Topic 6: Other Related Geological Hazards

Related Geological Hazards

Rainfall-induced Landslides
A landslide, also called “landslip,” is a ground movement on a sloping terrain. Landslides do not
happen on flat grounds. Because of the angle on the ground, gravity induces the land to move downward.
The hazard of landslides can be induced further or aggravated by rain. Water is a natural agent for erosion,
and if rain or any source of water frequently flows down a sloping area, the gravitational descent of
loosened soil makes it possible for landslides to occur. Areas with tropical climates such as the Philippines
experience prolonged rains especially during the wet season.
A high vulnerability to rainfall-induced landslide hazards is characterized by areas with steep
slope, dense population, and denuded ground. Prolonged or frequent rain can saturate the topsoil and
bedrock, making the soil foundation of buildings or structures weak. Without plants and trees whose roots
can absorb water and hold the soil together, subsequent rainwater can continue to loosen up the soils
that anchor the buildings. Eventually, a heavy downpour of rain can quickly destroy these buildings and
communities, giving way to landslides, mudslides, or mudflows.

A truck passes by a house hanging on the edge of the road as landslides hit Tublay town, Benguet
province, northern Philippines. (gulfnews.com.published 14 October 2009)
Source: https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/philippines/twin-typhoon-disaster-toll-in-philippines-gets-close-to-800-1.514186

Sinkholes
Sinkholes are depressions or holes on the ground that resulted from the collapse of the surface
layer of the soil. Sinkholes occur in areas where the soil foundation is made of soft minerals and rocks
such as limestone, salt beds, or any acidic rocks. The rocks can be weakened further by frequent
submersion in water, such as when there is repeated rainfall or an unmanaged flood. The rocks dissolve
in water and gradually weaken, carving and forming spaces and underground passages for water. When
the spaces underground become bigger and the layer of bedrock above it can no longer support the
weight above it, a sudden collapse of the land surface dramatically takes place. The depth of sinkholes
varies from a few meters to even kilometers deep.
 Source: https://dnr.mo.gov/geology/images/sinkholedevelopmentsteps.jpg

Sinkhole discovered in Badain town in Cebu amid heavy rain from Tropical Cyclone Queenie (November 2014).
Source: https://sa.kapamilya.com/absnews/abscbnnews/media/abs-
cbnnews/a_images/access/bandila/bandila112014/sinkhole.jpg

Geologists divide sinkholes into three types of: dissolution sinkholes, cover-subsidence sinkholes,
and cover-collapse sinkholes.

• Dissolution or solution sinkholes. In this type of sinkhole, there is little soil or vegetation over the
limestone or other bedrock. Water from rain and runoff slowly trickles through crevices in the
bedrock, dissolving it. As a result, a depression gradually forms. Dissolution sinkholes sometimes
become ponds if the depression gets lined with debris, trapping water inside. Dissolution
sinkholes happen slowly and are generally not dangerous, but one that becomes a pond can drain
suddenly if water makes it through the protective bottom layer.
 Dissolution sinkhole
https://adventuresoflilnicki.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Bimmah-Sinkhole-Oman-3.jpg

• Cover-subsidence sinkholes. These sinkholes happen in areas where sand covers the bedrock.
The sand filters down into openings in the rock, gradually causing the land surface to sink.
Continued erosion increases the size of the depression. Like dissolution sinkholes, cover-
subsidence sinkholes happen slowly.

Cover-subsidence sinkhole
https://arcwinsurance.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Sinkhole-vs-CGCC-1.jpg

• Cover-collapse sinkholes. In these cases, the bedrock is covered by a layer of clay. Beneath this
ground cover, however, water dissolves an underground cavern. Gradually, ground sediments
begin to erode, or spall, into the cavern from the bottom. The ground continues to crumble from
beneath until only a thin layer remains between the surface and the underground opening. When
that layer collapses, the sinkhole opens up suddenly, swallowing any structures on top. Cover-
collapse sinkhole is the most dangerous type of sinkhole.
 Cover-collapse sinkhole
Source: http://www.cubadebate.cu/noticias/2010/06/03/investigan-el-misterioso-crater-en-guatemala-foto-y-video/

The collapse of the ground can also be triggered by any type of land movement that cause
vibrations such as earthquakes, volcanic activities, and even human development activities such as
construction and industrial activities. Most of the new sinkholes recently discovered are linked to land-
use practices, especially groundwater pumping, ground excavation, and land development. When the land
is altered, the natural water drainage is oftentimes changed as well due to levelling and carving of land. It
should be noted that sinkholes are natural formation that serve as an underground basin or a reservoir of
water. The topmost layer or the surface layer of the ground that covers the hole or cavity is maintained
by the pressure of the groundwater. Hence, this top layer should not be built on by anything heavy or
should not even modified or touched at all. In urban development, however, ground modification cannot
be prevented. This is one reason that sinkholes are formed earlier than unusual or that disasters take
place due to damage or destruction of structures built on areas prone to sinkholes.

Signs of Impending Landslides and Sinkholes

Signs of impending landslides and sinkholes are visible in areas where there are buildings, bridges,
roads, stationary objects, inland water bodies, or vegetation.
For landslides, here are signs of an imminent danger:
1. Springs, water seepage, or water saturated grounds in areas that are not typically wet
2. Soil that loosens and moves away from foundations
3. New cracks or unusual bulges on cemented ground or walls
4. Underground utility lines that are broken due to vibrations or tremors from the surface of the
ground
5. Buildings, poles, walls, and fences that are leaning
6. Sudden rapid flow of creek waters carrying more silted water
For sinkholes, here are signs of an imminent danger:
1. Groundwater that does not provide the same amount and quality as before or has become
cloudy, acidic, silted, or soiled
2. Sign posts or poles that are suddenly leaning, slumping, sagging, slanting, or bent
3. Ponds that have recently formed or puddles that grow or have never disappeared

Scientific Tools for Assessing Landslides and Sinkholes

In some cases, the vulnerability of an area to landslides or sinkholes can be measured and
validated more accurately through scientific instruments:
 For Landslides. In areas that are susceptible to landslides, an Abney level or a laser rangefinder
equipped with a tiltmeter is used to measure the slope angle, soil compaction, and soil strength of an
area. The data determine the level of risk to landslides. The same data can also be used for future terrain
alterations or guide to urban planners to plan a safer structural development in any area.

Abney level Laser rangefinder

Sources: https://www.engineersupply.com/images/Hand-Level-Abney-Level-Dumpy-Level-Article/abney_level_article.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Military_Laser_rangefinder_LRB20000.jp
For Sinkholes. Sinkholes are validated using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to provide images
of subsurface ground. It can detect the type of objects, changes in material, and voids and cracks under a
layer of soil. Good penetration is achieved in soft layers or porous materials such as dry sandy soils or
massive dry materials such as limestone. The measurement can reach up to 15 meters. This is why the
GPR is a good tool in determining whether sinkholes may occur or not because of the relatively accurate
determination of the soft ground underlying the ground surface. The GPR has been widely used in
mapping sinkholes in Bohol and Cebu, where both showed the presence of sinkholes during an earthquake
event in 2013.

Ground penetrating radar used for detecting the type of materials underneath the soil
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ground_Penetrating_Radar_in_use.jpg/220px-
Ground_Penetrating_Radar_in_use.jpg
Using Geohazard Maps
Areas that have the highest vulnerability to rainfall-induced landslides have already been
identified by the MGB of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) through their
Geohazard Mapping and Assessment Program. This program is an ongoing priority project of the DENR
designed to provide accurate and detailed profile of the terrain of the Philippine soils. The maps generated
from this project have combined landslides and flooding hazards as these two are the most common
geologic issues in sloping areas during rainfall.

Map showing the areas in the Philippines most prone to landslides

https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-
uLkOivtLgUw/Ugo5bp_hOuI/AAAAAAAAAII/VN4ZLw53wig/s1600/Philippines.Geohazard.Landslide.Provinces.png

Dark shaded areas of the map indicate the highest susceptibility to landslides. Moderate
susceptibility is green while low is yellow.
Maps on probabilities of sinkholes, on the other hand, have not been generated yet. However,
after recent incidences and discoveries of large sinkholes in other countries, the DENR is encouraging
municipal initiatives to conduct soil drilling/testing using GPR to detect any possible areas for sinkholes.
 Source: https://www.foreclosurephilippines.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Quezon-City_Lslide_Flood-640x557.jpg
Precautionary Measures in Case of a Landslide or a Sinkhole
Once vulnerability and exposure to geohazards is determined and validated through scientific
tools, visible signs, and maps, communities are advised to take precautionary measures to prevent
unnecessary damage to lives and properties.

Landslides
If Your Area Is Prone to Landslides
• Plant more trees, grasses, and other vegetation to prevent erosion and for compaction of soil.
• Build channels for diversion of mudflow or debris flow to direct the flow away from your property.
Make sure though that the diversion does not affect any neighbor or any property and/or cause
more significant damage as a result.
• Do not build your house on or near steep slopes, mountain edges, drainages, or natural erosion
valleys.
Before a Landslide
• Be familiar with your surroundings. Watch for any changes in appearance or position of these
objects. When there is a sudden debris flow, this could be a good indicator of an incoming
landslide.
• Avoid open storm-water drainage and runoff as these areas are likely to receive debris and soil
from higher elevations, especially when there is a storm or heavy rainfall.
• Be updated on news regarding the condition of your area. Beware of the disaster plans of your
local government.
• Learn and participate in emergency response and evacuation plans for your community.
During a Landslide
• Be attentive to unusual sounds such as cracking objects, moving debris, and rolling boulders.
 • Stay away from the path of debris. This is more dangerous if mudflow occurs because it increases
in strength as it meets more water from ponds or streams and it could be aggravated by heavy
rain.
• Stay on an elevated and sturdy area. Avoid low-lying areas and steep slopes.
• If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball and protect your head. Find a structure that can
serve to protect you from the flow of debris.
After a Landslide
• Avoid the slide area. There is still danger of more landslides.
• Listen for the latest emergency information. Follow warnings and instructions by the local
government.
• If the landslide is caused by rainfall, watch out for flooding as it will follow the same path taken
by the debris flow.
• Check for injured or trapped people near the slide, and for damaged structures and other
potential hazards. Report these immediately to the rescuers or authorities.

Sinkholes
If sinkholes are not detected earlier and it appears suddenly, do the following:
• Find refuge in a stable ground or open area.
• Wait until the structures on and around the sinkhole stops moving. Do not attempt to go back
and retrieve your belongings.
• Wait for the local government’s announcement when it is safe to go back.

After a Sinkhole’s Appearance

• Stay away from the sinkhole.
• Monitor the damages on objects. For example, if the crack gets longer or wider, the sinkhole may
still be enlarging.
• Do not throw anything into the sinkhole. Anything thrown into it may contaminate groundwater.
• Secure whatever is left of your properties and relocate to safe grounds, preferably far from this
location because the same bedrock or soil profile may characterize the vicinities of the sinkhole.