ANALYSIS OF CLOGGING IN DRIP EMITTERS

DURING WASTEWATER IRRIGATION

D. C. Cararo, T. A. Botrel, D. J. Hills, H. L. Leverenz

ABSTRACT. The use of wastewater for crop irrigation is a practical alternative to the discharge of wastewater treatment plant
effluents to surface waters. However, clogging of drip emitters is often encountered when wastewater is distributed using drip
irrigation systems. Experiments were conducted using 15 different types of drip emitters to identify emitter susceptibility and
techniques to mitigate the potential for clogging. Chlorine and compressed air were applied at the end of the irrigation cycle
to test their effectiveness in mitigating clogging. Chlorination at 0.5 g m-3 of free chlorine residual at the end of the each
irrigation cycle was found to attenuate clogging more effectively relative to the control and compressed air treatments.
Compressed air cleaning at low pressures of 1.96 kPa was not effective in mitigating the effects of clogging in drippers. The
best performing emitter consisted of a flat body style with a rectangular elastic membrane (pressure compensated and
self-cleaning device) and relatively short pathway.
Keywords. Wastewater, Emitter clogging, Effluent, Chlorination, Compressed air, Filtration.

H
uman population growth and activities have con-
tributed to an increase in food and water con-
sumption, and, consequently, to increased waste
production. A shortage of potable water and wide-
spread water pollution are current realities in many countries.
Partially treated effluents from wastewater treatment plants
are generally discharged to rivers, causing a variety of envi-
ronmental and economic impacts. The same effluents that
have negative effects when discharged to aquatic systems
may have beneficial effects when appropriately used in agri-
cultural systems. Domestic wastewater effluent can be used
as a source of water and nutrients in agriculture, as described
by Pescod (1992). According to Ayers and Westcot (1991),
the application of wastewater to agricultural land using
trickle irrigation, especially the drip irrigation system, is
among the safest methods for managing wastewater efflu-
ents.
Although recent research on emitter design and pretreat-
ment has advanced the technology (Nakayama and Bucks,
1991; Ravina et al., 1997; Hills and Brenes, 2001), clogging
remains a problem in wastewater drip irrigation systems.
Organic material sedimentation, bacterial growth, iron
oxidation, high sulfur content, and high pH values (>7),
promote biofilm growth and obstruction of drip emitters and
irrigation lines. Because of the potential benefits of the use
Article was submitted for review in July 2005; approved for publication
by the Soil & Water Division of ASABE in December 2005.
The authors are Denis Cesar Cararo, Professor, Universidade Federal
de Lavras (UFLA), Departamento de Engenharia – DEG/Campos da
UFLA, Lavras, MG, Brazil; Tarlei Arriel Botrel, Professor, Escola
Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (ESALQ) – Universidade de São
Paulo (USP), Piracicaba, SP, Brazil; David J. Hills, ASABE Member
Engineer, Professor, Department of Biological and Agricultural
Engineering, University of California, Davis, California; and Harold L.
Leverenz, PhD Candidate, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of California, California. Corresponding author:
Denis C. Cararo, Rua Américo Brasiliense, 1458, Jardim Alvorada, zip
code: 87033-420, Maringá PR Brazil; phone: 55 + 44 + 3267−6218; e-mail:
deniscesar@yahoo.com.br.
of wastewater in drip irrigation, it is important to find
economical and environmentally friendly techniques to
control biofilm formation. Settlement tanks, filtration,
chlorination, acidification, ozonation, ultraviolet radiation,
and flushing of irrigation lines are some of the techniques
used to control clogging that have been reported in the
literature (Oron et al., 1979; Gilbert and Ford, 1986; Jackson
and Kay, 1987; Hills and El-Ebaby, 1990; Meyer et al., 1991;
Nakayama and Bucks, 1991; Teltsch et al., 1991; Avnimelech
et al., 1993; Diab et al., 1993; Tajrishy et al., 1994; Rav-Acha
et al., 1995; Unkroth et al., 1997; Hassen et al., 2000; Hills
et al., 2000). In addition, the identification of emitters with
low susceptibility to clogging is important.
The objectives of this study were (1) to evaluate drip
emitters for their susceptibility to clogging and (2) to
evaluate techniques to attenuate clogging in the drip system
during irrigation with domestic secondary wastewater.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Three experimental trials were conducted. First, a labora-
tory experiment was conducted to determine the initial flow
rate for 15 different drip emitter models. In addition, the new
emitters were evaluated to determine the coefficient of flow
rate variation, the uniformity of distribution, and the
characteristic equation of each emitter. The 15 emitter
models tested were selected based on their regional availabil-
ity and are representative of the current technology. An
emitter classification was adopted and each emitter was
assigned a letter designation, as presented in table 1.
Characteristics of the emitter pathway, including length,
narrowest section, and depth were measured under magnifi-
cation and are also shown in table 1.
For each of the 15 emitter models described in table 1, a
sample of 50 emitters of each type was tested at a pressure of
98 kPa ± 1.02%, using an experimental setup consisting of
a KSB pump (model P-1000), a 100-micron weave wire

Applied Engineering in Agriculture

Vol. 22(2): 251-257 E 2006 American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers ISSN 0883−8542 251
 Table 1. Summary of commercial name, letter designation and characteristics of fifteen drip emitters evaluated.
Emitter Characteristic
Suggested
Emitter Insertion Pathway Design Emitter Shape Pressure Compensating
Emitter Emitter Pressure
Commercial Letter Range Embedded Short and Long and Rectangular Circular
Name Designation (kPa) In-Line in Wall On Line Tortuous Tortuous Flat Cylindrical Circular Membrane Membrane
DripIn PC A 50−300 X X X X
Ram B 50−300 X X X X
Hydro PC C 50−300 X X X X
Hydrogol D 50−175 X X X
DripIn Classic E 50−300 X X X
Agrazud F 50−300 X X X
Carbodrip G 50−300 X X X
GFT H 50−300 X X X
Naan Paz I 50−300 X X X
Hydrodrip II J 50−175 X X X
Aquatraxx K 30−100 X X X
Goldendrip L 40−140 X X X
Chapin M 40−140 X X X
Azudline N 50−300 X X X
Streamline O 50−175 X X X

nylon disk filter, a 22-micron weave wire nylon screen filter,  SD 

a pressure regulator valve, and a digital pressure gauge. The
flow rate from each emitter was determined using plastic
reservoirs to collect water for weighing and a digital
chronometer. The water volume collected from each emitter
after 10 min of operation was weighed and the flow rate (q)
was determined using equation 1. The total flow rate was
obtained from the sum of the emitter flow rates. The water
temperature was measured at the middle of the each drip line
and was found to be 26°C ± 1°C.
W in equation 3. Under ideal flow conditions (no clogging or
q=
t ⋅ 0.997
where
q = emitter flow rate (L h-1)
W = water volume weighed (kg)
t = time for collection of water volume (h)
0.997 = conversion factor for water at 26°C (kg L-1)
From the 50 emitters, the 10 emitters with the lowest flow
rate variation relative to the average were further tested at six
different pressures, and categorized according to emitter
model. A digital pressure gauge (accuracy of ±1.02%) was
used to measure the pressure at the beginning of the drip lines
for each flow rate evaluations. The operating pressures and
emitter model combination were as follows: 50, 100, 150,
200, 250, and 300 kPa for emitters A, B, C, E, F, G, H, I, and
N; 30, 44, 58, 72, 86, and 100 kPa for emitter K; 40, 60, 80,
100, 120, and 140 kPa for emitters M and L; and 50, 75, 100,
125, 150, and 175 kPa for emitters D, J, and O. Further,
equations defining flow rate as a function of pressure were
determined based on this trial. Equations were also applied
for the quantitative evaluation of emitter performance. The
coefficient of flow rate variation, as shown in equation 2, is
a statistical measure of the deviation of the emitter flow rate
from its mean flow rate. A low value of coefficient of flow
rate variation is indicative of flow rates closely grouped
around the mean.
CV =   100 (2)
X 
 q 
where
CV = coefficient of flow rate variation (%)
SD = standard deviation (L h-1)
X q = average flow rate (L h-1)
Another parameter used to describe the variability of flow
in irrigation systems is the uniformity of distribution, shown
(1) overflow), the value of uniformity of distribution would be
equal to 100%.
q 
DU =  25%  100
(3)
 X 
 q 
where
DU = distribution uniformity of water (%)
q25% = average 25% minimum flow rate (L h-1)
In the second experimental trial, a field investigation was
conducted at a wastewater treatment plant located in
Piracicaba, Brazil. Following sand filtration and screening,
secondary effluent was applied daily for 12 h/d through the
drip emitters for a total of 373 h. The sand filter media had
an effective size of 0.59 mm. After sand filtration, the water
was filtered through a 100-micron weave wire nylon disk
filter and an 80-micron weave wire nylon screen filter. The
effluent water quality applied to the drip emitters, obtained
from weekly effluent samples measured in the second and
third trials, is presented in table 2. Two drip lines for each of
the 15 emitter models (fig. 1), were assembled and tested on
the soil surface. Characteristics of the test arrangement,
including the length of the laterals, spacing of emitters, and
operating pressure are shown in table 3. The initial segment
of the laterals had a length equal to the spacing of the emitters
for each emitter model. While the drip lines used in this
research are shorter than those used in some irrigation
applications, due to the close emitter spacing, it is assumed

252 APPLIED ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE

 Table 2. Effluent water quality used for evaluation of clogging Table 3. Characteristics of operation used in the second trial.
in drip emitters during second and third trial. Length of the Spacing of the Operating Pressure
Standard Emitter Lateral (m) Emitters (m) (kPa)[a]
Parameter Unit Concentration Deviation A 18.75 0.75 109.45
Biochemical oxygen demand g m−3 20 6.3 B 16.25 0.65 108.58
Chemical oxygen demand g m−3 77 13.2 C 20.00 0.80 107.83
Total solids g m−3 314 11.6 D 10.00 0.40 106.91
Total suspended solids g m−3 23 8.2 E 12.50 0.50 105.85
Total dissolved solids g m−3 291 5.4 F 15.00 0.60 104.90
Ammonium g m−3 0.6 0.5 G 12.50 0.50 103.59
Nitrate g m−3 23.3 6.8 H 7.50 0.30 102.19
Phosphorous g m−3 2 1.2 I 18.75 0.75 101.08
Potassium g m−3 9.3 1.2 J 15.00 0.60 98.74
Calcium g m−3 23.8 1.9 K 15.00 0.60 97.24
Magnesium g m−3 6.4 1 L 7.50 0.30 95.26
Sodium g m−3 34 3.6 M 5.00 0.20 92.80
Sulfate g m−3 48 5.4 N 7.50 0.30 92.64
Iron g m−3 0.05 0.02 O 5.00 0.20 91.26
Manganese g m−3 0.05 0.02 [a] Measured using a gauge with accuracy of ± 1.02%.
Total coliforms MPN/100 mL 5.46 104 2.19 104
Fecal coliforms MPN/100 mL 2.30 104 1.77 104
The degree of clogging, coefficient of flow rate variation,
Turbidity NTU 39.3 11.6
pH Unitless 7.3 0.4
and uniformity of distribution were calculated and compared
to the flow rate obtained in the first trial.
Several emitters were selected, disassembled, and ex-
that the mechanisms of clogging in drip emitters are
amined under magnification to determine the mechanism of
independent of the line length.
clogging and the relationship between clogging and pathway
During the field investigation, the drip lines were operated
characteristics. It was found that there was a correlation
at optimal flow rate and pressure range, as determined in the
between the length of the emitter pathway and the degree of
first trial. Pressure in the drip line was measured at the
clogging. Emitters with similar pathway characteristics were
beginning of the drip lines using a gauge with a quick
grouped together for the purpose of correlating the pathway
coupling adapter to minimize changes in the water pressure.
length to the degree of clogging.
After 373 h of wastewater application, the flow rate of all
The third and final experiment was conducted with four
emitters at a line pressure of 98 kPa ± 1.02% was measured
emitter models: two emitters with the poorest performance
using a volumetric method over a 5-min interval. The degree
and two emitters with the best performance in the second
of clogging (DC) was calculated using equation 4 for each
trial. The four emitter models (B, D, E, and M) were selected
emitter model.
according to the degree of clogging, coefficient of flow rate
 q  variation, and the probability analyses obtained during the
DC = 1− used  100
 (4) previous experiments. Four experimental treatments were
 q new  applied to control clogging with each emitter type: (1) filtra-
where tion only, (2) filtration and chlorination, (3) filtration and
DC = degree of emitter clogging of the emitter model (%) compressed air, and (4) filtration and combined chlorination
qused = average flow rate after use of the emitter (L h-1) and compressed air.
qnew = average flow rate when the emitter were new (L h-1) The filtration treatment in the third experiment was
As shown in equation 4, the DC value is based on the ratio identical to that used in the second experiment; the other
of the used emitter flow rate to the new emitter flow rate. A treatments were modified as follows. For the chlorination
low DC value is representative of an overall reduction in the treatment, chlorine was injected at the end of the each
flow rate after usage compared to the measured flow rate irrigation cycle until a free chlorine residual of 0.5 g m-3 was
value when new. obtained at the end of the drip irrigation system. The chlorine
reacted with the wastewater for approximately 15 min before
discharge through the emitters. The compressed air treatment
Pump and filters
was applied between irrigation cycles, after flushing water
O O out of the irrigation lines, until an air pressure of 1.96 kPa was
N N
M M obtained in the drip irrigation line. The combined chlorina-
L L
K K tion and compressed air treatment was used to dry the
J J emitters after wastewater dosing and was considered to be an
I I
H H alternative approach to control biofilm growth in the emitters
G G with the advantage of using less electrical energy than the
F F
E E high air pressures noted in the literature and cited in the
D D
C C introduction of this article. Air pressure was measured using
B B a manometer and the air flow rate was determined volumetri-
A A
cally at the emitter outlet at the end of the most distant lateral.
Figure 1. Experimental setup of the second trial, main line and laterals of A citrus orchard was irrigated during the third experimen-
emitters models A to O. tal trial using an irrigation regime based on a water balance

Vol. 22(2): 251-257 253

for the crop. The irrigation system operating pressure was
maintained at 98 kPa ± 1.02% for all drip emitters measured
at the beginning of the drip lines. Volumetric flow rate
evaluations were conducted after 62, 152, and 229 days,
corresponding to 34, 58, and 67 h of irrigation, respectively.
For the flow measurements, 75 emitters (i.e., three drip lines
each containing 25 emitters) per emitter model were
evaluated for each of the four treatments. The lateral length
and emitter spacing used in the second trial were also used for
the third trial.
A probability analysis was used to evaluate the effective-
ness of the four experimental treatments. For each treatment,
the percent of emitters for each model that yielded a flow rate
within ± 5% compared to the initial flow rate (considered to
be “good” operation) was determined for the data at 373 h in
the second trial and after 34, 58, and 67 h in the third trial.
Further, the degree of clogging and coefficient of flow rate
variation data from the second and third trials were analyzed
using an F test. A regression analysis of the degree of
clogging as function of time in the third trial was also
conducted.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the course of the experimental trials, it was found
that there were significant differences between the emitters
models related to the emitter design characteristics and
susceptibility to clog. The results of the three experimental
trials are presented in the following discussion according to
their sequence in the research.
RESULTS OF FIRST TRIAL
The clean water new emitter flow rates ranged from 0.89
to 2.72 L h-1 (see table 4) and were similar to the nominal flow
rates. The narrowest section in the pathway varied from 0.4
to 1.0 mm; pathways less than 1 mm are considered to be
susceptible to clogging (Rodrigo López et al., 1997). The
coefficient of flow rate variation (CVnew) and the uniformity
of water distribution (DUnew) for new emitters were both
within acceptable limits, with values less than 10% and more
than 90%, respectively. In case of the emitter D, the
coefficient of flow rate variation of 10.3% was considered to
be acceptable for this research.
The emitter equations are presented in table 4. Most of the
emitters tested (D through O) controlled flow rate by
inducing turbulent flow in a tortuous path. However, as
shown in table 4, with the exception of O, the hydraulic
regime is not completely turbulent as determined using the
hydraulic regime coefficient (x), where an exponent value of
0.5 indicates turbulent conditions and a value of 1.0 indicates
laminar conditions. Linear equations are used to describe the
flow rate curves for pressure compensated emitter models (A,
B, and C).
RESULTS OF SECOND TRIAL
The results from the second phase of the experiment are
shown in table 5. The values of the coefficient of flow rate
variation after 373 h of operation (CV373h) ranged from 5.2%
to 28.0%, with an average value of 12.8%, while the
uniformity of distribution (DU373h) ranged from 57.8% to
93.3%, with an average value of 83.8%. The classification of
coefficient of flow rate variation values is as follows (ASAE
Standards, 1988): 0 to 5 excellent, 10 to 15 good, 20 to 25 fair,
30 to 35 poor, and below 40 are unacceptable. Similarly,
classification of uniformity of distribution values is as
follows (ASAE Standards, 1988): 94 to 100 excellent, 81 to
87 good, 68 to 75 fair, 56 to 62 poor, and below 50 are
unacceptable.
There was little variability in the wastewater effluent
quality used in the study. Therefore, the values of coefficient
of flow rate variation and uniformity of distribution present-
ed in table 5 are attributed to characteristics of the emitters
and not to variability in the effluent water quality.
In general, the coefficient of flow rate variation increased
after 373 h of operation, compared to the results obtained in
trial 1. There was a slight improvement in the coefficient of
flow rate variation for emitter D (9.8%) compared to the
value shown in table 4 (10.3%). The slight decrease in the

Table 4. Emitter characteristics including the emitter equation coefficients (K and x) and the coefficient of regression (R2).
Equation Coefficients[a][b] LP[c] SP DP qnominal qnew CVnew DUnew
Emitter K x R2 (mm) (mm) (mm) (L h-1) (L h-1) (%) (%)
A 2.6252 −0.0009 0.7149 135 1.0 0.8 2.29 2.55 4.1 94.8
B 1.6322 −0.0003 0.9992 30 1.0 0.8 1.60 1.61 1.7 97.9
C 1.9727 0.0005 0.8981 126 0.8 0.8 2.00 2.06 4.0 96.0
D 0.1357 0.6466 0.9984 200 1.0 0.8 2.20 2.61 10.3 91.3
E 0.1209 0.5548 0.9991 170 1.0 1.0 NI[d] 1.61 4.9 94.1
F 0.0830 0.7190 0.9845 314 1.0 1.0 2.30 2.13 7.3 95.1
G 0.2356 0.4976 0.9897 140 1.0 1.0 2.20 2.34 2.2 97.3
H 0.1652 0.6073 0.9999 70 0.8 0.8 2.30 2.72 9.7 91.1
I 0.1517 0.5269 0.9967 155 0.6 0.8 1.70 1.76 2.1 97.6
J 0.1534 0.5416 0.9999 45 1.0 0.8 1.70 1.85 2.1 97.6
K 0.1269 0.5690 0.9982 250 1.0 0.4 1.40 1.73 1.9 97.7
L 0.1085 0.5955 0.9987 105 0.8 0.8 1.70 1.70 7.9 91.0
M 0.0616 0.5747 0.9976 175 0.8 0.8 NI 0.89 2.4 97.3
N 0.1820 0.5326 0.9990 100 1.0 0.8 NI 2.13 2.2 95.4
O 0.1130 0.4800 0.9994 175 0.4 0.5 1.05 1.03 3.0 96.2
[a] Linear flow rate equation for emitters A, B, and C: q = x (pressure, kPa) + K.
[b] Power series flow rate equation for emitters D through O: q = K (pressure, kPa)x.
[c] Length (LP), narrowest section (SP) and depth of the emitter pathway (DP); nominal flow rate informed by the manufacturer (qnominal); flow rate of
new emitters (qnew), coefficient of variation of new emitters (CVnew), and uniformity of distribution of the new emitters (DUnew).
[d] Not Informed (NI).

254 APPLIED ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE

 Ó
Table 5. Coefficient of flow rate variation (CV373h), uniformity 30 Clogging

Degree of clogging (%)

of distribution (DU373h), and probability of emitters in 25
good operation (P373h) after 373 h of irrigation. Overflow
20
CV373h DU373h P373h 15
Emitter (%) (%) (%) 10

Ó ÓÓÓ ÓÓ
A 10.3 87.6 1 5
0

ÓÓ ÓÓ
B 7.0 92.8 61
−5

C 8.3 89.3
D 9.8 90.5
E 28.0 57.8
F 20.6 71.5
G 5.2 93.3
H 15.5 83.2
I 6.8 91.6
J 10.8 89.6
K 21.5 70.3
L 10.9 86.1
M 22.6 69.9
N 6.4 92.5
O 8.4 91.4
coefficient of flow rate variation is attributed to partial
clogging in several emitters (second trial) that previously had
flow rates higher than the average (first trial).
Emitters with long pathways and without a self-cleaning
mechanism were found to be more susceptible to clogging.
An example of biofilm formation and particle accumulation
in the corners and along the walls of the tortuous pathways is
shown in figure 2. An analysis by a private laboratory of the
biofilm extracted from the emitters was found to contain high
populations of iron and sulfer bacteria. Additional research
is needed to characterize the nature of biofilm growth and to
identify the predominant microorganisms in drip emitters.
The degree of clogging for each emitter model after 373 h
of wastewater application is shown in figure 3. The results
presented in table 5 and figure 3 for performance after 373 h
of wastewater application and emitter availability were used
to select emitters for further testing. Emitter models E and M
were selected because of their high coefficient of flow rate
variation and low uniformity of distribution. Similarly,
emitters B and D were chosen because they were among the
emitters with the best performance. In addition to good
performance, emitter model B was chosen because of its
pressure compensating mechanism. Emitter model B has a
self-cleaning membrane and a short pathway length, which
can be beneficial in drip irrigation. The degree of clogging
increased with pathway length for emitters with similar
pathway narrowest section and depth (table 6).
RESULTS OF THIRD TRIAL
The amount of rainfall (695 mm) during the third trial
period resulted in a relatively low irrigation demand for the
Figure 2. Partial clogging in an emitter pathway.
ÓÓ
19 −10
45 −15 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
27 −20
1 Emitter model
55 Figure 3. Degree of clogging for each emitter model after 373 h of waste-
34 water application.
25
9 citrus orchard and, consequently, relatively low hours of
37 wastewater irrigation. However, the periods without irriga-
31 tion are also important, as bacterial growth in drip emitters
25 can occur even during no flow conditions. Therefore, the
42 total length on the trial is considered to be as important as the
4 actual number of irrigation hours. As discussed for the second
trial, the slight differences in the effluent composition during
the experiment are not expected to have had a significant
influence on the results of the third trial.
A regression analysis showed a positive effect of the
chlorination treatment for non-pressure compensated emit-
ters (see table 7). Emitters differed in degree of clogging with
time when using chlorination.
The emitter model and treatments to reduce clogging did
not significantly differ (F test at 5%) in their ability to
attenuate the emitter clogging for the average coefficient of
flow rate variation and average degree of clogging at 62, 152,
and 229 days among emitter models and attenuation
techniques (data presented in table 8).
A probability analysis (see table 8) indicated clogging was
already present by 62 days, especially in the models E and D,
which have similar emitter mechanisms. A probable cause of
clogging during this period is the faster bacterial growth in
the lines and emitters compared to the subsequent time
periods. Bacteria that cause clogging may have increased
growth rates between 25°C and 30°C, corresponding to the
warmer conditions during the initial 62 days of operation
(fig. 4). Additionally, evapotranspiration demand (about
7 mm per day for pan evaporation) was higher in the summer,
the initial experimental period of this trial, and a greater
amount of wastewater measured by a flow meter was applied
during this time period, that is, 50.8%.
Gradual clogging by biofilm can also occur in the winter
(May to August), but the low temperature may be a constraint
for bacterial growth. Therefore, the clogging from 152 to
229 days may have been more gradual than that at the
beginning of the experiment. In addition, the non-ideal
Table 6. Correlation of pathway length, Lp (mm), and degree of
clogging after 373 h of wastewater application.
Degree of Clogging
Emitter Characteristic (%) R2
Pressure compensated (A, B, and C) 0.1705 Lp − 9.5 0.966
Not pressure compensated, 0.0612 Lp − 10.1 0.9986
pathway narrowest section of 1 mm and
pathway depth of 0.8 mm (D, J, and N)
Not pressure compensated, 0.1473 Lp − 14.9 0.6587
pathway narrowest section of 1 mm and
pathway depth of 1 mm (E, F, and G)

Vol. 22(2): 251-257 255

 Table 7. Regression analysis for the degree of clogging as a function of time (days) for emitters used with different treatments to reduce clogging.
Linear Equation for Degree of F Test Statistic for Clogging Over Time for Individual
Drip Irrigation Treatment Emitter Clogging with Time, t, in Days (%) Emitter Model and Specified Treatment[a]
Filtration only M + 0.0136 t + 2.3 ND
E − 0.0148 t + 9.1 ND
D − 0.0307 t + 14.7 ND
B − 0.0076 t + 5.5 ND
Filtration and chlorination M − 0.0509 t + 10.4 **
E − 0.0993 t + 18.4 **
D − 0.0583 t +23.2 *
B − 0.0328 t + 7.7 ND
Filtration and compressed air M − 0.0126 t + 3.5 ND
E − 0.0367 t + 6.9 ND
D − 0.0188 t + 13.7 ND
B − 0.0091 t + 6.1 ND
Filtration and combined chlorination and M − 0.0604 t + 8.1 *
compressed air E + 0.0092 t + 1.8 ND
D − 0.0454 t + 17.8 ND
B − 0.0031 t + 5.9 ND
[a] ND Clogging was statistically independent of time of operation.
* Increased clogging over time at significance of 5% by F test.
** Increased clogging over time at significance of 1% by F test.

growth conditions may also result in biofilm recession and
flow rate recovery in some cases.
Emitter model D had a low probability of good operation
at 62 days, which may be related to its higher initial flow rate.
The increased flow rate permitted passage of more wastewa-
ter and wastewater solids, as well as bacteria and iron, which
are both implicated in biofilm accumulation.
Between 62 and 229 days, less bacterial growth occurred,
as indicated by the filtration-only treatment. The turbulent
regime in model D possibly aided cleaning, whereas
self-cleaning, due to a rectangular membrane, in model B
may have prevented biofilm obstruction.
In general, the chlorine technique was found to improve
performance in all models, with the exception at 62 days, for
water temperature and bacteria growth reasons explained
previously. A slight reduction in the probability of good
performance at the third evaluation (152 to 229 days) may be
due to the reduced application of wastewater during this time
of reduced irrigation demand (evaporation from 2 to 5 mm
per day resulted in the low water demand). Similarly, lower
volumes of sodium hypochlorite were also applied during
this period. Improved resistance to clogging may occur if the
chlorine concentration and the reaction time of the chlorine
were increased. However, high chlorine concentrations may
damage elastic emitter membranes in pressure compensating
models (Schischa et al., 1997).
In the compressed air treatment, emitter model E had
improved performance, possibly as a result of its turbulent
regime and shape characteristics. Due to its long pathway and
low flow rate, model M had the lowest performance. Model
B maintained its self-cleaning mechanism throughout the
study, with little effect due to the compressed air treatment.
Compressed air did not significantly improve hydraulic
performance when injected at a pressure of 1.96 kPa.
However, the use of higher air pressures, in the range of 490
to 980 kPa, may reduce clogging (Keller and Bliesner, 1990).

Table 8. Probability (%), degree of clogging (%), and coefficient of flow rate variation (%)
of emitters with good performance after three time periods of operation.
Probability (%) of Emitters with Good Degree of Clogging (%) Coefficient of Flow Rate Variation
Performance at Indicated Time (d) at Indicated Time (d) (%) at Indicated Time (d)
Drip Irrigation Emitter
Treatment Model 62 152 229 62 152 229 62 152 229
Filtration only M 55 40 38 3.2 4.3 5.5 4.6 21.8 28.8
E 20 45 48 8.8 5.5 6.4 8.5 10.2 22.9
D 5 30 56 12.7 10.4 7.5 6.8 11.4 12.7
B 65 45 60 3.4 7.9 1.9 11.4 22.0 21.8
Filtration and M 45 70 60 8.0 1.0 −0.4 3.8 9.7 8.9
chlorination E 15 57 53 12.0 3.8 −4.7 6.0 10.6 11.4
D 0 16 55 18.1 17.4 8.1 7.4 25.0 17.7
B 50 83 73 6.3 1.5 0.9 4.6 8.0 13.0
Filtration and M 61 34 35 5.8 −4.9 4.2 6.8 12.2 18.8
compressed air E 30 40 58 7.1 −3.7 1.3 5.4 15.9 17.6
D 1 68 49 14.3 7.0 11.5 5.8 20.3 22.3
B 60 65 62 4.8 6.5 3.2 6.2 12.2 12.6
M 20 28 34 4.8 −2.1 −5.2 8.1 16.2 7.0
Filtration and
E 22 27 43 3.8 0.1 5.6 7.2 23.1 31.0
combined chlorination
and compressed air D 3 75 54 17.5 5.4 10.4 10.2 17.0 13.9
B 46 74 74 5.3 6.3 4.7 4.2 12.5 17.9

256 APPLIED ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE

 27

Air temperature (ºC)

26
Ayers, R. S., and D. W. Westcot. 1999. A qualidade da água na
Flow rate evaluations
25 agricultura. Campina Grande, Brazil: UFPB. Translation of R. S.
24 Gheyi et al. (FAO: Irrigation and Drainage, 29).
23
22 Diab, S., M. Kochba, and Y. Avnimelech. 1993. Development of a
21
20 biofilter for turbid and nitrogen-rich irrigation water - B:
19 removal of phosphorus, algae and clay. Bioresource Technology
18
44(2): 137-140.

June

August
January

February

March

April

July
May
2003
Figure 4. Air temperature during the third experimental trial (Source:
http://www.lce.esalq.usp.br/base.html).
The combined compressed air and chlorine treatment
yielded little additional benefit. For example, model D,
which had the highest air flow rate compared to the other
models, showed no additional benefit from compressed air
treatment as shown in table 7 and in the probability analysis
presented in table 8. Emitter model E had similar perfor-
mance compared to the filtration only treatment, indicating
little influence from the combined treatment. The combined
treatment slightly improved the performance of emitter
models M and B.
Emitter model B demonstrated the lowest overall variabil-
ity in flow rate with time (table 8). The performance of this
emitter improved with the application of the chlorination
treatment, with values higher than 80% after 152 days of
irrigation. The characteristics of emitter B that are thought to
contribute to its high performance are the short pathway,
self-cleaning membrane, and flat design. The addition of
chlorination further reduced its susceptibility of clogging by
microbial growth.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of the three experimental trials, the
following conclusions are presented: the partial clogging by
biofilm build-up and particle accumulation in the corners of
tortuous pathways is the main mechanism of emitter clogging
in wastewater irrigation; short pathways and efficient
self-cleaning membranes are desirable emitter characteris-
tics for wastewater irrigation; intermittent chlorination,
using 0.5 g m-3 of free chlorine residual, reduces biological
clogging in non-pressure compensated emitters; and com-
pressed air cleaning at low pressures is not effective in
mitigating the effects of clogging in drippers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the “Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de
Queiroz (ESALQ)/Universidade de São Paulo (USP)” for its
research development support.
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258 APPLIED ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE