also precipitate fine solids in the formation
causing further damage. Fluid densities up to 105 pcf can be achieved with
finely ground marble (5 - 10 microns).
Typical Physical and chemical constants for sized marble
Hardness (Moh's Scale) 3.0

Specific Gravity 2.7
Bulk density, lb/ft3 168.3
Total carbonates (Ca, Mg) 98.0% (Min.)
Total impurities (Al2O3, Fe 2O3, SiO2, Mn) 2.0 % (Max.)
Also, it is possible to prepare fluids with a maximum density of 120 pcf using
iron carbonate. To minimize the high viscosities associated with large solids
content, the calcium carbonate should be ground in such a way that 93% will
go through a 325 mesh screen. Both calcium carbonate and iron carbonate
are soluble in hydrochloric acid ( HCl 15 % ). Calcium carbonate used has a
specific gravity of 2.7 g/cc and should be at least 97 % acid soluble ( iron
carbonate is only 87 % ). One gallon of HCl 15% dissolves 1.84 lb of calcium
carbonate. Iron carbonate will leave residue of 13% solids in the formation
after acidizing. These solids may be left to plug the formation or may be
flushed out depending on the size and distribution of the formation pore
channels. A combination of hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acids ( HF or
mud acid ) should not be used with calcium or iron carbonate. The
hydrofluoric acid reacts with the calcium and iron to precipitate insoluble
salts. Calcium Carbonate ( ground marble )is locally produced and commonly
used in drilling fluid. Ground Limestone is not suitable for this application, it
breaks and become paste like which causes settling, etc.
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3.2 Characteristics of Polymers
The most suitable viscosifiers for non-damaging completion and workover

fluids are the XC-polymer (xanthan gum) and the HEC (hydroxy ethyl
cellulose). These polymers are effective in salt brines and the thickening
action can be stabilized at temperatures as high as 275°F. Other viscosifiers
such as bentonite, polyacrylamide and guar gum are not degradable and
should not be used. When choosing a viscosifier, one must be careful to
determine the product generic name or chemical composition and whether it
is degradable or not. Some polymers should not come in contact with
reservoir rocks. In most applications of these systems, it is necessary to add
polymers to control filtration and to provide carrying capacity and suspension.
After examining the characteristics of all available polymers, the industry
chosen polymers to be used are HEC, XC-Polymer and Modified Starch. In
applications where a high carrying capacity is required, suspending
properties (gel strength) can be only achieved with XC-Polymer xanthan
gum). Also, it should be kept in mind that for stabilizing the suspension and
minimize settling at high temperature, MgO (magnesium oxide) should be
used. It will also provide the proper pH up to 10.
Polymer Type * Viscosity Filtration Suspension Acid Solubility Brine

Development Control Properties Tolerance
HEC NI Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Excellent

HEMC NI Excellent Poor Poor Good Excellent
CMC A Good Good Fair Poor Poor
XC-Polymer A Fair Poor Excellent Good Fair
Drispac A Poor Good Poor Poor Poor
Starch NI Poor Good Poor Poor Good
Guar gum Polyacrylate NI Excellent Poor Poor Fair Good
A Poor Good poor Insoluble Poor
NI Non lonic
A Anionic
Characteristics of water soluble polymers used

for viscosity, suspension and filtration control
3.3 Viscosity and Suspension
It is necessary to assure that solids are suspended in the fluid. Suspended

solids should not rapidly separate from the fluid when circulation is stopped.
Or, we may desire that suspended solids remain suspended in surface
tankage for some period of time. Calcium carbonate "fine" should have
particles in the range of 0.1 - 10 microns which is fine enough to remain in
suspension by imparting gel strength to the well fluid. In drilling fluids, gel
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strength is derived from the interaction of clay particles. In workover fluids gel
strength is usually provided by XC-polymer (NOT HEC). A gel strength of
only 2 to 4 lb/100 ft² is sufficient to suspend the barite used in drilling muds.
More gel strength is required to suspend larger particles or denser particles. If
the suspending fluid has no gel strength and suspended particles are above
colloid dimensions, then the particles will settle out with time. Particle settling
can be drastically slowed, but not eliminated by providing the fluid with
increased viscosity. This is usually accomplished in well fluids by adding XC-
polymer to the fluid. When gel strength is used to give particle suspending
properties to a fluid, one must be concerned not only with the ability of the
resulting gel to suspend solids, but also with the pressures required to
reinitiate fluid flow. Depending on the location of gelled fluid within the
tubulars, undesirable pressure may develop at the surface or bottomhole
before the gel breaks and flow is reinitiated. The gel strength determines the
pressure required to break circulation.
For example, consider the removal of a gelled packer fluid from an annulus. A
concern in this case might be whether or not exposed formation will be
fractured before circulation is broken and packer fluid removal begun. In this
case, if a 0.57 psi/ft packer fluid with a gel strength of 50 lb/100ft² were to be
circulated from a 31/2" x 7" annulus with a 0.54 psi/ft workover fluid in a
10,000 ft well, the pressure required to break circulation would be 840 psi.
The 840 psi increase in the surface pressure will be reflected by a similar
increase in the overbalance at the perforations. Such an increase may not be
tolerable. Circulating fluids are those working fluids used to move things
around within a well. These fluids may be required to transport solids into or,
more typically, out of the well. They may be required to suspend solids for
various lengths of time when circulation ceases. They may also be required
to displace treating fluids to the formation and in some cases to over displace
the treatment fluids out into the formation. Excessive loss of the circulating
fluid to the formation often can not be tolerated.
In a workover involving solids transport or washing operations, the workover

fluid should be able to carry solids to the surface. In this application, viscosity
is the most important fluid property. As the viscosity of the fluid increases, the
carrying capacity increases. Brines with viscosifiers added, muds, foam, and
gas are the most common fluids used for these clean-up operations. Foam or
gas may be used to provide lifting capability for workover or completion fluids,
sand, and small cuttings.
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There are three main factors which determine the magnitude of effective
viscosity required for solids transport in washing operations. These factors
are
?? Well temperature
?? Size and weight of solids to be transported
?? Shear conditions (flow rates and tubular dimensions) in the tubing or
annulus in which the solids are to be transported.
3.3.1 The viscosity decreases more-or-less exponentially as temperature

increases. To be conservative it is appropriate to design using the
maximum expected circulating temperature thereby providing more
than sufficient viscosity for transport at all other temperatures. The
fluid temperature profile in a well depends upon wellbore geometry,
flow rate. flow direction, elapsed time and geothermal gradient.
Accurate estimation of the flowing temperature profile requires a
computer simulator. On the basis of such simulations we can
generalize as follows:
During circulation the maximum temperature occurs somewhere

between 213°F and 250°F. The maximum temperature is lower at
high flow rates and higher at low flow rates approaching the
geothermal profile as flow ceases. The maximum temperature is
always less than the static bottomhole temperature and always
greater than the return fluid temperature.
3.3.2 The second factor affecting the desired viscosity of a fluid is the
nature of the solids to be transported. As a rule, a higher viscosity is
required to transport larger and heavier particles. For example,
removing cuttings from milling out a packer will require a viscosity
greater than that required to wash sand from the well.
3.3.3 The third factor effecting the desired viscosity is the shear conditions
to which the fluid is exposed. The shear rate is determined by the fluid
flow rate and wellbore geometry at the point of interest. Shear
conditions have an effect similar to the effect of temperature on the
fluid viscosity. Most polymer viscosifiers, which are added to brines to
increase viscosity, are shear thinning (i.e., their viscosity drops as
shear increases). The shear rate through the tubing is significantly
greater than shear rate through the tubing casing annulus.
Depending on the type of operation, method of fluid circulation, and
other well conditions, the shear rate may be lesser or greater.
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Typical shear rate ranges include:
Tanks, Pits 0 - 5 sec–1

Annulus 10 - 500 sec–1
Tubing, Workstring 100 - 3000 sec–1
The relationship between these three factors will determine the range
of viscosities that may be achieved with a particular fluid, and the
desired concentration of polymer required to achieve a particular
viscosity. The effect of particle size on required viscosity is illustrated
in the following table:
Particle Circul. Fluid Tubing Casing Required

size rate density viscosity (cp)
( BPM) ( pcf ) ( inch ) ( inch )
40 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 0.25

40 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul. 0.7
20 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 1.0
20 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 2.8
10 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 5.8
10 mesh 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 16
1 cm 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 150
1 cm 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 400
Forty mesh sand may be circulated or reverse circulated using a fluid

with a viscosity of 0.7 cp or 0.2 cp respectively. This viscosity is less
than or equal to the viscosity of water at well temperatures. On the
other hand, viscosity somewhat greater than the viscosity of water at
well temperatures is required to wash twenty mesh sand.
Typically, in this case the viscosity would be raised to 10 cp as a

safety margin to compensate for temperature effects and possible
shut-downs.
Ten mesh sand requires still greater viscosity and large cuttings
require a substantial increase in viscosity. The effect of flow rate on
the required viscosity is illustrated in the following table:
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Particle Circul. Fluid Tubing Casing Required

size rate density viscosity
( BPM) ( pcf ) ( inch ) ( inch ) ( cp )
10 mesh 1 67.3 3.5 Tubing 29

( 2 mm )
10 mesh 1 67.3 3.5 7" annul. 80
( 2 mm )
1 cm 1 67.3 3.5 Tubing 750
1 cm 1 67.3 3.5 7" annul 2000
1 cm 5 67.3 3.5 Tubing 150
1 cm 5 67.3 3.5 7" annul 400
1 cm 10 67.3 3.5 Tubing 75
1 cm 10 67.3 3.5 7" annul 200
Larger sand particles (10 mesh = 2 mm) may be reverse circulated

from the well at 1 BPM with a 20 cp fluid and circulated from the well
with an 80 cp fluid. At the same flow rate particles of 5 times the
diameter require 750 cp and 2000 cp viscosity fluids to be removed by
reverse and direct circulation respectively. Increasing the circulation
rate decreases the required viscosity proportionately.
4.0 SELECTING A COMPLETION FLUID
Some conditions must be satisfied when making a completion fluid selection from
all available systems. The fluid must have the necessary density required to control
the subsurface pressure. This may narrow the choice considerably. If a non-solids
or solids-free fluid is to be used, density limitations before precipitation of the solute
will dictate limitation of a particular fluid. For example, if sodium chloride is the
solids-free system of choice, then 75 pcf would be the density limit. If a higher
density is needed, then calcium chloride can be used to a limit of 86 pcf. After
inspecting what fluid would fit the hydrostatic head requirement, a cost comparison
should be made. Overall cost, however, should be included at this point, not just
the cost per bbl.
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4.1 Solids -Free High Density Fluids
Solids-free brines can have densities ranging from 62.4 to 143.6 pcf .
Saturated Brine Density pcf
NaCl 75
KCl 72
NaBr 95
NaCl / NaBr 2 95
NaCl / CaCl2 83
CaCl2 87
CaBr 2 106
CaCl2 / CaBr 2 113
CaCl2 / CaBr 2 / ZnBr 2 144
CaBr 2 / ZnBr 2 151
Comparative Densities of Solids-Free

Completion & Workover brines in Pounds Per ft³
Brines used in completion and workover applications may be a single-salt

brine, two-salt brine, or a brine blend containing three different salt
compounds.
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4.1.1 Single Salt Brines are those made with clean fresh water and one
water soluble salt such as potassium chloride, sodium chloride and
calcium chloride. They are the simplest brines used in completion
and workover fluids. Because they contain only one salt, their initial
composition is easily understood. Their density is adjusted by adding
either salt or water.
4.1.2 Two salt brines are made with combination of two salts in fresh
water. They required accurate measurement of the starting volume of
water and the quantities of salts required for the specific density.
Excess salt will precipitate the less soluble salt.
4.1.3 Three salt blends are made with a combination of three salts in fresh
water. They require a specialist to blend in the field due to the
complex nature of the blends and several tests required during the
preparation of these blends. CaCl2 / CaBr2 / ZnBr2 are example of
these blends . These blends are not used in Saudi Aramco wells and
will not be discussed in this presentation.
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4.2 Sodium Chloride Brines
The most commonly used brine in the oil field is sodium chloride (NaCl). The
maximum density of a sodium chloride brine is 74.5 pcf at 60°F. The
preparation of brines up to 73 pcf is fairly easy. From 73 pcf to 74.5 pcf ,
additional sodium chloride dissolves very slowly. Corrosion rates are fairly
low for the saturated brine ( 74.5 pcf ) and high for the lower density brines.
Corrosion inhibitor is required for NaCl saturated packer fluids. Material
requirements for NaCl brines are provided in the formulation charts.
Brine Density To Make 1 bbl ( 42 gal )

at 70 ºF Water 100% NaCl
pcf bbl lb
62.8 0.998 4
63.6 0.993 9
64.3 0.986 16
65.1 0.981 22
65.8 0.976 28
66.6 0.969 35
67.3 0.962 41
68.1 0.955 47
68.8 0.948 54
69.6 0.94 61
70.3 0.933 68
71.1 0.926 74
71.8 0.919 81
72.6 0.91 88
73.3 0.902 98.7
74 0.895 102
74.8 0.888 109
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The effects of temperature change on NaCl density
lb / ft 2 = 7.48 X lb / gal
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4.3 Potassium Chloride Brines
Potassium chloride (KCl) brines are excellent completion fluids for water-
sensitive formations where densities over 72.5 pcf are not required. Corrosion
rates are reasonably low and can be reduced even more by keeping the pH
of the system between 8 and 10 using KOH. Material requirements for
preparing KCl brines are given in the formulation charts.

at 70 ºF Water 100% KCl
pcf bbl lb
62.8 0.995 4
63.6 0.986 11.6
64.3 0.976 18.9
65.1 0.969 26.1
65.8 0.96 33.4
66.6 0.95 40.7
67.3 0.943 47.9
68.1 0.933 55.2
68.8 0.924 62.4
69.6 0.917 69.7
70.3 0.907 76.9
71.1 0.898 84.2
71.8 0.89 91.5
72.6 0.881
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4.4 Calcium Chloride Brines
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) brines are easily mixed at densities up to 86 pcf.

Generally, dry CaCl2 is available in two grades 94-97% and 77-80% pure. A
considerable amount of heat is generated when dry CaCl2 is mixed with
water. Corrosion rates for CaCl2 brines are approximately the same as for
KCl and NaCl brines; i.e., reasonably low in the pH range between 7 and 10.
Material requirements for preparing CaCl2 brines are given in the formulation
charts.
To Make 1 bbl ( 42 gal )

% by Wt. pcf 95% CaCl2 lb Water bbl Chloride mg/l
0 62.4 0 1 0
1 63 3.72 0.998 6454
2 63.5 7.5 0.995 13,018
3 64 11.35 0.933 19,690
4 64.5 15.26 0.99 26,470
5 65 19.23 0.988 33,360
6 65.5 23.27 0.985 40,358
7 66 27.36 0.981 47,466
8 66.6 31.52 0.978 54,682
9 67.2 35.74 0.975 62,006
10 67.7 40.03 0.97 69,440
11 68.3 44.4 0.967 77,018
12 68.8 48.83 0.964 84,710
13 69.4 53.36 0.96 92,560
14 70 57.95 0.957 100,531
15 70.6 62.62 0.953 108,624
16 71.2 67.35 0.949 116,838
17 71.8 72.16 0.945 125,174
18 72.4 77.03 0.94 133,632
19 73 82.01 0.936 142,272
20 73.7 87.07 0.932 151,040
21 74.3 92.2 0.927 159,936
22 74.9 97.4 0.922 168,960
23 75.5 102.7 0.917 178,112
24 76.1 108 0.912 187,392
25 76.8 113.5 0.907 196,880
26 77.5 119 0.901 206,502
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To Make 1 bbl ( 42 gal )

% by Wt. pcf 95% CaCl2 lb Water bbl Chloride mg/l
27 78.1 124.7 0.896 216,259
28 78.8 130.4 0.89 226,150
29 79.4 136.2 0.884 236,269
30 80 142.1 0.879 246,528
31 80.9 148.1 0.872 256,928
32 81.5 154.2 0.866 267,469
33 82.2 160.3 0.86 278,150
34 82.9 166.6 0.853 288,973
35 83.6 173 0.846 300,048
36 84.3 179.4 0.839 311,270
37 85 186.1 0.832 322,758
38 85.8 192.8 0.825 334,400
39 86.5 199.5 0.817 346,070
40 87.3 206.3 0.809 357,888
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The effects of temperature change on CaCl2 density
lb / ft ³ = 7.48 X lb / gal
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4.5 Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride Brines
For densities between 75.5 and 83 pcf, a combination of sodium chloride and
calcium chloride brine is often satisfactory. The advantage of a combination
of the two salts is a lower cost compared to that of a calcium chloride brine of
the same weight. The disadvantage is that at each density, the fluid is
saturated, and in order to increase the density, the fluid must be diluted with
fresh water before additional calcium chloride is added. Any excess salt (
NaCl ) will precipitate and plug the perforations , the pipe etc....

at 70 ºF Water 100% NaCl 95% CaCl2
pcf bbl lb lb
75.5 0.887 88 29
76.3 0.875 70 52
77 0.875 54 72
77.8 0.876 41 89
78.5 0.871 32 104
79.3 0.868 25 116
80 0.866 20 126
80.8 0.864 16 135
81.5 0.862 13 144
82.3 0.859 10 151
83 0.854 8 159
Note:
A) It is crucial to accurately measure the starting volume of water needed

and the quantities of salt required for each specific density to avoid
precipitating NaCl.
B) Pilot testing with the make up water at the rig site is necessary to adjust
the above concentration or change fluid densities.
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4.6 Field Operations Utilizing Brine
Spot-checks of field operations have revealed that most of the so-called clean
fluids used in well killing, completion are dirty enough to cause severe, and
often irreparable, formation damage. All fluids used in well servicing
operations must be analyzed. Preserved samples should be tested in the
laboratory for clarity and compatibility with produced formation fluid samples.
A clarity test for purity and compatibility should be carried out and repeated at
the wellhead. Such a field test consists of observing the fluids in a clear
glass. If the sampled fluid is not crystal clear and solid-free, it should be either
filtered or discarded. It is advisable to spot-check the visual test with a
Millipore-filtration test for presence of micron-sized particles. The Malvern
particle size analyzer is available in the Laboratory Research and
Development Center for determining the particle size distribution up to 600
microns.
Solids particles capable of plugging the formation are picked up from most
types of equipment used in the field. Vacuum trucks, dirty tanks, pump tanks,
check valves, swivel joints, and tubular goods are the main sources of
contamination. Major contamination comes from iron, mud, cement, pipe
dope, oxidized crude, sludge, bacteria, chemical additives, and other
materials pumped or produced previously through the system. Tanks used for
drilling and cementing will have dried mud, sand, silt, crude oil, and partially
set cement deposited in suction lines and mixing boxes, on walls,.. etc. Such
sediments and rust do not adversely affect the drilling mud, but when clean
fluids are placed in the tanks and agitated, these sediments are entrained.
Injected dissolved iron is converted in most formations with oxygen into iron
hydroxide, a voluminous floc which helps consolidate the bridged solids (clay
and silts) within the pores.
Often less than a teaspoon of such " dirt " can plug a perforation
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5.0 SPECIALLY DESIGNED BRINE/POLYMER SYSTEMS
Another category of water-based fluids is specially designed brine / polymer

systems. These systems use polymers as a replacement for bentonite for viscosity,
solids suspension, and fluid loss control. These systems are formulated in brine for
inhibition using sized particles as bridging material to help control loss of filtrate to
the formation.
Brine / polymer system can be divided into three major types:
? Acid soluble systems

? Water soluble systems
? Oil soluble systems.
The basic formulation and technology associated with each of these systems is
identical. The major difference between these systems lies in nature of the material
used as the bridging agents and/or weighting agents. As the name implies, the
bridging material is either acid soluble, water soluble, or oil soluble. The systems
are composed primarily of various types of polymers, some type of brine water,
and special type solids for bridging and weighting material. The most common
brine water used is KCl, NaCl, or CaCl 2. Should higher densities be required,
special type solids are added to increase the density. This is somewhat of an
opposite approach from the use of clear brines, but it should be kept in mind that
not all solids are damaging. Good useable solids are either acid soluble, water
soluble, or oil soluble, and incompressible.
Special fluids can be designed with solids of known particle size distribution and
solubility. Special brine / polymer systems can be separated into two types: non-
thixotropic and thixotropic. This categorization is governed by the type of polymer
used. Non-thixotropic polymer systems are viscous, but have no gel-building
ability. The use of these systems is limited to operations where viscous carrier fluid
is needed while circulating. They will not suspend solids when circulation is
stopped ( lost circulation pills ) . Thixotropic polymer systems have both viscosity
and gel-building ability, offering the advantage of suspending solids when
circulation is stopped. Weighted brine / polymer systems must be thixotropic.
There are a multitude of polymers available and currently being used in the drilling
industry. However, for well servicing fluids, the preferred non-damaging polymers
used for viscosity and/or suspension are confined to two types:
Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose (HEC) and Xanthan gums (XC-Polymer).
HEC polymers are nonionic derivatives of the cellulose polymer modified to impart
water solubility to the cellulose molecule. The nonionic substitution in HEC
polymers makes them very tolerant to high salt environments, including divalent
calcium and magnesium. Because of this, HEC is ideal for viscosifying most
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completion brines. HEC polymers do not develop gel strengths to suspend solids.
Systems made up with HEC polymers alone are considered nonthixotropic. XC
polymer is a slightly anionic, high molecular weight polymer produced by bacterial
action on carbohydrates. XC-polymer is an excellent viscosifier and suspending
agent for KCl and NaCl brines. It functions quite well in CaCl2 brines as long as the
polymer is properly sheared in the initial mix. CaCl2 brine / polymer system should
be vigorously agitated in the tanks all the time to prevent the polymer chain from
coiling. Solids settling will occur if the CaCl2 brine / polymer slurry remains static for
a period of time. XC-polymer is one of a very few polymers which will build gel
structure. This, therefore, makes XC- polymer the key ingredient when solids
suspension is required. Systems containing XC- polymer are considered
thixotropic.
HEC and XC-polymer are soluble in 15% hydrochloric acid and normally, the two
polymers are used together for optimum performance. The temperature stability of
both polymers is limited to the 250-275ºF range. Special additives are available to
extend the temperature range to 300ºF.
5.1 Calcium Carbonate Fluids

5.1.1 Fluid Formulations (Example)
Formulation & order of addition Average fluid properties

(one barrel)
Fresh, clean water, bbl : 0.92 Density, lb/ft³ : 71
Defoamer, gal : 0.01 Plastic viscosity, cp : 12
XC-Polymer, lb : 1.00 Yield point, lb/100 ft² : 15
Modified starch, lb : 3.00 Gels, lb/100 ft² : 2/6
MgO, lb : 0.50 Filtrate, ml/30 min : 8
CaCO3 (fine), lb : 10.00 pH, : 9
Salt ( NaCl ), lb : 75.00 Cl¯, mg/ 130,000
5.1.2 If Low Chlorides is Preferred (Example)

( one barrel )
XC-Polymer lb : 1.00 Yield point, lb/100 ft² : 15
Modified starch, lb : 3.00 Gels, lb/100 ft² : 2/6
MgO, lb : 0.50 Filtrate, ml/30 min : 6
CaCO3 (fine), lb : 75.00 pH, : 9
Cl¯, mg/l < 10000
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5.2 Acid Soluble Bridging Material
Fluid loss control for these special brine / polymer systems is achieved by
solids and polymers. The key to sealing off a production zone is a proper
mixture of bridging solids, colloidal solids, and subcolloidal particles. This
combination creates an impermeable bridge across the face of the production
zone ( or as close as possible to the wellbore ) for minimizing the fluid or fluid
filtrate invasion into the formation. Coarser particles bridge on the pore
spaces around the wellbore. This reduces the porosity and permeability at the
wellbore surface. This bridge is then sealed by smaller particles, which plug
the fine inter-particle spaces of the bridging solids. The bridge or wall cake
allows only a very small amount of liquid to filter into the formation. The
colloidal and subcolloidal particles are normally a combination of polymers,
modified starches, and calcium carbonate.
The formation of tight, impermeable bridges requires some knowledge of the

particle size distribution of the bridging solid and the average size of the
formation pore opening. Particles which are one-third of the average pore
size of the formation will get trapped in the pore and initiate a bridge. Smaller
particles will pass through the formation, while larger ones will pack on the
surface and not seal properly. The average pore size can be calculated by
taking the square root of the permeability (in millidarcies) of the formation.
This number is the average pore size in microns. For example, if the
formation has a permeability of 100 millidarcies, the average pore size is 10
microns. To seal this formation, the bridging material must then contain a
percentage of particles in the 3.5 micron range. Designing a bridging material
is a delicate process. Care must be taken to see that this material contains
enough different size particles to seal production zones.
Should a production zone have an extremely high or extremely low

permeability, the bridging material may have to be altered to compensate for
the abnormal pore sizes.
Do not use just any available material for bridging and expect to get a tight
seal on the formation.
The most commonly used bridging materials is calcium carbonate ( ground

marble ). It is the primary bridging agent in the acid soluble brine / polymer
systems. This material is totally soluble in 15% hydrochloric acid. Calcium
carbonate is used as a weighting agent in the drilling fluids for all the
carbonate reservoirs development wells (Arab"D", Hanifa, Hadriyah etc.). In
most cases, the fine grind (average particle size is 10 microns) which is used
as weight material will not work as a bridging agent in zones with more than
100 md permeability.
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5.2.1 SAMS/Stock (3300 lbs super bags and 50 lbs bags)
A) Ground marble ( fine - 10 microns )

B) Ground marble ( medium - 150 microns )
C) Ground marble ( coarse - 600 microns )
D) Ground marble ( chips - 2000 microns )
5.2.2 Typical Lost Circulation Pill Formulations

( one barrel )
HEC, lb : 1.5 Yield point, lb/100ft² : 20
XC-Polymer, lb : 0.5 Gels, lb/100 ft² :5/15
Modified starch, lb : 1.00 Filtrate, ml/30 min : 10
Lime, lb : 1.00 pH, : 11
Ground marble M , lb : 80.0
Ground marble C , lb : 40.0
5.2.3 Water Soluble Bridging Material
In brine / polymer systems, it is possible to use sized sodium chloride

(NaCl) as bridging particles. However, this can only work in a fluid
which is near or already saturated with respect to sodium chloride.
Therefore, the minimum mud weight is above 75 pcf. Sizing sodium
chloride to the small sizes needed is fairly difficult and should be done
in a zero humidity environment. The NaCl bridge will dissolve in
undersaturated solutions (or fresh water). usually associated with
production. This system is relatively expensive and can be justified for
dry gas wells.
5.2.4 Oil Soluble Bridging Material
Oil soluble resins are usually paraffin or waxlike particles used as

bridging agents in the brine / polymer systems. Since these resins
are oil soluble, they are removed when the well is brought back on oil
production. Care should be taken when choosing these resins. It is
necessary for the melting point of the resin to be approximately the
same as the bottom hole temperature. If the melting point is too low,
the resin will dissolve before the bridge is set. If the melting point is
too high, the resin will not dissolve in the produced oil and the bridge
may not be removed. Strong water wetting surfactant should be
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included in the formulation to disperse the resin and prevent it from

floating. The carrier fluid should be a high viscosity water or brine.
Any trace of oil or oil contamination of the pill will create a big lump of
wax and plug the pipe.
5.2.5 Weighting Agents
The HEC and especially the XC-polymer perform best in lower density
brines e.g., saturated NaCl (75 pcf) or CaCl2 (85 pcf). Higher densities
for these brine / polymer systems can only be accomplished with the
addition of solid weighting agents. This weighting agent must be either
water or acid soluble. This eliminates the use of barite, since it is
neither. The weighting agent should be ground to specifications which
allows easy dispersion and suspension. This grind, however, is not
nearly as critical as for bridging agents. Extremely finely ground
weighting agents cannot be used because of the high surface area,
causing viscosity problems.
Sodium chloride is water soluble and calcium carbonate is soluble in

15% hydrochloric acid, if the acid can reach the calcium carbonate
dowhole. Systems weighted with sodium chloride or calcium
carbonate are workable up to 103 pcf, while systems containing the
iron compounds can go as high as 142 pcf .
5.2.6 To Summarize:
Lab and field results strongly suggest that the use of specially
designed brine/polymer systems, with properly sized bridging
particles, are among the best well servicing fluids. These systems
form external bridges on the surface of the borehole and seal off
production zones with minimum invasion of fluid. The bridge can be
removed by mechanical action or it can be solubilized. These systems
are inhibitive, and offer a wide range of densities, lifting capacity, and
suspension qualities. Compared to clear brines, polymer systems are
economical at higher densities.
The formation of a good, tight, external bridge is the key to the

success of these fluids. This bridge is especially effective in depleted
zones which cannot hold the pressure gradient of water or oil.
Specially designed brine/polymer systems can effectively control fluid
loss at overbalance pressure.
Removal of the external bridge is usually accomplished by flushing or
bringing the well back on production. If further clean up is necessary,
an acid soluble bridge can be removed with a 15% hydrochloric acid
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wash, a sodium chloride bridge can be removed with a low salinity

water wash, and an oil soluble resin bridge with a diesel, crude oil or
Xylene wash.
5.2.7 When Mixing Brine/Polymer Fluids Remember:
A) High shear mixing is very important to allow the polymers to

perform and to eliminate fisheyes and polymer lumps which may
reach the perforations downhole and cause plugging problems.
B) Foaming is almost always a problem while mixing brine-based

fluids. Defoamers should be available on location. Follow the
recommended order of addition in the initial mix, and mix
defoamer with any salt or water required for system
maintenance. Avoid injecting air into the slurry with mixing
hopper, guns and pumps.
C) Corrosion could be excessive, but maintaining the pH with lime

or magnesium oxide, using oxygen scavengers (sodium sulfite)
and corrosion inhibitors can control this. Be sure the corrosion
inhibitor used is not going to be injected into the payzone. All
corrosion inhibitors are damaging to the reservoir.
5.3 Low Density (Oil-In-Water or Brine) Emulsions
For low pressure reservoirs requiring drill-in, completion and workover fluids
lighter than water ( 62.4 pcf ), two alternatives are available:
?? Direct emulsions, oil-in-water (using Atlasol-S as the emulsifier)

?? Invert emulsions, water-in-oil (using Invermul and / or Ezmul as the
emulsifiers)
5.3.1 Direct emulsions
Low density direct emulsions are made with water as the continuous
phase and dispersed oil ( as fine drops ) which is the internal phase.
This emulsion is recommended when formation wettability change to
oil-wet is undesirable. The emulsifier used is a water wetting
surfactant for maintaining the drilled cuttings and solids water wet
allowing easy hole cleaning. Viscosity and suspension are developed
with small concentrations of water soluble polymers such as XC-
polymer and HEC. It is much cheaper than the invert emulsion and
has electrical properties similar to water-based fluids. The water
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phase can contain KCl for inhibiting sensitive clays in the reservoir
rock. This emulsion is not chemically stable and require mechanical
shear ( good agitation ) to prevent oil separation.
Under static conditions and downhole temperature, the emulsion will

break after sometime. With a high viscosity external phase ( water )
the emulsion can stay stable for longer periods in the hole. Fine solids
such as CaCO3 ( 10 microns ) will stabilize the emulsion and makes a
suitable drill-in fluid. Emulsions should never be injected into the
reservoir even if they are solids-free. Forcing a thick emulsion into the
reservoir will create blockage which will require treatment with mutual
solvents, surfactants and / or acids to remove.
Formulation and order of addition Average fluid properties

(one barrel )
Make-up water, bbl : 0.50 Density, lb/ft3 : 57
XC-Polymer, lb : 1.00 Plastic viscosity, cp : 18
Dextrid, lb : 6.00 Yield point, lb/100 ft2 : 25
MgO, lb : 1.00 10 sec.gel, lb/100 ft2 : 4
Oil, bbl : 0.50 10 min.gel, lb/100 ft2 : 6
Atlosol-S, gal : 0.10 Filtrate, cc/30 min : 4
CaCO3 fine, lb : 5.00 pH, : 9
Note:
Fine mesh shaker screens ( 150 - 200 mesh ) will help to maintain the
fluid clean
No other chemicals should be used . The pH should be maintained

with magnesium oxide or lime and the viscosity with XC-polymer.
Dextrid along with the fine CaCO3 will control the filtrate and filter
cake. The oil must be added to water through the mixing hopper to
form the oil-in-water emulsion followed by Atlosol-S. Additions of
more oil will cause thickening and additions of more water will cause
thinning.
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5.4 Oil-Based Fluids and Invert Emulsions
Oil-based well servicing fluids are generally a form of invert emulsion, with
some type of oil as the external or continuous phase. Crude oils are used
occasionally, but their application usually is limited to depleted formations.
The use of oil-based fluids offers several advantages. These include:
A) High temperature stability for deep high pressure wells.

B) Wide density range up to 157 pcf.
C) Maximum inhibition for clays.
D) Non-corrosive to the tubular and downhole equipment.
E) Stable in most subsurface environments.

( one barrel )
Oil, bbl : 0.5 Density, lb/ft3 : . 85
Invermul, lb : 6.0 Viscosity sec/qt : 45
Lime, lb : 4.0 Plastic viscosity, cp : . 25
Duratone, lb : 6.0 Yield point, lb/100ft2 : . 20
Water, bbl : 0.2 Gels, lb/100ft2 : 4/8
GeltoneII, lb : 2.0 Filtrate(200 ºF/500psi) ml 2 all oil
EZ-Mul, lb : 2.0 Electrical stability, volts : 800
CaCl2(78%), lb : 61.0 Oil/Water ratio : 70/30
CaCO3 fine, lb : 113.0
Invert emulsions originally were developed as drilling fluids, specifically for

use in deep, hot holes. The oil-based fluids can be designed for working
temperatures in excess of 500°F and densities from 56 to 157 pcf.
Since oil is the external phase, the fluid invading the formation will be all oil
which should have no effect on the clays in the formation. This minimizes the
concern for clay migration or clay swelling.
These fluids are non-corrosive and resistant to most contaminants which

affect water-base fluids. Formation damage studies with various oil-base
fluids consistently show minimal damaging characteristics. Oil-base fluids
approach being the ideal well servicing fluid. They do, however, have some
disadvantages including that they may:
? be restricted in environmentally sensitive areas.

? contain high solids and damage dry gas sand payzones.
? will change the formation wettability and cause emulsion blocks.
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Stricter environmental regulations are making it difficult to use oil-base fluids

without the use of expensive handling equipment and high disposal costs.
This is especially true offshore. Higher density oil muds contain a high
percentage of solids. The majority of these solids are incompressible, but the
fluid could contain a certain percentage of compressible solids, such as
organophilic clays or drilled solids. Oil-base fluids contain oil wetting
surfactants designed to make the solids dispersed in them preferentially oil
wet. These wetting agents could cause the formation to become preferentially
oil wet, lowering the relative permeability to oil. Should this occur, the
condition is usually temporary. The emulsifiers in the oil-base fluids could
form emulsions in the formation, causing emulsion blocks. Mutual solvents
and water wetting surfactants will remove the damage and restore
productivity. ( Zuluf, Marjan and Safaniyah horizontal wells is a good
example ). Exposure of a formation containing only gas and water to an oil-
base fluid can result in a reduction of the relative permeability to gas by the
introduction of a third immiscible fluid. Oil filtrate invasion will occur. When
gas production begins, some of the oil filtrate will back flow and clean up, but
some of the filtrate will remain as irreducible or immobile, hence lowering the
gas productivity of the well.
5.5 Air / Mist / Foam
The use of dry air, mist, stiff foam, or aerated mud as the circulating fluid is
rarely used. Dry air or dust drilling is used when the formation is completely
dry or when there is only a slight water influx. Air is ideal to reduce formation
damage. Since there is no liquid phase, there is no fluid loss and no invasion
of particles. The use of foam as a well servicing fluid should be considered
with low bottom hole pressure wells.
6.0 PACKER FLUIDS
6.1 Functions:
The primary function of a packer is to seal off the tubing-casing annulus, and
allow production from below the packer, through the tubing. Packer fluids are
placed in the casing-tubing annulus to provide a hydrostatic head necessary
to control the well in case of packer failure or leaks. Also, to reduce the
pressure differential between the inside of tubing and the annulus, the outside
of the casing and the annulus, and the perforated interval below the packer
and the annulus. The packer fluid performs these functions mainly by
protecting the steel in the tubing-casing annulus from corrosion. Since the
packer may remain in the annulus for an extended period of time, it is
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necessary to properly inhibit the fluid to prevent or minimize annular corrosion

and enhance retrievability of tubing and packers.
A worldwide review of workover operations indicated extremely high costs

associated with recovery of tubing stuck in settled mud solids. High density
water-base or oil-base muds are not stable suspensions when left static in a
well for a long time. High temperatures and/or contamination of these muds
with the produced gas and oil destroys the initial suspension properties and
allow mud solids and weighting materials to settle on top of the packer and
around the tubing. Expensive washover and fishing operations are then
performed. During the washover, more costly complications such as twist off,
stuck washover pipes, casing leaks, blowouts and formation damage could
develop. When such complications occur many wells have to be plugged and
abandoned. Most of these problems could be eliminated by utilizing solids-
free packer fluids.
6.2 Characteristics of Packer Fluid:
? Must be chemically and mechanically stable under downhole conditions,

i.e. no settling of suspended solids and no chemical precipitates if
mixed with produced fluids or gases.
? Must not degrade by time or temperature.
? Must not deteriorate packer elastomers.
? Must remain pumpable during the life of the well, i.e. no high gelation or
solidification to be developed by time.
? Must not cause corrosion (inside casing, outside tubing).
? Must not damage the producing formation because they may contact
these producing zones during completion or workover operations.
6.3 Fluid Properties:
? The usual practice is to use a packer fluid with kill density. The packer
fluid must contribute to well control during the seating and unseating of
the packer.
? A packer fluid should ideally be solids-free. If a packer fluid must be

weighted with solid materials, they should not settle out over the period
of fluid use. Solids-weighted packer fluids must have gel strength to
prevent the solids from settling.
? The gel strength should not be so great as to prevent initiation of

circulation or tubing movement should a workover become necessary. If
solids do segregate out and fall to the bottom, a retrievable packer or
the tubing may get stuck, resulting in a long and expensive fishing job.
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6.4 Drilling Mud (Not A Desirable) Packer Fluid
Water base drilling mud organic additives degrade upon prolonged exposure
to high temperatures and sometimes generate corrosive gases such as CO2
and H2S. Bacterial activity could also breakdown organic materials and/or
produce corrosive elements. Lignosulfonate solutions can react
electrochemically at metal surfaces to form sulfides even at moderate
temperatures. Properly formulated oil-base muds are non-conductive and
should not cause corrosion. However, in case of packer failure or leaks,
produced oil or gas dissolves in the oil mud, destroys their suspension
properties, allowing the weighting material (barite) to settle on top of the
packer, and results in stuck packers and tubing.
6.5 Solids - Free Oil As A Packer Fluid
Clean oil with proper corrosion inhibitor ( oil soluble film forming amine ) is an
ideal packer fluid. Clean oil is non-conductive, stable and in case of casing
leaks and water influx, the inhibitor will provide protection for some time.
6.6 Solids - Free Packer Fluids
The obvious advantages of utilizing solids-free heavy brines for packer fluid
applications triggered extensive investigation into combating their corrositivity
via the addition of suitable inhibitors. Increasing the pH, removing the oxygen
and selecting the compatible brine or brine blends along with the effective
inhibitor for the anticipated environment are very important steps in
formulating the proper brine packer fluid.
6.7 NaCl Brines
In the presence of entrained oxygen, sodium chloride can be major

contributor to corrosion. The activity of the electrolyte is accelerated by the
dissolved salt. When the salt concentration exceeds 12%, the corrosion rate
decreases below that of water.
6.8 CaCl2 Brines
In laboratory tests, it was demonstrated that the corrosion rate increases

dramatically with an increase in temperature. CaCl2 at 250ºF has a rate of 5
mpy but at 400ºF increases to 55 mpy. However, these high rates will
decrease with longer exposure time. This phenomenon indicates the
consumption of the active corroding elements in the brine.
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6.9 Important Points To Remember
6.9.1 Based on the laboratory observations, the thirty days static test is a
sufficient test period to determine the long term corrosivity of the
inhibited brines.
6.9.2 Commonly used film forming amine corrosion inhibitors degrade

between 250ºF and 300ºF and therefore are ineffective for high
temperature wells. Also many film forming amines are insoluble in
heavy brines.
6.9.3 Calcium brines should not be treated with oxygen scavengers

containing sulfites. These types of chemicals could precipitate calcium
scale and have caused stuck packers on several occasions.
6.9.4 In the field, drilling mud should be properly displaced from the
wellbore with the clean brine. Residual mud materials in the annulus
must be cleaned out mechanically and chemically (scraper,
surfactants...etc.). Mud residue adhering to the metal surfaces can be
sites for under deposit corrosion. The brine should be filtered, solids
content less than 100 mg/l achieved in the field.
6.9.5 If CO2 ingress into the annulus is expected, low calcium or a calcium
free brine should be considered to minimize chances of precipitating
calcium scale. As a rule in CO2 environment, use KCl, NaCl, and NaBr
for brine densities up to 92 pcf.
6.9.6 Fluids of low inherent corrosivity are generally hydrocarbon based.

The low electrical conductivity of these fluids suppresses corrosion
currents. In low pressure wells the hydrocarbon may be diesel or
lease crude. Oil-base or invert-emulsion mud may be used in higher
pressure wells. The clay dispersants and emulsifiers in oil muds keep
water emulsified and metal surfaces oil wetted, thus, further
minimizing conductivity and corrosivity. Both oil soluble and brine
dispersible corrosion inhibitors are sometimes added to hydrocarbons
to insure corrosion protection when inefficient displacement of water-
base mud or brine is anticipated.
6.9.7 Corrosion inhibitors may be added to electrically conductive fluids to

reduce the corrosion rate. Typically, corrosion inhibiting agents
function by scavenging oxygen, electrostatically passivating the metal
surface, or, more commonly by forming a hydrophobic film on the
metal surface that prevents the entrance of corrosion currents into the
surface. Corrosion inhibitors function well in brines. Film forming
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corrosion inhibitors do not provide much protection in water-base

muds since they tend to adsorb strongly on the mud solids.
Bactericides act as corrosion inhibitors by killing bacteria that
generate corrosive by-products.
6.9.8 Control of pH is the primary method of reducing corrosion in water-

base muds. When a brine can tolerate a high pH, elevated pH can
also control corrosion in brines. High pH controls sweet and sour
corrosion by preventing the oxidation of iron by hydrogen ions and by
preventing the growth of sulfate reducing bacteria. A pH greater than
9.5 significantly reduces corrosion of iron. Water-base mud pH should
be adjusted to a stable value between 10.5 and 11.5 prior to
installation of the mud as a packer fluid. The pH of the mud should
remain unchanged following circulation for 48 hours before it is
considered stabilized. This is necessary because mud components
tend to reduce the mud pH with time.
6.10 Corrosion Inhibitors
A water soluble corrosion inhibitor, such as Coat B1400 (or equivalent film
forming amin) for solids - free brines provides excellent protection under
subsurface conditions. A concentration of 1 % by volume is generally
recommended when saltwater is used as a packer fluid or will be left in the
wellbore for extended periods of time. Corrosion inhibitor is not usually
necessary for salt waters that will be circulated out of the well after
completion or workover operations are finished. Most corrosion failures
attributable to packer fluids are observed to occur below circulating valves
and between packers in
multiple completions and in other areas from which mud and fluids are not
removed by normal circulating methods. When such possibilities exist, only
inhibited fluids should be used. For clean oil packer fluid, Coat 415, an oil-
soluble film forming amine is recommended to provide corrosion protection in
Arab"D' wells. In case of casing leaks across the Wasia, the inhibitor should
give some protection. Lab tests are currently being conducted to determine
the optimum concentration required. The use of 3% by volume should
continue until the lab study is completed.
Contamination of the clear packer fluid to be used or left in a well can be

lessened by displacing the drilling fluid with clear untreated fluid, discarding
the returned interface between the fluids, and then circulating the clear fluid
again after the addition of required corrosion inhibitor and biocide additives.
Wastage of corrosion inhibiting chemicals is avoided by delaying their
addition until after the first purge of the well with clear fluid.
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Packer fluids which contain water can support the growth of bacteria.
Bacterial life processes often generate corrosive by-products and bacterial
bodies can plug and damage formation rock. A bactericide should be added
to packer fluids to prevent the growth of bacteria. Increasing the fluid salinity
to saturation and the pH to 10.5 - 11 will prevent growth of bacteria. The
common bactericides used for packer fluid systems contain
paraformaldehyde.
Bacteria can cause sulfide corrosion in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic

conditions). Anaerobic bacteria are able to use hydrogen formed by
electrochemical corrosion to reduce sulfate ions, forming hydrogen sulfide.
This anaerobic process accelerates the electrochemical corrosion, and the
resulting hydrogen sulfide also attacks the steel, forming black iron sulfide
scale and pitting corrosion. lron sulfide scale has caused plugging in injection
wells. The hydrogen sulfide formed can cause tubular goods to fail through
sulfide-stress-cracking/hydrogen-embrittlement under certain conditions.
If untreated packer fluids come in contact with the formation, the bacteria may
damage the formation (Biofouling). This can occur following a period of
bacterial colony growth if the packer fluid is subsequently used as a workover
fluid, or if the packer fails and the fluid leaks into the producing tone.
7.0 HANDLING COMPLETION FLUIDS
The proper handling of well servicing fluids is important to the overall success of
the operation and the safety of the rig personnel. The objective is to safely handle
all fluids while maintaining the volume, density, and clarity or cleanliness of the
fluid to control formation damage
7.1 Transportation (Trucks And Boat Hold Tanks)
The key to all successful completion fluid applications is that the fluids are
maintained clean and contain no particulate matter considered damaging to
the formation. If handling and mixing equipment are not clean, then the
expense and effort used to secure clean, uncontaminated fluid or brine are
wasted.
Visually inspect each tank before any fluid is mixed. Tanks that are not clean
or have any water or other liquid in the bottom must be cleaned and dried.
lnspect the hoses on the water truck to make sure that they are clean. Boat
hold tanks must be visually inspected before any fluid or brine is pumped on
board. If the tanks are dirty, they must be scrubbed clean and dried. If this
cannot be done, they must be rejected. Tank hatches must be resealed and
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the hatch-to-tank gasket area should be caulked to help prevent fluid

contamination should the deck become awash. Be sure that the boat crew
knows not to pump into or out of the fluid tanks when the boat is underway.
Other tanks must be used to even the keel.
7.2 Rig Preparation
One of the most important, but least acknowledged, aspects of using clean
completion fluids or brines is the preparation of the rig before taking or mixing
the fluid into the pits. Most muds are not compatible with brines. Every piece
of equipment that will come into contact with the clean completion fluid must
be meticulously cleaned of muds and other additives. Pits, lines, and valves
that have leaks must be repaired to eliminate loss of expensive brines. Small
pinhole leaks that are plugged by a drilling mud will not be plugged with the
brine. The following recommendations are guidelines for preparing a rig to
use clean fluids:
? Isolate all tanks, pumps, and equipment that will be used to carry or
transport the clean fluid or the solids-free brine.
? Scrub all tanks, circulate detergents and/or surfactants through the
entire system to remove contaminants. Rinse the system with water and
dump the water until it is clean. While the water is circulating, check for
leaks.- remove any additives or other materials in the mixing areas and
store them at some other location.
? Cover all the open pits if rain is expected and keep sack materials dry.
? Store brine in closed tanks to help prevent moisture from being drawn
into the brine and lowering the density.
7.3 Clear Brines
The high cost of brines makes it imperative that inspections be accomplished

in order to ensure the fluid being mixed is the correct volume, density and
clarity. The initial inspection should be performed at the mixing tanks.
Subsequent inspections should be performed whenever brines are
transferred from tanks or vessels.
?? Check the Volume, this can be done by a flow meter when transferring
or by simply checking the tank. Although this may seem simple, costly
errors may be made.
?? Check the Density, the density must be checked with hydrometer .
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?? Check the Clarity, the clarity of the brine should always be checked
when the brine is transferred or mixed to ensure that it did not pick up any
contaminants.
Samples can be sent to the lab for atomic absorption test to determine the
quantity of cations. Anion chromatography will determine the quantity of
anions. Total suspended solids and particle size distribution can be also
measured. Testing on site can be arranged specially if fluid filtration is
required for water injection tests or gravel packing etc...
7.4 Fluid Maintenance
7.4.1 A solids-free system appears to result in less formation damage and

higher productivity. The continued care and maintenance of the fluid
in the system is critical during well servicing operations. The
following steps should be followed:
A) Mixing and storage tanks should be thoroughly cleaned and

visually inspected before each use. All lines and pumps should
be cleaned and inspected.
B) The drilling mud in the casing should always be displaced with a
clean, preferably filtered well servicing fluid.
C) The wellbore should be cleaned to remove as much of the drill
solids from casing walls and fluid system as possible. Over-
displacement with water is the recommended practice. A spacer
of at least 500 feet weighted to the necessary density should be
used when displacing mud.
D) All tanks should have bottom baffles in order to contain settlings.
E) Tank agitators should never be used if clear ,solids free fluid is
being used.. Tanks should be checked often for settlings and
should be cleaned when needed.
F) A mud cleaner with a 325 mesh screen can be used to remove
solids larger than 44 microns. The brine can then be filtered
through 2 micron filters.
G) Tubular goods should be free of rust, scale, and pipe dope.
H) An oxygen scavenger or corrosion inhibitor should be added if
necessary to help prevent the formation of iron oxide particles.
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7.5 Displacement Techniques
The proper displacement technique has a dramatic impact on the operation.

However, the basic displacement format remains the same, regardless of all
other conditions. It is a simple two-step formula:
A) Condition the mud before displacing it.

B) Displace the mud.
7.6 Conditioning Mud
The actual conditioning of the mud must be done before the mud is removed
from the well. This phase is the key factor that determines how clean the well
will be after displacement. The purpose of mud conditioning is to disperse
and evenly distribute all of the solids from the casing inner walls, the
wellbore, tanks, pipes, etc., into the mud. The rheology of the mud is then
adjusted to make it flow more easily during displacement. The mud is
conditioned using both mechanical and chemical methods. The first step to
distribute the solids in the well is, obviously, to circulate the mud in the hole. If
the mud has remained in fairly good condition, it will circulate easily and
evenly distribute the solids. If the solids have packed at the bottom of the well
or annulus, they will have to be washed over or drilled to be dispersed into
the mud. The second step is to remove the wall cake. Once the mud can be
circulated and the bottom of the hole or the required depth is reached, the
mud cake must be removed from the walls. Mechanical scrapers have proven
to be the most effective tools to remove these solids from the casing wall. A
scraper run should be made for each casing diameter. Circulate the mud
through all available solids removal equipment to remove as many solids
contaminants as possible.
Rotating the workstring will improve the removal of solids from the wellbore
while circulating the mud. Most wells are not true vertical holes and some
corkscrewing of the hole is assured as the well is drilled. The workstring will
lie against the low side of the casing / liner wall at various points. Fluid flow is
restricted or virtually nonexistent at these points and solids will collect unless
the workstring is rotated. Rotation of the workstring distributes the fluid flow
path across the entire hole section.
Once the solids are evenly dispersed throughout the mud system, the mud
rheology can be adjusted. Thin the mud as much as possible while it still
retains its ability to hold the solids in suspension. Usually, adding water to a
water-base mud or oil to an oil-base mud is all that is required. Do not use
packaged thinners or build density unless well conditions require this.
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7.7 Displacing Mud
After the mud is conditioned a displacement pad to separate the mud from
the brine can be as simple as single viscous spacer or as complex as several
different pills, each designed to perform one specific function. Let's briefly
look at the intended functions of these pills.
7.8 Displacement of Pads/Spacers.
Spacers may be solids free or solids-laden. Their sole function is to separate

two incompatible fluids. To do this, the spacer must be more viscous than
either of the fluids it separates. The greater viscosity helps to retain the
integrity of the spacer by enabling the spacer to stay in plug or laminar flow at
higher pump rates than the other fluids. However, some intermingling with the
other fluids is probable. Therefore, the spacer must also provide enough
distance between the two other incompatible fluids to keep them from contact
each other. Each spacer should cover at least 500 feet of the annulus at its
largest diameter.
7.9 Chemical Washes
Chemical washes provide a polishing action to remove those solids that

remain in the well. These washes usually have a combination of surfactants
that remove organic contaminants as well as inorganic contaminants. Coarse
materials such as 60/80 frac sand or coarse CaCO3 can be added as
scouring agents.
7.10 Special Techniques
A) Water Flushes: When well conditions permit, the mud can be displaced
and the well cleaned by circulating water downhole. This technique has
certain restrictions. You must be able to answer "yes" to all of the
following questions to successfully use a water flush.
?? Is water readily available and inexpensive ?

?? Is the wellbore isolated from the casing?
?? Will the casing, tubing, and cement bonds withstand the difference
in pressure between the formation pressure and the hydrostatic
head of the water?
?? Can the water and some of the mud be easily, inexpensively, and
safely disposed of ?
If the answer to all of these questions is yes, the well can be flushed
with water. A water flush cleans the well better than any other method.
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Rig time is the greatest cost factor. The chemical cost is essentially
nothing. A viscous pill such as 50 barrels of HEC-seawater with a
viscosity of 150-200 sec/qt should separate the water and the mud if the
mud is to be saved. Another viscous pill should separate the water and
the brine when the water is displaced.
B) Reverse Circulation: The density of the brine and the density of the
fluid that it is displacing will determine the flow path of the fluid during
displacement. The fluid should be pumped down the annulus and up
the tubing or wash pipe when the brine is lighter than the fluid that is
being displaced. The reason for this flow direction follows. Under static
conditions, heavier fluids will sink through lighter fluids due to the force
of gravity. Even though a spacer may separate the two fluids,
commingling of the fluids can occur. When the fluids are pumped down
the annulus, the heavier fluid must be below the lighter weight fluid to
help prevent commingling. Commingling may occur in the tubing, but
this poses little problem to keeping the annulus clean. Conversely, the
flow direction should be down the tubing and up the annulus when the
brine is heavier than the fluid it is replacing. Pressure drop values
should be calculated and compared to tubing burst strengths before a
final decision is made.
7.11 Staging Spacer Densities:
The densities of each spacer should be gradually adjusted. If more than one
spacer is used in line between two fluids of dissimilar weight, use the spacer
with the recommended highest density for the spacer that is next to the
heaviest fluid, and adjust to the lowest density for the spacer that is next to
the lightest fluid. For example, when three spacers are used in line to
displace a 100 pcf mud with an 80 pcf brine, each spacer should be adjusted
to a different density. The spacer next to the 100 pcf mud should weight
slightly less than 100 pcf. The middle spacer should be in the neighborhood
of 90 pcf and the spacer next to the 80 pcf brine should be between 80 and
90 pcf. The reasoning is the same as that used on determining the best flow
direction. A lighter weight fluid should be above the heavier fluid in the
annulus to help prevent or retard commingling.
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7.11 General Displacement Procedures
A general procedure to displace the drilling mud with a well servicing fluid is
usually performed when a bit and scrapper, properly sized for the casing, is
run in the hole on a workstring to PBTD. Four displacement procedures are
listed below as a general guideline for a displacement system. The specific
displacement procedure must be adjusted to fit individual well requirements.
7.13 Displacement of Water-Based Mud Using Seawater Flush
This following general procedures for the displacement of a water base

mud using a seawater flush is intended to highlight relevant points and
state some recommended practices.
A) Circulate and condition the mud to obtain the minimum acceptable yield
point before the displacement.
B) Displace the water base mud with a viscous HEC/seawater spacer
between the mud and the seawater. This spacer should have a funnel
viscosity of 150-200 sec/qt. The spacer volume is usually equal to about
500 feet of workstring annulus at its largest diameter. Circulate the
seawater until contaminants are less than 50 Nephelometer, Turbidity
Units (NTU)
C) Add a chemical wash and circulate two workstring volumes.
D) .Add another viscous HEC/seawater spacer between the seawater and
the brine. The funnel viscosity should be 150-200 sec/qt and the spacer
volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of workstring annulus at its
largest diameter.
E) Follow with clean filtered brine.
F) Filter the brine to a turbidity of 50 NTU.
7.14 Displacement of Oil - Based Mud Using Seawater Flush
This general procedure for the displacement of an oil base mud using a
seawater flush is intended to highlight relevant points and state some
recommended practices. Notice that oil-base systems using highly aromatic
oils will leave an oil sheen on the seawater.
A) Condition the mud before the displacement.

B) Displace the oil-base mud with an oil pad. The volume should be +500
feet of the annulus at its widest diameter.
C) Follow the pad with a viscous HEC/seawater spacer between the oil
pad and the seawater. The spacer should have a funnel viscosity of
200-250 sec/qt. The spacer volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of
workstring annulus at its widest diameter.
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D) Circulate the seawater until the seawater has less than 50 NTU of
solids. Circulate continuously or once through, depending upon
pollution control requirements.
E) Add a chemical wash for oil mud and circulate two full workstring
volumes.
F) Add a viscous HEC/brine spacer between the seawater and the brine.
The funnel
G) viscosity should be 150-200 sec/qt and the spacer volume is usually
equal to about 500 feet of workstring annulus at its largest diameter.
H) Displace with a clean filtered brine.
I) Filter the brine to a turbidity of 50 NTU.
7.15 Balanced Displacement of Water-Based Muds
This following general procedure for the balanced displacement of a water

base mud without using a water flush is intended to highlight relevant points
and state some recommended practices.
A) Condition the mud before displacement.

B) Displace the water base mud with a single pass down hole of the
following spacers:
Spacer 1 This spacer must be compatible with the drilling mud and
must have a yield point greater than that of the drilling mud. The spacer
should be pumped at a high enough rate so it remains in turbulent flow.
The spacer volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of workstring
annulus at its largest diameter. This spacer should be displaced with
weighted brine at least equal to the volume of the spacer. Note the brine
following the spacer will be very dirty and a significant portion will
probably be lost.
Spacer 2 This spacer is a cleaning spacer. This fluid should contain

caustic, surfactant or a cleaning compound that will remove the drilling
fluid from the casing. This spacer should be weighted if necessary to
help prevent an influx of formation fluid, or the returns should be
choked. Sand can be placed in this spacer as an abrasive to clean the
casing walls. More than one cleaning spacer can be pumped, if
desirable. This spacer should be displaced with weighted brine.
Spacer 3 This last spacer is intended to separate the clean filtered well
servicing fluid from the cleaning spacer. It is usually a viscosified pill of
the well servicing brine similar to Spacer 1.
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C) Circulate the clean filtered brine into the well to displace the spacers.
D) Circulate the clean filtered brine into the well to displace the spacers.
E) Circulate and filter until the brine's turbidity is less than 50 NTU.
7.16 Balance displacement of an oil-based mud.
This general procedure for the displacement of an oil-base mud without using
a water flush is intended to highlight relevant points and state some
recommended practices.
A) Condition the mud before displacement.

B) Displace the oil-base mud with a single pass downhole with the well on
choke to control pressure of the following spacers:
Spacer 1: This spacer must be compatible with the drilling mud and
must have a yield point greater than that of the drilling mud. The spacer
should be pumped at a high enough rate so it remains in turbulent flow.
The spacer volume is usually equal to about 500 feet of workstring
annulus at its largest diameter. This spacer should be displaced with
weighted brine at least equal to the volume of the spacer. Note the brine
following the spacer will be very dirty and a significant portion will
probably be lost.
Spacer 2: This spacer is a cleaning spacer. This fluid should contain

caustic, surfactant or a cleaning compound that will remove the drilling
fluid from the casing. This spacer should be weighted if necessary to
help prevent an influx of formation fluid, or the returns should be
choked. Sand can be placed in this spacer as an abrasive to clean the
casing walls. More than one cleaning spacer can be pumped, if
desirable. This spacer should be displaced with weighted brine.
C) Circulate the clean filtered brine into the well to displace the spacers.
D) Circulate and filter until the brine's turbidity is less than 50 NTU.
7.17 Spacers
A spacer is a neutral fluid designed to separate two other fluids without

contaminating either. Spacers are used when changing from one fluid system
to another and are usually used in a cased hole situation. The selection of a
spacer depends upon the fluid in the hole and the fluid that will be used for
displacement. The selected spacer(s) must be compatible with adjacent
fluids. To select a spacer first, determine what type of fluid will be placed in
the hole. Next, decide how the fluid in the hole will be conditioned. Then
select a spacer that will not contaminate the fluid in the hole. The second
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spacer should not contaminate the first spacer. The second, or third spacer
should not contaminate the fluid used for displacement. When a spacer is
used to help scour the casing, it should not contaminate either of the adjacent
spacers. Some of the most commonly used spacers are viscous spacers,
water, weighted spacers, diesel spacers, and frac-sand spacers. General
information about each of these spacers is provided on the following pages.
This chapter is intended to provide guidelines for the use of spacers, but does
not include all available alternatives. Flexibility and judgment will be
necessary when using this information.
7.17.1 Viscous Spacers
The spacer is formulated with HEC and the brine to be used. The
general guidelines to formulate and use the spacer are:
A) Use 1 - 3 ppb HEC, depending upon the type of salt in the fluid.
B) The viscosity will range form 35 to 500+ sec/qt depending on
concentrations and type of make-up fluid. The viscosity is
determined by the types of fluids separated by the spacer. The
spacer should have greater viscosity than the preceding fluid.
C) The volume is determined by rig and hole conditions, and the
method of pumping, i.e., long way or short way. (The long way is
through the tubing or drill pipe and up the casing. The short way
is down the casing or annular space and up the tubing or drill
pipe.)
The purposes of the spacer are:
?? To separate two fluids, thereby preventing contamination.

?? To completely displace the fluid in the hole.
?? To clean the casing and not allow debris to collect on the walls.
?? To serve as a marker fluid to distinguish between two fluids.
The spacer is pumped following one fluid and preceding another, and
then dumped at the surface. Viscous spacers are compatible with
other fluids in use, are less expensive than other spacers, and
perform effectively. They also contain a minimum of solids.
7.17.2 Water Spacers
As the name indicates, water spacers are composed of water in an

amount sufficient to separate the two fluids. The main purposes of
the spacer are:
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A) To separate two fluids.

B) To move fluid out of the wells.
C) To serve as a marker fluid.
The spacer is pumped following one fluid and preceding another, and
then dumped at the surface. The rationale for its selection and use is:
?? Cheap and quick.

?? Usually used with lightweight completion fluids.
?? Convenient, since seawater may already be in the hole.
?? Water spacers are used as a buffer in conjunction with more
elaborate spacers.
7.17.3 Weighted Spacers
Based on the type of mud that will be displaced, there are two types of
weighted spacers
A) A filtered, fresh water, weighted spacer may be used when there

is fresh water mud in the hole. Its contents are as follows:
?? Fresh filtered water.

?? Lime to adjust pH. 0.2-0.5 ppb.
?? Xanthan gum to provide suspension, 0.5 - 1.5 ppb.
?? Calcium carbonate, to a maximum density of 105 pcf. If
greater densities are required, use iron carbonate. For
additional density, use barite.
B) A seawater weighted spacer contains the following ingredients.
?? Seawater treated with soda ash to remove calcium.

?? Sodium chloride, 10.0 ppb.
?? Xanthan gum, 0.5 -1.5 ppb.
?? Calcium carbonate, to a maximum density of 105 pcf.
Greater densities (up to 127 pcf) require iron carbonate.
For additional density, use barite.
The main purposes of the spacer are:
?? To maintain the hydrostatic pressure, thereby keeping the

casing from collapsing.
?? To separate two fluids.
?? To serve as a marker fluid.
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The spacer is pumped following one fluid and preceding another.

Weighted spacers are used when formation pressure requires that a
high hydrostatic head is maintained and/or when water cannot be
used to flush out the casing because of differential pressure.
7.17.4 Diesel Spacers
Diesel spacers are emulsified oil spacers. The purposes of these

spacers are:
A) To wash or clean the pipe.

B) To separate water from an oil fluid.
Usually diesel spacers are used in conjunction with other weighted

spacers

Then, it is placed in a holding tank to avoid pollution. Diesel spacers
are used when changing from water-base to an oil-base systems or
the reverse. The diesel spacer has a tendency to channel when used
alone.
7.17.5 Emulsified Spacers
Contents and Concentrations
A) Emulsified oil.
B) Water, to control viscosity. (The more water, the higher the
viscosity.)
C) Calcium carbonate and/or iron carbonate, to reach desired
density.
D) Diesel.
The purposes of these spacers are:
?? To separate oil muds from brines during displacement.

?? To serve as a marker fluid.

Spacer is held in a special tank upon return to avoid pollution.
The emulsified oil spacer prevents oil mud from becoming thick. Once
pumping is started, make sure to continue pumping until all spacers
are out of the well.
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7.17.6 Frac-Sand Spacers
Frac-sand spacers are always used in conjunction with other spacers.

The basic formulation of the spacer should include the following:
A) Fresh water, approximately 5 barrels.

B) HEC, to viscosity of 200 sec/qt.
C) Frac-sand, 40-50 ppb.
The main purposes of the spacers are:
?? To scour the casing and pipe before displacement.

?? To reduce filtering time by achieving a cleaner displacement,
and therefore, preventing the brine from being contaminated by
drilling fluid solids.
?? To separate two fluids.
For a more effective application:
i) Follow with water.

ii) Then follow with approximately 2 barrels of viscous brine fluid.
iii) Finally, follow with brine.
The frac-sand spacer is selected for its ability to scour the hole. It is
usually used in a hole that has contained fluid over a long period, or a
hole where excessive filter cake has formed.
7.18 Pills
A pill is a mixture, that is different from the fluid that is in the hole. Pills are
used to provide viscosity, to carry debris out of the hole, to prevent lost
circulation, or during perforation. They are usually used in an open-hole
situation.
Some of the most commonly used pills are viscous pills and carbonate pills.
While this presentation material provides some guidance in the use of pills, it
does not represent all available alternatives. Therefore, flexibility and
judgment will be necessary when using these recommendations.
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7.18.1 Viscous Pills
A) Formulation:
The viscosity of the pill can range form 35 to 400+ sec/qt depending
upon the concentration of HEC (0.5 to 5.0- ppb). The viscosity
required depends upon the type and severity of the problem. (Most
pumps will not pump fluids with funnel viscosities greater than 500
seconds.). When a pill is used to carry sand and cuttings out of the
hole, a small amount of xanthan gum (0.1 to 1.0 ppb) may be added
to the HEC for additional carrying capacity.
Xanthan gum can be used in fresh water and sodium chloride fluids.
The purposes of these pills are:
?? To prevent seepage loss to the formation.

?? To carry sand and cuttings out of the well.
B) Applications
When used to prevent seepage loss, the viscous pill is spotted and
sometimes squeezed into the formation. When used to carry sand and
cuttings out of the well, the viscous pill is circulated and dumped at
the surface.
C) Rationale for Selection and Use
HEC is less damaging to the formation than carbonate pills. The

viscous pill can be produced out of the well instead of having to be
acidized.
7.18.2 Carbonate Pill
Contents: Calcium carbonate ( medium and coarse ), make-up fluid,

HEC and, possibly Xanthan gum.
Concentration:
A) For seepage, use 5-10 ppb CaC03 plus 0.5 - 1.0 ppb HEC.
B) For medium loss, use 20-30 ppb CaC03 plus 0.5-1.5 ppb
HEC.
C) For severe loss, use 50-150 ppb CaC03 plus 1.0-2.0 ppb
HEC.
D) Xanthan gum can be used for suspension in brine. It
requires high shear and good mixing to allow the polymer to
54 of 64
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yield and suspend the sized CaC03. If you plan to use 50-
150 ppb of bridging agent in the fluid and spot across
perforations for two hours or more, or if the fluid is to be left
in the well over an extended period of time, Xanthan gum is
required to prevent the settling of CaC03 particles.
7.19 Clear Brine Completion Fluid Displacement
The most important step in preparation for brine displacement is cleaning the
wellbore. Proper procedures should be applied to remove solids and "dirt"
from the well and rig equipment. The casing must be cleaned with a bit and
scraper or hydraulic jets to free mud solids, scale deposits...etc. Tubing must
be scraped and cleaned, inside and out, before being run into the well. If the
wellbore is in communication with producing zones, care must be taken to
avoid losing into the formation the solids and "dirt" freed during well cleanup.
This means a minimum overbalance and the use of sweeping pills. Thick
spacers should be used to separate the clean brine from dirty fluid while
pumping i.e., avoid contaminating the clean brine with drilling mud or packer
fluid already in the hole.
In some cases, the hole could be displaced with clean water, mechanically
scraped and circulated until all solids are removed from the wellbore. The
following spacers are recommended:
A) Scrubber Pill (Volume 10-30 bbl) for displacing water base mud.
?? Fresh water
?? Caustic soda, 1-1.5 lb/bbl
?? 20-40 mesh fracturing sand, 20-30 lb/bbl
B) Scrubber Pill (Volume 10-30 bbl) for displacing oil base mud.
?? Fresh water
?? Metaphosphoric acid, 2-4 lb/bbl
?? Non-ionic surfactant, 25% by volume
?? Degreaser, 2-3% by volume
?? 20-40 mesh fracturing sand, 20-30 lb/bbl
The frac-sand will serve as scouring agent to remove mud cake and scale
from the casing and tubing.
In the case of displacing oil base mud, it is advisable to pump an emulsified

oil pill first (10-30 bbls) having a density of 0.2 pcf higher than the displaced
oil mud density. This pill will be followed by diesel oil (10-30 bbls) with frac-
sand (20-30 lb/bbl) then the scrubber water base pill described above.
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C) High viscosity brine pill volume (10-30 bbls) composed of:

?? The clean completion brine
?? HEC, 1 - 2 lb/bbl
This pill is to be followed by the clean, filtered brine to complete the

displacement. Once displacement is completed, continue circulating the brine
and start filtering if required.
Lost circulation pill (viscous brine pill with the suitable degradable bridging
material) should be prepared and kept on hand before displacement starts.
This pill should be spotted at the perforated interval to minimize fluid losses
into the zone. Proper displacement procedures should always be followed by
the removal of solids and "dirt" from the wellbore and rig equipment. Avoid
contaminating the clean filtered brines with drilling or packer fluids previously
in the hole by using proper spacers.
The following are the common contaminants to be separated from completion

brines:
i) Iron (iron oxide, iron carbonate, iron hydroxide and iron shavings) Iron is
the most serious contaminant for heavy brines. Some iron can give a
dark green gelatinous precipitate and can cause filtering problems. The
Fe++ sometimes changes to Fe+++ (dark reddish brown precipitate)
which is easier to filter because of its loose crystal nature. Some
filtration service companies use HCl to keep the iron in solution and
avoid plugging the filter media. This way they filter the brine easier and
faster. Using HCl will increase the brine acidity and aggravate the
situation. In many cases, leaving the filtered brine in storage tanks a few
days will allow the iron to precipitate out. Adding HCl or any other acid
to the brine or to the filter media should not be allowed.
ii) Pipe Dope: Analysis of downhole plugging materials indicated that iron
compounds and pipe dope were the major constituents.
iii) Mud Additives: Bentonite, barite, illmenite, iron carbonate, iron-oxide,

polymers (CMC, starch, lignosulfonate, etc.) calcium carbonate, asphalt,
waxes, etc.
iv) Mica, cane fiber, cotton seed hulls, walnut
v) Other Lost Circulation Materials (LCM): shells, cellophane, shredded

rubber, etc.
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vi) Drilled Solids: Sand, shale, clay, limestone, dolomite, anhydrite,

gypsum, salt, lignite, plant remains, iron oxide, iron carbonate, mica,
pyrite, etc.
vii) Crude Oil: Asphaltenes and waxes.
viii) Plankton and Bacteria: From seawater or bay water.
ix) Downhole Tools: From seawater or bay water.
There are two different displacement procedures used today. They are
indirect displacement and direct displacement. The choice of procedure
depends on casing-tubing strengths and cement bond log results.
If the bond logs and casing strength data indicate that the casing will
withstand a calculated pressure differential. the indirect displacement
procedure should be used. (Pressure differential = bottom hole pressure -
hydrostatic head due to salt water.) This procedure uses large volumes of
seawater to flush the well, resulting in a clean, solids-free displacement,
reduced spacer costs and lower filtration costs. When applying the indirect
method (reverse circulation) we have to be sure that the pumping pressure
will not exceed the collapse or burst strength of the casing.
If the bond logs indicate that the casing will not withstand the differential
pressure, the direct displacement procedure should be used. This method
does not obtain a clean displacement and expensive filtering will be
necessary. However, undesirable pressure situations are eliminated because
this procedure maintains a constant hydrostatic head.
Both direct and indirect displacement procedures make use of pills and
spacers for effective hole cleaning and spacers for effective hole cleaning
and separation of fluids.
The primary purpose of a spacer is to provide a complete separation of two

incompatible fluids. The spacer must be compatible with both the displaced
fluid (fluid coming out) and the displacing fluid (fluid going in).
Cleaning pills are used to sweep debris out of the hole. Two types of cleaning
pills may be used. A basic cleaning pill is composed of brine viscosified with
HEC. A scouring pill, used to remove mud cake from the inside of the casing,
consists of water, and coarse sand. The scouring pill must be preceded and
followed by a viscous spacer to prevent mixing with other fluids.
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7.19.1 Indirect Displacement Procedure
A) Run bit and scraper.
B) Condition and thin the mud as much as possible while

maintaining correct rheological properties. Circulate the mud
and reciprocate the tubing during this process.
C) Pump seawater down the annulus and up the tubing no faster

than 2 bbl/min. Spot the displaced mud into the desired reserve
tank. The reverse circulation reduces intermingling of the mud
and seawater. Pumping fluid faster than 2 bbl/min creates
turbulent flow and increases intermingling of the mud and
seawater.
D) Prepare a 50 barrel pill of fresh water and caustic soda with a

pH of 12 to 13. Circulate this pill slowly through the entire
system for two circulations, rotate and reciprocate the pipe while
circulating. The high pH helps dissolve the wall cake from the
casing.
E) Chase the pill with clean saltwater and flush until the seawater is
clear.
F) Prepare a 20 barrel spacer of filtered seawater and HEC with a

funnel viscosity of 150 to 200 sec/qt. Reverse circulate the
spacer, pumping at 1 to 2 bbl/min. Follow with the completion
fluid.
G) Pump until the density pumped in equals the density in the flow
line. Dump the spacer.
H) Place the filtration unit on line.
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Direct displacement
( Heavy brine in / light oil mud out )
B
R
I
N
E
Light oil mud ( 68 pcf )
MUD MUD
Spacer - 1 High viscosity oil mud with ( 69 pcf )

500 ft additional Geltone
Spacer - 2 XC- Polymer / mutual solvent ( 69 pcf )

500 ft detergent / barite
Spacer - 3 Brine / water wetting surfactant ( 68 pcf )

500 ft caustic / frac sand
Spacer - 4 High viscosity clear brine ( 70 pcf )

500 ft
B ( 70 pcf )
Heavy brine
BRINE R BRINE
I
N
E
Indirect displacement ( or reverse circulation )
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( Light brine in / heavy water-based mud out )
M
U
D Clear brine ( 70 pcf )
BRINE BRINE

500 ft
Spacer - 3 Brine / caustic / frac sand ( 70 pcf )

500 ft
Spacer - 2
XC- Polymer / detergent / barite ( 73 pcf )
500 ft
Spacer - 1 High viscosity mud ( 74 pcf )

500 ft
M ( 75 pcf )
MUD MUD Heavy mud
U
D
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Indirect displacement ( or reverse circulation )

( Light brine in / heavy oil-based mud out )
M
U Clear brine ( 70 pcf )
BRINE BRINE
D
Spacer - 4 ( 70 pcf )
High viscosity clear brine
500 ft
Spacer - 3 Brine / water wetting surfactant ( 70 pcf )

500 ft caustic / frac sand
Spacer - 2
XC- Polymer / mutual solvent ( 73 pcf )
500 ft
detergent / barite
Spacer - 1 High viscosity oil mud with ( 74 pcf )

500 ft additional Geltone
M ( 75 pcf )
MUD MUD Heavy oil mud
U
D
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Direct displacement
( Heavy brine in / light water-based mud out )
Light mud ( 68 pcf )
Spacer - 1 High viscosity mud ( 69 pcf )

500 ft
Spacer - 2 XC- Polymer / detergent / barite ( 69 pcf )

500 ft
Spacer - 3 Brine / caustic / frac sand ( 68 pcf )

500 ft

500 ft
( 70 pcf )
Heavy brine
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7.19.2 Direct Displacement
Direct displacement is a somewhat tedious procedure which involves

using five spacers in line. Each spacer has a specific use.
Spacer No. 1 is 20 bbl viscosified mud used as a plug to displace the

mud.
Spacer No. 2 and 4 separate the spacer with degreaser from organic
additives in the mud and from the brine.
Spacer No. 3 is a combination scouring-dissolving spacer. The frac-
sand is used to scrape mud off casing walls while the degreaser
caustic dissolves the mud.
Spacer No. 5 is used to separate the solids laden fluids from the
solids free.
A) Pump 20 bbl of mud into slugging pit and increase funnel

viscosity to 80 sec/qt,
B) Run a bit and scraper on the drill string assembly. Circulate the
mud and reciprocate the pipe.
C) Condition and thin mud as much as possible while maintaining
the proper rheological properties.
D) Pump the 20 bbl pill into the annulus. (Spacer No. 1)
E) Follow with a 20 bbl pill of fresh water, xanthan gum(l/2 lb/bbl)
and barite to desired density. (Spacer No. 2)
F) Follow with a 10 bbl pill of fresh water, 1 drum of degreaser 500
lb coarse frac sand and caustic soda to a pH of 12.5. (Spacer
No. 5)
G) Follow with 10 bbl pill of fresh water, xantham gum (12 lb/bbl)
and barite to desired density. (Spacer No. 4)
H) Follow with a 10 bbl pill of the completion fluid viscosified to 150-
200 sec/qt. (Spacer No. 5)
I) Follow with clean brine.
Note: Reverse circulate during steps D through I.
J) Discard all pills. Filter for at least one full circulation after
displacement.
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8.0 SAFETY
High density brines have unique chemical properties. Consequently, they should
be handled in a different manner than conventional muds, especially for safety
reasons.
Personnel safety when handling these brine systems involves two aspects:
1) Education of all personnel

2) Proper safety apparel.
A brine is simply a salt (or a blend of salts) plus water. Low concentrations of these
salts cause little or no problem. Commercially available salts currently used in
Saudi Aramco's fields are:
A) Sodium chloride (NaCl)

B) Potassium chloride (KCl)
C) Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
8.1 Safety Apparel
This is a list of the minimum safety apparel which should be worn when
working with or in the vicinity of brines:
A) Hard hats
B) Chemical splash goggles
C) Rubber gloves
D) Rubber boots
E) Aprons/slicker suits
F) Disposable dust/mist respirators
8.2 Rig Safety Equipment
Following is a list of the minimum safety equipment that should be available

when working on a rig with brines:
A) Eye wash fountains and drench showers

B) Pipe wipers
C) Floor mats
64 of 64

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SAUDI ARAMCO WORKOVER MANUAL

Drilling & Workover Engineering Department May 1999

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS

3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUID ADDITIVES

4.0 SELECTING A COMPLETION FLUID

5.0 SPECIALLY DESIGNED BRINE/POLYMER SYSTEMS

6.0 PACKER FLUIDS

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

7.0 HANDLING COMPLETION FLUIDS

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

Two primary objectives must be accomplished regardless of the well

? Control the well with required density and minimal leak-off

1.1.1 Completion fluids are used for downhole applications such as

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

1.1.2 Workover fluids are the general-purpose fluids such as

1.2 Selection of Fluids

Many factors must be considered before a decision is made on the type of

? Define the operational objectives.

Understanding of the physical and chemical reservoir characteristics

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

degree of damage caused and the effectiveness of the remedial

RESERVOIR FLUID RESERVOIR ROCK

1.3 Fluids Functions

Fluid densities decrease with increasing temperature. The amount of

?? Water soluble salts

Saudi Aramco's recommended practice is not to use insoluble

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

1.3.2 Wellbore cleanout is another major function. Drilled cuttings,

1.3.3 Corrosion protection is an important function of all well servicing

1.3.4 Formation protection is a function of any fluid that may become in

1.3.5 Treating chemical displacement is a very important function of the

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

chemicals and the formation fluids. The wellbore must be also

Electrical logging is greatly affected by the wellbore fluid. Materials

2.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS

1. Oil Fluids: 2. Clear Water Fluids:

4. Conventional Water-Base Muds

5. Oil-based or Invert Emulsion Muds

According to Gray, completion and workover fluids may be categorized as follows:

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

? Fluids containing oil-soluble organic particles

2. Oil-in-Water Emulsions (O/W density)

3. Oil-Based or Invert Emulsion (water-in-oil emulsions)

Following Allen's classification, a description of the different types of completion

2.2.1 Formation water is the produced reservoir water. It is a common

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

All these compounds, if not controlled, may cause serious formation

ABQAIQ PIT BRINE SHOULD NOT BE USED FOR WELL

Abqaiq pit brine analysis ( + 77.5 pcf )

2.2.3 Seawater is frequently used in coastal areas due to its availability.

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

A) They do not contain sized, well-balanced bridging particles, or fluid-loss

Properly sized bridging particles minimizes fluid invasion

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

SEM photo for material ( diatoms ) filtered out of seawater.

D) Seawater usually has a high sulfate concentration (2,600 ppm) which

F) Freshwater is quite damaging to many formations containing

2.3 Oil and Water Emulsions

CHAPTER 3 WORKOVER FLUIDS

Water loving group

Oil loving group

Whether an oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion is formed depends on the