Republic of Tunisia University of Sousse

Ministry of Higher Education Faculty of Arts and Humanities

and Scientific Research Department of English

A Reading of Racial Disparities in

Contemporary America through the Lens
of Hip-Hop Music: Eminem’s Untouchable
as a Case Study

Houyem Zorgati

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master of Arts in Cultural Studies

Supervised by: Dr. Farah Tekaya

September 2021
 Abstract
Issues of race and racism are not new in America. However, the persistence of racial
stratification in a supposedly post-America prompts continued research to understand and
evaluate the racial scene in America today. Although underrepresented, Hip-Hop music is of
central significance to contribute to scholarly research regarding issues of race. As a racialized
genre, Hip-Hop music shares an overarching interest in exposing forms of inequalities between
races. This dissertation seeks to shift the scholarly gaze to the innovative ways and
emancipatory endeavors found in political and conscious rap. Against this backdrop, Eminem
is an authentic white rapper, who uses his platform to challenge political narratives. In
contemporary era, the rapper brings discussions of racism to the forefront and uses his platform
to voice the discriminatory practices in contemporary America with a hope for a change. To
meet the objectives of this research, Eminem’s song Untouchable was taken as a case study to
form an in-depth analysis of the forms, causes and consequences of racialization in the
contemporary era and to provide an understanding of the racial scene from an artistic lens.
Untouchable was analyzed through Fairclough's’ model of Textual Analysis. The song was also
mediated through relevant thematic concerns.

The study made explicit that America’s problem with racism has not come to an end yet.
Instead, America’s is going backward concerning racial matters. The current forms of
racialization are institutionally maintained. Indeed, excessive use of violence conducted by the
police was levelled at blacks. Further to this point, the analysis showed that police brutality is
a phenomenon connected to strategic targeting on the grounds of race. The analysis also
fortified that different stereotypes connected to blacks rationalize violence towards them. The
recurrent episodes of transgression against unarmed black men manifest the gaps between the
reality of the racial scene and the myth of post racism. The analysis further emphasized deep
inequalities between blacks and whites. These inequalities contribute to black anxieties about
an uncertain future in the light of continued racism and xenophobia in the U.S. Untouchable
highlighted blacks’ sense of disillusionment, entrapment and insecurity in America. Hence,
through Hip-Hop music as an emancipatory platform, this study showed how a song like
Untouchable called for resistance and solidified the goals of the Black Lives Matter as a
movement calling for equality.

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 Acknowledgments

The completion of this dissertation could not have been possible without the help of all my
Cultural Studies teachers. I owe my deepest gratitude to Dr Hafedh Gharbi and Dr Jonathan
Mason without whom this project would have never reach fruition. They did not lose faith in
me, though I made this very tempting at times. For that, I am forever grateful for being given a
second chance.

I am also grateful for my supervisor Dr Farah Tekaya. Her kindness, patience and constructive
feedback helped me progress and complete this dissertation. I owe you my profound thanks and
appreciation for accepting to supervise me.

A very special thank you goes to my dear friend Mariam Krida for her thoughtful feedback,
generosity and help throughout this whole process. You are a great researcher!

I am also fortunate to have my sisters Syrine Zorgati, Nadia Zorgati, Salma Sghayer and
Chaima Majdoub. Thank you for being in my life and for reminding me that I can do it all.

A warm word goes to my best friend Haythem Kehna with whom I had the best tea breaks in
my life. Thank you for your encouragement and support despite odds.

I would like to extend my appreciation to my good friends Samia Tamallah (Madison) and
Samasem Khasskhoussi (Dolly) who have provided me with a lot of help, advice, and much
needed hugs. You have given me extra strength and motivation to get things done.
Above all, I would like to thank my parents for constantly asking me about the date of the
thesis's submission and if I finished yet. Thank you for your immeasurable love and
encouragement.

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 Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the research ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research focus ................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Research objectives ......................................................................................................... 5
1.4 The outline of the research .............................................................................................. 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 7

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Theorizing about race ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Critical Whiteness Studies ........................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 America’s racial identity .............................................................................................. 9
2.3 Contemporary understanding of racism ........................................................................ 10
2.3.1 Donald Trump and racism ......................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Police brutality ........................................................................................................... 13
2.4 Hip-Hop scholarship and America’s racial disparities .................................................. 16
2.4.1 The intersection between race and Hip-Hop scholarship .......................................... 16
2.4.2 Popular culture discussions and Hip-Hop music ....................................................... 18
2.5 The changing dynamics of Hip-Hop music and the emergence of Eminem ................. 20
2.5.1 Eminem’s political engagement................................................................................. 23
2.5.2 Eminem and the current racial scene ......................................................................... 24
2.5.3 Eminem’s Untouchable .............................................................................................. 26
2.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 27

3 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 28
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Research Design: The qualitative research .................................................................... 28
3.2.1 Critical Ethnography .................................................................................................. 29
3.3 Research strategy: Eminem’s Untouchable as a case study .......................................... 30
3.4 Discourse Studies .......................................................................................................... 31
3.4.1 Hip-Hop music as discourse ...................................................................................... 31
3.4.2 Research instrument: Critical Discourse Analysis ..................................................... 32
3.5 Thematic Analysis ......................................................................................................... 35
3.6 Data collection ............................................................................................................... 35
3.7 Issues of validity and Generalizability .......................................................................... 35
3.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 36

4 RESULTS......................................................................................................................... 37
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 37
4.2 The Intro of Untouchable .............................................................................................. 37
4.2.1 Racial divide .............................................................................................................. 38
4.2.2 Discussion of the Intro ............................................................................................... 39
4.3 The discourse of the white police officer ...................................................................... 40
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 4.3.1 Racial exclusion ......................................................................................................... 41
4.3.2 Racial profiling .......................................................................................................... 43
4.3.3 Legitimization of violence towards blacks ................................................................ 46
4.3.4 Discussion of the discourse of the white police officer ............................................. 50
4.4 The collective black discourse ....................................................................................... 51
4.4.1 Racial regression ........................................................................................................ 51
4.4.2 Racial anxieties .......................................................................................................... 54
4.4.3 Resistance .................................................................................................................. 61
4.4.4 America’s theoretical ideals versus practical realities ............................................... 63
4.4.5 Discussion of the black discourse .............................................................................. 66
4.5 Findings ......................................................................................................................... 67
4.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 69

5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 70
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 70
5.2 Summary of the major findings ..................................................................................... 70
5.3 The contribution of the research .................................................................................... 72
5.4 Future research .............................................................................................................. 72

DISCOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 73

FILMOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 75

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 76

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 85
Appendix A: Coding...................................................................................................... 85
Appendix B .................................................................................................................... 88

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 List of figures

Figure 1: Eminem's Revival Album Cover ............................................................................................. 4

List of Tables
Table 1:percentage of nonfatal threats or use of force during police contact compared to other races
and ethnicities in 2015 and 2018 .......................................................................................................... 88

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 Chapter 1

1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the research
Racial issues are an integral part of the U.S. history. From America’s early foundation,
racial disparities have been an arena for constant socio-political strive. Indeed, the fight for
recognition and acknowledgement has been an important episode in the country’s construction.
People of color have long resisted hegemonic and racist systematic practices in a predominantly
white culture. Lindsay Pérez Huber argues that “historically, in the U.S., whites have occupied
a perceived superior status within a system of racial domination, justified by ideologies of white
supremacy that has, over time, distributed power and resources inequitably to People of Color”
(2016, 218). Today, racial and ethnic minorities are deemed equal by constitutional means.
However, until recently, -the formation of Black Lives Matter, the current social unrest and
recurrent police shootings of unarmed black men- brought discussions about race and racism to
the forefront and revived talks about the persistence of racism in a supposedly post-racial era.
Scholarly research about racism is thriving with the view that notions of racialization,
hierarchy and structural advantage remain recurrent but under new veils. Many race scholars,
today, reaffirm that “racism is still alive in the US” (Lavalley and Johnson 2020, 9). Racial
equality is claimed to be a guaranteed constitutional right, yet, forms of racialization found new
ways to be demonstrated which reveals that contemporary American has, perhaps, not
overcome its racist history. Lawrence Bobo confirms, “there are deep, ongoing and highly
adaptive conditions of racism at the institutional, cultural and individual levels that prefigure
and play out in our national political discourse” (2017, 94).
Despite the fact that extensive research is dedicated to study notions of racialization in
the U.S., approaching the subject matter from an artistic vision specifically that of Hip-Hop, is
underrepresented despite its potential to add to scholarly research. In fact, at the heart of
America’s racial anxieties, Hip-Hop, as an artistic form, is engaged within discussions of racial
biases in America. Tricia Rose (1994), a pioneering Hip-Hop scholar, regards rap music as a
black cultural form that voices the disillusionment and dilemmas of underprivileged racial
groups especially blacks. She reckons “rap music’s desire to respond to social issues that pertain
to black life in America is part of a long-standing tradition in black culture to refashion
dominant manuscripts that do not sufficiently address social slights and insults” (1994, 123). In
fact, Hip-hop aesthetics remain a potent force and an emancipatory endeavor in resisting racial
underpinnings. In this vein, A.A Akom considers Hip-Hop as “a viable, discursive space full of
liberatory potential” (2009, 54).
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 Within the confines of Hip Hop aesthetics, Professor Jerry Persaud acknowledges the
importance of rap music1 that speaks volumes of governmental discriminatory practices
providing a socio-political critique. He argues that rap music “bears witness to many of the
cultural, institutional, structural, economic, historical, social and political concerns of our time
within the wider discourses of oppression and the particular position of negation for many
Americans, especially Blacks and Hispanics” (2011, 627). From its early formation, gangsta2
and politically charged Rap, was meant to be disturbing and remained as a staunch opponent to
oppressive authorities. Among these rappers one can include “Ice-T, Jay-Z, Ice Cube, Naz,
KRS-1, Chuck D and others” (Persaud 2011, 628). The Hip-Hop group NWA (1988) for
instance, communicated their rage against racist police authorities through the song Fuck the
police, which generated much controversy. However, its legacy remains inspiring to voice
racial injustice. In contemporary era, many Hip-Hop artists maintain the same critical views
towards the state’s biased racial system and express their mistrust in governmental maintenance
of racial equality between groups (Kendrick Lamar 2015; Joyner Lucas 2017; Jay Z 2017).
Taking into account the significance of Hip-Hop as an oppositional force to systematic
and racial practices, the field of Hip-Hop studies is of central significance in research. In fact,
scholarly research about Hip-Hop is steadily growing and gaining momentum in cultural
studies. In the words of sociologist and Hip-Hop scholar Michael Eric Dyson:

“Hip-hop is being studied all over the globe, and the methodologies of its examination
are rightfully all over the map. They are multidisciplinary in edifying, exemplary
fashion, borrowing from sociology, politics, religion, economics, urban studies,
journalism, communications theory, American studies, transatlantic studies, black
studies, history, musicology, comparative literature, English, linguistics, and many
more disciplines beside” (2004, xiv).

Therefore, focusing on contemporary representations of racism within the realm of

conscious rap adds to the value of this research. Conscious rap can be considered as an
innovative approach to investigate the racial scene in America from an artistic perspective. Hip-

1
Although not all Rap music can be considered politically charged, opposition to the status quo is
largely considered as a defining aspect of the genre.
2
Gansta rap is “a politically charged style of rap that challenged government authority and exposed
the sociopolitical realities of inner city life”(Calhoun 2005, 268)
2
Hop music also provides an entryway to acknowledge the academic contribution of the genre
in contemporary discussions of racism, which is often underrepresented.

1.2 Research focus

Aware of the cultural significance of Hip-Hop and rap music, the current research focus
will be on Eminem’s projection of America’s contemporary racial disparities. Eminem emerged
as a well-respected white rapper in a predominately black culture. As advocated by James
Keller the rapper is “an interloper in a distinctly black art form, and he is the first white rapper
to earn sustained respect and credibility in the medium” (2009, 161). Eminem “negotiated his
whiteness” (Grealy 2008, 851) and gained “authenticity” in the Hip-Hop industry (Fellow
2004). Lindsay Calhoun further accentuates the rapper’s cultural prowess. She maintains that
Eminem “successfully penetrates cultural spaces most often occupied by the marginalized while
maintaining credibility, power, and privilege in multiple cultural socioeconomic spheres”
(2005, 269). Indeed, the rapper managed to capture the attention of a worldwide audience of
blacks and whites alike and became a substantial force in rap music.
The research choice of Eminem as case study of the current forms of racialization stems
from Eminem’s cultural weight. Indeed, “it would be difficult to argue with anyone positing
Eminem as one of the greatest rappers of all time” (Hoerster 2014, 44). Eminem “is also
politically charged and is often referred to as ‘‘hardcore’’ by rap musicians and producers”
(Calhoun 2005, 268). Put differently, Eminem is acknowledged for using his music as a
platform to voice the dilemmas of racialized identities and to provide a harsh critique of the
American system. The politically conscious rapper has continuously launched lyrical wars
against the American government challenging the status quo and boldly criticizing the
legitimacy of the American democracy. In white America, he refers to the US as “the democracy
of hypocrisy” and “the divided states of embarrassment” (Eminem 2002). His political views
generated a lot of controversy and even caught the attention of the secret services who
interrogated him due to his hardcore lyricism and attacks on Donald Trump in 2017 (Leopold
2019). He sings in The Ringer “agent orange just sent the Secret Service / to meet in person to
see if I really think of hurting’ him/ or ask if I’m linked to terrorists/ I said only when it comes
to ink and lyricism”. (Eminem 2018). According to the investigative reporter Jason Leopold
“BuzzFeed News filed a Freedom of Information Act request with the Secret Service to find
out if agents really were sent to speak with Eminem” (2019). The request resulted in receiving
a document with over forty pages that validates the allegations (2019).

3
 Eminem’s explicit reprisal of the American system and his defense of racialized
identities in the contemporary epoch is at the heart of this research. The focus will be put on
Eminem’s Untouchable (2017). The basis of the research is an examination of Untouchable as
part of his Revival album. To start with, the album is of central importance. The cover is highly
symbolic. It includes the American flag and Eminem with “a posture of grief” (Martin and
Desoto 2017) because of the political erosion in the contemporary era (see figure 1 below).

Figure 1: Eminem's Revival Album Cover

Source: (XXL Mag 2021)
Untouchable delves into the contemporary racial injustices in America detailing various
episodes of police brutality from the perspective of both a white police officer and a black
person. It is also a social critique of the socio-economic conditions of blacks calling for action.
That said, the song is the outcome of the artist’s sense of disillusionment with the recent
manifestations of state-sponsored racism and the socio-economic milieu that still disadvantages
black people.
Against this background, the current research will be focusing on Untouchable since it
provides a thorough and detailed understanding of the contemporary forms of racialization. In
fact, investigating the research from an artistic vision -especially that of a white rapper standing
for blacks’ racial injustice- adds to the scope of research. Studying Eminem’s aforementioned
song befits the thematic realm of the area of research.
To further construct a meaningful picture of the study, Critical Whiteness Studies will
be implemented with the aim of understanding the working of racial imaginings and the white
discourse. In fact, Whiteness theory, as advocated by researchers Melissa Steyn and Daniel
Conway, offers a “new approach” to study the forms of racialization in America (2010, 283).
They argue that:

“As a departure from the dominant way in which studies of race and racism had hitherto
focused on racialized ‘others’. . .Whiteness Studies worked earnestly both to demarcate

4
 its field and to explain the rationale, significance and advantages of redirecting the
scholarly gaze from the margins to the center” (2010, 283-284)

In other words, Whiteness Theory focuses on exposing the workings of whiteness instead of
problematizing other racialized identities (Guess 2006, 651).
The field of Whiteness Studies remains valuable and worthy of implementation for “the
white supremacist rally in the United States is part of a much larger history of racism and racial
discrimination, and it highlights the importance of Whiteness Studies in the [contemporary
era]” (Chen 2017, 22-23).
That said, the research will be investigating the new forms of systematic racialization in
contemporary America from the perspective of Eminem. These forms include white police
brutality levelled at racial minorities (mainly blacks), notions of white supremacy,
marginalizing the resistance of black voices etc.

Untouchable targets these themes and their implications on racialized identities’ social
lives with a focus on the recent social unrest and the Black Lives Matter efforts to combat
racism. The recent developments of Whiteness Studies –as the field is now more investigated
by white scholars (Chen 2017, 15) - seem to subscribe to the focus of research as it mainly puts
emphasis on projecting racial anxieties from a white rapper’s perspective.

1.3 Research objectives

In highlighting racial disparities in contemporary America through Eminem’s
Untouchable, the research puts emphasis on the manifestation of new forms of systematic
racism and discourses of racial stratification in the American society. The project offers a
perspective into contemporary forms of racial disparities from a racialized genre i.e., Hip-Hop,
and provides a critical analysis of state-sponsored racism through police excessive use of force.
In sum, this research contributes to scholarly research by providing an innovative perspective
to approach racial matters. The dissertation is premised to achieve the following objectives:
• To advance a deeper understanding of America’s contemporary racial scene and forms
of racialization.
• To explore the causes and effects of racial bias towards the people of color with a special
focus on blacks and their socio-economic position from the perspective of Eminem.
• To evaluate the role of conscious rap in providing an alternative discourse and
meaningful lyricism to channel the current state of racialization in America.
By and large, this research is an attempt to give a realistic view on the American scene today
from an underrepresented academic scholarship which is that of Hip-Hop music.

5
1.4 The outline of the research
This research is organized as follows; the second chapter entitled the literature review
will highlight the scholarship about race and contemporary ways of racialization with a special
focus on Hip-Hop music and Eminem. The third chapter will introduce the methodology that I
will implement and will describe the methods that will be used. The fourth chapter will highlight
the analysis of Eminem’s Untouchable along with the discussions and findings. Finally, the
conclusion will present the overall findings of the research, the contribution of this research and
the potential limitations.

6
 Chapter 2

2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
In approaching this research, the following literary review provides an understanding of
the racial scene in America with a special focus on Rap music as an oppositional culture to
counter notions of racialization. The meaning of race works within the dynamics of dialects.
The concept of race invokes at the first level meanings of hierarchy, injustice and subjugation.
At the same time, it provides ideas of opposition and protest. This duality is reflected in the
research. As a starting point, the literary review traces, in the first section, America’s
construction of a white racial identity that created the foundations of racism in America today.
America’s history in socially constructing the meaning of race plays a pivotal role in
understanding the current disparities. The following section studies the continued relevance of
contemporary stratification between the people of color and whites. The following part of the
study invokes an understanding of race as a concept that brings forth ideas of resistance. The
study focuses on the intersection between race and Hip-Hop highlighting rap music as a counter
culture that leads the fight against racial disparities with its aesthetics. The last section of this
literature review focusses on the emergence of Eminem as a white rapper in the Hip-Hop world
to channel his lyricism in favor of the racially silenced minority using his music as a platform
to comment on modern forms of racism in America.

2.2 Theorizing about race

Race has been one of the main pillars of the cultural formation of modern societies
as social theorists Jean Elias Joe R. Feagin put it: “race is a fundamental force in the
development of the modern world and continues fundamentally to shape contemporary
societies and interrelations among societies” (2016, 17). America’s understanding of race
has long occupied and continues to maintain a fair share of race theorists’ debates. The
dynamics of race generate controversy and are scrutinized with a special focus in the US.
John Storey argues that “‘race’ is a cultural and historical category, a way of making
difference signify between people of a variety of skin tones” (2018, 187; italics in the
original). However, the significance of race resides in “how it is made meaningful in
terms of a social and political hierarchy” (187). This idea is also shared by Huber who
notes that “racism is a separate concept from race but the two are inextricably linked.
Without the social construction of race, racism could not exist” (2016, 217-218).

7
 There is a consensus that the concept of race underwent many phases and its meaning is
not static but rather changing. Sociologist Howard Winant contends that “racial meanings have
never been solid and fixed. Racial identities are themselves not immutable; they have always
been reinvented and reinterpreted. (2004, 153). Theorizing about race depends on the historical
moments that led to the modern construction of America’s racial identity.
A brief section of this research is devoted to introduce Critical Whiteness Studies and
America’s construction of racial identity. The origins of historical white identity play a pivotal
role to explain the current racial questions and to formulate a well-developed vision of the
questions theorists ask today. As Feagin confirms, “the better we know our racial past, the better
we know our racial present” (2013, 1).

2.2.1 Critical Whiteness Studies

Critical Whiteness Studies is a key pillar to advocate a different understanding of race
relations and to understand the dynamics of racial ideology. Whiteness Studies is introduced in
the academic field “to address significant and missing dimensions within the discussion of race
and ethnicity” (Bush 2004, 5). In this context, Whiteness Theory provides valuable insights to
understand race from a different perspective emphasizing the ways “whiteness operates as the
normative cultural center that is for many whites an invisible identity” (Twine and Gallagher
2008, 9). Conventional approaches to the study of race in America tend to ignore whiteness by
treating it “simply as a given, and even as a benign factor in “race” relations” (Guess 2006,
651). In other words, the field shifts the focus from racialized identities to whiteness. It focuses
on exposing whiteness to “dislodge them/us from the position of power, with all the inequities,
oppression, privileges and sufferings in its train” (Dyer 2017, 2).
Equally important, whiteness is viewed as a “form of power” (Twine and Gallagher 2008,
5), although invisible, it plays an important role in reframing and remaking social categories.
Further to this point, whiteness, acquired a position of power that renders it “the norm, the
ordinary, the standard” (Dyer 2017, 3) by which other races should abide. Furthermore,
Whiteness Theory sheds light on the construction of a white identity that has been vital to
explain the contours of racist practices today. As a matter of fact, “the goal of Whiteness studies
is to reveal and to share new knowledge about a seemingly under investigated social
phenomenon, namely the social construction of whiteness” (Guess 2006, 653). Whiteness
theorists start from the premise that race is socially informed and maintained. Thus, the
American identity is claimed to be formulated within the power of a historical white heritage
and structure.

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2.2.2 America’s racial identity
Scholars claim that America’s core identity developed in the context of a white Anglo-
Saxon elitist milieu that shaped race as an ideological term and gave the concept its socially
constructed nature. The American studies scholar George Lipsitz notes that “from the start,
European settlers in North America established structures encouraging a possessive investment
in whiteness” (2018, 2). The very understanding of race as a human invention is encapsulated
in the historical moment that gave the American society its racialized nature. Many scholars
perceive that whiteness as a socially constructed element, started with colonialism. American
Anthropologist Audrey Smedley argues that the basis of a racialized identity took shape in the
American colonies. English settlers created a racial ideological narrative by drawing the lines
between the “civilized” and the “savages” (1998, 664). In other words, the American
ideological identity was constructed along racial lines legitimizing a hierarchy between the
superior and inferior. The formulation of this ideological identity gave ascendency to white
privilege. Hence, “it was not long before the various European groups coalesced into a white
racial category whose high-status identity gave them access to wealth, power, opportunity and
privilege” (ibid, 665).

Similarly, Whiteness theorists trace the historical construction of the American racial
ideology through the evolution of the white race superiority. Guess (2006) argues that the
structuration process of America’s racialized identity was manifested in three ways: First,
America’s racialized identity was formulated with the ongoing significance of “race norms” in
the American colonial society. Second, this identity was strengthened with control over
resources by white agents. This was realized by historical episodes of “slavery, Reconstruction,
Jim Crow”. Third, the racialized identity was manifested through the rationalization of a white
ascendency (663). The understanding of race became equated with a white racial identity that
paved the way for a deeply embedded culture of racism characterized by what Lipsitz calls
“The possessive investment in whiteness” (2018).
Understanding race through the lens of whiteness gives currency to the social construction
of whiteness as a defining element of the American identity in which whiteness is identified as
“a norm, an unchanging and unproblematic location, a position from which all other identities
come to be marked by their difference” (Bonnett 1996, 146). Elias and Feagin refer to this
identity the “white racial frame”, which is “a meta-structure that includes not only broad and
persisting racial stereotypes and prejudges but also racialized narratives, ideologies . . . to
discriminate” (2016, 259).

9
 This identity was strengthened through the promises of assimilation. America’s social
theorists emphasized the merits of “whitewashed assimilation framework” (Elias and Feagin
2016, 52) and the need to subscribe to the American Creed values and ideals. Gunner Myrdal
(1944), for example, maintains that “it is to the advantages of American Negros as a group to
become assimilated to the American culture to acquire the traits held in esteem to the dominant
white Americans” (Myrdal 1944 quoted in Elias and Feagin 2016, 44). Hence, the process of
Americanization has been a driving force in maintaining social and cultural privileges for the
dominant white group that internalized a “white racial frame” embedded in the national
discourse. In this light, the American identity has been constructed by an elitist group
maintaining the social and political order causing stratification between the people of color and
whites. Whiteness was formulated as “the primary symbology of race, in terms of which other
symbols, and the divisions they name, become definable, again by whites. It is by exercising
this power to define that whites render themselves the transcendental norm” (Martinot 2010,
19).

2.3 Contemporary understanding of racism

The contemporary era is generating continued controversy about racial matters. Scholars
assess the presence of racism in a claimed post-racial America. Talks about racial matters are
dominated by two opposite camps. The first perspective champions “the claim is that we are
now entering a new era in America in which race has substantially lost its special significance”
(Pettigrew 2009, 279). Within beliefs of a post-racial America emerges the view that “any
seemingly new iteration of racism or racial inequality is considered merely an unfortunate echo
of a residual but fast fading legacy” (Valluvan 2016, 1). Race optimists’ also celebrate
America’s progress towards racial equality with the belief that “ever since the 1960’s, many
White Americans have believed that the nation’s race problems were fundamentally solved by
the Civil Rights Movement” (Pettigrew 2009, 279). This euphoria reached its peak in 2008 with
the election of the first black president Barack Obama and was considered a heyday in the
American history. It was an era where “ the majority of white public and white academics have
proclaimed victory over racism and viewed US society as a new post-race and post-racism
world”(Elias and Feagin 2016, 1). In other words, supporters of a post-racial America proclaim
a raceless society where racial differences no longer matter.

The second camp, however, maintains that polarization about racial matters continues to
be a defining feature in the contemporary American sphere. A growing body of literature comes
to condemn the claims of a post-racial America pointing at the persistence of social injustices

10
and equality in the American society .Elias and Feagin, for example, highly criticize social
scientists’ assumptions that racial biases are no longer relevant in academia. They address the
failures of mainstream of contemporary literature in addressing the complexities of racial
matters (2016, 18). Race skeptics in contemporary era regard that the struggle for recognition
is not over yet. Actually, a collective assumption provides arguments for the emergence of new
ways of racialization taking place. In speaking of the continued influence of whiteness, Martinot
argues that:

“Yet after 300 years, it remains, changing form over time, in response to political
conditions, while producing more damage. Whenever we have gotten strong enough to
interfere with its operations (as the civil rights movements did), it comes back wearing
different language, speaking an up-to-date lingo, while creating more of the “same old”
effects” (Martinot 2010, 2).

America’s white racial identity is claimed to be still deeply entrenched in the American
society and the current ways of racialization found new subtle ways to be demonstrated as
Katherine Cramer suggests: “subtle and implicit racism continue to be forces in the public
opinion” (Cramer 2020, 157). The political sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva subscribes to the
same view. He has been studying racial matters in the U.S with a special focus on the current
ways of racial disparities and color-blind racism. He concludes that discrimination still prevails,
however, “in post–civil rights America the maintenance of systemic white privilege is
accomplished socially, economically, and politically through institutional, covert, and
apparently nonracial practices ”(2018, 108). Differently put, despite the fact that the people of
color are deemed equal by constitutional means, new forms of invisible racial practices are
taking shape.
The current political landscape legitimates that America’s struggle with racial
discrimination is still a persistent phenomenon. Lipsitz reckons that “there has always been
racism in the United States but it has not always been the same racism. Racism has changed
over time taking on different forms and serving different social purposes over time (2018, 4).
As a matter of fact, the formulation of the Black Lives Matter attests for the continued
significance of racism as a deeply embedded structure in the US. The movement targets
“continued oppression of black Americans and other people of color in the U.S. criminal justice
system, schools, and other institutions” (Nummi, Jennings and Feagin 2019, 4). BLM remains
one of the most influential movements to signal the necessity of fight against hegemonic and
racist practices. The movement “was formed in the US in response to the acquittal of George

11
Zimmerman, a neighbourhood watch volunteer who murdered an unarmed black teenager,
Trayvon Martin, in Florida in 2013” (Oborne and cook 2020, 612). Today, the movement “has
also generated numerous global connections to people of color in other countries” (Nummi,
Jennings and Feagin 2019, 18) as it continues to fight for justice and equality.
The research investigates the current disparities through the lens of Hip-Hop scholarship
and mainly Eminem’s music, but it only focuses on police excessive use of force towards blacks
in Eminem’s Untouchable. However, before doing so, a brief overview of Trump’s vindication
of a white racial identity is relevant to this research since Untouchable also refers to Trump’s
racist appeals during his mandate.

2.3.1 Donald Trump and racism

One way of validating the persistence of a white-motived racial identity is through the
emergence of the former president Donald Trump in the political sphere. Trump’s ascendency
was accompanied with polarization (Bekafigo et al 2019, 1164). He shifted the political
dialogue to forge discussions about race and identity. Many scholars question not only his
alleged racist rhetoric but also signal his emergence as an entryway to strengthen racial
resentment among whites (Maskovosky 2017; Shafer 2017; Penman and Cloud 2018). Huber,
for example, argues that “the effects of articulatory practices of racist nativism as performed by
Trump, can be understood as the creation of a space that affords the opportunity for a virulent
adherence to white supremacy (2016, 231). Scholars also argue that for many of his supporters,
Trump emerged as a “white protectionist”(Smith and King 2021, 460) who felt that the election
of Barack Obama made them lose their privileges (Inwood 2019, 586) as well as feeling
“threatened in a changing America”(Smith and King 2021, 462). In other words, many white
Americans adhere to Trump to represent them and to crystalize a belief of reverse racism since
“Trump was able to tap into anxieties that have long positioned whites’ privileged position as
under threat” (Inwood 2019, 582).

In addition to that, it is maintained that many Americans felt threatened by the recent
demographic changes in the U.S society especially that “we transition from a solid majority
white population to a nation without a clear ethnoracial dominant group” (BoBo 2017, 95). The
perceived changes have been faced by common frustration between whites who were
historically in a superior position and by implication, feared to lose their weight and be
discriminated against. Extensive empirical research channel these fears. A study conducted by
H. Robert Outten and colleagues shows that “growing ethnic diversity is experienced as
threatening to whites, and this heightened sense of threat can increase negative feelings toward

12
ethnic minorities and increase the degree to which whites identify with their race and feel
sympathy toward their ingroup” (Outten et al., 2012, 23). Differently put, many white found
legitimacy in endorsing Donald Trump whom mainly targeted the alleged biases of “white
working and middle classes” (Inwood 2019, 586).
His electoral campaign shed light on many domestic disparities. His slogan “Make
America Great Again” was looked with suspicion. Indeed, the slogan, in the words of Goldstein
and Hall holds implicit racist overtones and is represents “the surreal mix of nostalgia and
racism” (2017, 398). The former president’s discourse and visible white ideology have secured
him to create the “Trump effect” (Costello 2016) and crystalized shared beliefs and assumptions
about whites’ victimization. However, Trump’s ascendency is not only seen to be related to a
“white-counter revolutionary politics” (Inwood 2019, 580), but it is also regarded to be the
outcome of a historical white identity and white supremacy as Inwood explains:

“it is imperative that we not view Trump as a peculiarity; instead, he is part of a broader
context in which white supremacist practices suture to American politics. The rise of
Trump embodies a 400-year racialized legacy of white supremacy and the workings of
racialized capital. This is the embodiment of the role white counterrevolutionary politics
play in the United States” (593).

Consequently, the Trump phenomenon represents the emergence of a new racial structure
that has been implemented at the heart of the American society making racial matters more
problematic, and “the problem of the color line” in Du Bois’s words (2007, 15), is still highly
entrenched within the American sphere.

2.3.2 Police brutality

Along with Trump’s ascendency, police excessive use of force towards blacks can be
regarded as an important aspect of racialization in contemporary America that is relevant to the
current research. Legal theorists and criminologists study minorities’ exposure to excessive
brutality by police officers. Growing and intensified episodes of police brutality against the
people of color raised concerns about America’s biased criminal system. Isabella Nascimento
comes to the conclusion that:

“The U.S. has failed to preserve the right to be free from racial discrimination and the
right to be free from torture when the value of a Black life is less than that of another
race—either when more Black Americans are dying at the hands of police or the police
fires more bullets into one body over another because of the color of his skin” (2017,
96).

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 Different ethnies and racial groups are claimed to be treated differently by authorities.
Criminologists Shaun Gabbidon and Helen Greene maintain that “even with the growth of
minority population, prejudice and discrimination remain central concerns” (2019, 36). The
treatment of minorities, especially blacks, has roots in a deeply seated mindset that regard the
people of color as criminals. Sociologist and criminologist Kelly Welsh contends that “the
familiarity many Americans have with the image of a young Black male as a violent and
menacing street thug is fueled and perpetuated by typifications everywhere” (2007. 276).
Accordingly, the formulated image of blacks and minorities is not the same as how whites are
portrayed. In fact, “for racial and ethnic minorities, color and ethnic background continue to
be proxy for criminality and dangerousness” (Gabbidon 2015, 101).
The very stereotypical portrayal of minorities has its roots in history where mainly
African-Americans were stereotyped as poor, dangerous and lawbreakers who need to abide by
certain rules of society. Taylor et al (2019) note that “stereotypes about African-Americans in
the USA are products of the institution of slavery” (214). Years of segregation have constructed
the concept of “Black Threat” (Onwudiwe and Onwudiwe 2009, 60). In addition to that, a
plethora of criminologist work focuses on the intersection between the social status of
minorities and the criminal behavior. “Labeling Theory” (Gabbidon 2015, 93) of race and crime
provides valuable literature of the stereotypical images that become popularized of the non-
whites. David Wilson draws on this perspective emphasizing the intersection between the
geographical space where blacks reside and unlawful behavior:

“A common understanding of race works through notions of culture and space. Common
thought has largely rejected biological determinism but widely substitutes spatial–
cultural disposition. Urban African Americans become understood as place-based beings
carrying so many cultural attributes that capture an irrefutable essence” (Wilson
2005,153 quoted in Gabbidon2015, 105).

From this standpoint, black culture is commonly understood from the lens of poverty and ghetto
life that make blacks prone to unlawful behavior. Following this line of thought, stereotypical
images of blacks became synchronized with poverty and criminality. Subsequently, this image
has become highly popularized in the media. In her book “The color of crime” Kathryn Russell
Brown (1998) coined the term “criminalblackman” (cited in Gabbidon 2015, 106) alluding to
the fact that black faces are more familiarized than whites to be involved in acts of crime.
This stereotypical image of blacks resulted in racial profiling by police officers. Racial
profiling is defined as “any police initiated action that relies on racial or ethnic appearance as

14
one factor among others, rather than the behavior of an individual or information (Harris 2017,
120). Theoretically, police agents are the pustules of protection against aggression with a main
duty to fight unlawful activities and to fight crime with an equal basis between citizens. To this
end, William C. Plouffe (2009, 625) argues that police officers are “usually required to swear
an oath of office”. This oath encompasses “a promise to faithfully defend and enforce not only
the criminal laws but also the constitution of that particular state and the Constitution of the
United States”. However, suspicions of the institution of law and order are growing with the
view that police authorities deviate from their prime duty and become agents of manipulation
and subjugation. Onwudiwe and Onwudiwe assert that “the police, as the primary gatekeepers
of the criminal justice system, are utilized for social control mechanisms” (2009, 60). The police
are also claimed to engage in acts of excessive power with “African-Americans being the prime
targets” (Martin and Kposowa 2019, 1).
The aforementioned discussion reveals a state of racialization that is still apparent in the
legal system. A system which Michelle Alexander (2010) calls the New Jim Crow era. A system
under which segregation and discrimination become institutionally normalized in the
mainstream American society “locking people of color into a permanent second class
citizenship” (2010, 13). The new ways of institutional and legal discrimination make race in
the contemporary era highly adaptable “according to the new rules of American democracy”
(2010, 40). The modern ways of racialization attest for the persistence of racial disparities in
the realm of the U.S society and the continuing advantage of whites.
In recent years, the use of excessive force by police resurfaced talks about police bias
towards the people of color and heightened discussions about America’s biased legal system.
According to the Pew Charitable Trusts, there has been a growing concern about the treatment
of people of color and blacks specifically. “In a 2019 Center Survey, 87% of blacks and 61%
of whites said the US criminal justice system treats black people less fairly” (The Pew Research
Center in Desilver, Lipka and Fahmy 2020). That said, racial disparities are still at the heart of
the American system and the problematic of race is an ongoing phenomenon. However, reliable
data about police use of deadly force is scarce as theorists agree that “there are very little data
on police-citizen interactions, and even police use of force are not well accounted” (Menifield,
Geiguen and Strother 2019, 56).
Despite shortage of empirical data, growing episodes of police brutality attest for the
unjustified use of force towards blacks. The repetitive cases of police excessive use of force
towards blacks also “ignited a new social movement known as Black Lives Matter” (Riley

15
2020, 496) mobilizing against institutional racism and unfair treatment. Accordingly, racial
matters are expressed in Hip-Hop music that will be addressed in the next section.

2.4 Hip-Hop scholarship and America’s racial disparities

Hip-Hop scholarly research focuses on issues of race and racism as well as the “deep
distrust of the criminal justice system in the United States” (Cummings 2010, 517). Hip-hop
music can be considered as an important radicalized genre to speak volumes about
discrimination and injustice towards blacks (Rose 1994; Persaud 2011; Dyson 2004). Hence,
before looking through the current ways of racialization embodied in Eminem’s song, a review
of the literature of Hip -Hop is crucial.

2.4.1 The intersection between race and Hip-Hop scholarship

Hip-Hop culture is an integral part of America’s racial consciousness. The aesthetics of
Hip-Hop music invoke the intersection between the artistic, political and social concerns that
constitute a central part of this research. The significance of Hip-Hop and racial meanings are
seen in the potent force rap lyrics yield to systematically voice America’s racial disparities. In
the words of Anthony Kwame Harrison, “Hip hop, as a form of music and popular culture, has
become one of the foremost arenas in which discussions of race, racial injustices and the
transformation of racial meanings occur” (Harrison 2015, 191).
A retrospective look at Hip-Hop history reveals a deeply embedded radicalized genre. Hip-
Hop started as an African American tradition in “the streets and parks of the South Bronx in
New York City” (Cummings 2010, 517) forming a cultural force. Rose makes a similar point
and traces its origins to the “outgrowth of the social, political condition to which the people of
color in the Bronx were subjected” (1989, 36). She further maintains that

“it is the complex ethnic interaction that developed in the Bronx combined with the post-
1960s disillusionment and alienation that provided many of the cultural ingredients in
Hip Hop, the larger subculture of which rap is the most prominent facet” (1989, 37).

Thus, Hip-Hop culture started with the alienation and the disadvantaged conditions of blacks
under which “oppressed people use language, dance and music to mock those in power, express
rage and produce fantasies of subversion” (Rose 1994, 100). In this way, one can say that the
birth of Hip-Hop is a black product that developed as a result of racial neglect to the problems
of blacks forming “a new cultural identity” (Rose, 1989, 37). Blacks found their voice in the
aesthetics of Hip-Hop as a result of unjust socio-economic milieu, collective black outrage and
continued silencing. Hip Hop music created a safe niche for expression and became a
“contemporary stage for the theater of the powerless” (Rose 1994, 101). Dyson also asserts that:

16
“rap projects a style of self into the world that generates forms of cultural resistance and
transforms the ugly terrain of ghetto existence into a searing portrait of life as it must be lived
by millions of voiceless people” (2004, 68). Hence, the origins of Hip-Hop culture are important
to theorize rap music as an element of resistance that emanates from the oppressed black
minority with the goal of “articulat[ing] the chasm between black urban lived experience and
legitimat[ing] ideologies regarding equal opportunities and racial inequality” (Rose 1994,103).

From its early development, rap music focused on the racial disparities that characterize
America. In fact, “police brutality, racism and harassment form the political core of male
rappers’ social criticism” (Rose 1994, 106). The very beginnings of rap music witnessed the
emergence of numerous politically charged rappers who channeled their lyricism to highlight
social injustices towards blacks. Rap figures criticize their social status and the continued
neglect and discrimination that target the poor neighborhoods in America. The message by
Grandmaster Flash is a critique of the struggles of people in the poor areas and the institutional
neglect of black anxieties. Although released in 1982, the song’s lyrics still resonate with
blacks’ underprivileged economic status.
Rap genre also witnessed the birth of gangsta rap. The genre provides harsh political
criticism to authorities and mainly police officers for their continued discrimination against
blacks and minorities. Fuck the police by NWA (1988) remains one of the main historical pillars
in the legacy of rap as a resistance movement. KRS-One (1993) also expressed his political
resentment towards police authorities and the continued unjustified brutality against the black
community with a critique to America’s racist foundation. He sings, “change your attitude
change you plans/ there could never really be justice on a stolen land/ Are you for peace and
equality? / when my car is hooked up, you know you wanna follow me” (1993).

In the contemporary era, “rap lyrics reflect the personal, national, and international
relations affecting the lived experience of Blackness in America (Persaud 2011, 628). There
has been revived attention to America’s biased system and discriminatory practices. A plethora
of work has been presented by rappers. One can mention Spiritual by Jay Z (2016), Land of the
Free by Joey Badass(2017), Cops Shot the Kid by Nas (2018), This is America by Childish
Gambino (2018), Alright by Kendrick Lamar (2015) which was sung in a demonstration of the
Black Lives Matter in 2015 (Lebron 2017, 35). In 2020, many Hip-Hop songs have been
dedicated to document the death of George Floyd and to voice black outrage concerning
repetitive episodes of police deadly use of force. For example, Dr Dre’s Captured on an iPhone

17
(2020) documents the recent social unrest in relation to George Floyd and manifests the cases
of many undocumented cases of police brutality. The mentioned examples attest for the
relevance of Hip-Hop in projecting racial disparities and distrust with the institutional system

2.4.2 Popular culture discussions and Hip-Hop music

Hip-Hop music is a highly controversial field and has been the subject of debate as a form
of popular culture. Theorizing about popular culture is governed by different perspectives. The
work of the Frankfurt school is central to understand the debate concerning popular culture. In
the words of Stirnati “it would be very difficult to understand the study of popular culture
without understanding the work of the Frankfurt school” (2004, 47).

Theorists of the Frankfurt school share a suspicious view of mass culture condemning its
controlling nature over the masses. Critical theorists Max Horkeimer and Theodor Adorno
(2002) assert that “the culture industry remains the entertainment business. Its control of
consumers is mediated by entertainment” (108). They also argue that the culture industry is
hard to resist since” anyone who resists can survive only by being incorporated” (ibid, 104).
Furthermore, the culture industry threatens revolutionary awakening. Accordingly, “the culture
industry . . . divulges style’s secret: obedience to the social hierarchy (103-104). Thus, the
school equates popular culture with the maintenance of “cultural and social authority” (Storey
2018, 66). According to this view, popular culture is impoverished from its aesthetic nature and
cannot aspire to the values of high culture defined by Mathew Arnold (1869) as “the best that
has been thought and said” (quoted in Shuker 2001, 17).

Similarly, polarization about Hip-Hop culture has been strengthening with a general view
that “with the discovery of Hip-Hop artists by corporate record labels rap music was . . .
repackaged by money minded businessmen” (Blanchard 1999). In other words, the rapid
success of Hip-Hop worldwide gave rise to mass consumption and commercialization of rap
culture devoid of the message it produces.
The Frankfurt school also invests in discussions within popular music studies. Adorno
provides valuable work concerning the discussion on popular music. He distinguishes between
“serious music and “popular music” (1998, 196). Adorno is critical of popular music that is
characterized by “standardization” (1998, 197). He argues that

Listening to popular music is manipulated not only by its promoters but, as it were, by
the inherent nature of this music itself into a system of response mechanism wholly
antagonistic to the ideal of individuality in a free liberal world” (ibid, 200-201).

18
In fact, the mechanized and repetitive consumption of popular music is what makes it preserve
“its hold over the masses” (ibid, 205). On the contrary, “no such mechanical substitution by
stereotyped pattern is possible in serious music” (ibid, 204). In other words, serious music
preserves its authentic values while popular music is consumed repeatedly and consequently
becomes devoid of its value. Further to this point, Storey notes that “once a musical and/or
lyrical pattern has proved successful it is exploited to commercial exhaustion”. (2018, 69).
Adorno (1998) adds to his argument that popular music strengthens “inattention and
distraction” (205). It creates passivity through “commercialized entertainment” (205).

In the same vein, rap, as a popular music genre does not escape “the frequent moral panic
reaction” (Shuker 2001, 12). In fact, the commercialization of party rap has been problematic.
This is acknowledged with the subsequent degradation of the value of rap to themes of sexism
and explicit sexual references and devaluation of morals.

An appreciation of popular culture is given by culturist views. Culturalism stresses “human

agency and the active production of culture” (Storey 2018, 37) reactivating the merits of some
elements of popular culture. What follows is that popular culture becomes “a culture of the
people and for the people” (Storey 2018, 9). Building on the same theme postmodernist views
value the aesthetics of popular culture with the merits of difference. Cultural theorist Stuart Hall
argues that postmodernism blurs the walls between high and low culture. “The high/popular
distinction is precisely what the global postmodernism is displacing” (1992, 106). Therefore,
Hip-Hop culture becomes a creative culture with its aesthetics promoting ethnic and racial
differences while preserving its authenticity. Hall further elaborates on this view saying that
“the role of popular in popular culture is to fix its authenticity of popular forms rooting them in
the experience of popular communities from which they drew their strength” (1992, 107).

Taking into account the polarization about popular culture and Hip-Hop, rap music is, by
and large, “a postmodern popular art which challenges some of our most deeply entrenched
aesthetic conventions” (Shusterman 1991, 614). In other words, despite disturbing to some, rap
music is a creative space that embodies different messages that the rapper seeks to
communicate. Hip-Hop music genres are diverse; Adam Krims (2000) identifies four major
genres of rap music which are “Party rap”, “Mack rap”, “Jazz/bohemian rap” and “Reality rap”.
These genres vary in their musical style, flow and topics ranging from entertainment and
commercialization to political themes (55-70).

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 The focus of this research is on the emancipatory messages that American rap music
convey in speaking of racism and social justice. Far from being a tool for entertainment, many
scholars acknowledge the political messages that conscious rappers transmit making hip-hop
music a counter discursive culture and an oppositional counterweight to systematic practices of
segregation especially against the people of color. Scholar Jeffrey Decker maintains “while hip
hop nationalists are not politicians, they are involved in the production of cultural politics-its
creation, its circulation, and its interpretation” (1993, 58). In this context, rap music can be
considered as an arena for continued strive and political mobilization that speaks of the silent
minority. Rose contends that “rappers continue to craft stories that represent the creative
fantasies, perspectives and experiences of racial marginality in America” (1994, 3).

Hip-hop emancipatory ontologies led to the emergence of Hip-hop studies as an important

multidisciplinary social inquiry that represents a pillar of resistance to social injustices in the
U.S and subsequently to a pedagogical framework called “Critical Hip-Hop Pedagogy CHHP”
introduced by Akom (2009 54). This framework stresses the importance of utilizing and
incorporating rap music texts in the educational system. In his approach “CHHP starts from the
premise that hip hop is an important lens for socio-political analysis and representation of
marginalized communities (55). He suggests that it is “participatory”, “cooperative” and
enhances youth to critically engage with issues of racialization and social justice (56). It also
helps students reflect through innovative ways. In sum, Hip-Hop music is of great significance
in Cultural studies since “today rap culture ceased to be a sort of “outsider” in academic opinion,
because of its influences on the culture and art innovations” (Molokov and Zueva 2017, 1359).

2.5 The changing dynamics of Hip-Hop music and the emergence of Eminem
Hip-Hop culture started as an African-American art. Blacks found in Hip-Hop music a
niche to express their voice as an oppressed race. In fact, “Hip-Hop culture has provided a
space for black Americans to protest their material and symbolic reality” (Grealy 2008, 853).
The founders of Hip-Hop music emphasized the cultural specifities of the African-American
traditions. In this context Mikey Hess, acknowledges that “concepts of authenticity are so tied
in the roots of its [black] culture” (2005, 375). However, rap music witnessed different
cultural changes with the emergence of many white rappers in the scene. This change
“continues to pose a series of intriguing sociological questions” (Harrison 2008, 1784). In this
context, Imani Perry (2004) engages in the discussion regarding the changing dynamics of
Hip-Hop. Perry rejects the idea of negotiating the cultural boundaries of Hip-Hop originalism.
She argues that “Hip hop music is black American music. Even with its hybridity: the

20
consistent contributions from nonblack artists and the borrowings from cultural forms of other
communities” (10). However, she also celebrates the inclusiveness of Hip-Hop music. Perry
asserts that “this focus on originalism, while important for historical acknowledgment seems
to fail with respect to identifying an art form as a cultural project” (2004, 11).
Many contemporary Hip-Hop researchers come to embrace the changing racial and
cultural spaces within rap music especially with the large audience of white youth. Cultural
critic Bakari Kitwana, in his book “why white kids love hip hop, differentiates between “old
racial politics” and “new racial politics” (2005, 136-137). He asserts that “transcending the old
racial politics is essential to discovering the new strategies this younger generation is evolving
for working across historical divides like race, class and nationalism” (2005, 2). The changing
boundaries within rap music open prospects to reconfigure rap’s authenticity to become more
flexible.
Authenticity is a central component of rap music. Rappers’ success depends on the very
notions of credibility that validate their entry in the Hip-Hop world. Harrison explains that
“authenticity aims to strike an agreement between the presentation of something or someone
(as authentic) and the reception or acceptance of that presentation” (2008, 1785). Echoing
Harrison, Hess argues that “Hip-hop realness, then, is conveyed when an artist performs as a
unique individual while maintaining a connection with the original culture of hip-hop” (2005,
374). In other words, key to understand credible voices in Hip-Hop is through black misfortunes
and the struggles to climb the social ladder. Yet, the boundaries of exclusive authenticity were
questioned with the emergence of many white rappers to the scene. Harrison argues that “as
debates swirl into the 21st century, audiences of all sorts approach questions of hip hop
authenticity and whiteness with a range of different expectations, assumptions, and interests”
(2008, 1784).
Eminem represents a leading figure in the changing parameters of authenticity. Hess
maintains that “constructions of white authenticity have changed most distinctly with the
success of key white artists, first with Vanilla Ice, and later with Eminem (2005,374). Marshall
Bruce Mathers, best known as Eminem or Slim Shady, is one of the pioneers of Hip-Hop as a
white practice. Eminem garnered success and celebrity both nationally and internationally “as
the first rap artist to win an academy award” (Calhoun 2005, 268). The latter has managed to
secure “acceptance by black rap stars” (Tsiopos-Wills 2007, 484) and to gain an authentic
status. Eminem is also considered as “the first white solo artist to maintain long-term hip-hop
success and cultural credibility” (Grealy 2008, 851). Edward G. Armstrong Senior Fellow

21
(2004) states three different conditions of authenticity that facilitated Eminem’s entry in Hip-
Hop. He clarifies that:

“First, there’s a concern with being true to oneself. Rap illustrates self-creation
and individuality as a value. Next, there is the question of location or place. Rap
prioritizes artists’ local allegiances and territorial identities. Finally, the question
becomes whether a performer has the requisite relation and proximity to an
original source of rap. Eminem is firmly grounded in these three kinds of
authenticity” (336).

Eminem’s social status and lower class are important to his credible image (Hess, 2005,
382). Born in a poor family, Eminem mainly “inhabits a white trash identity” (Grealy 2008,
860). His beginnings signal his identification with the underclass culture that was important to
his entry in the Hip-Hop scene. “But I’ma always remind you that I came from poverty”
(Eminem 2020). Throughout his songs, the rapper speaks of his struggles and personal
biographies (Eminem1999, Eminem 2002, Eminem 2013). These biographies rendered him
credible since “assertions of authenticity also rest on claims that a person is “natural” and
without “artifice,” (Fellow 2004, 338). A very important section of Eminem’s music speaks of
his distorted childhood and a father he did not know. “He openly admits in interviews that his
father was never around and his mom was an inadequate parent” (Kitwana 2005, 137). The
rapper prioritized his class to maintain a privileged status in the Hip-Hop community and to
vindicate his credibility.
Race has also been an important instrument for Eminem’s construction of authenticity
(Calhoun 2005, 278). Although he has struggled to penetrate a highly black culture3, Eminem’s
negotiation of whiteness (Grealy 2008, 851) has been central to his success. The dialectics of
his race are at the heart of this discussion. The rapper benefits from an inventory of identities
and multiple racial identifications that made him credible in the rap scene. As Keller maintains
“one must see Eminem as both black and white in order for his public image to be fully
coherent” (2009, 159). His tactics operate between the parameters of invisibility and visibility
or “sameness and otherness” (Dawkins 2010, 465). Many scholars studied his success in a
predominantly black culture. For example, Grealy (2008) asks “What is it that he has done, that

3
Eminem speaks about this struggle in white America (2002). He sings “when I was underground no
one gave a fuck I was white/ No label wanted to sign me, almost gave up”.
22
so many white rappers before him have not managed to do, in order to achieve such a high
degree of hip-hop authenticity?” (858). Eminem was able to be a real MC and authenticate his
position in the hip-hop industry through “a negotiation between black and white” (Keller 2009,
162). In other words, the rapper embodies different racial spaces that make him white and not
white at the same time. He highly embraces his white identity and at the same time finds
legitimacy in the struggles of the blacks. Following this logic of thought, Lindsay Calhoun
explains that:

“Eminem is able to ‘‘universalize’’ himself… masking Whiteness discursively through

his rap lyrics by marketing himself as the universal subject, the ultimate shape shifter
who cannot be pinned down. He accomplishes his ‘‘authenticity’’ by occupying the ‘‘in-
betweenness’’ of race, gender, and class boundaries through constant contradiction”
(Calhoun 2005, 269-270).

Eminem’s visible whiteness is apparent his lyrics that celebrate his white identity. In
Criminal, for example, he asserts, “you won’t avoid me, you can’t miss me/ I’m white, blonde-
haired” (Eminem 2000). He further acknowledges in White America “let’s do the math if I was
black/ I would’ve sold half” (2002). Eminem has secured his authentic image by being true to
his origins. In fact, “Eminem learned as much from the success of The Beastie Boys as he did
from the failure of the infamous Vanilla Ice” (Dawkins 2010, 466). His appreciation of his own
race has garnered appeals from blacks and whites alike.
Furthermore, the artist makes use of his invisibility by embracing his talent and his vocal
endorsement to the issues of black people. In role model, he raps, “Some people only see that
I’m white, ignorin’ skill/’cause I stand out like a green hat with an orange bill/ But I don’t get
pissed y’all don’t even see through the mist/ How the fuck can I be white? I don’t even exist”
(Eminem 1999). In other words, Eminem benefits from a multiplicity of identities that makes
him visible and invisible with an ultimate goal, which is advancing his rap themes. He sings in
who knew “I don’t do black music, I don’t do white music, I make fight music” (Eminem 2000).
Subsequently the rapper created an inclusive image between whiteness and blackness. He was
able to transcend controversies (Grealy 2008, 852) to gain a permanent position of authenticity.
Eminem has become one of the first white rappers to be widely recognized and appreciated to
advance his voice to the mainstream public.

2.5.1 Eminem’s political engagement

Throughout his career, Eminem dedicated an important portion of his work to political
themes. Gilbert B. Rodman confirms that “there is thoughtful and even progressive-cultural

23
commentary to be found in Eminem’s music” (2014, 34). The rapper targets different themes
in the American society starting from America’s social realities (Eminem 2017), gun violence
(Eminem 2020), political figures (Eminem 2016) and more recently, contemporary forms of
racism and police brutality. Eminem’s outrageous lyrics serve as a critical voice and an arena
to bring social justice to the silent majority. In a recent interview, he says, “I am blessed to be
able to have a platform to be able to say things and still get the attention and as long as I can
grab ears that is kind of my intent” (Eminem 2017 cited in Complex, 3:10-3:23).
From his early celebrity, Eminem maintained an Anti-establishment governmental
critique. In white America he raps “cuz Congress keep telling me I am causing nothing but
problems/ and now they’re saying I’m in trouble with the government” (2002). His highly loud
lyrics targeted the administration of the former president George W. Bush, his foreign policies
and also terrorist mobilizations. Songs like square dance (Eminem 2002), we as Americans
(Eminem 2004) and Mosh (Eminem 2004) serve this end. In Mosh, the rapper launched an anti-
Bush campaign with his lyricism. Mosh is a political protest song that “was released just before
the November 2004 election as an indictment of George W. Bush and the Iraq war” (Tsiopos-
Wills 2007, 497). In the song, the rapper criticizes the legitimacy of the war in Iraq and urges
voters to refrain from voting to him. Eminem formulated a national anthem of highly angry
citizens. He sings “let the president answer a higher anarchy…/ No more blood for oil/ we got
our own battles to fight on our own soil/ No more psychological warefare/ to trick us thinking
that we ain’t loyal” (Eminem 2004). In a similar fashion, he attacked the former president Bush
in we as Americans saying “I don’t rap for dead presidents/I would rather see the president
dead/ it’s never been said but I set precedents” (Eminem 2004). His highly controversial
political views and outrage was met with criticism and also captured the attention of the Secret
Services (Patel 2003).

2.5.2 Eminem and the current racial scene

The central focus of my research is on the contemporary forms of racialization in
Eminem’s album Revival and his song Untouchable. As a matter of fact. In contemporary era,
Eminem targets racial anxieties in the American socio-political sphere. His central focus is on
the contemporary forms of racism. He sets police brutality and Donald trump’s policies as the
main drive that explains the persistence of racial disparities. His album Revival was released on
December 15, 2017. It is his ninth album and it brings forth the contemporary matters in modern
America. The cover of the album is highly symbolic. It portrays Eminem in a state of malaise.
Commenting on his album cover, he justifies this choice by saying that:

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 “the reason I am head down in the fucking cover is because I feel like yes we’ve made
some strikes since the fifties and the sixties and the seventies and that is it great but we
not come far enough. It makes me realize that fuck we didn’t come as far as I thought
we did, that’s why I feel disgusted in the country I love….In my opinion this is the best
country to live in but you cannot ignore the bullshit that goes on” (Eminem 2017 cited
in Complex, 1:11-1:43).

Eminem’s Revival comes as a response to the highly deplorable conditions that the
American society faces. He mainly stands for the people of color and blacks to voice their
disadvantaged situation and their continued subjugation. Revival features three political songs:
The Storm, Like Home and Untouchable.
The Storm highlights the rapper’s outrage with the election of the former president Donald
Trump and his alleged racist tendencies. Like Home also reviews aspects of Trump’s white
identity vindication. It is also a call for unity and change in tune with the Black Lives Matter
goals of equality and justice. In his songs, Eminem documents two important manifestations in
relation to Trump’s previous presidency. The Charlottesville’s racist act and Trump’s
confrontation with the National Football League leaders that have caused controversy on the
national front. As far as Like Home is concerned Eminem addresses the Charlottesville’s
tragedy and blames Trump for his affinity with hate groups and white supremacists and accuses
the former president of promoting hate speech.
On August 2017, a right-wing supremacist event called “Unite the Right” was organized
in Charlottesville (Keneally 2018) as a way to protest against the removal of the status of
General Robert Lee “Who led the Confederate army during the Civil War” (Keneally, 2018).
The protestors embodied many racist beliefs and gestures including “confederate battle flags,
deployed swastikas, other Nazi symbols, Ku Klux Klan paraphernalia, various white nationalist
banners, and tiki torches in a stunning visual display suggestive of the normalization of white
supremacy in contemporary American politics” (Perry 2018, 57). The rally also included
confrontations with counter protestors and in its aftermath “the rally and protests of it ended
when Heather Heyer, age 32, was killed by a white supremacist” (Perry 2018, 57). The tragedy
was met with outrage from different American citizens who lamented the persistence of
supremacist groups.

In the song, Eminem severely criticizes the persistence of racist beliefs in the American
society and blames Trump for his reluctance to condemn supremacist groups. In fact, in the
wake of the tragedy Donald Trump responded by “blaming both sides for the deadly violence

25
in Charlottesville” (Shear and Haberman 2017). His passivity to condemn the supremacist
groups was Eminem’s rationale behind calling him a racist and a “Nazi” in the song. Like Home
as well addresses powerful messages of resistance and protest it functions as an anthem to fight
and to change the current situation.
In his freestyle the storm Eminem addresses, as well, a debatable subject. The song shows
a harsh critique to Donald trump’s racist policies against minorities and the people of color. It
targets recent Trump’s confrontation with the NFl players and Eminem’s support for Colin
Kaepernick, the American football quarterback who “began his protest during the NFL
preseason game in August 2016 by refusing to stand for the national anthem” (Murty et al
2018,46). As a response to the players protest, “Donald trump intensified the flames of
controversy with his unpopular ―sons of bitches‖ remarks and tweets calling fans to boycott
games, and casting a doubt on players’ patriotism” (ibid, 48). His comments led to a wave of
controversy and to subsequent protests during the National Anthem. From his stage, Eminem
supported Kaepernick’s forms of protesting against intensified racial discrimination against
blacks. The freestyle was highly controversial since Eminem created divided views among
supporters and non-supporters of Trump with his famous verse “I am drawing in the sand a line
you’re either for or against/ And if you can’t decide who you like more and you’re split/and
who you should stand beside I’ll do it for you with this/ Fuck you”. (Eminem 2017).
Although this goes beyond the scope of this research, it is worth to note that in his most
recent albums, Music to be murdered by side B, Eminem reflects on the state of the American
society amid the COVID pandemic. Released on December 2020, the album refers to the
continued unjustified violence towards blacks by police agents. In his songs Zeus (Eminem
2020) and These demons (Eminem 2020) he pays homage to the recent victims of state-
sponsored violence and reminds of the necessity of keeping the fight.

2.5.3 Eminem’s Untouchable

Eminem’s criticism to America’s political system is communicated through his song
Untouchable which is the main focus of this research. Indeed, the study is limited to gain a
deeper understanding of Eminem’s views of state-sponsored racism through police excessive
violence towards blacks. At the heart of the contemporary racial disparities, Eminem released
Untouchable in 2017. The song was released in a strategic timing since it was out “on the same
day the former Carolina police officer Micheal Slager was sentenced to 20 years in prison for
the shooting death of Walter Scoot in 2015” (WhoSampled Team 2017). The incident fueled
outrage and protest due to police criminality against blacks and the continued subjugation of

26
citizens of color as deviants. The song highlights aspects of racialization in the American
society with a focus on recurrent episodes of police brutality towards blacks. It also puts
emphasis on the continued devaluation of black lives and their second-class position since they
are still stereotyped as criminals and deviants. It is both written from the perspective on a white
officer and a black individual emphasizing the continued stratification in the American society.
The song was the outcome of growing disillusionment with the legal system “if you remember
about two years ago there was a time when it felt like literally every other day. . . You wake up
and see the news; another black man is shot by police and killed for basically nothing” (Eminem
2017cited in ePro Team: Sopport for Eminem, 4:36-4:55). Thus, in Untouchable he provides a
harsh critique to police brutality against minorities. Eminem also addresses real life cases of
police excessive use of force. Eminem questions the rationality of these acts and the privileged
status of police officers who use their authority to discriminate against minorities, which in turn
provides strong evidence for the persistence of discriminatory practices against blacks.

Eminem, as well, recalls the painful memory of Rodney king’s incident with the white
police officers. Through this incident, Eminem highly criticizes the American contemporary
racial scene that attests that racial criminalities are at the heart of the American legal system.
After the song was released, Rodney King’s daughter wrote an open letter to Eminem thanking
him for the song:

“Dear Eminem,

I first would like to thank you for always speaking on subjects that are not so attractive
to America but need to be heard. Thank you for always speaking for the unheard, with
the position and the race you possess. Please keep going against the grain to wake people
up and hopefully spark a change. Thank you for speaking about the elephant in the room
‘injustice in America’, from a white man’s perspective with a human heart” (Lamarre
2017)

2.6 Conclusion
The intersection between racial meanings and Eminem’s songs attests for the validity of
the changing and shifting notions of race. Critical Whiteness Studies provides important
insights about the construction of whiteness as a powerful structure in today’s racial anxieties.
Highlighting Hip-Hop as a protest culture is also vital to address the persistence of racist
tendencies in the American society. The next chapter will address a more in-depth description
of the methods used to analyze Untouchable.

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 Chapter 3

3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
As mentioned above, the overall aim of this study is to advance a thorough
understanding of America’s contemporary racial disparities through the lens of Hip-Hop music.
To this end, this methodology takes Eminem’s Untouchable as a case study to examine in depth
the manifestations of racial disparities through police excessive use of violence towards blacks.
In the first section, this chapter starts with a brief overview of qualitative research. The
following section presents Eminem’s Untouchable as a case study. The third section introduces
Discourse Studies, describes Hip-Hop as a discourse, presents Critical Discourse Analysis
exemplified in Fairclough’s (2003) model of Textual Analysis as an instrument of analysis, and
cover the mode of analysis carried out throughout this research: the Thematic Analysis. In later
sections, I discuss how data are collected. As for the last section, it is devoted to the issues of
validity and generalizability.

3.2 Research Design: The qualitative research

Qualitative research is “an approach for exploring and understanding the meanings
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or a human phenomenon” (Creswell and Creswell 2018,
41). Key to understand qualitative models is through the belief that “there are multiple
interpretations of, and perspectives on single events and situations” (Cohen, Manion and
Morrison 2018, 19). In fact, a qualitative understanding of research rejects positivists’
assumptions regarding a single or a fixed reality. The qualitative endeavor rests on what
Creswell and Creswell calls “the theoretical lens” (2018, 100). The theoretical lens
acknowledges different perspectives in interpreting the phenomenon and the need for subjective
accounts to provide an understanding of this phenomenon. In this respect, this research, -as the
title suggests: A reading of contemporary racial disparities through the lens of Hip-Hop music:
Eminem as a case study- is a perspective among many or a possible interpretation of the
American scene today provided by Eminem. In other words, it seeks to formulate a potential
understanding of the racial complexities from the Hip-Hop worldview following the qualitative
norm.
The research understudy examines Eminem’s worldview of the complexity of the racial
problematic today. The study is also a way to understand not only the situation of African-
Americans as Eminem perceives it, but also how blacks see their socio-economic situation
today. As Hancock and Alogzzine (2006, 8) reaffirm “in qualitative research the goal is to

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understand the situation under investigation primarily through the participants’ and not the
researcher’s perspective”. Thus, the qualitative design gives an authentic understanding of the
phenomenon from those involved adding to the richness of the research and “leading the
researchers to look for the complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into few
categories or realities” (Creswell and Creswell 2018, 46).
Qualitative designs rest on ontological, epistemological and methodological premises as
identified by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018, 288). In reference to ontology, there are
different interpretations of reality and “meanings used by participants to interpret situations are
culture-and context-bound” (288). Eminem’s Untouchable acknowledges different
interpretations and discourses. Events are informed by the discourse of the white police officer
and the black voice, which contribute to different constructions of the racial worldview today.
On epistemology, the participants construct knowledge as the basis of the research where
“researchers focus on subjective accounts, views and phenomena by the participants” (289).
Untouchable identifies Eminem’s subjective voice in speaking about the bias and excessive use
of force by police. Regarding methodology, qualitative research encompasses “thick
descriptions” (Geertz 1973 quoted in Cohen, Manion and Morrison 2018, 19). Indeed,
qualitative research includes rich and detailed data to better understand the interpretation given
by participants and construct a holistic view. To this end, the research understudy will
investigate Eminem’s interpretation of the racial reality in America through a case study that
will be identified in the next section.

3.2.1 Critical Ethnography

I opted for critical ethnography to interpret the racial scene in America through Eminem’s
critical lens and to present Untouchable as a song dedicated for emancipatory purposes.
Ethnography shares an overarching interest in investigating society and cultural groups.
However, while “conventional ethnography describes what is; critical ethnography asks what
could be” (Thomas 1993, 4). In this light, Untouchable falls within the critical framework to
investigate the ways of racialization with a hope for change. In fact, “critical ethnography . . .
by modifying consciousness or invoking a call to action, attempts to use knowledge for social
change” (ibid). Untouchable focuses on unveiling notions of power and inequality in the
American society as well as raising consciousness to resist racial bias and promote change.
Thus, investigating Untouchable through critical ethnography will encompass the “hermeneutic
and emancipatory” (ibid) dimensions.

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3.3 Research strategy: Eminem’s Untouchable as a case study
In his Revival album (2017), Eminem addresses a number of problematic social anxieties
that the American people face in contemporary epoch. Eminem revives talks about the
persistence of discriminatory practices based on color in a supposedly post-racial era. Despite
the album’s relevance for this research, the dissertation will be only focusing on an in-depth
analysis of Eminem’s Untouchable to meet the objectives of the study. This song is taken as a
case study. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison, a case study “provides a unique
example of real people in real situations, enabling readers to understand ideas more clearly than
simply presenting them with abstract theories and principles” (2018, 376). Simply put, a case
study presents phenomena in their uniqueness undertaking depth since a case presents situations
from individual accounts and units, which is the case in the song entitled Untouchable.
In the research, the song is taken as a single, explanatory case with sociological
dimensions. First, Untouchable is analyzed as a single unit for analysis to “provide fine grain
details” (Cohen, Manion and Morrison 2018, 378) about the excessive lethal force exercised by
police. Second, Untouchable as a case study is strategically chosen for explanatory purposes.
Yin (2019) identifies three types of case studies with regards to their purposes. He maintains
that case studies can be designed for exploratory, descriptive or explanatory purposes (41).
Following this line of thought, “explanatory designs seek to establish cause and effect
relationships” (Hancock and Algozzine 2006, 33). Studying the song as a case study is aimed
to explain the rationale behind police brutality episodes and their effects on the socio-economic
situation of blacks as a minority group. Third, Untouchable as a case study advances a
sociological understanding about racial bias in America. Merriam (2001) argues that there are
four types of case studies. The case can be designed for ethnographic, historical, psychological
or sociological purposes (cited in Hancock and Algozzine 2006, 31). Drawing on Merriam’s
typologies, Hancock and Algozzine argue that “sociological case study research with its focus
on society, social institutions and social relationships, examine the structure, development
interaction and collective behavior of organized groups of individuals” (2006, 32). In this
context, Untouchable as a case study advances a sociological understanding about racial bias
in America. Put differently, the song focuses on the societal conditions that led to a collective
feeling of inferiority. It sheds light on social regression driven by police violence.

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3.4 Discourse Studies
3.4.1 Hip-Hop music as discourse
Linguist Theo Van Leeuwen maintains that “music can and should be treated as a
discourse” (2012, 320). Music, in this regard, can be effective in expressing and transmitting
ideas about culture and ideology and in reflecting ideas of the social world. Van Leeuwen
elaborates on music’s discursive meanings arguing that “the principal musical system -melody,
harmony, rhythm, timber and so on- are not just about abstract formal systems, they realize
social meanings and express values and identities and ideologies” (2012, 327). The discursive
study of music is recognized in the field of Musical Discourse Analysis as an interdisciplinary
area that includes “multidimensional analysis” (Aleshinskaya 2013, 423). Analyzing Hip-Hop
music is, however, underrepresented in musical analysis because “Hip-Hop music resists
traditional modes of musical analysis more than almost any other genre” (Adams 2015, 118).
In fact, Hip-Hop music has its own discursive practices due to its particularity in terms of
language, culture and style.
Considering Hip-Hop music as discourse enshrines the particularity of Hip-Hop language
with its aesthetics to transmit the cultural endeavors of the genre. Language is an important
linguistic tool that rappers use to represent their discursive worldviews. Samy Alim, a Hip-Hop
linguist expert, recognizes the importance of Hip-Hop language: “we begin with language as
power, that is, the view that language is the revolution, a powerful discourse in and of itself”
(2006, 10). In defending Hip-Hop discursive language, Alim, theorizes the Hip-Hop Nation
Language. He defines HHNL as “a language with its own grammar, lexicon and phonology as
well as unique communicative style and discursive modes” (2006, 71). Indeed, from its early
formation Hip-Hop music has developed its own responses to hegemonic struggles through its
culture, language and style. Alim asserts that “Hip-Hop linguists are cultural translators who
dedicate between Hip-Hop culture (and its language) and dominant classes and societies (and
their language) within which they existed” (2006, 10). Hence, Hip-Hop language can be
considered as a discursive tool that rappers formulate and appropriate to their thematic
concerns.
Hip-Hop aesthetics and unique structure add to the strength of Hip-Hop language as a
discourse. Rap songs benefit from a particular structure and musical elements ranging from
flow, rhyme, rhythm etc. Therefore, the structure and language of Hip-Hop constitute its
discursive element to represent Hip-Hop worldview. These elements are omnipresent in
Eminem’s Untouchable and will be scrutinized with more emphasis in the analysis part.

31
 The cultural praxis is also an important part in constructing the discourse of Hip-Hop
music. Fairclough maintains that “discourse is not simply an entity we can define
independently, we can only arrive at an understanding of it by analyzing set of relations” (2010,
3). Vital to understand rap music is through the nexus between rap, culture and language. Aware
of the exception of rap music, Music analyst Adam Krims (2000) develops a different reading
of musicological analysis. He proposes a model for understanding Hip-Hop culture based on
the uniqueness of the cultural element of the genre. He champions a close reading of music,
which sees the latter as a different entity that needs to be approached depending on specific
elements (2000, 17). In this close reading, the cultural element becomes a central one. His
theory of musical analysis looks “at the purpose of musical poetics and its relations to the social
structure and actions. (2000, 17). In fact, rap music can be seen in direct connection with its
language actively engaged in highlighting its cultural elements and promoting an alternative
discourse. Alim (2006) provides a comprehensive idea in reference to the close connection
between rap music language and culture. He borrows the term hiphopography as a useful
concept to understand rappers linguistic prowess in connection to their cultural discourse. He
clarifies that:

“the hiphopography paradigm integrates the varied approaches of ethnography,

biography, and social, cultural, and oral history to arrive at an emic view of Hip Hop
Culture. It is hiphopography that obligates HHLx to directly engage with the cultural
agents of the Hip Hop Culture-World, revealing rappers as critical interpreters of their
own culture” (11).

Differently put, the discourse of Hip-Hop represents a different worldview to cultural

praxis. Rappers criticize dominant ideologies and give their different interpretation of the social
and political scene. In this sense Hip-Hop music becomes “a discursive space where socio-
political issues are discussed” (Deis 2015, 193). Eminem’s Untouchable represents these
different discourses and is actively engaged in producing an alternative interpretation of the
social and political life of Americans.

3.4.2 Research instrument: Critical Discourse Analysis

CDA is the critical study of language in relation to elements of power and ideology
produced in discourse. Established in early 1990, CDA, according to Ruth Wodak is:

“concerned with analysing opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of

dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language. In other words,

32
 CDA aims to investigate critically social inequality as it is expressed, signalled,
constituted, legitimized and so on by language use (or in discourse)” (2001, 2).

Simply put, CDA is mainly interested in critically analyzing relationships of power and
ideology through language use. In fact, CDA practitioners see language as a powerful tool to
legitimate power structures that are often implicit. However, the concept of power needs further
clarification. According to Wodak and Michael Meyer (2015), “power is about relations of
difference, and particularity about the effects of difference in social structures” (12). In other
words, CDA involves discourses of the dominant and discourses of the, often, silent minority.
This understanding of power befits the structure of the song understudy. The linguists further
maintain that: “texts are often sites of struggle in that they show traces of different discourses
and ideologies contending and struggling for dominances” (ibid). The role of language here can
be understood on two axes: language can validate or challenge power. That is to say, Language
can be seen as the discourse of the powerful to legitimate bias and conversely the latter can be
used “to challenge power, to subvert it, to alter distribution of power” (ibid).
This research advocates Hip-Hop discourse as power to divert notions of racialization and
bias. The dialectics of power are also present in Eminem’s Untouchable, since the song
underscores different discourses of a white cop as a powerful element and a black minority as
a silenced group. Thus, the methodological choice of CDA in this study becomes central to
critically analyze the notions of racialization in the American society and the different
discourses producing them. In other words, I opted for Critical Discourse Analysis to
investigate the power relations in the text through language and also to present Hip-Hop as a
powerful discourse to counter notions of racialization.

3.4.2.1 Method of analysis: Fairclough’s model of Textual Analysis

In approaching this area of study, my methodology consists of incorporating Discourse
Studies. This research project is mainly based on the examination of Eminem’s discursive
strategies in his Untouchable text and to critically investigate the contemporary manifestations
of racism and their implications.
Untouchable incorporates different discourses along with the voice of Eminem and
examines their interconnectedness with society and the American political and social sphere.
Thus, Fairclough’s model of Textual Analysis (2003) seems to be appropriate to provide a
holistic and detailed analysis of Untouchable and its effects as a text. Fairclough considers that

33
 “Texts have social, political, cognitive, moral and material effects and consequences and
it is vital to understand these consequences and effects if we are to raise moral and
political questions about contemporary societies” (2003, 14)

Differently put, Fairclough’s conception of CDA rests upon the belief that texts and language
are part of the social life and it is important to analyze discourse in terms of the relationship
between them. Fairclough (2003) also identifies relationships between the social practices, the
social events and the social structures in understanding the internal and discursive meanings of
the text. He argues, “texts are part of social events which are shaped by causal powers of social
structures (including language) and social practices (including orders of discourse) on the one
hand and social agents on the other” (2003, 38). In other words, meanings in texts are the
outcome of the relationship between language, discourse and text, which shape and are shaped
by them. Hence, meaning making depends on the interconnectedness between social structures,
social practices and social events.
According to Fairclough (2003), Textual Analysis is not only about the linguistic
analysis, but it is also concerned with the interconnectedness and dialectic relationships
between the social elements that are part of the text. He explains, “texts are not just effects of
linguistic structures and orders of discourse. They are also effects of other social structures and
of social practices in all their aspects” (ibid, 25). To this end, Fairclough (2003) proposes a
three-fold model for analysis. It includes genre, discourse and style. He maintains that meaning
making is realized through action to indicate genre, discourse to signify representation and style
to refer to identification. These elements are crucial to develop a comprehensive critical analysis
of a text.
Textual Analysis is realized at two levels: First, identifying “Three aspects of meaning,
Action, Representation and Identification, and how these are realized in the various features of
texts (their vocabulary, their grammar, and so forth)” (ibid, 28). Second, “making a connection
between the concrete social events and abstract social practices” (ibid, 28).
In the absence of a comprehensive model to analyze Hip-Hop music, the study of
Eminem’s Untouchable follows the same structure of Fairclough’s “actional”,
“representational” and “identificational meanings” (2003, 29). The study will highlight the
internal and discursive structure of the text to critically analyze the persistence of racist
practices in the American scene. However, it is also important to highlight that in terms of the
internal structure the phonological aspect of the text will be scrutinized in terms of the tone,
pitch etc. that the model only mentions without further elaboration.

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3.5 Thematic Analysis
I opted for Thematic Analysis to categorize the data and identify the main themes
pertaining to the different discourses displayed in Untouchable. In fact, “thematic analysis . . .
is a strategic choice as part of the research design that includes the primacy questions, goals,
conceptual framework, and literature review” (Saldana 2016,200). The analysis was organized
depending on the relatable issues presented in the discourses. For the end, I coded the data
thematically. Codes were ascribed to the different discourses. The study was categorized into
three parts the Intro, the discourse of the white police officer and the black voice. Each discourse
contained a number of themes (see Appendix A, 85).

3.6 Data collection

The data incorporated in the analysis included the case study of Eminem’s Untouchable.
It was retrieved from two main sources. First, the song was retrieved from YouTube through
Eminem’s official channel “Eminem music”. Despite the fact that this research dealt with
Untouchable primarily as a text, the visual elements and sound system were also important for
thematic purposes. The song was sourced from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJvjj6Fiwvw. Second, the song’s lyrics were the basis of
analysis. They were sourced from Genius website https://genius.com/Eminem-untouchable-
lyrics. This website gives helpful insights to understand the song lyrics that were useful in the
analysis.

3.7 Issues of validity and Generalizability

Demonstrating validity in qualitative research can be a challenging endeavor due to its
interpretive nature. Maxwell argues, “any account of validity in qualitative research, in order to
be productive should begin with an understanding of how qualitative researchers actually think
about validity” (1992, 282). In other words, validity is a flexible concept and it “is relative to
circumstances and purposes” (ibid, 283). Maxwell (1992) further challenges normative
assumptions’ concerning validity by proposing five categories of validity: descriptive validity,
interpretive validity, theoretical validity, generalizability and evaluative validity.
Regarding generalizability, qualitative approaches do not offer universal truths or
generalizable facts rather “generalizability is interpreted as generalizability to identifiable,
specific setting and subjects rather than universally” (Cohen, Manion and Morrison 2018, 289).
From this premise, taking Untouchable as a case study, despite its holistic advantage, I am not
seeking to generalize to wider populations, rather the case study promotes “generalizable
findings or lessons learned” (Yin 2018, 79) to the situation of black Americans in the context
of police excessive force towards them. In this sense, generalizability is understood as

35
“transferability and fittingness” (Guba and Lincoln 1985, 124). In fact, the ways of racialization
investigated in Untouchable can be transferable to other similar contexts and situations in the
American society and can fit within other incidents or cases of police brutality that happened
and would happen.

3.8 Conclusion
This chapter set the scene for the methodological basis of the analysis. It highlighted Hip-
Hop music as part of the qualitative design and as a discourse. In this section, I also put
emphasis on Untouchable as a text that will be analyzed through Fairclough’s model of Textual
Analysis in the next chapter.

36
 Chapter 4

4 Results
4.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces Untouchable as a text and a song. It aims at explaining the causes
and effects of racialization through police use of force towards blacks to form a deeper
understanding of racist practices in contemporary era. To this end, the chapter will explore the
extent to which Eminem’s Untouchable represents the aforementioned objective.
Untouchable as a text represents detailed accounts of police’s excessive force in
America in contemporary era. The text is part of a chain of events that are explored following
Fairclough’s model of Textual Analysis (2003). These events include the work of Black Lives
Matter, the various episodes of police brutality and the current ways of racialization. As a rap
song, Untouchable follows a distinguishable “generic structure” (Fairclough 2003, 72). This
structure is almost present in every rap music. It is as follows: Intro, Verses, and Chorus. This
structure is the basis of my analysis and it is be represented throughout the sections of the study.
The analysis includes the investigation of the internal and external meanings of the text. I
studied Untouchable in terms of “semantic, grammatical, vocabulary and phonological
relations” (2003, 36-37) as well as the “actional, representational and identificational
meanings” identified by Fairclough (2003, 29). Although the latter did not focus on the
phonological meanings, they were highlighted following the rap song’s distinguishable
structure. These phonological elements include the delivery, the rhythm and other musical
elements. In sum, the study is divided as follows: The Intro, the discourse of the white police
officer and the collective discourse of blacks. This plan is mediated through meaningful themes.

4.2 The Intro of Untouchable

The opening bars of Untouchable set the scene for the thematic concerns and critique
presented in the text. The Intro is an important component of rap songs. It functions as a road
map or a blueprint to the main discourses presented in the verses and chorus. The Intro starts
with two important slogans. The first slogan, “don’t shoot” is introduced and popularized by
the Black Lives Matter. The second slogan, “promise you won’t loot” is a response to those
opposing the protests of the movement. These two slogans reflect the messages that will be
conveyed throughout the text. In the Intro, Eminem gives the opportunity for two antagonistic
personas to construe their perspectives about the racial tension in America. Accordingly,
Eminem is preparing the readers and the listeners for the problematic, while introducing his
interpretation and subjective point of view. The slogans of the Intro are followed by Eminem’s

37
voice that will prevail throughout the text. Hence, the Intro can be considered as a summary of
the whole text.

4.2.1 Racial divide

Untouchable starts with social fragmentation between the American people as a main
theme. This social divide is mainly concerning racial matters. It is first represented by the
specified noun “officer” that signifies the authority of law and order. The theme is second
represented by those who protest against the biases of the police inferred as the black minority.
The first two voices mentioned in the Intro share a relationship of distance and opposition. The
social actors share the same “social activity” (Fairclough 2003, 69): protesting, however, they
are differentiated in the text. This is illustrated by the “contrastive/concessive” semantic
relations between clauses and sentences (Fairclough 2003, 89). Although there are no direct
markers to identify these relations, there seems to be different intentions and messages between
“don’t shoot” and “promise you won’t loot”.
The statements of the social actors are identified as activity exchanges, which are “often
oriented to non-textual action – doing things, or getting things done, rather than (just) saying
things” (Fairclough 2003, 107). The activity exchanges presented in the Intro construe different
knowledge and discourse. The slogan “hands up officer, don’t shoot” conveys the meaning of
urging police officers not to engage in acts of violence against blacks. “Pull your pants up,
promise you won’t loot” is a response to the first slogan implying that blacks need to comply
with the rules in order not to be shot. The two statements differ in the representational meanings.
What is constructed as a demand in the first slogan is contradicted with what seems to be a
conditioned demand in the second slogan, especially that it is preceded by a “value assumption”
(Fairclough 2003, 55). Indeed, “then pull your pants up” functions as a taken for granted
generalization of black culture that is proceeded by the conditional meanings of “then” and
followed by a promise. Meaning making is presented as follows if you pull your pants up then
we promise that we will not shoot you. The act of shooting is subsequently not guaranteed but
depends on the truthfulness of the interlocutor.
The context of these slogans is important. “hands up, don’ shoot” is recontextualized from
an early protest of the Black Lives Matter and it “stems from the 2014 police shooting of
Michael Brown, an unarmed, black, 18-year old, by Darren Wilson, a white Ferguson, Missouri,
police officer” (Dunleavy 2020). The death of Brown intensified mass demonstrations in
America and was seen as a racially motivated act towards black people. The second slogan
“pull your pants up promise we won’t loot” is a response to the BLM and it was “a sign bearing
the slogan #pants up don’t loot” (Guion 2014). Unlike the first slogan, the latter was meant to
38
be “a billboard mocking protestors” (Guion 2014). The two slogans reflect the fragmentation
and divide between the social actors. They also encompass two opposing worldviews: those
who consider that the fight for equality should continue, and others who regard racial matters
irrelevant marginalizing blacks’ protests.
The Intro of Eminem’s Untouchable subscribes to Fairclough’s orientation to difference
“scenario b”. This scenario is based on “an accentuation of difference, conflict, polemic, a
struggle over meanings, norms, power” (2003, 42). The meanings of difference between the
social actors limit the “dialogicality” (41) and understanding between them. Eminem’s voice in
the Intro further helps to limit this dialogicality. The rapper’s voice starts with an inclusive
“we” to speak to the American people as a whole and his statements widen the gap between the
racial elements.
Eminem’s discourse starts with the modal verb “may” to indicate possibility followed by
a series of negative statements “it’s no use” and “we ain’t ever gonna grasp what each other
goes through” to abolish the statement of possibility. Eminem is pessimistic of the racial
situation and of the social fragmentation between segments of society. He concludes that the
people opposing the continued fight for equality will not be in a position to fully understand the
struggles of black people and the people of color will not fully acknowledge that cops are also
struggling to maintain justice. Implicitly, Eminem is confirming that not all police officers are
corrupt and racist.
The use of the future followed by the adverb ever “we ain’t ever” is of central
importance. Eminem speculates about the future of America regarding racial relations and he
believes that the struggles and differences will prevail. The song was released in 2018 and
written even long before. Eminem’s speculation seems to be true, as America appears to
continue its fight against racism and police brutality towards blacks seen in the recent social
unrest and the protests of the Black Lives Matter in 2020 and 2021 following George Floyd’s
death (NBC News 2020). The Intro gives a comprehensive idea about the discourses to follow
and the racial issues to be discussed. The following section will introduce the racial themes
discussed in the white police officer’s discourse.

4.2.2 Discussion of the Intro

The Intro of Untouchable theorized the Black Lives Matter as a movement that opens
up important debates about race relations in the modern American society. The slogan of the
movement “is a statement reminding those who have forgotten that black lives are indeed
supposed to be included as equal in this nation” (Loken 2017, 76). Yet despite the importance
of the message conveyed within the realm of the movement, discussions about race relations
39
are heightened between Black Lives Matter and All lives Matter. In her study of twitter posts’
following the death of Michael Brown and Eric Garner, Nikita Carney (2016) came to the
conclusion that “#AllLivesMatter as a counterslogan [was used] to undermine the purpose and
message of the #BlackLivesMatter call to action” (189-190).
It is worth noting that the Intro also shed light on stereotypes as ways to legitimate
violence. The Intro mentioned those who ridicule and judge blacks depending on their dressing
codes, to stigmatize their culture and to give excuses to discriminate against them. In the words
of Corney, “stereotypes of young Black men. . . have become so entrenched in our society that
they serve as a way to legitimate police violence against unarmed Black boys and men in the
eyes of many Americans” (2016, 182).
Eminem’s voice in the Intro further problematizes racial tension in the U.S. as an
ongoing phenomenon. Interestingly, the rapper answered an important demand of Rodney King
in 1992 amid riots of his beating. King’s hesitant question “can we…can we get along?” (Brut
America 2020, 2:18-2:22) was responded assertively by Eminem “we ain’t gonna understand
each other”. Eminem’s introductory verses serve to attest for the continued racial stratification
in the U.S.

4.3 The discourse of the white police officer

The transition from the Intro to the discourse of the police officer is sudden. Indeed, the
delivery of the first bars of the Intro is slow and peaceful. However, as the focus shifts to the
police officer’s voice, the flow becomes heavier. This was made clear in the transition, as the
listener is shocked by a disturbing noise of what appears to be a gun sound. Musicality
contributes to a certain extent to set the mood for a shocking discourse and Eminem is implying
that listeners should pay attention. Furthermore, as soon as the voice of the white police officer
starts, there is a prevailing sarcastic tonality. Eminem is systematically downplaying the voice
of the police officer.
The genre of the discourse contains heavy usage of argumentation and narration and events
are told from a specific perspective. This discourse is primarily built on internal “paradigmatic
relations” (Fairclough, 2003, 37), since it incorporates a black imaginary addressee that is
excluded but rather referred to in the discourse. The black voice is framed and appropriated for
certain messages that the discourse conveys. The relations between social actors, participants
and social events are maintained by the white police officer and meaning making is also
attributed to the latter as the main social agent active in the text. The discourse will be analyzed
in the form of themes in the upcoming sections.

40
4.3.1 Racial exclusion
Eminem maintains that blacks are treated as inferior. This second-class position is
highlighted in the discourse understudy in different ways. The discourse is bracketed in a way
to accentuate blacks’ exclusion as equal citizens. First, the discourse incorporates prominent
use of the inclusive “we”. Although the pronoun is meant to be comprehensive and to be
representative of the American society as a whole, in this discourse, it seems to include a
particular segment of the American people: those who share a common suspicion of black
people.
The lyrical video of Untouchable clarifies the identity of these people as random white
males. Indeed, an examination of the video reveals that it is based on the presentation of
different points of view by random black and white people through a Facebook newsfeed. The
lyrics of the first and second verse are provided by different white individuals who are
expressing themselves. As the lyrical video displays, these white males share a common
mentality of negative judgment towards the culture of black citizens. One possible reading of
Eminem’s choice could be to spotlight the Alt Right as a supremacist movement that has been
highly active on social media since 2016.
Against this backdrop, the social actors in the discourse can be inferred as an interplay
between white racists and biased cops. Throughout this song, there is an us vs them mentality
that prompts the discourse. Whites and blacks seem to be classified differently. In fact, the
discourse of the allegedly “white racists” is given power in the text. The white agents frame the
discourse to highlight their vision of the world and to impose their viewpoints. The discourse
is also textured as a dialogue to an imaginary addressee. Hence, the text under examination, is
based on “recontexualization” (Fairclough 2003, 33). The black voice is “passivated” (2003,
145) and denied access and the dialogue is bracketed to include only seemingly white racists
who are meant to “attribute the words of [their] imaginary interlocutor” (2003, 48). This us vs
them discourse opens up reflections and discussions about the social exclusion of blacks since
their actions and their thoughts are only reflected through the racist views.
The devaluation of blacks is also illustrated through the repetition of the term “black boy”.
Black boy is used in a subjective and pejorative way to classify blacks as inferior and to remind
them of their history of segregation. “Historically, white people routinely described black men
as boys to suggest they weren’t on equal footing with them” (Nittle, 2020). The discourse
construes an image of black people based on their inferiority i.e., as slaves who cannot ascribe
to the same position of privileged whites. Actional meanings contribute to the meaning making
of the discourse through a series of negative assertive statements “we ain’t gonna lie to you/

41
We don’t like the sight of you / We don’t get your culture / We don’t care what our
government’s done to fuck you over”. One interpretation of these negative clauses is to negate
black culture and to reinforce narrative of their historical subjugation. These negative clauses
are also reinforced through the reiteration of “we” and “don’t” that create a harsh rhythmic
pattern, which in turn validate the silencing of blacks.
Similarly, meaning making is realized in the semantic relations between clauses and
sentences. There are prominent semantic relations of “antonymy” (2003, 130), which vary
between “your culture, our government, the sight of you, your attitude”. Although “no
dictionary would identify such semantic relations between these expressions” (2003, 23), they
indicate that there is an implicit classification in the conceptualization of blacks and whites.
Blacks are constructed as outsiders, while whites are portrayed as the initiators or the definers
of social rules. A possible interpretation of Eminem’s purpose is to identify the social gap
between blacks and certain racist whites who validate the difference between what America has
accomplished concerning racial equality and the reality of blacks’ inferiority and exclusion
from social life.
Racial exclusion is made obvious in “representational meanings in the clause” (2003, 134).
First “we don’t like the sight of you” and the metaphorical sentence “they’re like eyesores to
police” represent aspects of the mental world. Some racist white police officers express their
feelings towards the ugly sight of blacks (eyesores) and their skin color (the sight of you) to
emphasize their inferiority. Second, “we don’t like your culture” highlights aspects of the social
world. The culture of black people is considered inferior since it does not resemble whites’
identity and values. Third, the “verbal process” (2003, 143) conveyed in the present perfect
“has done to fuck you over” (my emphasis), admits that blacks have been mistreated and are
still mistreated. It is also a statement of acknowledgment to the systematic segregation towards
blacks. The present prefect tense indicates a process that is still on going. In other words, the
government treated blacks badly in the past and this negative treatment is still taking place. In
fact, whites were responsible for a system of segregation and discrimination. Blacks survived
slavery, the Jim Crow laws and have been excluded from equal political chances. What’s more
is that the process verb is proceeded with “we don’t care” which shows insensitivity and
indifference to black struggles. Thus, Eminem through the statements of the racist whites draws
attention to the contradiction between “appearances and reality” (Fairclough 2003, 88).
America’s celebration of racial equality contradicts with the reality of some white Americans
who still perceive blacks as inferior on the grounds of their skin color, culture and past in a

42
supposedly post-racial era. What can be concluded is that there is still a gap between the
segments of American society and judgments are made based on the color of the skin.

4.3.2 Racial profiling

Racial profiling is one of the main themes in the discourse of the white police officer.
Racially motivated acts by police officers are described in this discourse as a troublesome
phenomenon. Eminem raises the issues of stereotyping and transgression as a routine for racist
police officers.

4.3.2.1 Stereotyping
The discourse understudy accentuates prevailing stereotypical images of blacks. It
describes blacks as deviants, criminals, drug dealers and street thugs. This discourse is centered
on a promoted narrative of a hostile black culture that only produces criminality and unlawful
behaviors. The social activity in the stereotypical discourse is highly important, since the
rationalization of stereotypes is accentuated through a specific social context taking place when
white police officers are doing their job. Events are represented when capturing black suspects.
The discourse displays specific assumptions that generalize and internalize black violence.
Indeed, the discourse of the white police officer produces “preconstructed and taken for granted
‘divisions’ through which people continuously generate ‘visions’ of the world” (Fairclough
2003, 130). This stereotypical image is accomplished in the predominant use of assumptions.
“Existential assumptions” (2003, 56) are more used. For example, “we know/the dope house/
that Heidi Klum/ All these minorities” (my emphasis). These assumptions are presupposing
the linkage between black people and drug dealing. There is also an important “value
assumption” (2003, 171) triggered by the use of “probably”: “Probably coming from the dope
house” (my emphasis) which directly connects drug dealing with the poor neighborhoods where
blacks reside. Thus, blacks, according to the discourse are valued in terms of their color.
In terms of identificational meanings, the assumed statements function in terms of
generalizable “undesirable” (2003, 177) facts that predetermine blacks’ culpability.
“Metaphorical relations” (2003, 193) in the discourse between types of statements further
accentuate the claimed meanings that generalize black criminality. For example, “on you
another charge homie, it is back inside for you” appears as a statement of prediction which
signifies that the suspect could go to jail if the drug charge is proved. In the discourse, it is
presented as a statement of fact indicating that going back to jail is guaranteed despite the
circumstances. The statement is also marked by meanings of regularity. “Another” and “back”,

43
indicate that it is typical for blacks to be in jail repetitively because of drug usage. Following
this
logic, these assumptions give a popularized image that blacks will always be connected to
unlawful behavior and they will always be portrayed as deviants.
The rationalization of black stereotypes is also emphasized in the discourse through
“semantic relations of hyponymy” (2003, 130). “Heidi Klum4/ blow / drug charge/ the dope
house/ minorities / your attitude/ pull your pants up” seem to be co-hyponyms of black culture.
The elements mentioned are meant to be inclusive to signify blacks as a threat to society and to
ascribe these elements for blacks as a whole. Assumed values of likelihood to crime seem to
be set in the discourse as taken for granted facts. For instance, appearance prompts the police
officer is the discourse to value blacks as criminals. Particular circumstances during a traffic
stop are generalized to discriminate against blacks. Saggy pants are mentioned in the discourse
and are meant to be “an embrace of gang and prison culture” (Denby, 2014). Black culture is
closely associated with this dress code. The social agent finds legitimization to value blacks
and to accuse them by their dressing behavior eliminating other factors. There has been a major
opposition to this police behavior as “critics claim that it instead gives police the right to
increase their stop and frisk” (Nye 2012). Hence, the representation of social events is based on
the exclusion of important aspects of black culture and the accentuation of acts of criminality.
The text raises important racial issues that Eminem communicates in the officer’s
discourse. Stereotyping is becoming a legitimizing factor by which police explains blacks’
criminality and the high percentage of alleged blacks’ violent behavior during arrest. This is
highlighted through evaluative statements linked to undesirability. For example, “affective
evaluations” (2003, 173) like “we don’t like the sight of you” and “window rolled down
profile” (my emphasis) are seen as undesirable and are logically linked to “pull up on the side
of you”. The discourse is implying that black faces are evaluated as criminal violent faces that
need to be stopped by police officers. Further to this point, according to Pew Charitable Trusts,
a Pew Research Center Survey was aimed at studying some racial narratives and their potential
effects on blacks. The survey included. 9,402 randomly chosen U.S. adults with 6,637 of who
responded (Pew Research Center in Horowitz, Brown and Cox 2019, 46). The results showed
that 65% of blacks felt that people acted like they were suspicious of them and 44% been
unfairly stopped by police (ibid, 42).

4
Heidi Klum is used in the text as a metaphorical image to reference cocaine.
44
4.3.2.2 Targeting and transgression
Untouchable introduces real life incidents of police excessive and fatal use of force
towards blacks. These incidents are narrated in the discourse of the white police officer and
they take the shape of a confessional story. Social events are in the form of a one-sided dialogue.
Originally, the dialogue is supposed to include the police officer and the black suspect
addressed by the generic “you”. However, the narration of events includes the statements of the
police officer only. Narration in the text starts with a black man stopped for a broken tail light
“We could let you slide but you tail light is blew out”.
The theme of transgression is first represented through “intertextuality” (2003, 39).
Indeed, the discourse under examination illustrates important intertextual meanings of real-life
cases of police fatal use of lethal force. The broken tail light resonates with the case of Philando
Castile and Walter Scott. According to White House correspondent Heather Timmons (2016),
Castile was a 32-year-old black man. He was shot dead by a white police officer after being
pulled over for a broken tail light in 2016. His girlfriend streamed a video showing Castile shot.
Walter Scott was also a black man who was shot eight times by Michael T. Slager after fleeing
the scene unarmed and a detailed video was provided to the New York Times (Schmidt and
Apuzzo 2016). Intertextuality brings questions of transgression to the forefront, especially that
the cases mentioned included unarmed men. Official data reveal this transgression. According
to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, during contact with police, blacks were more luckily to
experience use of non-fatal violence than whites, despite the fact that whites experienced more
police contact (Harrell and Davis 2020). Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics; the
police contact and the percentage of experienced threats between 2015 and 2018 (see Appendix
B, 88).
The violation of civil liberties is also represented through the actional meanings of
dialogue and narration. In terms of dialogue, the discourse limits the dialogicality of the text to
the white police officer who seems to be in a position of power and authority. This power is
seen grammatically through activity exchanges triggered by imperative statements. This is
illustrated in the following lines: “Pull up on the side of you / Don’t tell us your attitude’s a
result of that balderdash / Pull your pants up / Comply or die boy”. These statements are
represented as “deontic modality” statements (2003, 168), which give limited choices to
suspects to negotiate or to explain themselves. The prevailing evaluative statements with no
explicit markers of modality also highlight the judgmental side of police officers giving them
the legitimacy to perform acts of unnecessary violence.

45
 Police bias and unlawful targeting of blacks is also represented in the discourse through
vivid narration and description of a traffic stop case of a black man. The events take the form
of confessional statements. Transgression starts with a hypothetical chase that happens where
the police officer points a pistol at the suspect, shoots him and then places his taser next to the
body. Events are sequenced and marked by “additive and elaborative” (2003, 87) relations
between sentences and clauses that seem to be “paratactically” related (2003, 36) to give a
detailed picture of the social events. “The representation of processes” (2003, 141) also
emphasizes meanings of transgression. The predominant discursive processes are “material”
and “verbal” as in the following examples: “unload/ lay/ walk up/ drew”. The processes set
concrete and detailed violations of the police officer strengthened by the “mental process”:
“delighted”. The representational meaning reveals a feeling of joy when performing the act of
killing of a black man. Although the actions are based on hypothetical statements marked by
“just in case a chase might ensue”, there is a commitment to truth in the “epistemic modality”
(Fairclough 2003,167) statements. For example, the statements: “a chase might ensue/ pistol
drew right to you” function as assertions and come as the most luckily logical consequence for
police officers who are ready to use force without a trigger or a legal indicator that the suspect
is dangerous or armed.
A possible interpretation of the predominant use of assertive statements and epistemic
statements with commitment to the truth could be that Eminem, in the discourse, is forcing the
police officer to admit the violation of his assumed authorities especially that the hypothetical
actions narrated resemble real life events. In fact, the aforementioned actions of the police
officer seem very similar to what happened to Scott in 2016. His case caused polemic
discussions in the public sphere and ignited anger in the American society about police
unchecked practices and bias towards minorities. The discourse presented in Untouchable
contradicts with the statements of the white police officer Micheal Slager. The latter claimed
that Scott represented danger “because the man has taken his stun gun”. As a result, Slager
defended himself aggressively to counteract the threat posed by Scott (Schmidt and Apuzzo
2016). However, the online released video came to debunk Slager’s claims where it shows the
officer placing the taser next to the victim as a cover up after committing his deed (The New
York Times 2015). In this context, Untouchable was released after the officer was sentenced to
twenty years of prison, which could be symbolic.

4.3.3 Legitimization of violence towards blacks

The unnecessary use of lethal force towards blacks seems to be legitimized in this
discourse. In fact, the text is based on argumentation to explain the legitimacy of excessive
46
force and mistreatment of blacks. Accordingly, police brutality, serves the national interest of
keeping America secure against dangerous criminal blacks. This discourse also reveals the
intersection between law enforcement and whiteness. In other words, there is an entitlement to
use force legitimized by the discourse of whiteness. Whiteness is described as a norm that bears
authority making whites entitled to preserve the national order. The discourse further subscribes
to whiteness as a leading identity for the American people.
Fairclough (2003, 98) identifies four strategies of legitimation that are maintained by Van
Leeuwen (n.d), these stages are authorization, rationalization, moral evaluation and mytheposis.
The discourse of the white police officer subscribes to the three first strategies mentioned.

4.3.3.1 Authorization
Authorization is maintained through the power given to the police officer to discriminate
against blacks. The social agents in the discourse are activated through the use of “I” and “we”
and also through actions. Fairclough maintains that “[when] social actors are activated, their
capacity for agentive action, for making things happen, for controlling others and so forth, is
accentuated” (2003, 150). There seems to be an explicit controlling aspect in the discourse.
Although the use of “I” emanates from a monologue, the inclusive “we” and the processes
following it are concrete. What could be inferred is that police officers show pride and
entitlement in performing violence, since they are given the authority to do so.
Authorization is also maintained through discursive meanings of impunity that prevail. The
assertive statement traced in the chorus “no one’s ever indicted you” is stressed with the adverb
“ever” which raises issue of accountability. Through the discourse, Eminem puts emphasis on
police abuse of power without being held accountable for their actions which in turn encourage
them for more bias. Thus, white police officers benefit from impunity that gives them the
authority to continue with unnecessary violence. This continuity is illustrated by the semantic
relations in “keep doing like you’re doing/ no matter how many lives you ruin/ time to find a
new one”. These phrases indicate that bias towards blacks is becoming authorized as the norm
despite the damage made.
Police use, abuse of power and lack of accountability have been a major polemic issue
recently. Although there are no official data on the number of police killings, according to
Mapping Police Violence (2020), the Police Violence Report shows that “1126 people were
killed by police in 2020” and “officers were charged with a crime in only 16 of these cases, one
percent of all the killing by police”. This reveals that police were most of the times not
questioned or held accountable for their actions.

47
 Authorization is also triggered throughout the discourse by the predominant use of
imperative sentences and deontic statements such as “comply or die/ pull up/ put our minds at
ease”. These statements bring forth the question of agency and structure. The police are in a
legitimate position to use and abuse power and blacks need to comply with the norms and orders
that officers are transgressing.

4.3.3.2 Rationalization
The strategy of rationalization is manifested in the discourse through the “semantic
relations of reason” (Fairclough 2003, 89). The actions of the police officer in the discourse
appear to be legitimate because they have an entitlement to a superior status as whites. The
rationale behind police legitimacy to discriminate against blacks is triggered by the explicit
marker of reason “cause”. The agent responsible for the bias is indicated in a non-specified way
in the phrase “no one”. However, it is identified concretely in the Chorus of the song as “white
boy”. The semantic meanings of reason are further identified in the Chorus in “white boy white
boy you’re untouchable/ white boy white boy you’re a rockstar”. Meaning making is connected
through the analogy between police bias and whiteness in its descriptive and ideological sense,
that is, whiteness as a color and whiteness as a power structure. Accordingly, police officers
are legitimized to perform bias because they are superior whites. This superiority is identified
as a taken for granted fact. The grammatical parallelism emphasized in the Chorus is of high
importance. The rhythmic repetition internalizes whiteness as a legitimization system. In fact,
there is a strong synonymous semantic connection between “rockstar”, “untouchable” and
“white boy”. This connection describes whiteness as a superior (untouchable) and as an
imposing (rockstar) notion. Whiteness becomes equated with order, control and identity.
Whiteness becomes as well a defining feature by which others should abide.
Equally important, the Chorus5 brings intertextual meanings to the fore. The sentence
“white boy white boy you’re untouchable” resonates with a privileged history and present. The
auxiliary verb to be is used in the present, but indicates a process, a continuity and bears a
universal dimension. Historically, whites constructed a system that gave them an advantageous
status. Whites formulated a system favorable to them and discriminated against other races,
while remaining invisible or “untouchable”. This structure still prevails today according to the
discourse and it explains the legitimacy of police to segregate blacks.

5
The Chorus is sampled from Cheeck and Chong’s Earache my eye (1974).
48
 Eminem believes that today’s racism is institutionalized. Police bias towards blacks is
one aspect of this racialization. The rapper was extensively criticized for the Chorus that on the
face value, seems to endorse whiteness (Lord Jamar 2018). As a matter of fact, the Chorus is
the most important element of the song. It includes the repetitive patterns of “white boy”
producing musicality. However, I consider that critics failed to understand the message that
Eminem is trying to convey. My interpretation of the Chorus is that Eminem is taking the
footsteps of Critical Whiteness scholars. The rapper is putting whiteness under the spotlight to
make the often taken for granted system visible.

4.3.3.3 Moral Evaluation

Moral evaluations explain the legitimization of police excessive force in the discourse by
gaining the identification and support of the public. Moral evaluations are expressed through
“the semantic relations of purpose” (2003, 89) triggered by the marker “it’s for” followed by a
metonymy “the red white and blue” in reference to the American flag. The representational
meaning of metonymy reveals that the actions of the police officer are equated to a patriotic
act. The discourse creates an enemy that needs to be fought. This enemy is black people who
are synchronized as criminals.
Identificational meanings in the discourse set up as well a particular worldview of what is
desirable and what is undesirable. Evaluation is highlighted by the metaphorical amplification
of threat. For example, “we’re fightin’ a crime war” (my emphasis) sets ideological
worldviews between them who are “undesirable” and us who are “desirable”. Police fight
against blacks is described as a necessity, implying that American security is in danger. The
police war ethos becomes firmly grounded through the proliferation of danger to reinforce the
atmosphere and hostility and distrust. In fact, the discourse of the police officer intends to give
excuses for the racial cleansing of black minorities to gain public support and to cover up
violation of civil liberties.
Evaluative statements also prevail in the discourse to give a legitimate dimension to
excessive force. “Relational processes” (Fairclough 2003, 172), for example, are part of this
legitimization process. In the discourse, the evaluation is maintained in “the attribute” (2003,
141) “eyesore”, “minorities” and “swine”. The use of force to eliminate blacks becomes
desirable to preserve the national interest and the safety of white Americans against dangerous
minorities. Furthermore, the evaluative aspect is realized in “material processes” (2003, 142)
that are meant to be acceptable and supported. The material processes create a dichotomous and
an oppositional relation between “white boy you’re untouchable” and “all these minorities”.
The discourse constructs a public image that whites are meant to take the lead and pursue the
49
moral mission of making America safe, while blacks are evaluated as minorities who pose a
danger to the country. This social image is strengthened through the use of “statements with
affective mental process verbs” (2003, 171) like “Tryna clean up the streets” and “we’re
fightin’ a crime war” (my emphasis). These verbal mental processes have a strong effect on the
listener. They make racial cleansing in traffic stops a matter of necessity to preserve the national
interest and security of Americans.

4.3.4 Discussion of the discourse of the white police officer

It is clear in the police officer’s discourse that forms of racialization still permeate the
American society. At the very beginning of this discourse, Eminem highlighted racism at the
core of social media as an important medium for expression. The image of those opposing racial
equality became vividly identified. Eminem bears witness to the Alt Right as a supremacist
movement that “emerged on the public scene at the time of the American presidential election
campaign of 2016” (Salazar 2018, 1). This movement is important to criticize claims of a post-
racial America. The discourse made explicit that the structure of racist practices is an element
of contemporary America. This structure is seen in the transgression of police officers’ initial
duties. For example, this discourse showed that use of excessive force is based on trivial or non-
apparent reasons (the case of Walter Scott). This view subscribes to Feagin’s concepts of the
white racial frame as “a composite whole with a large array of elements that in everyday
practice are drawn on selectively by white individuals acting to impose or maintain racial
identity, privilege, and dominance vis-à-vis people of color in recurring interactions”. (2013,
14).
Feagin’s white racial frame is also embedded in this discourse through the relevance of
different stereotypes that are described to define the black American culture. The continued
references to blacks as criminals and drug dealers provide the rationale for “a relatively broad
framing of society, one that encompasses multiple dimensions . . . both explicit and implicit,
that mock and signal the inferiority of several groups of color (2013, 12).
Following the same logic, this discourse made explicit that there is a strong link between
whiteness and discrimination. Police excessive use of force towards minority blacks and blacks’
exclusion from equal treatment are racially motivated. Whiteness is presented in the discourse
as a power structure responsible for the state of racialization. Whiteness is highlighted as a
“transcendental norm” that justifies a system of segregation while remaining invisible. It also
functions as a safety net against accountability. Eminem chose to focus on exposing the norms
of whiteness in the Chorus, as the most important element of the song, to emphasize how

50
whiteness “provides essential info about the nature of inequality in our society, about how
privilege is created and sustained but protected from political critique” (Lipsitz 2018, 112).

4.4 The collective black discourse

Untouchable gives voice to the silenced black community in the collective black discourse.
Eminem joins this discourse and his voice becomes more recognizable. Musicality helps to
acknowledge the transition from the white police officer discourse to the second discourse. The
rhythm becomes more accelerated, the beat changes to be akin to black African music with the
sound of the drums and the tonality becomes bitter, angrier and more noticeable. The break
from the first discourse to the second one signifies a more credible collective black activism
that becomes the heart of the text. The cynical tonality in the first discourse is replaced by a
more serious angry tone. Eminem highlights aspects of Hip-Hop discourse that accentuate the
visibility of blacks and acknowledge their voice. Thus, the discourse becomes an open space
for blacks to communicate their thoughts and express their frustration.
The intersection between Eminem’s voice and the collective black voice is more apparent,
as it becomes more challenging to differentiate between the two. Unlike the first discourse,
Eminem takes sides and his criticism becomes more vocal. It seems that, lyrically, the rapper is
joining forces with blacks to wage a war against racism.
This discourse is a response to the white police officer’s rhetoric, except the fact that, it
becomes more generalizable to highlight black anxieties and racism as a phenomenon that still
“plagues our society”. The discourse alternates between the use of “I” and “we” to signify
Eminem’s voice and the black community with the aim of addressing the misfortunes of blacks
in contemporary America as well as accentuating the need for continued resistance. This
discourse is illustrated in the following themes.

4.4.1 Racial regression

The very end of the second verse of Untouchable marks a sudden change in the beat,
rhythm and intonation. This change introduces Eminem’s explicit voice and his perspective
regarding the racial scene in America. The rapper considers that the country did not make a
progress concerning social justice between racial elements. He believes that racism still prevails
and the situation of blacks is similar to the past mainly “the sixties”. The discourse questions
notions of equality between races, as Eminem believes that blacks are not given an equal status.
In fact, the rapper expresses his perspective through the use of “I” and “to me” and also through
the use of “we statements” (Fairclough 2003, 171) like “we’re stuck” and we’re drifting
backward”. Eminem is speaking on behalf of the black community and he is addressing

51
America as a whole. The rapper also joins black voices and identifies himself as black, rejecting
his white identity. As discussed in the literature review. Eminem benefits from an array of
different racial identities that authenticated his entry in the Hip-Hop world. In the discourse,
the rapper validates his black identity because “it’s been embarrassing to be a white boy”.
Identificational meanings of this “social identity” (Fairclough 2003, 182) reveal a state of
frustration and anger with the racial scene in America today.
Commenting on Untouchable in one of his interviews, Eminem revealed that he was
frustrated about the episodes of police brutality taking place and he was waiting for the right
moment to talk about it. He wanted to make sure to word it right (Martin and Desoto 2017).
This discomfort and rejection of his racial identity emanates from a state of racial regression
that he feels is taking place. Racial regression, according to the rapper, is the result of excessive
use of force towards blacks’ implicit bias and racial classification introduced in the first
discourse.
The Representation of racial regression is triggered by the predominant “processes within
circumstances” (2003, 135). Eminem’s statements mark a shift from simple present, “stuck”
“kick” “backspins” and the present progressive “keeps happening” to the use of present perfect
“have been treated”. The implemented discourse suggests that there is an interconnectedness
with the past, a strong bond, a mentality that has not dissipated yet. Verbal processes strengthen
this interconnectedness. First, the present tense indicates both regression and fixity. Eminem
argues that Americans are trapped in racial biases that prevent them from achieving racial
equality. Second, the present progressive signifies repetitiveness and is relevant to express that
the situation of blacks is taking a lot of time to change. Third, the present perfect reveals a
process that started in the past and that is still ongoing.
Furthermore, to illustrate the backwardness in terms of racial equality, the discourse draws
on a comparison between the past and the present. The dominant assertive “positive statements”
(Fairclough 2003, 168) are built on an epistemic modality. They reveal Eminem’s commitment
to disclose the truth about the situation of blacks, which resembles the sixties. Indeed, the sixties
was an era of dedicated black struggle and activism against racial injustice and segregation. It
marked the birth of the Civil Rights Movement, which is one of the most important historical
movements to fight white racism in America. The Civil Rights Movement sought to dismantle
deep-seated institutional racism through protests and sit-ins to acquire blacks’ basic rights. The
era of the sixties garnered important gains for blacks; however, the path for equal rights was
met by certain white antagonism and institutional violence.

52
 In the song, an analogy is created between the current era and the sixties where blacks
are not acknowledged as fully equal, on the one hand, and where some whites are not accepting
their struggle to acquire their rights on the other hand. This was explicit through Eminem’s line
“black skin is risky”. Intertextual elements in the discourse further strengthen this claim.
Eminem’s line “as I kick these facts and get these mixed reactions” is recontextualized from
the backlash that he received after his freestyle the storm (Eminem 2017) which took aim at
Donald Trump’s alleged racist appeals. In the freestyle, Eminem criticized Trump’s
endorsement to racism and made him responsible for fueling white supremacist ideas to the
people who follow him. Subsequently, in The ringer, he confirms that he is watching his “fan
base shrink to thirds” (Eminem 2018). The storm was meant to be a protest against racism;
however, the “mixed reactions” that he received are maintained in the discourse as an
expression of racial regression, since some racists do not understand the importance of blacks’
struggle.
Racial degeneration is further illustrated in identificational meanings through mixed
feelings of anger, frustration and disappointment. This discourse channels these feelings on
behalf of the black community. The representation of clauses and sentences is based on
prevailing “mental processes” (200,173) to indicate concerns about the situation of blacks
which does not seem to be progressing. For example, the mental process verb “stuck” highlights
a feeling of entrapment and permanence. Mental processes are also expressed in the adjective
“risky” to indicate an uncomfortable feeling that blacks experience because they are still judged
by the color of their skin. These mental processes generate a fixed situation and an inability to
change.
“Prosodic patterns” (2003, 37) also convey meanings of anger. The intonation in
Eminem’s voice is highly symbolic. Cacophonic sounds convey a harsh and explosive delivery.
Eminem’s voice contains predominant use of plosive consonants where the air is stopped for a
short time then let out explosively. The fortis plosive /k/ is most dominant: “Stuck”, “Facts”
“Back”, “Backspins”, “Reaction”, Cuz ”and“ Keeps” (my emphasis). The phoneme /k/ is
produced with more masculine energy and stronger breath effort. It produces a loud, harsh
sound. Fortis fricative /s/ is also emphasized producing hissing sounds that convey an intonation
of anger. These elements are of high significance in reflecting Eminem’s critical voice of the
backwarded racial situation. Musicality further intensifies racial regression. The structure of the
discursive statements is marked by rhythmic breaks. These breaks reflect the state of immobility
that causes blacks to feel inferior.

53
4.4.2 Racial anxieties
This discourse draws upon blacks’ economic and social status in the American society
strengthened through Eminem’s integrated voice. The discourse illustrates as well
disillusionment with the establishment and blacks’ permanent second-class citizenship. It
represents the voice of collective Americans who feel that they are left behind in terms of
economic chances and who feel insecure due to the excessive force exhibited towards them.

4.4.2.1 Economic Deprivation

The discourse understudy displays blacks’ disadvantaged conditions in society. Blacks’
economic situation is that of poverty, deprivation and limited choices for a dignified life. Blacks
feel discriminated against and sidelined on the basis of race. This discourse is represented
through assertive statements that are identified as epistemic modalities. Blacks are committed
to deliver the truth about their economic status. The “modalized assertions” (2003, 47) make
the discourse “most dialogical” (47). In other words, blacks are acknowledged in the discourse
and they communicate their concerns to be heard.
In the same vein, the discourse is governed by metaphorical relations between speech
functions. What appears as a statement is actually a demand. Blacks are addressing the
discourse with the purpose of urging the addressee to help change their situation. Eminem is
making the discourse in the form of a complaint or protest, where blacks are given the
opportunity to express themselves after being silenced.
The very start of the discourse is a comparison between blacks’ and whites’ life
expectancies. This is illustrated in Eminem’s: “Seems like the average lifespan of a white man
is more than twice than a black span ”. This verse is meant to represent the gap between blacks
and whites in terms of worth. The comparison is built on modality realized in the verb of
appearance “seems like” and “I wonder”, but it is strategically exaggerated to catch the attention
of the reader or the listener and to amplify black misfortunes.

The comparison is the core idea to explain the lower socio-economic status of blacks. In
fact, blacks are represented to be “socially constrained” (Fairclough 2003, 22). They have
limited choices and are not able to strive for prosperity. The grammatical relations reflect this
hopelessness. The discourse is predominantly “hypotactically related”. Hypotaxis relations
occur when “one clause, ‘the subordinate’ clause is subordinated to another, the ‘main’ clause’”
(Fairclough 2003, 92). For example: “wait, why are there black neighborhoods? / ‘cuz America
segregated us, designated us to an area”. The main clause is in the form of a rhetorical question.
The subordinate clause is identified by nominalization “America” followed by a series of

54
passive verbs. The example highlights blacks’ inability to climb up the social ladder because of
the systematic segregation towards them. Hence, the discourse reflects on the issue of agency
and structure. Blacks are described to be victims of America’s racist system and are restrained
economically.
The limited chances of success are also represented through the semantic relation of reason
“Cuz America segregated us”. Indeed, historical accounts of racial stratification blocked
blacks’ economic opportunities. Economic deprivation is reflected, as well, through the
semantic relations of hyponymy (2003, 123) to reflect the realities of blacks as part of the
underclass. There is an interconnectedness between “financially strapped”, “crime rates”
“poverty “the lowest classes” and “violent nature”. These elements are part of an individual
black citizen’s life, and they are strengthened by the “metaphor” (2003, 131) “Like a razor wire
fence”. Blacks are metaphorically not able to make a progress because of their impoverished
situation although they are not responsible for it. According to the United States Census Bureau,
blacks have the highest rates of poverty in the U.S. “In 2019, the share of blacks in poverty was
1.8 times greater than their share among the general population” (Greamer 2020). Similarly,
according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, blacks have the higher percentage of crimes in
2018. For example, in terms of violent crimes, “black people were overrepresented among
offenders in nonfatal violent crimes overall (29%) relative to their share of the U.S. population
(13%)” (Beck 2021, 4).
This discourse is an outcry for justice and equality. It gives an alternative reality against
the assumptions and stereotypical ideas set in the first discourse where blacks have been
portrayed as violent and deviants. However, the collective black discourse offers a different
perspective that explains blacks’ violent nature in terms of the interconnectedness to poverty
and lower economic status. This perspective is simplified by the “realis statement” (Fairclough
2003, 109) “Don’t take a scientist to see our violent nature lies in the poverty that we face”. In
other words, Eminem gives blacks the opportunity to explain their violent behavior in relation
to their impoverished economic situation.
Economic deprivation is also manifested in the alienation of blacks in employment,
housing and education. Regarding employment, contrastive/concessive relations between
sentences and clauses marked by “but” emphasize blacks’ restricted choices when it comes to
finding a job. Semantic relations of synonymy (2003, 123) further accentuate the idea of
deprivation that makes blacks bound to the circumstances and unable to maintain higher
positions. “Strapped financially”, “can’t find answers” and “McDonalds seems to be the only
franchise that will hire” convey the meaning of the few options blacks have. Meaning making

55
is most luckily to be related to the social exclusion of blacks after leaving jail. The discourse
highlights aspects of the stereotypical images towards blacks who are considered once a+
deviant always a deviant. This label makes it harder for them to integrate in the mainstream
society and to acquire fair chances to be good citizens. The rhetorical question “so how can we
have higher standards?” accentuates as well blacks’ inferior position and reflect issues of
appearance and reality. Theoretically, America promotes the fantasy of the American dream
and equal opportunities for success and prosperity. However, the current situation of blacks
shows that blacks are struggling for equal employment chances.
Economic deprivation also includes unequal opportunities of blacks in housing. The
prevailing successive verbal processes “Segregated” “designated” “separated” and “section-
Eight’d” are suggestive of the state of systematic classification of blacks in terms of housing.
Blacks are described in the discourse to be part of poor areas. These areas are identified as the
“black neighborhoods”. The anaphoric repetition of “us” reflects the double standards of the
American government: “them” is distanced from “us” and the separation is conveyed in the
intertextual reference of “section-Eight’d us”. Section Eight is the Housing Choice Voucher
Program established by Congress to help poor families acquire decent housing conditions
(Miller 2020). However, according to the collective black discourse, Section Eight is a way of
classifying poor blacks in a specific area to make it hard for them to integrate with other racial
classes. This is a similar strategy that resonates with Apartheid6.
Briefly mentioned in this discourse, education is considered a hindrance that prevents
blacks from succeeding. Education and low chances for black Americans are identified in the
mental process verb “suck” to highlight the devaluated value of education in the U.S.

4.4.2.2 Racial bias

At the heart of Untouchable’s thematic concerns, exposing the racially-motivated bias
becomes central in the black discourse. Indeed, the text sets up “polemical relations between
their own discourses and the discourses of others” (Fairclough 2003, 128). In other words, the
discourse shows traces of others’ racial narratives. The others are represented in the discourse
as racist police officers and the media. Blacks are given a free space to debunk the stereotypes
surrounding them. Unlike the discourse of the white police officer, the discourse understudy is
based on assertive statements rather than assumptions.

6
Apartheid was a system of racial segregation that existed in the Republic of South Africa.
56
4.4.2.2.1 Police implicit bias
The text describes aspects of police targeting of blacks on the ground of their color. It also
challenges the assumptions set by racist police officers who legitimate the use of unnecessary
force. In fact, the theme understudy is an example of “mixing different discourses” (Fairclough
2003, 128). It incorporates the stereotypes that vindicate officers’ legitimacy to use violence
and the black response. The discourse takes the shape of a simulated dialogue where blacks are
addressing racist black officers. The discourse is based on predominant realis statements and
elaborative relations. “And bad cops fuck it up for the good cops and man stop”, “And know
nobody black so they act afraid of us” and “and that’s racism”(my emphasis). These statements
give a comprehensive picture of racist cops’ actions, and also explain their unchecked practices
based on implicit bias.
There are also repetitive “relational processes” “who ain’t acclimated to em” “who see
some fuckin videos of rappers waving guns”. These processes are suggestive of details that
showcase police transgression. Thus, this discourse includes on the one hand, exposing the
assumptions related to blacks by police officers and encompasses on the other hand, blacks’
assertive responses. Revealing these stereotypical images is based on different representatial
methods.
First, the discourse relies on assertive statements within circumstances followed by
negation: “The block is our backyard, officer, not the crack spot”, “sending white cops to the
black neighborhood who ain’t acclimated to em” (my emphasis). These statements highlight
police strategic targeting of black minorities. The circumstances of place indicate the systematic
relation between black areas and drugs. Police are claimed to evaluate criminality based on the
neighborhoods where they reside and the black voice negates these claims refusing to connect
“the block” to drug dealing. Likewise, the “prescription” (2003, 168) such as “call the attack
dogs off of us man” conveys blacks critical voice to put an end to police officers’ transgression
and assumed judgment. The repetitive pattern of “the crap stops”, “Traffic stop” and “man
stop” (my emphasis) is highly symbolic. The rhythmic pattern creates musicality calling the
police to stop their racially biased actions towards blacks.

Second, assumptions in the discourse are further represented by incorporating other voices
through the “knowledge exchange” statement (2003, 106) “But you kill each other facts, you
peel each other’s caps”, the change of tone and the contrastive marker “but” reveal the discourse
of those advocating black criminality. The assumption is based on making references to black-
on-black violence. The phenomenon is represented in the discourse to legitimate police killings

57
since black-on-black violence is categorized as a misperceived attribute that generalizes the
exploitation of blacks’ criminality. The reference to black-on-black violence is followed by
“Fuck your republican views”. A possible interpretation can be related to Donald trump’s
misconceived and prejudiced tweet. “In 2015, Donald Trump, when he was candidate for
president, tweeted a misleading graphic that claimed that 97% of black people killed are killed
by black people and that 80% of white people killed are killed by black people” (Lynn 2020).
Thus, black-on-black violence is one of the most consumed narratives that highlight the
misconceptions motivating police discriminatory acts. In the discourse, Eminem pinpoints that
these stereotypes function as a guiding principle for police use of unnecessary and fatal force.
The discourse also lays the foundations for institutional racism. Eminem’s definition of
contemporary racism is characterized by its subtle and covert ways: “That’s racism, the fear
that a black gives you a subconscious racist”. Although racist acts are outlawed in the U.S.,
Eminem maintains that the physical appearance of blacks is still problematic, and it justifies
police brutality. However, the rapper does not make generalizable facts about police racist acts
as he acknowledges that there are “good cops”. The theme of implicit police bias illustrates
black frustration and anger, especially through identificational meanings marked by the
prevailing “swear words” (Fairclough 2003, 162) such as “Fuck” “Fuckin”. This outrage is the
blueprint to continue the fight against racism, which will be addressed in the following themes.
4.4.2.2.2 Media bias
This discourse displays media as part and parcel in promoting blacks’ stereotypes and in
contributing to the culture of racism. The prime role of the press is to act as an independent
vehicle to promote the general interests of the public. However, the media is revealed as an
element of bias. The discourse illustrates that media coverage strengthens blacks’ image as
criminals. The conditional statement “when we tear it up’s the only time attention’s/paid to us”
shows that there is a heavy concentration on black criminality when reporting news. Thus,
media are conceived as an arena of misconception and misrepresentation that contribute to
black misfortunes.
By the same token, media bias is represented in the musical industry through Eminem’s
diss7 to Die Antwoord. The text reveals Eminem to be highly suspicious of the music of the
white South African Hip-Hop group for reinforcing discourses of white racism and black
stereotypes. The group is composed of Watkin Tudor Jones known as Ninja, Yolandi Visser

7
Disses in Hip-Hop are an important artistic form when criticizing other rappers.
58
and DJ Hi-Tek. They rose to prominence in 2010 and they are known for their grotesque satire
and postmodern parody to challenge dominant discourses of identity (Scott 2012, 748). Eminem
believes that the group Die Antwoord hides behind the narratives of challenging normative
racial classification to perpetuate and normalize blacks’ stereotypes. Eminem’s criticism for the
group is realized in the modalized statement “I’d rather hear ‘em say Die N-word than die/
Antwoord”. The play on words between Die Antwoord and Die N-Word reveals semantic
meanings of racism that the group is accused of popularizing. Despite Eminem’s authenticity
in Hip-Hop and his multiple racial identities, the rapper does not employ the N-word in his
music. Thus, despite the fact that Die Antwoord is a white South African group, Eminem refuses
their usage of the N-word many times in their music.
The diss is followed by the assertive statement: “Now it’s better disguised banter”.
Meaning making is achieved through Eminem’s sarcastic tone and the choice of the adjective
“disguised” that reveals that the group is hiding in the name of promoting a counter narrative
to mask their racist assumptions. A possible interpretation of Eminem’s diss to Die Antwoord
can be their controversial videos advocating black face minstrelsy which refers to “white
performers literally blacking their faces to perform racist black caricatures” (Haupt 2013, 463).
The video of Fatty Boom Boom (2012) includes Yolandi blacking her face that could be
interpreted as blacks being a source of ridicule and entertainment. Banana Brain (Die Antwoord
2016) also includes references to stereotyping blacks as sexual predators. The video shows
instances of Ninja turning to a predator with a noticeable black skin color. Thus, Eminem’s diss
to the group is directed to their alleged stereotypical images in representing blacks. These
images contribute to the public misconceptions, strengthening blacks in the media as an
entertainment object or as deviants, which, in turn, contributes to the general atmosphere of
anger that characterizes the discourse.

4.4.2.3 Entrapment and lack of security

In addition to the prevailing feeling of anger, the collective black discourse communicates
feelings of meaninglessness, insecurity and entrapment. Blacks feel at high risk of danger as a
consequence of the systematic discriminatory forces exhibited towards them, the level of
segregation that seems to be the norm and also the stereotypical image as criminals that is
popularized.
The disillusionment of blacks is represented in the text by setting authoritative/ submissive
relations between social actors. The representation of blacks is marked by the repetitive use of
“we”, “us” and “our” that is differentiated from “them” and “America”. The emphatic use of us
reveals blacks as “the affected” (2003, 145). Furthermore, the predominant use of passive verbs
59
like “we’re strapped” “we’re trapped”, “segregated us” “designated us”, “separated us” and also
negative clauses like “can’t escape the circumstances” reveal that blacks are not “free agents”
(Fairclough 2003, 22) instead, their discourse is the outcome of the actors who caused their
trauma.
Blacks appear to be hopeless and unable to feel secure. This insecurity is represented in
the discourse through the loss of minimal equal rights and the constant fear of danger. The
contrastive semantic relations in “we just want a safe environment but can’t escape the sirens”
(my emphasis) reveal that blacks are always at high risk to be confronted with police officers
who would subsequently violate them. The adverb “Just” is meant to emphasize black fears and
minimize their rights. The adverb also stresses blacks’ desperate pleas to secure a dignified life
for them. Black insecurity is further represented through the metaphorical image of “every day
is another Freddie Gray for us”. The temporal adverb “everyday” signifies a habit or a repetitive
action and Freddy Gray personifies blacks’ hazardous and ambiguous circumstances when
dealing with the police. Freddie Gray was a young black man who was arrested in a van by the
Baltimore Police Department in April 2015 only to be found unconscious afterwards. He died
after a week in hospital (Parry and Barron 2017). What happened to Freddie Gray was seen as
a police act of transgression. The ambiguity of Freddie Gray’s case resonates with the life of
the black community in the text in terms of the risky and dangerous circumstances they are
exposed to face. Thus, the life of blacks is described as a constant struggle to feel safe. Blacks
are given limited choices and their future is not guaranteed. This discourse is critical of blacks’
civil liberties that are supposed to be constitutionally preserved.
Furthermore, black anxieties are illustrated in the representational meanings of
meaninglessness. Blacks voice their lower status and unworthiness in America. The
marginalization of black lives is conveyed through the hyperbole “I feel like checking out on
life”. Identificational meanings magnify black misfortunes and reaffirm that blacks feel that
they are not worthy of life. In addition to that, the metaphorical demand “why is it that they
treat us like dryer lint?” accentuates blacks’ uselessness. They are described as waste that needs
to be disposed of because of their worthlessness. This discourse draws on the situation of blacks
and their inferior position that makes them feel that they do not deserve to be full citizens as
their white counterpart. This image is reminiscent of the historical episodes of slavery where
blacks were the subject of constant mistreatment and their lives did not really matter to their
owners.
The fear of insecurity and feelings of meaninglessness created a state of entrapment that
is accentuated. The semantic relations of synonymy express this entrapment. “Can’t escape the

60
circumstances”, “can’t find answers”, “can’t escape the sirens” and “we’re trapped” reveal a
state fixedness and void that make blacks unable to change their situations. Blacks are described
as imprisoned and controlled. The agent of racialization is identified in the metaphorical
imagery in the assertive statement “every time we see the devil’s face” (my emphasis). The
devil is recognized in the lyrical video as Donald Trump’s figure. Thus, the former president is
seen in the song to be a part of the blacks’ anxieties and the overwhelming feeling of
entrapment. His election, according to the discourse, highlights another episode of the vicious
circle of racism that reigns. The employment of Trump’s figure as the devil evokes paranoia
and confusion to blacks, which contradicts with some whites’ reception of his election. A
possible reading of connecting the devil’s face to Trump could be that Eminem links Trump’s
ascendency in the political arena to the state of fear, disintegration and the culture of racism
that he would strengthen.
4.4.3 Resistance
Discourses of resistance and protest prevail throughout Untouchable. The anger,
frustration and unfair opportunities are translated in the need for continued fight towards racial
justice. Eminem keeps reminding his listeners of the disadvantaged socio-economic status of
blacks and the importance of peaceful resistance. His approach solidifies the work of the Black
Lives Matter. Actional meanings in the discourse are presented on two axes. First, the discourse
describes the atrocity of the situation for black Americans and their few options. Second, the
discourse proposes alternatives to achieve racial equality.
In terms of blacks’ restricted options, there is an emphasis on the adverb just “Just to see
that” and “Just to be black” (my emphasis). The adverb stresses blacks’ risky position in
America, which, in turn, emphasizes the need for mobilization. There are also repetitive realis
statements with either or logic. First, the metaphorical imagery in “every day is another Freddie
Gray for us a levy break or fuzz” (my emphasis) is meant to create two options for blacks,
either to break free or to keep dealing with racist police officers. Second, the realis statement
“you better be strapped with a derringer or be capped in America” (my emphasis) is triggered
by the modal auxiliary verb ‘you better’ to highlight necessity. Blacks are restricted to the
options of protecting themselves with arms or be trapped in America. Although Eminem
advocates peaceful solutions to the black dilemma, he also stresses the need for security.
Eminem has always been a champion of Americans’ rights to bear arms for security measures.
In We as Americans (Eminem 2004), he defends Americans’ rights to protect themselves and
protest against attempts to deny their rights to bear arms. Eminem is still advocating the same
cause.

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 The discourse amplifies the fear among black Americans about the atrocity of the
situation for critical awareness about the need for resistance. Identificational meanings play
also a role in engaging readers in the fight against racist institutional practices. The semantic
field pertaining to comics and the repetitive uses of metaphorical images are meant to create a
strong mental effect to reflect the realities of blacks in America. In fact, the semantic relations
of hyponymy between “narrator”, “characters” and “Steve Rogers” are parts of the comic
industry. Further to this point, comics are an important part of America’s popular culture and
Americans share a fascination with comic books, movies and Avengers. Eminem’s style relies
on creating a strong emotional effect when addressing the American people and on providing
strong visuals about what is going on. America’s admiration of superheroes, wars against evil,
humanity in danger etc., is also emphasized in the metaphors used to relate to the realities of
black Americans who need to be saved. For example, “be capped in America like Steve Rogers”
is a direct reference to the highly popular Marvel movie Captain America Civil War (2016). In
the movie, Captain America refused to sign Sokovia Accords implemented by the U.S.
government. He refused to conform to the norms and was treated as a criminal and an outlaw.
Captain America was also alienated from other Avengers only to realize eventually that he was
trying to defend a good cause. The visual image of Captain America trapped resonates with the
situation of blacks. In his defense of the cause, Eminem urges Americans to continue the fight
to combat racism.
The discourse also draws on the importance of continuing the fight through assertive
statements followed by negation. For example, “we done see em’ beat Rodney King
unconscious, and got off so we don’t need all your crooked police officers’ peace offerings”.
Meaning making is strengthened through the intertextual references to Rodney King, who was
a victim of police excessive use of force. In 1991, Rodney King was unarmed when he was
excessively beaten. His incident was very symbolic to ignite protests and especially that the
white police officers involved were not held accountable for their actions (NBC News 2020).
The discourse emphasizes historical episodes of police brutality. This emphasis is meant to
accentuate the need for continued struggle with the aim of making a difference and making
black lives actually matter. Thus, the reference to Rodney King symbolizes motivation not to
make compromises for black rights, especially that the case of King represents one of the first
shocking cases of police brutality in America. The negation to follow is a refusal of police
officers’ attempts of peace triggered by the mental process adjective “crooked” to indicate that
police officers’ status as corrupt contradicts with their empty promises of peace. In this respect,

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Eminem, hence, lays the foundation of his vision to end white police officers’ transgression and
racially motivated acts levelled at the black minority.
The core of Eminem’s Untouchable is to urge mobilization to change the situation of
blacks, but not to introduce new tactics or ways. He uses his platform to consolidify the activism
of Black Lives Matter. The line that says: “just keep marchin’ till we reach Congress” is an
activity exchange addressed to black people and Americans, as a whole. The line conveys
actional meanings with the purpose of resisting hegemonic racist practices. The representation
of discourse is maintained through verbal processes within circumstances. The present
progressive “Keep marchin”, the circumstance of time “til” and place “congress” validate
meanings of resistance that should proceed for an unlimited time with higher purposes of
congressional change and legislative procedures to make the change possible. A comparison
between Eminem’s political engagement in the past and the present shows that his tactics and
message remain the same. The rapper is committed to peaceful and legislative congressional
change.
In addition to that, Eminem denounces blacks’ use of violence to demand their rights.
His approach to resistance is comprehensive on the insistence of peaceful protest. The discourse
mentions the effects of blacks’ violent protesting through intertextual elements to the Dallas
shootings in 2016. This is illustrated in the following lines: “As Dallas overshadows the battle
for Black Lives Matter / We fight back with violence but acts like that are/ Black eyes on the
movement”. In fact, in 2016, five white police officers were murdered in violent confrontations
with an armed black man who targeted white police officers during a peaceful protest of the
Black Lives Matter (Fernandez, Pérez-Pena and Bromwich 2016). Eminem illustrates his
rejection to violence through semantic relations of reason and consequence “That is why it’s
at stalemate” and “So it’s black ops” (my emphasis). The rapper believes that violence could
only complicate the situation of blacks and make their activism futile, which results in more
racial tension between activists and police officers. The anaphoric repetition of “madder”
translates the results of violence. Thus, Untouchable can be seen as a text that promotes change
and solidifies the work of Black Lives Matter as an organization promoting peaceful resistance
to acquire racial justice.

4.4.4 America’s theoretical ideals versus practical realities

Eminem launches a full-fledged criticism aimed at America’s theoretical promises.
Untouchable challenges America’s ideals and democratic foundations. The discourse maintains
that America’s history is based on distortion, subjugation of minorities and also violation of
civil liberties seen in the realities of black minorities today. To start with, the implemented
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discourse criticizes notions of the American Dream, promises of success, upward mobility and
individual success through work ethics. The idiomatic statement “pull ourselves by our
bootstraps” followed by the rhetorical question “where the fuck are the boots?” negates
American values of equal chances of success. Black Americans find themselves economically
deprived and not able to overcome their impoverished situations.
The Declaration of independence which reads as follows: “We hold these truths to be
self-evident that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain
unalienable rights, that are among these: life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”(1776 cited
in National Archives 2020) seem to be only theoretical. In reality, black Americans are denied
access to improve their lives and pursue happiness and success. The overarching conviction of
individual economic improvement and “bootstraps” becomes a misleading concept for African-
Americans who are socially deprived the merits of success.
Criticism of America’s ideals is also maintained in the discourse through repetitive
“conditional semantic relations” between sentences and clauses (Fairclough 2003, 89). “If you
try to slander the flag” and “If you don’t stand for the national anthem” (my emphasis) reveal
America’s double standards. Theoretically, the American constitution guarantees citizens
freedom of speech protected in the first Amendment that reads as follows:

“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the

free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or the press, or the right of the
people peacefully to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of
grievances.” (U.S. Const, amend I 1791 cited in United States Senate n.d)

In practice, the discourse emphasizes that these freedoms are curtailed when challenging
the establishment of institutional racism. The discourse recontextualizes elements of the social
events of protest in the controversy that surrounded Colin Kaepernick to concretize America’s
double standards. Kaepernick was criticized for taking a knee as a form of peaceful protest
against racism and police brutality. He was condemned by many conservatives including former
president Donald Trump of disrespect to America’s patriotic symbols like the national anthem
and the American flag (Lockhart 2018). The discourse also recontextualizes aspects of the
negative reception of Kaepernick’s peaceful protest by highlighting the criticism that has been
addressed to him. “An irrational stance” and “Kaepernick tantrum” reveal non-adherence to
concepts of freedom of speech where individuals are free to share their public opinions.
America’s undemocratic elements in this discourse are further illustrated through the
promotion of a monotonous vision of America where other voices are silenced. A key pillar to

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democracies is the availability of different opinions and perspectives that enrich political
discussions. However, identificational meanings in the discourse reveal an undesirability to
voices opposing the hegemonic racist practices. The metaphorical statements “you’ll be made
to feel like a traitor” and “treat you like Rodney Dangerfield”8 emphasize that any attempt to
challenge institutional racism will be deemed as unpatriotic (traitor) or will be marginalized as
disrespectful (Rodney Dangerfield). Thus, America seems to be violating its democratic
characteristics especially as a nation that acts as an example of democratic practice.
In the same vein, Eminem criticizes America’s racist foundations, constitutional promises
and symbolic emblems. In fact, his discourse is dominated by contrastive/concessive semantic
relations between clauses and sentences to challenge America’s promotion of equality and to
emphasize that the very basis of the country is built on the exploitation of slaves. The contrastive
statements are represented by no explicit markers. “Home of the brave is still racist Ville/ In a
country that claims was based on United States ideals / that had its Natives killed and got you
singin’ this star spangled spiel / To a piece of cloth that represents the land of the free that made
people slaves to build”. The repetitive recontextualized statements of the American National
Anthem “Home of the brave” and “land of the free” subscribe to the ironic and conflicting
promises of American ideals which contradict with America’s history of slavery, Jim Crow and
subjugation of blacks in America. In fact, Eminem’s criticism for America’s National Anthem
could be in relation to the hypocrisy of the messages conveyed in the lyrics. A close examination
of the Star Spangled Banner reveals its racist undertones. The third verse of the song is as
follows “no refuge could save the hireling and slave from the terror of flight or the gloom of
the grave. (The Star Spangled Banner (third verse), 2016). Thus, the very symbolism of the
national anthem contradicts with America’s promotion of equality and justice of “all men”.
The discourse as well highlights contradictions of America’s foundation with the history
of Native genocide and slavery. In fact, following America’s independence, the founding
fathers, established the U.S. constitution that proclaimed equality and freedom with a Bill of
Rights added to guarantee the protection of the civil liberties. However, despite the
constitutional promises and values, it did not take a strong action against discrimination and
racism. “All men” was only comprehensive of white males. Thus, the constitution reflected the
undemocratic ideals and legitimized the genocide of Natives and also the slavery system that
are emphasized in this discourse.

8
Rodney Dangerfield was a standup comedian famous for his popular phrase “No respect”
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 Throughout the discourse, Eminem also maintains that America still violates its principles,
since, according to the rapper; racism still prevails at the present time. The assertive realis
statement “Home of the brave is still racist ville” confirms the continuation of systematic
racism. However, the discourse illustrates that racism not only exists today, but it resembles the
past. “This whole nation feels like a plantation field”. Meaning making is realized through the
metaphor “Plantation field”. Eminem compares black slavery with the current situation where
blacks are denied their minimal rights. Although this comparison is built on exaggeration, it
shows that there is a gap between theory and practice in terms of justice and equality between
races.

4.4.5 Discussion of the black discourse

The collective black discourse marked a departure from the first discourse through
Eminem explicit voice. Eminem proved his black identity by joining the black voice.
Additionally, contrary to the first discourse-which referred to real cases of police brutality
without direct references to the specified names of the black men- the latter relied heavily on
description to give a detailed image of the situation of African-Americans and the black men
involved in police violence were presented concretely. For example: “and every day’s another
Freddie Gray for us, a levy break or fuzz” and “we done see ‘em beat Rodney King
unconscious and got off” (my emphasis).
The discourse also shifted the focus from vivid description of cases of police excessive
use of force to the racial anxieties of blacks. Blacks’ feelings of entrapment and insecurity in
America today showed that “blacks and dark-skinned racial minorities lag well behind whites
in virtually every area of social life” (Bonilla-Silva 2018, 11). This discourse also debunked the
assumptions that “minorities (especially blacks) are the ones responsible for whatever “race
problem” we have in this country” (ibid, 11).
This discourse further made it clear that that issues of race and racism in the contemporary
American society are not only an ongoing phenomenon but also the current ways of
racialization resemble the past. The circular structure of the second discourse shows an
interconnectedness with the past. The discourse starts with the era of “the sixties” and ends with
imageries of the system of slavery and the segregation of Native Americans. The continuity of
racist practices is omnipresent in the persistence of the white racial frame in the words of Feagin
that “re-creates, maintains, and reinforces the racially stratified patterns and structures of this
society”. (2013, 16).
What’s more, this discourse proved Untouchable a protest song that urges change and
mobilization. Although, one cannot consider Untouchable as a song that would change the lives
66
of black Americans, it is an affective artistic form to expose the practices of racist police officers
and to encourage resistance. Eminem maintained an oppositional stance towards America’s
adherence to democratic ideals. He defended Colin Kaepernick and his resistance is exemplified
in taking the side of blacks in their struggle and in solidifying the work of the Black Lives
Matter. In fact, in the wake of the George Floyd tragic death and the social unrest that followed
it, Eminem shared Untouchable in his Twitter platform urging America “to speak up” (Eminem
2020).

4.5 Findings
The research is directed to specific research objectives. First, the study aimed at advancing
a deeper understanding of the current forms of racialization in contemporary America. The
analysis of Untouchable showed that these forms include police excessive force towards blacks,
inequality between blacks and whites and to a certain extent the election of Donald Trump.
Accordingly, to understand the current racial scene, the analysis provided real life cases of black
unarmed men targeted and killed by police officers. Philando Castile, Walter Scott, Eric Garner
and Rodney King are among these cases. Racial profiling, police implicit bias and lack of
accountability constituted leading aspects to demonstrate that institutional racism is at the core
of contemporary American society.
The analysis also focused on the unequal treatment of blacks in America. In fact,
systematic segregation, especially in housing and economic opportunities tested America’s
biased system against blacks. The analysis showed blacks in a lower social status compared to
whites. Additionally, Untouchable emphasized black fears, insecurities and sense of entrapment
due to the hostility directed at them and anxiety regarding racial inequality. Indeed, the text
voiced the disillusionment of blacks in a supposedly post-racial America through their inability
to acquire fair chances as well as hardships to climb up the social ladder. As a minority group,
blacks have the highest levels of crime and poverty that are closely interconnected.
Furthermore, analyzing Untouchable highlighted Donald Trump as a leading figure who adds
to black fears of unequal America. Trump, in the analysis, is connected with popularizing false
narratives about the culture of blacks and with reviving deep-seated divisions concerning race.
By the same token, the analysis provided an understanding of the racial scene and the
forms of racialization in America by drawing an analogy between the contemporary era and the
past by direct reference to episodes of slavery and the current situation of blacks. Hence, the
study revealed a state of regression that permeates the American society and deep
fragmentations that divide the American people, making race a continued problematic
phenomenon. However, the analysis was limited to the situation of blacks and the
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discriminatory practices related to them, disregarding other minority groups who are also
largely seen to be unequal.
The second research objective aimed at exploring the causes and effects of racial bias in
America. The case study and analysis of Untouchable maintained that the rationale behind
racial discrimination against blacks was driven by a system of whiteness that gives whites
ascendency to define the social norms and to provide the parameters of inclusion and exclusion.
This system gives legitimate reasons to discriminate against blacks and to use unnecessary
force. Thus, whiteness as seen by Eminem provides protection to white police officers to
discriminate against blacks. Racial bias was also explained through powerful narratives of
stereotypes. The analysis made explicit that blacks were described as violent, criminals, drug
dealers and also related to an underclass culture. These stereotypes explained the need to
stigmatize blacks’ culture and to acquire a preconceived idea about them in the media. The
image of blacks as criminals was popularized. Phenomena like driving while black and black-
on- black violence were necessary motives to violate their civil rights.
The effects of racial bias were conveyed at two axes. First, through the growing systematic
exclusion of blacks, the high percentage of targeting black faces and blacks’ feelings of
insecurity and devaluation. In fact, although blacks represented roughly 13% of the population
the analysis showed them to be most exposed to police transgression that was validated by
official data. Second, the effect of racial bias was conveyed through, the increased awareness
for the need to protest against racial discrimination.
The third research objective was to evaluate conscious rap as a platform that provides
meaningful discourse to counter notions of racialization. Away from being a tool of
entertainment, the analysis highlighted rap music’s discourse of resistance and commitment to
social and political issues. Untouchable was dedicated to emphasize Hip-hop discourse through
culture and heritage. The specified elements of Hip-Hop as a racialized genre were maintained
through musicality seen especially in the sound of drums to revive the historical significance of
African-American heritage. Eminem gave voice and joined forces with the silenced black
minority and their impact was most recognizable in the analysis. Rap’s emancipatory endeavors
were also maintained. The analysis was a direct call for action. Closely scrutinizing and
exposing America’s biased system, Eminem aimed at mobilizing the masses to protest and to
urge for racial equality through peaceful demonstrations. Although Untouchable was not meant
to make the change concrete, it stressed the need for continued fight against the racist system
following the Black Lives Matter goals to avoid more racial tension and killings of unarmed
black men, However, Untouchable’s emancipatory forms are questioned, since its impact was

68
limited. As part of his Revival album, the song’s echo was not very effective. In fact, although
focused on different aspects of contemporary political erosion, Revival was one of Eminem’s
underrated and unsuccessful albums. As he confirms in the ringer “Revival didn’t go viral”
(Eminem 2018). Indeed, the album was condemned by critics and was highly undervalued.
Which makes Untouchable as a protest song limited in its emancipatory massages.
Notwithstanding Untouchable’s inability to channel America’s racial disparities on a public
mass scale, Eminem is still engaging to use his platform to expose discriminatory forms of
contemporary America.
In addition to that, from the early verses of the song, Untouchable provided aspects of Hip-
Hop’s dedication to social justice and racial equality. Eminem started debunking institutional
racism by downplaying the discourse of the white police officer. He proceeded by criticizing
America’s notions of democracy and racial justice. The analysis revealed that America’s
emphasis on promoting the values of civil liberties, free expression and human rights abroad
contradicts with the reality of its domestic anxieties. Untouchable showed that America is
violating human rights protocols with the growing cases of police brutality and transgression
of powers. Similarly, the analysis revealed that America’s principles are to be questioned.
Eminem criticized constitutional rights to freely protest racial inequality mainly with support
to the series of successive protests of Colin Kaepernick.

4.6 Conclusion
The study described, analyzed and discussed the forms of racialization presented in
Eminem’s Untouchable through themes following Fairclough’s model of Textual Analysis.
Then it presented the overall findings of the study that met objectives of this research.

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 Chapter 5

5 Conclusion
5.1 Introduction
The research aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the racial questions in
contemporary America. The dissertation sought to explain the current racial disparities from an
innovative, artistic vision that comprehend Eminem’s perspective of today’s America. This
research started with reviewing the literature concerning racial matters, Hip-Hop music and
Eminem’s lens concerning racial matters. This project, then, set Eminem’s Untouchable as a
case study and presented Fairclough’s model to analyze the song as a text. In this brief chapter,
I will summarize the major findings in the literature review and the study as well as the
contribution of the dissertation and future research.

5.2 Summary of the major findings

The main objectives of the study are to advance a deeper understanding of the racial scene
in America and to explore the causes and effects of racialization. Studying Eminem’s
Untouchable revealed that notions of racialization are still recurrent. As presented in the
literature review the debate concerning racial equality showed racism as an ongoing
phenomenon. Eminem, in his study, theorized racism as “the fear that a black face give them a
subconscious racist [look]”. Thus, Untouchable advocated an understanding of racist practices
based on whites’ prejudices, fears and dislikes of black faces “we don’t like the side of you”.
In fact, Eminem defines racism as both covert and explicit. Although Eminem did not generalize
and was talking from the perspectives of racist cops, this understanding of racism subscribes to
Eduardo Bonilla Silva’s concept of the “new racism”. The latter argues that “today racial
practices operate in a “now you see it, now you don’t” fashion”. (2018, 11).
The study also showed that understanding racial matters depends on the manifestation of
discriminatory practices mainly through police brutality, real life cases of aggression towards
unarmed black men, economic inequalities and references to racial resentment amid Trump’s
election.

In addition to that, the study subscribes to Whiteness Theory premises’. Untouchable

concluded that whiteness is the driving force behind the current ways of racialization in
contemporary America. According to twine Gallagher (2008) “the field now includes critiques
of whiteness that examine the institutional arrangements, ideological beliefs and state practices
that maintain white privilege” (5). Based on this understanding, the study emphasized

70
whiteness as a system that rationalizes state-sponsored racism. Whiteness provides protection
for racist cops and is manifested as the “standard” to regular police transgression. The repetitive
pattern in the Chorus helped to expose the normative nuances of whiteness. Whiteness, as
provided in the findings of the study, resulted in transgression and stereotyping. Indeed, the
study showed that blacks are described as violent, criminals and drug dealers which concretize
the concept of ‘criminalblackmen’. These findings befit Feagin’s notion of “the white racial
frame” as a system of prejudice to discriminate against blacks.
Thus, following the research objectives, the study and the literature review, showed that
racialization impacted the lives of blacks in America and caused inequalities which makes
America “far from freeing itself from the remnants of slavery and racism”(Lavalley and
Johnson 2020, 9). Accordingly, the study concluded that there is a state of regression
concerning racial matters and that U.S., instead of making a progress, is going backwards.
An additional objective of the study encompassed the evaluation of Hip-Hop
emancipatory practices. In fact, the literature review highlighted hip-hop music as an important
arena in discussions of race and racism. Emanating from a black culture, conscious rap as a
genre, proved valuable to counter notions of racialization. Similarly, the study’s findings
revealed that Eminem encouraged resistance against systematic racism by denouncing racial
profiling and transgression by white police officers as well as criticizing America’s theoretical
notions starting from constitutional contradictions to violation of civil liberties. To clarify,
America’ promotes the ideals of American creed and individuality that have been the basis of
America’s exceptionalism. From this regard the concept of exceptionalism provides narratives
that “the United States is morally and culturally equipped to offer an example to the world”
(Daghrir 2013, 56). However, the dissertation made it explicit that America is not even able to
protect its citizens’ rights.

Eminem as well insisted on peaceful resistance following the Black Lives Matter goals.
In fact, Eminem’s engagement to social and political issues was apparent and his stance was
noticeable. He sided with blacks’ discourse, reframed his whiteness, emphasized his black
identity and highlighted blacks’ cultural heritage in terms of style. Hence, despite
Untouchable’s inability to acquire mass mobilization, the research revealed the song to be
“imbued with a sense of struggle and resistance on the part of the poor and working-class urban
youth to limited chances and other challenges” (Deis 2015, 193).

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5.3 The contribution of the research
Despite the fact that studying racial matters is an extensively researched subject, the
dissertation contributed to research through presenting a novel approach to study racial
disparities in America i.e., through Hip-Hop music. Notwithstanding the rich literature about
Hip-Hop and rap’s counter discourses, investigating racial matters from an artistic vision is
scarce. Thus, taking Untouchable as a case study for analysis might be the first attempt to
approach the racial scene in America through Eminem’s lens. Accordingly, my contribution is
an entryway to consider rap music as an important academic research subject in Cultural
Studies.

5.4 Future research

This research focused on racial matters in contemporary America from Eminem’s
perspective. In my future research, I am interested in investigating the same field, but I intend
to carry out a comprehensive study that compares different rappers’ dedication to domestic
issues in America in the past and the contemporary era.

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 Discography
Cheek and Chong, Vocalists. 1974. “Earache My Eye”. MP3 audio. On Wedding Album. Ode Records,
Warner Bros. 3:07.
Childish Gambino [Donald Mckinley Glover, Jr.], vocalist.2018. “This is America”. MP3 audio. Single.
RCA Records.4:05.
Dr Dre [Andre Romelle Young], vocalist. 2020. “Captured On an iPhone”. MP3. Single. Empire.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 1999. “Role Model”. MP3 audio. On The Slim Shady LP.
Interscope, Aftermath. 3:27.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2002. “Square Dance”. MP3 audio. On the Eminem Show.5:33
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2004. “Mosh”. MP3 audio. On Encore. Composed by Dr Dre. 5:19.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2016. “Campaign Speech”. MP3 audio. Single: Freestyle.
Interscope, Aftermath. Shady.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2017. “Like Home” featuring Alicia Keys. M3 audio. On
revival.4:05.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2017. “The Storm”. YouTube Video. In “Eminem Rip Donald
Trump in BET Hip Hop Awards Freestyle Cypher. BET Networks. 4:35.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LunHybOKIjU.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2018. “The Ringer”. MP3 audio. On Kamikaze. Interscope. 5:42.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2020. “These Demons”. Featuring MAJ MP3 audio. On Music To
Be Murdered By Side B. Interscope, Shady Records.3:30.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist. 2020. “Zeus” featuring White Gold. On Music To Be Murdered By
Side B. Interscope. Shady Re
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.1999. “No Where Fast” Feat Kahleni. MP3 audio. On Revival.
Aftermath , Interscope. Shady.4:40.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.1999. “Rock Bottom”. MP3 audio. On The Slim Shady LP.
Aftermath Entertainment and Interscope Records.3:40.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.2002. “Cleanin’ Out My Closet”. MP3 audio. On The Eminem
Show. Aftermath, Shady Records. 4:57.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.2002. “White America”.MP3 audio. On the Eminem Show. Shay
Aftermath, Interscope. 5:56.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.2004. “We As Americans”. MP3 audio. On Encore. Aftermath,
Shady Interscope.4:39.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.2013. “Rhyme or Reason”. MP3 audio. On The Marshal Mathers
LP2. Aftermath, Shady Interscope. 5:02.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.2017. “Untouchable” (Lyric Video) .YouTube Video. Eminem
Music. February 16, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IJvjj6Fiwvw.
Eminem [Marshal Mathers], vocalist.2020. “Darkness”. MP3 audio. On Music To Be Murdered By.
Aftermath, Interscope, Shady. 6:10.

73
Eminem [Marshall Mathers], vocalist.2000. “Criminal”. MP3 audio. On The Marshall Mathers LP. Shady
Records.
GrandmasterFlash. [Joseph Saddle], vocalist. 1982. “The Message” featuring The Furious Five. On the
Message. Sugar Hill Records.6:02.
Jay z [Shawn Corey Carter], vocalist.2016. “Spiritual”. Single. Roc Nation Records.
Jay z [Shawn Corey Carter], vocalist.2017. “The Story of O.J”. YouTube video. July 5, 2017. 4:14.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RM7lw0Ovzq0
Joey Badass [Jo-Vaughn Virginie Scott], vocalist.2017. “Land of the Free”.MP3 Track 2. On All
Amerikkkan Badass. Cinematic.
Joyner Locus, vocalist. 2017. “I’m not racist”. MP3 audio. Single. Atlantic. 6:56.
Kendrick Lamar, vocalist. 2015. “Alright”. MP3 audio. On To Pimp a Butterfly. Aftermath, Interscope.
Kendrick Lamar, vocalist. 2015. “The Blacker the Berry”. Track13. MP3 audio. On To Pimp a Butterfly.
Aftermath/ Interscope.5:29.
KRS-One. [Lawrence Kris Parker], vocalist. 1993. “Sound of da Police”. MP3 audio. On Return to the
Boom Bap. 4: 18.
Nas [Nasir Bin Olu Dara Jones], vocalist.2018. “Cops Shot the Kid”.MP3 audio. On Nasir. Mass Appeal,
Def Jam
NWA: Eazy E, Mc Ren and Ice Cube, vocalists. 1988. “Fuck the Police”. MP3 audio. On Straight Outta
Compton. Ruthless Records. 5:43.
Star Spangled Banner (third verse). 2016. YouTube Video. September 5, 2016. What’s
The…Productions. 1:39. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZIKwkQWGim0

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 Filmography
“Captain America: Civil War”. 2016. Directed by Joe Russo and Anthony Russo. Featuring Chris
Evans, Robert Downey Jr., Sebastian Stan, Anthony Mackie and Scarlett Johansson. DVD.
Marvel Studies. 147mm.

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Adorno, Theodor W. 1998. “On Popular Music”. In Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A Reader (2nd
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 Appendices
Appendix A: Coding
Hands up, officer don't shoot
Then pull your pants up, promise you won't loot
We may never understand each other, it's no use
We ain't ever gonna grasp what each other goes through
Black boy, black boy, we ain't gonna lie to you
Black boy, black boy, we don't like the sight of you
Pull up on the side of you
Window rolled down, profile
Then we wonder why we see this side of you
Probably comin' from the dope house
We could let you slide but your tail light is blew, out
We know you're hidin' that Heidi Klum
On you another drug charge, homie, it's back inside for you
And just in case a chase might ensue, we got that tried and true
Pistol drew right at you, we'd be delighted to unload it
In your back, then walk up and lay that taser on the side of you
Fucked up, but what the fuck am I to do?
I keep tellin' myself, keep doin' like you're doin'
No matter how many lives you ruin
It's for the red, white and blue
Time to go find a new one and split his head right in two
No one's ever indicted you
Why? 'Cause you're a...
White boy, white boy, you're a rockstar
(My momma talkin' to me, tryna tell me how to live)
White boy, white boy, in your cop car
(But I don't listen to her, 'cause my head is like a sieve)
White boy, white boy, you're untouchable
(The world's coming to an end, I don't even care)
Nobody can tell me shit 'cause I'm a big rockstar
Black boy, black boy, we don't get your culture and
We don't care what our government's done to fuck you over, man
Don't tell us your attitude's a result of that
Balderdash, where'd you get the chip on your shoulder at?
Why you kicking that soda can?
Pull your pants up, we 'bout to roll up and
Throw your ass in the van cuffed
You don't have to know our plans or what our intentions are
Our cards are close to our chest, you better show your hands
And put our minds more at ease
Or get shot in the thyroid, comply or die, boy
We're fightin' a crime war, here come the swine
Tryna clean up the streets from all these minorities
That's what we call 'em pigsties for
They're like eyesores to police
Talk to you like just a piece of trash
Feels like we're stuck in a time warp to me
As I kick these facts and get these mixed reactions
As this beat backspins, it's like we're drifting back in
To the '60s, having black skin is risky
'Cause this keeps happening
Throughout history

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African-Americans have been treated like shit
And I admit
There have been times where it's been embarrassin' to be a...
White boy, white boy, you're a rockstar
(My momma talkin' to me, tryna tell me how to live)
White boy, white boy, in your cop car
(But I don't listen to her, 'cause my head is like a sieve)
White boy, white boy, you're untouchable
(The world's coming to an end, I don't even care)
Nobody can tell me shit 'cause I'm a big rockstar
Seems like the average lifespan of a white man
Is more than twice than a black life span
I wonder sometimes if it has a price scanner
I feel like checking out on life, can't escape this circumstance
I'd rather hear 'em say "Die N-word" than Die Antwoord
Ninja, now it's better disguised banter
But that's life, strapped 'cause we're strapped financially
And can't find answers
We're applying, but McDonald's
Seems to be the only franchise that'll hire
So how can we have higher standards?
As Dallas overshadows the battle for Black Lives Matter
We fight back with violence but acts like that are
Black eyes on the movement
Which makes black lives madder
At cops and cops madder
That's why it's at a stalemate
Can't arrive at a compromise so it's Black Ops
I wonder if we hire more black cops, the crap stops
The block is our backyards, officers, not the crack spot
Call the attack dogs off of us, man
You always act all pissed off at us at a traffic stop
And bad cops fuck it up for the good cops, and man, stop
Sendin' white cops in the black neighborhoods
Who ain't acclimated to 'em, like that's the way to do it
Who seen some fuckin' videos of rappers waving guns
And know nobody black so they act afraid of us
And that's racism, the fear that a black face gives 'em
A subconscious racist
Wait, why are there black neighborhoods?
'Cause America segregated us, designated us to an area
Separated us, Section-Eight'd us
When we tear it ups, the only time attention's paid to us
And education sucks, and every day's another
Freddie Gray for us, a levy breaks or fuzz
Why is it they treat us like dryer lint?
We just want a safe environment for our kids
But can't escape the sirens
Don't take a scientist to see our violent nature lies in
The poverty that we face so the crime rate's the highest in
The lowest classes, it's like a razor wire fence
And we're trapped in these racial biases
That plague our society which makes our anxiety levels raise
Every time we see a devil's face
Lions, tigers, and bears, oh my-

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It's more like billy clubs and gats
And we really love it when you think we're guilty 'cause we're black
"But you kill each other, facts
You peel each other's caps, for silly stuff like hats"
Single mother strugglin' through substance abuse
While people with nothin' to lose shoot each other for shoes
Fuck your Republican views
Pull ourselves up by our bootstraps, where the fuck are the boots?
And streets act as a narrator, don't gotta read comics
Or be that into characters, just to see that, just to be black
You better be strapped with a derringer
Or be "capped in America" like Steve Rogers
'Cause no one oversees these cops and
All we see is 'em beat charges
We done seen 'em beat Rodney King unconscious, and got off
So we don't need all you crooked police officers' peace offerings
Just keep marchin', 'til we reach congress
But they're gonna say you're tryin' to take an irrational stance
If you try to slander the flag but
Somebody has to be the sacrificial lamb
So they call it a Kaepernick tantrum
If you don't stand for the national anthem
We raise it, you better praise it
Or you'll be made to feel like a traitor, we'll
Treat you like Rodney Dangerfield
Home of the brave is still racist 'ville
So this whole nation feels like a plantation field
In a country that claims that its foundation was based on
United States ideals that had its Natives killed
Got you singin' this star-spangled spiel
To a piece of cloth that represents the "Land of the Free"
That made people slaves to build

[Eminem’s voice: Discourse of the police officer+ Black’s discourse]

Intro racial divide

[Discourse of the police officer]

Racial exclusion / Racial profiling: Stereotyping / Targeting and transgression / Legitimization of
violence/ Authorization/ Rationalization/ Moral evaluation

[Blacks’ discourse+ Integrated Eminem’s voice]

Racial regression / Racial anxieties: Economic deprivation/ Implicit bias: Police bias/ Media bias/
Entrapment and insecurity/ Resistance/ America’s theoretical promises vs practical reality

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Appendix B
This table shows that blacks were most exposed to nonfatal threats or use of force between 2015
and 2018 despite the fact that blacks represent approximately 13% of the population. The
numbers show that approximately 3.3% experienced nonfatal threats or use of force during
police contact in 2015 in comparison to whites who only represented 1.3% of these threats.

The figures also demonstrate that the percentage of exposure to threats is growing. In 2015,
nearly 1.3% of the black population was exposed to threats. However, in 2018, the percentage
grew to 3.8%. The percentages also demonstrate differences in terms of the growth between
black and white races. Whites’ experiences of nonfatal threats with police grew with a
percentage of 0.2% between 2015 and 2018 while the percentage of blacks’ experiences with
use of force during police contact grew with 0.5%.

The table also reveals that blacks have the highest percentage of nonfatal threats or use of force
during police contact compared to other races and ethnicities in 2015 and 2018.

Table 1:percentage of nonfatal threats or use of force during police contact compared to other races and ethnicities in 2015
and 2018

88