Construction

and Building

Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295

MATERIALS
www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Finite element prediction on the structural performance

of profiled steel sheet dry board structural composite
system proposed as a disaster relief shelter
Ehsan Ahmed a, Wan Hamidon Wan Badaruzzaman b,*

a
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh Institute of Technology, Chittagong, Chittagong-4349, Bangladesh
b
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Received 18 December 2002; received in revised form 20 June 2004; accepted 21 July 2004
Available online 16 September 2004

Abstract

Folded plate structures constructed from profiled steel sheeting connected to dry boards by self drilling, self tapping screws
(known as profiled steel sheeting dry board (PSSDB) system) are being proposed as an alternative to traditional forms of roof con-
struction. The proposed load bearing composite structural system consists of an assembly of individual PSSDB panels connected by
steel angle plates at the ridges, formed to the required shape, width and span. This kind of structure has a significant advantage of
removing the internal trussing and support that is normally required in a traditional trussed roof system, thus adding to livable space
in a building. The introduction of this innovative system would eliminate the difficulty in constructing folded plate roof that is nor-
mally very troublesome, especially when they are made out of traditional reinforced concrete system, hence would help promote the
folded plate technique of construction. This paper looks into the possibility of employing the PSSDB folded plate structure to pro-
vide an efficient emergency shelter, analysing it under the effect of static wind loading using the already established and verified Finite
Element technique. Such a structure is quite conceivable in the likely event of a disaster. Firstly, its basic behaviour in the elastic
range is studied checking for deflection as the main controlling design factor. Secondly, the method of enhancing the structural stiff-
ness and performance of the system is proposed. It was found that this could be easily achieved by restraining the bottom longitu-
dinal edges on both sides of the structure. A practical solution is proposed in this paper that can be implemented in real practice. It
can be concluded that the proposed structure has a great potential to be exploited for the above-intended purpose.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Profiled steel sheet; Dry board; Wind load; Composite action

1. Introduction interesting architectural appearance. The system of

Folded plate constructions are surface structures con-
structed from individual plane surfaces, or plates, joined
together to form a composite surface. Such a construc-
tion type has been extensively used in the construction
of long span roof systems because of its economy and
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 3 89216200; fax: +60 3 89250964.
E-mail address: whamidon@vlsi.eng.ukm.my (W.H. Wan Badar-
uzzaman).
interconnected plates is closed off at its two transverse
ends by integral diaphragms. The diaphragms assume
that no displacements are permitted in the planes of
the end diaphragms and no resistance is offered normal
to these planes.
The profiled steel sheeting dry board (PSSDB) sys-
tem; a thin-walled, lightweight composite structure con-
sisting of profiled steel sheet connected to dry boards by
means of mechanical connectors, is a structural load
bearing system described in an earlier publication [1].
The PSSDB panels can conveniently be assembled to

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2004.07.019
286 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295
Span
Dry Board
End Diaphragm
Profiled Steel Sheeting
Fig. 1. PSSDB folded plate structure.
form folded plate structure [2] as shown in Fig. 1. As a
folded plate structure, the PSSDB system carries both
the in-plane and out-of-plane bending and can resist
both in and out-of-plane loading. This would then pro-
duce a strong, stiff, and efficient structure. In addition,
with the introduction of the end diaphragms and con-
nection plates in between the PSSDB plate elements,
the beneficial effects of stressed skin action would be
introduced into the structure. Furthermore, the attach-
ment of a layer of dry board would further enhance
the stiffness values for both the major and minor axes
in both the in and out-of-plane of the structure. The
layer of dry board has also been shown able [1] to delay
the onset of local buckling of the flange of the profiled
steel sheeting under compression.
The use of the PSSDB system in folded plate con-
struction to provide an improved form of roofing for
domestic houses is therefore considered to have consid-
erable potential. Also, such folded plate structure is par-
ticularly suitable for use as an emergency shelter for a
disaster relief situation [2,3]. Compared to the tents that
are currently used in such situations, the proposed sys-
tem could provide adequate shelter for an extended per-
iod during which reconstruction of permanent shelters
can take place. This paper reports on the theoretical pre-
diction employing the Finite Element method of the
behaviour of proposed disaster relief shelters built out
of the PSSDB system.
The scope of this study is limited to the elastic and
linear analysis of proposed models under the effect of
static wind loading, focussing on deflection as the main
design criteria; a criteria which was shown to be govern-
ing the design of such a system from earlier research
experiences on PSSDB as a flooring system. The carry-
ing capacity of both the individual panel and folded
plate structure constructed as an assembly of such pan-
els was found satisfactory [1,2]. Only deflections of the
structures focussing on the stiffening effect of the dry
board fastened to the steel sheeting are considered in re-
sult preparation and observations.
Further research on the ultimate behaviour till failure
is currently being undertaken at Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia and would be reported in other publication.
To reduce the excessive deformation of the structure,
techniques are described and proposed. It is observed
that the modified structure is more capable to resist
wind forces, and hence more suitable for use in practice.
Even though, the proposed Finite Element method of
modelling has been applied to such a relatively simple
structure, the proposed model could be of use in model-
ling more complicated structures possessing similar
nature.
2. Advantages of the PSSDB folded plate roof system
There are many advantages of the PSSDB folded
plate roof system when compared to traditional form
of pitched roof structure in small and medium sized
buildings which normally would involve the use of either
a purlin and rafter or a trussed rafter system. They
clearly arise due the load bearing capacity of the PSSDB
system and due to its made of more durable materials.
The advantages are as follows:

The structure of the roof that would normally involve
a considerable number of internal elements that
would impinge on the roof space and sterilise its effec-
tive use would no more be required.

Considerable numbers of connections between ele-
ments that are normally required in the skeletal fram-
ing; these are often difficult to form and add to the
cost would be eliminated.

The difficulty to provide the overall stability of the
roof structure and this involves cross bracing and
an allowance for wind uplift would now be removed.

Insect attack and rotting of roof timbers; a problem
that is not always resolved with preservatives and
treatments would no more be a threat.
3. The folded plate model structure
A one bay folded plate model structure is chosen as
an example for the purpose of this study. The span of
the model is taken as 6 m, with an overall width of
2.43 m, and the height to the apex of the roof of 2.5
m. This is to represent a practical configuration for an
easily transported and rapidly erected folded plate struc-
ture. The model structure is composed of four flat
plates, two inclined and two vertical plates monolith-
 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295
ically connected along their common edges. The system
of interconnected plates is assumed closed off at its two
transverse ends by integral diaphragms. As mentioned
earlier, the diaphragms assume that no displacements
are permitted in the planes of the end diaphragms and
no resistance is offered normal to these planes.
The model is studied in two stages. Model A com-
posed of bare profiled steel sheeting, PMFL D35 sheet-
ing [4], 0.9 mm thick. Model A is then enhanced by
attaching a layer of 16 mm cement bonded dry board
on top of the steel sheeting by means of self drilling–self
tapping screws, finally forming a folded plate model re-
ferred to as Model B. The spacing of screws in Model B
is 200 mm (center to center) along the ribs of the steel
sheeting. The central ridge and edge ridges, which con-
sist of steel angle plates, connects the two side panels
to ensure a rigid connection between them (see Fig. 2).
4. Assessment of wind loading
Wind creates considerable forces on both the upper
surface and the underside of PSSDB folded plate struc-
tures. These forces may take the form of positive pres-
sure or suction (negative pressure) and must be
considered in the design and fixing of the structures.
Generally, the greatest wind forces imposed on inclined
roof plates are due to suction, tending to lift the entire
roof structure from its supports. Whereas, the greatest
wind forces on vertical plates are due to inward pres-
sure, tending to create large movements at the free lon-
gitudinal edges. Wind analysis is therefore considered
very important in ensuring the safety of PSSDB folded
plate structures. This is because such types of structures
are completely dependent on the roof panels for resist-
ance against wind loading. This is contrary to the tradi-
75
25 50
Profiled Steel Sheeting
Steel Angle Plate
25
50
75
Detail of Intermediate Ridge C
1800
Fig. 2. Dimension and cross-section of proposed structure (all dimensions are in mm).
287
tional roof trusses concept where roof trusses are also
contributing to this resistance.
The primary effect of wind is visualised in the form of
pressures normal to the structureÕs exterior surfaces. In
this paper, the assessment of wind loading was carried
out according to the British Standard Code of Practice
[5,6] for wind loading.
Data on the highest wind speed across the European,
American, African, and Australian continents were
studied. The basic wind speed, chosen in the assessment
of wind loading on the folded plate structures is the
highest of the four continents, and is taken to be the
highest wind speed registered in the United States, ob-
tained from the Uniform Building Code as being 130
mph. A summary of the pressure as uniformly distrib-
uted load on the sides of the folded plate model is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 3.
5. Finite element analysis
Finite Element modelling technique using LUSAS [7]
finite element software was employed to analyse the
folded plate structure subjected to static effect of wind
loading. The Finite Element modelling technique has
been validated for both individual PSSDB panel and
full-scale folded plate experimental roof model as has
been reported in an earlier publication [8–10]. Each
component namely, profiled steel sheeting, dry board,
connection and end plates, screwed connections between
profiled steel sheeting to Cemboard, and screwed con-
nection between profiled steel sheeting to connection
and end plates, end diaphragm boundary conditions,
and loading conditions are modelled according to the al-
ready established technique and would be mentioned
briefly in this paper.
25
50
Steel Angle Plate 75
B Profiled Steel Sheeting
Detail of Central Ridge B
1400
C
Profiled Steel Sheeting
Steel Angle Plate
80
50
A 20
Edge Connection Detail A
288 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295
2 2
+937.9 N/m
-1875.83 N/m
2
+9379.18 N/m
2
-5627.5 N/m
Fig. 3. Static wind pressure on the model structure.
Assumed Thickness, t
Height, h
Actual Screw Spacing, s
Fig. 4. Idealisation of dummy plate.
5.1. Modelling of profiled steel sheeting
In the model, the analysis of profiled steel sheeting
that shows technical orthotropic behaviour is simplified
by replacing such a plate by an equivalent homogeneous
orthotropic plate of constant thickness. This procedure
requires the determination of elastic rigidity constants,
which occur in the theory of orthotropic plates. For a
typical orthotropic situation, six constants are required
to analyse each of the flexural and in-plane aspect of
the behaviour of plates. In this study, the evaluation
of these parameters was derived from the work of previ-
ous researchers [2].
To take into account both the in-plane and out-of
plane behaviour of the equivalent orthotropic plate,
each element of the plate is assumed to behave as a shell
2 -4689.58 N/m
-4689.58 N/m 2
2 2
-1875.83 N/m -1875.83 N/m
Dummy Plate (in two directions)
Board Plate
Height of Dummy
Plate, h
Profiled Steel Idealised Orthotropic Plate
Sheeting
Fig. 5. Definition of height of dummy plate.
element having different in-plane and out-of-plane mod-
uli in the two principal directions.
5.2. Modelling of board
The cement board is modelled as isotropic plate ele-
ments. The input material properties are the YoungÕs
modulus and PoissonÕs ratio of the materials and are ta-
ken either from manufacturers manual or determined
experimentally [11,12].
5.3. Modelling of connection
The screws as shear connectors are modelled by iso-
tropic uniform thickness dummy plate element of thick-
ness. It is important that the shear deformability of the
dummy plate can represent the flexibility of the connec-
tors and their spacing. The dummy plate modelling of
connection was first proposed by Kristek and Studnicka
[13] and has been applied in the modelling of composite
structure by Wright [14] and Wan Badaruzzaman [2].
One directional plate modelling was considered suita-
ble for the connection between the steel sheeting and
steel angle plates. On the other hand, two directional
plates were preferred in modelling the connection be-
tween dry board and idealised orthotropic profiled steel
sheeting to include biaxial shear deformation. It is as-
 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295 289

Isotropic Dummy Plates

Orthotropic idealisation of Sheeting

Nodes
Angle Plate idealised as an
SCALE 1/ 13.22
assembly of Isotropic Plates EYE X-COORD = -0.4330
EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500
EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000
LINEAR/ DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Meshing LOAD CASEID = 1
RESULTS FILE ID = 0
MAX. DEFLECTION = 1241.
AT NODE NUMBER = 28260
Model A

150 mm

All QSI4 thin shell elements

Dummy plate height = 24.1 mm
Span of the structure = 6000 mm
One repeating section = 150 mm

Fig. 6. Finite element idealisation of Model A.

Isotropic Dummy Plates

Isotropic Cemboard SCALE 1/ 13.08

EYE X-COORD = -0.4330
EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500
EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000
LINEAR / DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Nodes LOAD CASEID = 1
Angle Plate idealised as an RESULTS FILE ID = 0
MAX. DEFLECTION = 917.6
assembly of Isotropic Plates
AT NODE NUMBER = 55640
Model B

Meshing

Orthotropic idealisation of Sheeting

Fig. 8. Deflected mid-span cross-section of model structure for wind

150 mm
blowing perpendicular to ridge.

All QSI4 thin shell elements

Dummy plates’ height = 24.1 and 22 .9 mm
Span of the structure = 6000 mm in an earlier mentioned publication [10], which is given
One repeating section = 150 mm
below
Fig. 7. Finite element idealisation of Model B.
E ¼ 2K s hð1 þ mÞ=ts; ð1Þ

sumed that the screws between board and sheeting can
be subjected to shear in two orthogonal directions in
the plane of its cross-section. However, in so far as the
stiffness of the element is concerned, the two directions
are assumed to be uncoupled. Consequently, two indi-
vidual orthogonal dummy plates can be used to replace
these connectors. The material properties of these plates
can be determined using an expression that was derived
where Ks is the connector modulus in N/mm obtained
from experiment, s the spacing of connectors in mm, h
the height of dummy plate, i.e., the distance between
the centroid of two plates in mm, t the assumed thick-
ness of the ‘‘dummy plate’’ in mm, m the assumed Pois-
sonÕs ratio of the ‘‘dummy plate’’ and E is the value of
YoungÕs Modulus of ‘‘dummy plate’’ worked out from
the above equation in N/mm2.
290 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295

Table 1
ModelsÕ deflection for wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge (free longitudinal edges)
Displacement at outer Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at outer
edge intermediate ridge central ridge intermediate ridge ridge
rz1 ry1 rz2 ry2 rz3 ry3 rz4 ry4 rz5 ry5
Model A 27.430 1241.000 17.480 7.039 7.391 0.421 10.680 0.610 16.560 732.900
Model B 20.830 917.400 12.720 4.117 4.555 0.860 7.669 0.508 12.530 545.100
**All values are in mm.

When considering steel sheeting as an orthotropic models are moving outward and downward. This re-
plate having a uniform thickness, the dummy was con- sponse can be concluded as a tilting or rocking mode
sidered to be the distance from the centroid of the ideal-
ised orthotropic plate to the centroid of dry board (see
Figs. 4 and 5) for the connection between boarding
and sheeting. For the connection between sheeting and
ridge angle plates, the height was considered as the dis-
tance from the centroid of angle plate to the centroid of
the profiled steel sheeting. For further clarification,
please refer [10].

5.4. The FE model and boundary conditions

SCALE 1/ 13.06
Figs. 6 and 7 show the finite element idealisation of EYE X-COORD = -0.4330
the model structures Model A and Model B, respec- EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500
tively. QSI4 thin shell element was chosen to model all EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000
LINEAR/ DYNAMICAN ALYSIS
the plate elements, as this is more affordable in terms LOAD CASE ID = 2
of computer memory, space and time. The loads are ap- RESULTS FILE ID = 0
plied as uniformly distributed load perpendicular to the MAX. DEFLECTION = 218.0
AT NODE NUMBER = 14188
plate surfaces (as shown in Fig. 3).
Model A
In the case of wind blowing perpendicular to the
ridge, half of the model needed to be analysed due to
the unsymmetrical nature of the loading, whilst in case
of wind blowing parallel to the ridge, only one quarter
of the model structure was employed in the analysis
due to the symmetrical nature of the loading. In terms
of boundary conditions, all the degrees of freedom of
the nodes lying on both the end diaphragms are assumed
fixed in the plane of the diaphragms and free normal to
the plane.

SCALE 1/ 13.45
6. Results and observation EYE X-COORD = -0.4330
EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500
EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000
The deflected shapes of the model structures A and B LINEAR/ DYNAMICAN ALYSIS
at mid-span cross-section due to the wind perpendicular LOAD CASE ID = 1
RESULTS FILE ID = 0
to the ridge are shown in Fig. 8 and the values of ridge MAX. DEFLECTION = 160.3
deflections are given in Table 1. The deflected shapes of AT NODE NUMBER = 30386
the models at mid span cross-section due to wind parallel Model B
to the ridge are given in Fig. 9, and the values of ridge
deflections are tabulated in Table 2.
For both models A and B, in the case of wind blowing
perpendicular to the ridge (refer to Fig. 8 and Table 1), a
general trend of an inward and upward movements of the
windward side of the folded plate models was observed. Fig. 9. Deflected mid-span cross-section of model structure for wind
On the contrary, on the leeward side, the folded plate blowing parallel to ridge.
 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295 291

Table 2
ModelsÕ deflection for wind blowing parallel to the ridge (free longitudinal edges)
Displacement at outer Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at
edge intermediate ridge central ridge intermediate ridge outer ridge
rz1 ry1 rz2 ry2 rz3 ry3 rz4 ry4 rz5 ry5
Model A 4.065 218.00 1.265 3.160 1.511 0.000 1.265 3.160 4.065 218.000
Model B 3.263 160.300 0.827 1.949 +0.631 0.000 0.827 1.949 3.263 160.300
**All values are in mm.

in which it is predicted that due to higher wind loading,
the folded plate structure would overturn to failure. It
can also be seen that the most critical ridges are at both
the bottom edges on both models. The intermediate and
central ridges seem to be relatively less affected by the
wind pressures.
For both models A and B, in the case of wind blowing
parallel to the ridge, (refer to Fig. 9 and Table 2), a gen-
eral trend of a symmetrical outward and downward
movements on both the windward and leeward sides
of the folded plate models was observed. The values of
deflections in this case are relatively much lower than
those observed for the case, when wind is blowing per-
pendicular to the ridge. The mode of failure predicted
for this case on both models is that of a crushing or
spreading out mode of failure of the folded plate
models.
Comparing the two cases of wind directions, the most
critical case is when wind is blowing perpendicular to the
ridge. This is because of the mode of failure is an

Steel Sheeting

t=5 mm

Connector
h=150 mm

A
W=350 mm
Edge Stiffening Plates
Detail of A

Fig. 10. Edge stiffening system [6].

Vertical Plate

Span, 6 m
Bottom Edge

Additional Bottom Plate connecting two Longitudinal Edges

A

Profiled Steel Sheet

Dry Board
6mm thick Angle Plate
Self-Tap, Self-Drill Screws
Dry board
Profiled Steel Sheeting
200 mm h=150 mm

Detail A
20 mm
3@50=150 mm 3@50=150 mm

Fig. 11. Modified folded plate model structures.

292 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295
overturning mode with relatively very high deflections
on the bottom edges of the models. The addition of
dry boarding for the worst loading case (i.e., for wind
blowing perpendicular to the ridge) has reduced the
most critical deflections. At the outer edge (ridge 5), ver-
tical displacement is reduced by 24.3%, whereas the lat-
eral displacement is reduced by 25.6%. Similarly, when
the proposed model structure is subjected to wind blow-
ing parallel to ridge, the addition of dry boarding has re-
duced the deflection in the vertical and lateral directions
at outer ridges (ridges 1 and 5) by 19.7% and 26.5%,
respectively.
From the above observation, it can be concluded that
the model with dry boarding (Model B) is more suitable
to be implemented in real practice. However, the deflec-
tion values at the outer edges are still far beyond the
acceptable practical limit (critical lateral deflection at
ridge 1 is 917.4 mm), hence the model needs to be fur-
ther modified if it were to be implemented as a disaster
relief shelter.
7. Improvement on models
From the above study, it is clear that without
restraining the bottom edges of the models, the deflec-
tions are practically unacceptable. Wan Badaruzzaman
[2] proposed tying the two longitudinal edges by steel
straps, as a means of restraining them from moving lat-
erally. These steel straps, although performing satisfac-
Dummy Isotropic Plate
Orthotropic Idealisation of Sheeting
Nodes
Angle plate idealised as an
assembly of Isotropic Plates
Meshing
All QSI4 thin shell element
Dummy plate height = 24.1 mm
Span of the model structure = 6000 mm
Fig. 12. Finite element idealisation of modified Model A.
torily, however, do not represent a practical solution
when this type of structure will be inhabited, owing to
the way in which they are connected to the structure.
Another way to prevent the excessive outer edges deflec-
tion is to provide stiffening plates that would run along
the span of the structure [3]. Fig. 10 shows the proposed
edge stiffening system by Nepaul [3]. Although the edge
stiffening system may overcome some of the disadvan-
tages of providing steel strap, it might not always be a
suitable and cost effective solution.
7.1. The modified model
7.1.1. Modified Model A and Model B
Model A and Model B have been modified to include
bare profiled steel sheeting and PSSDB panels, respec-
tively, as flooring between the two outer longitudinal
edges along the span of the models (see Fig. 11). The
material properties of the additional members are the
same as that for the other plates in the original models.
Figs. 12 and 13 show the modelling details for the mod-
ified Model A and Model B folded plate model struc-
tures, respectively.
7.2. Comparison of results
Tables 3 and 4 give the deflection values obtained at
various ridges at mid-span from the analysis of modified
Model A and Model B structures. The analysis has been
carried for both cases of wind loading, i.e., wind blowing
Dummy Isotropic Plate
Orthotropic idealisation of Sheeting
Nodes
Angle Plate idealised as an
assembly of Isotropic Plates
Meshing
150 mm
All QSI4 thin shell element
Dummy plate height = 24.1 mm
Span of the model structure = 6000 mm
Fig. 13. Finite element idealisation of modified Model B.
 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295 293

perpendicular to the ridge and also wind blowing paral-
lel to the ridge.
7.2.1. Model A
7.2.1.1. Wind perpendicular to ridge. Tables 1 and 3 have
tabulated the values of deflections at the ridges for the
original and modified Model A, respectively, when wind
is blowing perpendicular to the ridge. It is observed that
due to the proposed modification, the deflection pattern
of the structure has changed. It can be seen that the lat-
eral deflection ry1, at the outer edge (ridge 1) has been
reduced by 99.7% with the proposed modification. The
vertical deflection, rz1, has not only been reduced but
has also changed direction. At this ridge, the upward
movement of 27.43 mm has changed to a downward
movement of 1.83 mm. At the intermediate edge (ridge
2), the vertical deflection rz2 has changed its direction
from moving upward of 17.48 mm to moving downward
of 2.09 mm. The lateral deflection at this ridge, ry2 has
been increased by 4.8%. The vertical deflection at ridge
3, rz3, at the central ridge (ridge 3) has been reduced
by 74.3%. The lateral deflection, ry3, has changed from
moving outward of 0.42 mm to moving inward of 1.95
mm. At the intermediate ridge (ridge 4), the downward
movement of 10.68 mm has also been changed to up-
ward movement of 1.57 mm. The lateral deflection at
this ridge has increased from 0.61 to 4.14 mm. Finally,
at the outer edge (ridge 5), the lateral displacement de-
creased by 99.66% and the vertical deflection has chan-
ged its direction from 16.56 mm downward to 1.0 mm
upward.
7.2.1.2. Wind parallel to ridge. Tables 2 and 4 show the
deflections at the ridges for the original and modified
Model A, respectively, when wind is blowing parallel to
the ridge. The deflection pattern of the modified model
has also changed in this case due to the addition of pro-
filed steel sheeting panel between the two outer longitudi-
nal edges. The lateral deflection at the outer edge (either
ridge 1 or ridge 5) has decreased by 99.8%, whereas the
vertical deflection at these ridges has changed from mov-
ing downward of 4.06 mm to moving upward of 0.85 mm
due to the proposed modification. At intermediate ridges
(ridge 2 or ridge 4), the lateral deflection has decreased by
45.8% and the vertical deflection has changed from mov-
ing downward of 1.26 mm to moving upward of 1.78 mm.
At the central ridge (ridge 3), the vertical deflection has
changed from moving downward of 1.51 mm to moving
upward of 3.24 mm due to the tying effect of the outer two
longitudinal ridges.
It is clear from the above comparison that, there is a
significant decrease in deflections across the structure
with the proposed modification of the structure. All
the deflection values at all ridges lie within the accepta-
ble limit. Finally, it can be concluded that the applica-
tion of the PSSDB system as a folded plate roof
structure has a great potential to be exploited as a disas-
ter relief shelter.
7.2.2. Model B
7.2.2.1. Wind perpendicular to ridge. Tables 1 and 3 have
tabulated the values of deflections at the ridges for the
original and modified Model B, respectively, when wind
is blowing perpendicular to the ridge. Similar to non-
composite model (Model A), the deflection pattern has
changed due to the proposed modification. It can be
seen (refer to Tables 1 and 3) that the lateral deflection
ry1, at the outer edge (ridge 1) has been reduced by
99.69% with the proposed modification. The vertical
deflection at the same ridge, rz1, has also been reduced
from moving upward of 20.83 mm to moving downward
of 1.55 mm. At the intermediate edge (ridge 2) the lateral
deflection ry2, has been increased by 60.7% and the ver-
tical deflection at that ridge has changed from upward

Table 3
ModelsÕ deflections for wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge (longitudinal edges tied by floor panel)
Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at
outer edge intermediate ridge central ridge intermediate ridge outer ridge
rz1 ry1 rz2 ry2 rz3 ry3 rz4 ry4 rz5 ry5
Model A 1.830 3.161 2.095 7.383 1.893 1.955 1.576 4.144 1.000 2.470
Model B 1.553 2.811 1.879 6.617 1.561 1.576 1.444 3.829 0.862 2.101

Table 4
ModelsÕ deflections for wind blowing parallel to the ridge (longitudinal edges tied by floor panel)
Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at
outer edge intermediate ridge central ridge intermediate ridge outer ridge
rz1 ry1 rz2 ry2 rz3 ry3 rz4 ry4 rz5 ry5
Model A 0.848 0.275 1.783 1.710 3.238 0.000 1.783 1.710 0.848 0.275
Model B 0.685 0.286 1.631 1.674 3.146 0.000 1.631 1.674 0.685 0.286
**All units are in mm.
294 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295

movement of 12.72 mm to a downward movement of
1.879 mm. The vertical deflection, rz3, at the central
ridge (ridge 3) has been reduced by 65.72%. The lateral
deflection at this ridge has changed its direction from
moving outward of 0.86 mm to moving inward of
1.576 mm. Similar improvement was observed at an-
other intermediate ridge (ridge 4). Finally, at the outer
edge (ridge 5), the lateral displacement has decreased
by 99.61% and the vertical deflection has changed its
direction from moving downward of 12.53 mm to mov-
ing upward of 0.86 mm.
7.2.2.2. Wind parallel to ridge. Tables 2 and 4 show the
ridges deflections for the original and modified Model
B structure, respectively, when wind is blowing parallel
to the ridge. The deflection pattern of Model B structure
has also changed in this case (wind blowing parallel to
the ridge) due to the addition of PSSDB panel between
the two outer longitudinal edges. The lateral deflection
at the outer edge (either ridge 1 or ridge 5) has decreased
by 99.8%, whereas the vertical deflection at these ridges
has changed from moving downward of 3.26 mm to
moving upward of 0.68 mm due to the proposed modi-

SCALE 1/ 13.28 SCALE 1/ 13.39

EYE X-COORD = -0.4330 EYE X-COORD = -0.4330
EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500 EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500
EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000 EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000
LINEAR/ DYNAMIC ANALYSIS LINEAR/ DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
LOAD CASE ID = 2 LOAD CASE ID = 1
RESULTS FILE ID = 0 RESULTS FILE ID = 0
MAX. DEFLECTION = 24.05 MAX. DEFLECTION = 4.974
AT NODE NUMBER = 37995 AT NODE NUMBER = 38578

Modified Model A
Modified Model A

SCALE 1/ 13.40
EYE X-COORD = -0.4330 SCALE 1/ 13.18
EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500 EYE X-COORD = -0.4330
EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000 EYE Y-COORD = -0.7500
LINEAR/ DYNAMIC ANALYSIS EYE Z-COORD = 0.5000
LOAD CASE ID = 1 LINEAR/ DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
RESULTS FILE ID = 0 LOAD CASE ID = 1
MAX. DEFLECTION = 21.74 RESULTS FILE ID = 0
AT NODE NUMBER = 66711 MAX. DEFLECTION = 4.776
AT NODE NUMBER = 33914

Modified Model B Modified Model B

Fig. 14. Deflected mid-span cross-section of modified model structure Fig. 15. Deflected mid-span cross-section of modified model structure
for wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge. for wind blowing parallel to the ridge.
 E. Ahmed, W.H. Wan Badaruzzaman / Construction and Building Materials 19 (2005) 285–295
fication. At intermediate ridges (ridge 2 or ridge 4), the
lateral deflection has decreased by 14.1% and the verti-
cal deflection has changed from moving downward of
0.83 mm to moving upward of 1.63 mm. At the central
ridge (ridge 3), the upward movement has increased
from 0.63 to 3.15 mm due to the tying effect of the outer
two longitudinal ridges.
It is clear from the above comparison that there is a
significant decrease in deflections across the structure
with the proposed modification of the structure. The
defection values at all ridges are within the acceptable
limit and it is concluded that by tying the outer two free
longitudinal edges in the proposed manner, it is possible
to develop a very strong structure in practice.
7.3. Comparison between modified Model A and Model B
Tables 3 and 4 show the comparison between modi-
fied Model A and Model B folded plate structure. Figs.
14 and 15 show the deflected shape of the modified mod-
el at mid-span cross-section. It was observed (refer to
Tables 3 and 4 and Figs. 14 and 15) that in the proposed
modified structures, the addition of timber boarding has
not caused any significant improvement in the deflection
across the structure especially when the plates were sub-
jected to symmetrical distributed loads (in the case for
wind blowing parallel to ridge). This is because, the
improvement of both the in-plane and out-of plane rig-
idities of the structure derived from the proposed mod-
ification was far in access than that obtained from the
addition of dry boarding.
8. Conclusion
This paper has investigated the theoretical behaviour
of folded plate structures for the static effect of wind
loading conditions that may occur in practice. The finite
element method has been used throughout the study. It
has been seen that preventing the longitudinal edges
from moving laterally can considerably reduce large
deflections caused by wind forces at the outer edges of
the folded plate structures. One of the effective ways to
do this is to connect the two free edges by PSSDB floor-
ing panel. Doing this has also significantly reduced the
effect of uplifting of the roof plates owing to suction
due to wind. In addition to its structural function as de-
scribed above, the additional PSSDB panel is also func-
tioning as flat floor surface. The attachment of dry
boarding to the profiled steel sheeting alone to form
the PSSDB folded plate structures shows a greater effect
on the performance of structures with unrestrained lon-
gitudinal edges as compared to the one having re-
strained longitudinal edges. Therefore, folded plate
structures with relatively smaller slope length can be
295
constructed by only using profiled steel sheeting without
dry board provided the longitudinal edges are
restrained.
Besides investigating the structural performance of
the proposed shelter unit, other important factors relat-
ing to the successful deployment of the unit have also
been considered. These include investigations on its
practicality in terms of construction procedure, safety
to dwellers, fire resistance and waterproofing tests,
etc. A number of materials and processes have been
established to address these other factors. However,
some factors still need to be improved and currently
under study.
Acknowledgements
The research works reported in this paper have been
funded by the Ministry of Science, Technology and the
Environment, Malaysia and Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia. The authors express sincere gratitude for all
the supports provided.
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