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The Human Organism

Structural and Functional Organization of
the Human Body
Characteristics of Life

Homeostasis

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Structural and Functional Organization

Six levels from chemical to organism:

1. Chemical:
• smallest level
• atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
Chemical make up – determine the
characteristics of all organisms

2. Cellular:
• cells: basic units of life
• compartments and organelles Figure 1.1
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Structural and Functional Organization

3. Tissues:
• group of cells with similar structure and function
plus extracellular substances they release
• four broad types:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

Figure 1.1
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Structural and Functional Organization

4. Organs:
• two or more tissue types acting together to
perform function(s)
• Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder,
kidney

Figure 1.1
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Structural and Functional Organization

5. Organ-System:
• group of organs contributing to some function
• for example, digestive system, reproductive system

Figure 1.1
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Structural and Functional Organization

6. Organism:
• all organ systems working together
• includes associated microorganisms such as
intestinal bacteria

Figure 1.1
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Structural and Functional Organization

Figure 1.1
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Major Organs of the Body

Figure 1.2
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Organ Systems of the Body 1

Figure 1.3
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Organ Systems of the Body 2

Figure 1.3
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Characteristics of Life
Organization:
• functional interrelationships between parts
Metabolism:
• sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an
organism
• ability to acquire and use energy in support of these
changes
Responsiveness:
• ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
• includes both internal and external environments
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Characteristics of Life
Growth:
• can increase in size
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
Development:
• changes in form and size
• changes in cell structure and function from
generalized to specialized—differentiation
Reproduction:
• formation of new cells or new organisms
• generation of new individuals
• tissue repair
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Homeostasis

Homeostasis:
• maintenance of constant internal
environment despite fluctuations in the
external or internal environment
• dynamic state of equilibrium
• homeo = sameness; stasis = standing still

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Homeostasis
Variables:
• measures of body properties that may change
in value
Examples of variables:
body temperature blood cell counts
heart rate respiratory rate
blood pressure
blood glucose levels

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Homeostasis
Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease
around a set point
Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point

Figure 1.4
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Homeostasis
Set points for some variables can be temporarily
adjusted depending on body activities, as needed:

Examples Common cause of change

body temperature fever

heart rate, blood pressure exercise

respiratory rate

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Homeostasis
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

• cycle of events in which a condition in

the body is continually monitored,
evaluated, changed, remonitored, and
reevaluated

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Homeostasis
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
The components of feedback:
1. Receptor:
• detects changes in variable

2. Control center:
• receives receptor signal
• establishes set point
• sends signal to effector

3. Effector:
• directly causes change in variable
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Homeostatic
Control
Mechanisms

FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
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 CONTROL OF HOMEOSTASIS
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Homeostatic mechanisms:
Nervous system
Endocrine system

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Homeostasis

FEEDBACK SYSTEMS Figure 1.5

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Homeostasis
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Classifications:
• Negative feedback system
- reverses a change in a controlled
condition
• Positive Feedback System
- strengthens or reinforce a change in one
of the body’s controlled condition
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Homeostasis
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Negative feedback is the main mechanism used
homeostatic regulation.
• A negative feedback response involves:
detection: of deviation away from set point
and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set point
and normal range

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Negative Feedback Control of Body Temperature

FEEDBACK SYSTEMS Figure 1.6

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Homeostasis
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the
initial stimulus further stimulates the response
• system response causes progressive deviation away from
• set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
Example: childbirth
• generally associated with injury, disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain
homeostasis
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Homeostasis
Positive Feedback System

FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
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Homeostasis
Comparison of negative feedback and positive
feedback

Figure 1.7
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