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Water by GC
Water by GC
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
to determine the free and total glycerol content of B 100. The reported a GC method to determine glycerol directly in FAME
method is based upon high temperature silylation GC. Glycerol, after reaction with bis(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide
mono-, di-, and triacylglycerols are detected by the method. The (BSTFA) in dimethylformamide (DMF) solvent. Once again, 1,4-
total glycerol content is obtained by summing the free glycerol butanediol was used as internal standard, and the separation was
content with the bound glycerol (i.e., the glycerol content of the performed on a 60 m DB-5 column.
mono-, di-, and triacylglycerols). The silylation reagent is N- Sala and Bondioli (29) compared two methods for the deter-
methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA). A 10 m × mination of residual glycerol. The first of these was a chemical
0.32 mm column coated with a 0.1 µm film of 5% phenylpoly- method based on periodate oxidation of the glycerol to formalde-
dimethylsiloxane is employed. Use of a 1–2 m precolumn is rec- hyde; the second was a high-performance liquid chromatog-
ommended. The column oven is temperature programmed up to raphy (HPLC) procedure. Comparable results were obtained with
380°C via a multi-ramp program, and on-column injection is both methods, although each approach had its unique advan-
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
column was temperature programmed to 350°C. Split injection and found diacylglycerol content in some soy samples by the
was employed. BSTFA was employed as the silylation reagent. HPLC method. Subsequent LCMS experiments suggested this
Analysis time was on the order of 12 min. was due to the co-elution of oxidized FAME components with the
Mariani and co-workers (35) also described a similar silylation diacylglycerols.
GC method to determine mono-, di-, and triacylglycerols as did Holcapek et al. (43) employed non-aqueous reversed phase
Plank and Lorbeer of the University of Vienna (36,37). In Plank’s HPLC with UV (205 nm), evaporative light scattering (ELSD) and
work, MSTFA was used as the derivatization agent, and samples APCI mass spectrometric detection to characterize products of
were separated on a 10 m × 0.32 mm DB-5 column with a 0.1 µm transesterification reactions. A detailed discussion of the relative
film. A 2 m pre-column was employed. Hydrogen was the carrier performance of each detection method was provided. A dual step,
gas. The internal standards were the same as those later adopted ternary gradient was found to give good separations of free acids,
by ASTM and the EN: 1,2,4-butanetriol and tricaprin. Recovery of methyl esters, and mono-, di-, and triacylglycerols. The three
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
The use of ion-exchange chromatography coupled to pulsed columns show slightly different selectivities. For example, the
amperometric detection has also recently been described and is C20:0 FAME elutes prior to the C18:3 on the biscyanopropyl
under evaluation by ASTM for the determination of free and total polysiloxane based phase. Figure 4 contains chromatograms of a
glycerol (51,52). Free glycerol is determined after aqueous soy-based and a beef tallow B100 on a PEG phase. Note the more
extraction of the biodiesel sample. Total glycerol is determined complex distribution of FAME in the beef tallow compared to the
after saponification and extraction. soy. Figure 5 contains a chromatogram of soy FAME on a bis-
SEC has been employed by a number of research groups to cyanopropyl phase. Comparison with Figure 4A illustrates the
separate biodiesel components. This technique is especially differences in selectivity for soy FAME components on this and
useful to monitor the extent of transesterification reactions. the PEG column. Also note the differences in analysis time.
Trathnigg and Mittelbach (53) used a coupled system of a CN Among more recent studies of GC FAME separations are those
normal phase column connected to 100 Å and 500 Å Styragel of Yamamoto and co-workers (65) who discussed separation of
GC Methods
The literature on GC separations of FAMEs is extensive (61),
and a comprehensive discussion of FAME analysis by GC is Figure 4. Chromatograms of soy methyl esters (A) and beef tallow esters (B)
on DB-Wax column. Peak assignments: A = C14:0; B = C16:0; C = C16:1;
beyond the scope of this work. The separation of FAME mixtures
D = C17:0; E = C17:1; F = C18:0; G = C18:1, H = C18:1; I = C18:2; J =
by capillary GC is typically performed on polar phases, most C18:3; K = C18:3; L = C18:3; M = C20:0; N = C20:1; O = C22:0. Column:
commonly polyethylene glycol (PEG). More recently bis- 60 m × 0.25 mm DB-Wax, 0.25 µm film; Column temperature: 210°C
cyanopropyl polysiloxane based phases have been employed to isothermal.
enhance the separation of cis-trans isomers (62–64). The two
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
Hartig (102) obtained retention times and mass spectra on The EN chromatographic method for determining biodiesel in
more than 130 FAME with carbon numbers ranging from 4 to 24 middles distillates is EN 14331 (116). This method provides a dis-
carbons. Retention times on multiple columns were obtained tribution of FAME components in the biodiesel, although it
that enabled more reliable identification of FAME. could be readily extended to include determination of the abso-
lute amount by the addition of an internal standard. In this
LC and SFC method, the sample is loaded onto a silica SPE cartridge followed
A number of LC techniques have also been employed to char- by elution with hexane to remove the diesel fuel. FAME compo-
acterize FAME mixtures (103). In particular, silver ion complex- nents are eluted with diethyl ether. This fraction is then sepa-
ation has been used to enhance the separation of unsaturated rated on a PEG capillary column.
FAME (104,105). Gaudin and co-workers (106) recently exam- Wawrzyniak and co-workers (117) directly separated FAME
ined the use of graphitic carbon for the separation of FAME. components in biodiesel–diesel blends without pre-separation by
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
Analysis times were 5 min. For soy-derived materials, the UV and ation turbine fuels for the presence of FAME, and Read and
ELSD detectors gave comparable results. However, the use of the Hooks have discussed alternate analytical methods currently
ELSD detector was preferred because its response was more uni- under development for trace levels of FAME in aviation turbine
form for all FAME components and could be more readily used fuels (132).
for B100’s from different sources. In contrast, the response of the
UV detector was a function of the amount of unsaturated FAME.
Kaminski and co-workers (124) developed a method to deter-
mine aromatic hydrocarbons (by ring number) and FAME in VII. Trace Biodiesel Impurities in B100 including
diesel blends by HPLC. A LiChromspher NH2 column was used Sterols and Tocopherols
to achieve the separation. Quantitative analysis was by refractive
index although a diode array detector was placed in series to aid After transesterification, a number of trace impurities in addi-
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
to analysis, samples were silylated. Betulinol was added as order of 3–4 min. Bostyn and co-workers used HPLC to study the
internal standard. The column was a 10 m × 0.32 mm DB-5 with degradation of tocopherols in rapeseed FAME (141), while
a 0.1 µm film. On-column injection was employed. The column Frohlich and Schober have studied the effect of tocopherols on
oven was programmed in three stages up to 350°C. Six free the oxidative stability of FAMEs (142).
sterols were observed (β-sitosterol, campesterol, brassicasterol,
cholesterol, stigmasterol, and ∆5-avenasterol, in order of
decreasing concentration). Total free sterol concentrations in six
rapeseed methyl esters ranged from 0.34 to 0.50 wt%. On VIII. Sterol Glucosides
average, β-sitosterol accounted for 47% of the total followed by
campesterol (34%) and brassicasterol (13%). The sterol esters Sterol gluocosides consist of a sugar unit glycosidically linked
were not completely separated from each other and were to a sterol. Sterol glucosides are initially present in vegetable oils
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
Moreau and co-workers (149) also investigated methods to adulteration. A few examples are provided here. Aparicio and
confirm the presence of sterol glucosides in biodiesel precipi- Aparicio-Ruiz (161) reviewed the use of chromatographic tech-
tants. Both normal and reversed-phase HPLC methods were niques to identify adulteration of vegetable oils. Although their
employed with UV, ELSD, and mass spectrometric detection. A focus was primarily on the adulteration of olive oil, many of the
quantitative method to determine sterol gluocosides in precipi- concepts they discussed are applicable to identifying the source
tants was developed based on isocratic normal phase HPLC with and possible contamination of B 100. Reported tools for
ELSD detection. Ng and co-workers (150,151) have studied the detecting adulteration include determining the distribution of
formation of precipitants in biodiesel derived from a number of FAME components, the composition of triglycerides and the dis-
sources. They used silylation (MSTFA) GC with FID detection to tribution of sterols and tocopherols. The latter topic was briefly
characterize these precipitants. Both sterol glucosides and addressed above in regard to soy and rapeseed B100.
monoglycerides were identified in precipitants. Figure 10 con- Fan and co-workers (162) determined the FAME distribution
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Journal of Chromatographic Science, Vol. 49, May/June 2011
2. EN 14214. Automotive fuels—Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for diesel 36. C. Plank and E. Lorbeer. Quality control of vegetable oil methyl esters used as
engines—Requirements and test methods. diesel fuel substitutes. Quantitative determination of mono-, di- and triglycerides
3. M.R. Monteiro, A.R.P Ambrozin, L.M. Liao, and A. G. Ferreira. Critical review on by capillary GC. J. High Resolut. Chromatogr. 15: 609–612 (1992).
analytical methods for biodiesel characterization. Talanta 77: 593–605 (2008). 37. C. Plank and E. Lorbeer. Simultaneous determination of glycerol, and mono- di-,
4. G. Knothe. Analytical methods used in the production and fuel quality assess- and triglycerides in vegetable oil methyl esters by capillary gas chromatography.
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5. G. Knothe. Analyzing biodiesel: standards and other methods. J. Am. Oil Chem. 38. R. Wawrzyniak and W. Wasiak. Determination of acylglycerols in diesel oils by
Soc. 83: 823–833 (2006). GC. Toxicol. Mech. Method 18: 531–536 (2008).
6. G. Knothe. The Biodiesel Handbook, G. Knothe, J. Van Gerpen and J. Krahl, Eds. 39. M. Lechner, C. Bauer-Plank, and E. Lorbeer. Determination of acylglycerols in
AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, 2005, pp. 149–164. vegetable oil methyl esters by on-line normal phase LC-GC. J. High Resolut.
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64. P. Delmonte and J.I. Rader. Evaluation of gas chromatographic methods for the 95. P. Dugo, F. Cacciola, T. Kumm, G. Dugo, and L. Mondello. Comprehensive mul-
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123. T.A. Foglia, K.C. Jones, and J.G. Phillips. Determination of biodiesel and triacyl- 147. V. Van Hoed, N. Zyaykina, W. De Greyt, J. Maes, R. Verhe, and K. Demeestere.
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