Physiology

Physiology is the study of the normal function of the

human body.

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The body
• The body is composed of
• body systems
• such as
• the nervous or digestive systems.
• The systems are composed of:
• Organs
• Organs are composed of
• tissues .
• A tissue is a group of
• similar cells
• Cells are composed of smaller functional units called
• cell organelles.

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The Cell

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Cell Composition

• The principal parts of a cell are

• the plasma membrane,
• surrounds and contains the cytoplasm and
provides a selective barrier that regulates the
flow of materials into and out of the cell.
• Cytoplasm,
• Consists of the cytosol and organelles and
• Nucleus.
• Contains nucleoli and genes

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 1. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)

• Composed of phospholipids and proteins

• Regulate transportation of dissolved substances e.g.
electrolytes, nutrients, proteins, water.
• Communications between cells, Through receptor sites.
• Identify cells by immune system to provide disease
resistance.
• Provide enzyme function to produce variety of molecules.

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Membrane transport

Cells continually
•take in nutrients, fluids , and chemical
messengers from extracellular environment
•expel metabolites, or the products of
metabolism, and end products of lysosomal
digestion.

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•The mechanism involved:
1) Passive transport;
The movement across a membrane,
occurs from higher to lower concentration
(down a concentration gradient).
•1. diffusion,
•2. filtration
•3. osmosis

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1. Diffusion
•Is the net movement of solute molecule e.g.
glucose or urea from regions of higher to
regions of lower solute concentrations ,until
equilibrium is reached. This difference in
concentration is known as concentration
gradient

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 3. Osmosis

•Water moves from the solution that is more

dilute (low osmolality) to the solution with higher
solute concentration (higher osmolality).
•Solutions are:
- Isotonic (i.e. 0.9% NaCl): have the same osmotic
pressure as plasma.
- Hypotonic: solution with lower osmotic pressure.
- Hypertonic: solution with higher osmotic
pressure.

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2. Filtration :hydrostatic pressure

•Is the movement of water and solutes

(solution) through a membrane because of a
greater pushing pressure (force) on one side
of the membrane than on the other side.
•the blood pressure push water across the
capillary membrane into the interstitial
space.

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2) Active transport
• From low conc. To high conc
(against the concentration
gradient).
• It requires the metabolic energy
(ATP) and involves specific carrier
proteins .
• Sodium is more concentrated on
the outside of the cell, whereas
potassium is more concentrated
on the inside of the cell.
• Example Na+/K+ ATPase pump is
transporting Na + outside the cell
and K + inside the cells
https://youtu.be/_bPFKDdWlCg

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Cytoplasm
Is the jelly like matrix within the cells . It contains
organelles and the cytosol which is the fluid
surrounding the organelles.

• Organelles;
• Lysosomes ;
• Are the Digestive enzymes that digest large
molecules of proteins, polysaccharides, and
lipids into their smaller subunits i.e. amino
acids , glucose and fatty acids .

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• Mitochondria ;
• It serves as major sites for the production of
most of the energy of cells
Glucose +O2 ATP + CO2+ H2O
• Ribosomes ;
• Are small protein factory of the cells , because it
is here that are proteins are produced according
to the genetic information contained in
messenger RNA .
• Endoplasmic reticulum;
• Rough ER bears ribosomes on its surface
• Smooth ER site for enzyme reactions, and
storage of Ca++
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 Cell nucleus

•The nucleus is located at the centre of the cell

inside the cytoplasm. There is a separate
membrane surrounding the nucleus (the nuclear
membrane).
•Most cells in the body have one nucleus except:
- skeletal muscle cells have two or more nuclei.
- mature red blood cells have none.

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Chromosomes are DNA wrapped around proteins to
form an X-shaped structure.

1. Chromosomes are found in the nucleus

2. Chromosomes are made of DNA
3. Sections of chromosomes are called genes

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid

(it is the genetic code that contains all
the information needed to build and
maintain an organism)

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• Within the nucleus are the
chromosomes. All human cells
contain 46 of these bodies
arranged in 23 pairs.
• Chromosomes contain the genes,
which are the genetic information
responsible for making and
controlling the cell.
• The nucleus is the organelle that
contain the DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
acid) of a cell.

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• DNA [Deoxyribonucleic acid]
• is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic
instructions used in the development and
functioning of all living organisms.
• The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term
storage of information, it contains the
instructions needed to construct other
components of cells, such as proteins and RNA
molecules.
• The DNA segments that carry this genetic
information are called genes, but other DNA
sequences are involved in regulating the use of
this genetic information.
• DNA is composed of four different nucleotide
subunits that contain the nitrogenous bases:
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. These
nucleotides forms two polynucleotide chains,
joined and twisted to form double helix .
• The DNA within the cell nucleus is combined with
protein to form chromatin, the thread like
material that form the chromosomes
 Nucleus
Gene

Genetic
mRNA
transcription

cytoplasm

mRNA + ribosomes

Genetic translation

Specific type of protein

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 DNA and cell division
mitosis
• When a cell is going to
divide, each strand of the
DNA acts as a template for
the formation of a new
complementary strand.
Organs grow and repair
themselves through a type
of cell division known as
mitosis.

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 Mitosis
Is the process where a single
cell divides once into two
identical daughter cells
46 chromosome

46 46

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 Meiosis
Gametes (sperm in male
and ovum in female)
contain only half the
number of chromosomes
as their parent cell and
are formed by a type of
cell division called
meiosis.

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Meiosis

Is a process where a
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single cell divides
twice to produce 4
cells containing half
the original amount
of chromosomes

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Recombinant DNA
• is DNA that has been created artificially. DNA from two or
more sources is incorporated into a single recombinant
molecule.
• Scientists have developed techniques for inserting genes
from other organisms into a variety of host cells [bacteria].
Manipulating the cell in this way can cause the host
organism to produce proteins it normally does not
synthesize. Organisms so altered are called recombinants,
and their DNA—a combination of DNA from different
sources—is called recombinant DNA. When recombinant
DNA functions properly, the host will synthesize the protein
specified by the new gene it has acquired. The technology
that has arisen from the manipulation of genetic material is
referred to as genetic engineering.
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important therapeutic substances, including:

• human growth hormone (hGH), required for normal growth

and metabolism
• insulin, a hormone that helps regulate blood glucose level
and is used by diabetics
• interferon (IFN), an antiviral (and possibly anticancer)
substance
• erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone that stimulates production
of red blood cells.

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