Analyzing The Cultural Diversity of Consumers in The Global Marketplace

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Analyzing the Cultural Diversity of Consumers in the Global Marketplace
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Analyzing the Cultural
Diversity of Consumers in
the Global Marketplace
Juan Miguel Alcántara-Pilar

University of Granada, Spain
Salvador del Barrio-García

Esmeralda Crespo-Almendros
Lucia Porcu
A volume in the Advances in Marketing, Customer

Relationship Management, and E-Services
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Analyzing the Cultural
Diversity of Consumers in
the Global Marketplace


Lucia Porcu
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Analyzing the Cultural Diversity of Consumers in the Global Marketplace

Juan Miguel Alcántara-Pilar (University of Granada, Spain) Salvador del Barrio-García (University of Granada,
Spain) Esmeralda Crespo-Almendros (University of Granada, Spain) and Lucia Porcu (University of Granada, Spain)
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Don Schultz, Medill Northwestern University, USA

Table of Contents
Foreword............................................................................................................................................... xv
Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxv
Chapter 1
Effect of Globalization on Multicultural Consumer Behavior................................................................. 1
Lalita A. Manrai, University of Delaware, USA
Ajay K. Manrai, University of Delaware, USA
Tarek T. Mady, Concordia University, Canada
Chapter 2
The Globalisation of the Media: Towards Cultural Homogeneity?....................................................... 20
Shefali Virkar, University of Oxford, UK
Chapter 3
The Roles of Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Global Marketing............................................................ 36
Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand
Chapter 4
Teenagers’ Socio and Cultural Values: Relation with Entrepreneurship............................................... 59
Georg Dutschke, Universidade Atlântica, Portugal
Julio Garcia del Junco, Universidad Sevilla, Spain
Francisco Espansandín-Bustelo, Universidad Sevilla, Spain
Mariana Dutschke, ESE João de Deus, Portugal
Beatriz Palacios Florencio, Universidad Pablo Olavide, Spain
Chapter 5
The Globalization of the Art Market: A Cross-Cultural Perspective where Local Features meet
Global Circuits....................................................................................................................................... 81
Federica Codignola, Università degli Studi di Milano – Bicocca, Italy

Chapter 6
A Framework of Brand Strategy and the “Glocalization” Approach: The Case of Indonesia............. 100
Arnold Japutra, Oxford Brookes University, UK
Bang Nguyen, East China University of Science and Technology, China
Chapter 7
The Formation of Usage Intention of Electric Cars: A Comparative Study of Denmark, Belgium,
and Italy............................................................................................................................................... 125
Camilla Barbarossa, Luiss Guido Carli University, Italy
Patrick De Pelsmacker, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Suzanne C. Beckmann, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
Ingrid Moons, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Wencke Gwozdz, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
Chapter 8
A Cross-National Effect of Ethnocentrism on Purchase Intention...................................................... 145
Nadia Jiménez, Universidad de Burgos, Spain
Sonia San-Martín, Universidad de Burgos, Spain
Chapter 9
Adoption of Biomass Heating Systems: Cross-Market Segmentation of the European Region......... 176
Inmaculada García-Maroto, University of Granada, Spain
Francisco Muñoz-Leiva, University of Granada, Spain
Chapter 10
Cultural Perspectives on Advertising Perceptions and Brand Trustworthiness1................................. 206
Annie Danbury, University of Bedfordshire, UK
Maria Palazzo, University of Salerno, Italy
Kathleen Mortimer, University of Northampton, UK
Alfonso Siano, University of Salerno, Italy
Chapter 11
A Review of Psycho- vs. Socio-Linguistics Theories: An Application to Marketing Research.......... 226
Juan Miguel Alcántara-Pilar, University of Granada, Spain
Salvador del Barrio-García, University of Granada, Spain
Esmeralda Crespo-Almendros, University of Granada, Spain
Lucia Porcu, University of Granada, Spain
Chapter 12
Cultural Frame Switching: Marketing Implications............................................................................ 255
Jaime Noriega, University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign, USA

Chapter 13
Codeswitching: An Alternative Approach to Traditional Communication Methods for Reaching
Multilinguals in the Global Marketplace............................................................................................. 275
Melissa M. Bishop, University of New Hampshire, USA
Mark Peterson, University of Wyoming, USA
Chapter 14
Foreign Language Display in Advertising from a Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic
Perspective: A Review and Research Agenda...................................................................................... 298
Jos Hornikx, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Frank van Meurs, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Chapter 15
The Moderating Role of Language on Perceived Risk and Information-Processing Online............... 319
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 346
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 353

Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword............................................................................................................................................... xv
Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxv
Chapter 1
Effect of Globalization on Multicultural Consumer Behavior................................................................. 1
Lalita A. Manrai, University of Delaware, USA
Ajay K. Manrai, University of Delaware, USA
Tarek T. Mady, Concordia University, Canada
A great deal has been learned in recent years about the role of culture in consumer behavior. However,
the overwhelming scope and fragmented nature of cross-cultural and cross-national consumer research
often necessitates a periodic review and critical assessment of the field. We highlight the salient aspects
of cross-cultural and cross-national consumer research today by offering a summary of key findings and
themes, discussions of major trends, and provide insights into the future of the field. Globalization has
created multicultural societies across the world. However there is relatively very limited research on
multicultural consumer behavior (MCB). The main purpose of this chapter is to analyze and understand
the dynamics of MCB in today’s global economy and offer insights into the way forward.
Chapter 2
The Globalisation of the Media: Towards Cultural Homogeneity?....................................................... 20
Shefali Virkar, University of Oxford, UK
In every sphere of human endeavour, human behaviour and interactions are becoming increasingly
interrelated and mutually interdependent. The 1990s witnessed the emergence of a pan-global commercial-
and mass-media market, and the rise of a handful of mammoth commercial media organisations; which
today have established vast international media empires, particularly through the innovative use of
technology and the cultivation of global distribution and production networks. As media conglomerates
spread their tentacles, anxiety is rife that they will encourage a global convergence in popular tastes and
trends, to the detriment of national and local cultures. This book chapter aims to explore the claim that
the continuous globalisation of the media and entertainment industries is leading unrelentingly towards a
hegemony of global cultural homogeneity. Through a discussion of the phenomenon that is globalisation,
and the theoretical background against which the cultural effects of the global media might be studied,
the chapter critically examines the role of pan-global commercial broadcasting in the creation of a so-
called global culture and in the engendering of global cultural convergence.

Chapter 3
The Roles of Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Global Marketing............................................................ 36
Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand
This chapter introduces the roles of cross-cultural perspectives in global marketing, thus explaining
theoretical and practical concepts of cross-cultural consumer cross-cultural country-of-origin perceptions,
cross-cultural consumer trust, cross-cultural consumer animosity, cross-cultural consumer ethnocentrism
toward global brand, cross-cultural global brand reputation, and cross-cultural social networking services.
Businesses must recognize, respect, and reconcile cultural differences if they hope to successfully contract
in the global business environments. Cross-cultural understanding and cultural knowledge for global
marketing approaches are the key issues to be considered for a favorable integration into the cross-cultural
organizations. Applying cross-cultural perspectives in global marketing will vastly improve organizational
performance and achieve strategic objectives in the social media age.
Chapter 4
Teenagers’ Socio and Cultural Values: Relation with Entrepreneurship............................................... 59
Georg Dutschke, Universidade Atlântica, Portugal
Julio Garcia del Junco, Universidad Sevilla, Spain
Francisco Espansandín-Bustelo, Universidad Sevilla, Spain
Mariana Dutschke, ESE João de Deus, Portugal
Beatriz Palacios Florencio, Universidad Pablo Olavide, Spain
Investigations related to national culture and young are becoming more important (Brown et al., 2002;
Larson, 2011). Gelhaar et al. (2007) state that “there is great concern about the poor academic performance
and wiling to entrepreneurship of the adolescents and young adults in European countries, especially
in the southern regions, where youth unemployment is very high”. For Iberia it’s very important that
adolescents and young adults have the want to become entrepreneurs, by developing new projects but,
mainly, by having entrepreneurship as a purpose for their professional life. Entrepreneurship should
be developed both at an individual level and within the organizations. It´s key to achive success, since
originates innovation, both incremental and disruptive. This exploratory research aims to identify the
relations between teenagers’ socio and cultural values and their want to become entrepreneurs. In concrete,
if socio and cultural dimensions identified by Hofstede and Minkov (2010) are related with the want to
become entrepreneur.
Chapter 5
The Globalization of the Art Market: A Cross-Cultural Perspective where Local Features meet
Global Circuits....................................................................................................................................... 81
Federica Codignola, Università degli Studi di Milano – Bicocca, Italy
Background literature and market flow data show evidence of an increasingly global art market. In
turn, the global art market, instead of being a single, defined entity appears to be made of various local
and diverse art markets. These various markets are progressively converging and integrating thanks to
logistic and communication circuits. Key actors and organizations in the art market (e.g. auction houses
or leader-dealers) see managers and marketers increasingly encountering cultural diversity alongside
with economic heterogeneity. This chapter takes into account the not-yet-conceptualized framework of

the art market in cross-cultural context. In so doing the author specifically identifies divergences and
convergences concerning consumer behavior and art goods in a global economy. The results support
the notion that in the current art market cultural diversity influences consumer attitudes. Such evidence
may have specific managerial implications for practitioners and may stimulate further empirical studies
to enforce this theoretical claim.
Chapter 6
A Framework of Brand Strategy and the “Glocalization” Approach: The Case of Indonesia............. 100
Arnold Japutra, Oxford Brookes University, UK
Bang Nguyen, East China University of Science and Technology, China
Indonesia is one of the stars among emerging market countries. As these markets are growing, Indonesia
stands out for having a very diverse culture (i.e. ranked 6th within Asia for ethnic fractionalization and
cultural diversity score). In this chapter, we develop a branding strategy framework to successfully operate
in such market since a successful strategy in one country may not be applicable in another country. A
brand thus needs to understand the glocal approach. Reviewing extant literature and focusing on Indonesia
as the international market setting, this chapter offers several contributions: First, it identifies challenges
that companies face in building a strong international brand. Second, it offers a framework of brand
strategy that is prominent in order to build and/or strengthen brand in a culturally diverse market. To
successfully develop a brand in such market, three important factors need attention: (1) glocalization,
(2) consumer-brand relationships, and (3) societal marketing.
Chapter 7
The Formation of Usage Intention of Electric Cars: A Comparative Study of Denmark, Belgium,
and Italy............................................................................................................................................... 125
Camilla Barbarossa, Luiss Guido Carli University, Italy
Patrick De Pelsmacker, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Suzanne C. Beckmann, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
Ingrid Moons, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Wencke Gwozdz, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark
In this chapter we propose a model in which green self-identity (GSI) is an antecedent of both environmental
concern (EC) and moral obligation (MO), which in turn influence the attitude towards electric cars (ATT).
GSI is also assumed to have a direct effect on ATT. The attitude towards the electric car then determines
the intention to adopt it. The model is empirically tested in three culturally different European countries:
Denmark, Belgium and Italy. Results show that the three countries differ in the way they develop positive
attitudes and intentions towards the electric car on the basis of their green self-identity. In Denmark,
GSI strongly and directly leads to positive attitudes. In Belgium, ATT is mainly formed through the
development of a strong EC. In Italy, MO plays a dominant role in the development of positive attitudes.
We suggest explanations using Hofstede’s values framework.

Chapter 8
A Cross-National Effect of Ethnocentrism on Purchase Intention...................................................... 145
Nadia Jiménez, Universidad de Burgos, Spain
Sonia San-Martín, Universidad de Burgos, Spain
The purpose of this study is to understand how socio-psychological and cultural factors (patriotism,
cultural openness and collectivism) affect a social phenomenon implying a tendency to reject foreign
products (ethnocentrism). The main contribution of this work is to propose a cross-national study to
establish differences or similarities in the behaviour of consumers from emerging and developed markets
when evaluating foreign products. Data was collected from 476 Spanish and Mexican consumers. Our
results show that also in emerging as in developed markets the patriotism and cultural openness are
antecedents of ethnocentrism, but collectivism only influences the ethnocentrism of consumer from
emerging markets. In addition, in developed market economies the ethnocentrism negatively affects
purchase intention of foreign products, although in emerging markets it does not.
Chapter 9
Adoption of Biomass Heating Systems: Cross-Market Segmentation of the European Region......... 176
Inmaculada García-Maroto, University of Granada, Spain
Francisco Muñoz-Leiva, University of Granada, Spain
During the past decade, the European directives have been taking into consideration some compulsory
objectives concerning the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (including biomass)
within the European Union and its Member States. This chapter identifies the main socio-economic
determinants that affect the adoption of biomass heating systems, as well as a description and listing of
potential adopters of this type of systems in the European market. Based on the theories of adoption of
innovations or of new systems and their personal factors, the practical was focused on potential adopters
of biomass heating systems living in Spain, Germany, UK, France, Norway and Sweden. In particular,
we conducted a cross-market segmentation of these countries. This study also includes interesting
recommendations related to the commercialization and development of this type of heating for end-
consumers.
Chapter 10
Cultural Perspectives on Advertising Perceptions and Brand Trustworthiness1................................. 206
Annie Danbury, University of Bedfordshire, UK
Maria Palazzo, University of Salerno, Italy
Kathleen Mortimer, University of Northampton, UK
Alfonso Siano, University of Salerno, Italy
The creation of a trustworthy brand identity through advertising has received relatively little attention
in European marketing research. Thus, in this chapter, we explore this relationship by undertaking focus
group research in the UK and Italy to identify the characteristics of print advertisements perceived as
portraying a trustworthy image. The results show that advertisements that are simple, straightforward
and clear are perceived as being more trustworthy. However, findings in this chapter also show some
differences between our national samples in relation to factors such as colour perception and consumer
ethnocentrism. Young consumers are also quite critical of current advertising efforts in building a
trustworthy brand image. A discussion of potential solutions and future research directions is provided.

Chapter 11
A Review of Psycho- vs. Socio-Linguistics Theories: An Application to Marketing Research.......... 226
This chapter offers an overview of the key socio-psycholinguistic theories and their application to the
marketing sphere. Among the models examined, of particular note are the Markedness Model (Myers-
Scotton, 1999), the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Steward, 1994) and the Conceptual Features
Model (De Groot, 1992). Examining these three models in particular, we review the key concepts of
Code-switching, Cultural Frame-Switching and Foreign Language Display, which have been widely used
in the marketing and consumer behavior disciplines. The chapter also puts forward potential future lines
of research in linguistics and its application to marketing.
Chapter 12
Cultural Frame Switching: Marketing Implications............................................................................ 255
Jaime Noriega, University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign, USA
This chapter discusses a phenomenon referred to as cultural frame switching; a psychological process
experienced by bicultural individuals whereby exposure to a culturally significant cue or stimulus
causes the individual to instinctively process the information through one of two cultural mind frames
– one more closely aligned to the individual’s cultural identity as a member of the dominant culture,
the other more closely aligned to the individual’s identity as a member of an ethnic or immigrant and
usually subordinate culture. As a result of this differential activation, the individual then processes the
information and responds within the cultural mind frame activated by the cue. This chapter will look at:
the antecedents of this phenomenon; the many cues which can activate either cultural identity; existing
research on the subject matter; and the many ways corporate America and Madison Avenue may be
overlooking this research thereby missing a valuable opportunity.
Chapter 13
Codeswitching: An Alternative Approach to Traditional Communication Methods for Reaching
Multilinguals in the Global Marketplace............................................................................................. 275
Melissa M. Bishop, University of New Hampshire, USA
Mark Peterson, University of Wyoming, USA
The purpose of this chapter is to overview the topic of language codeswitching—which refers essentially
to the alternation between two languages in communication by bilinguals. The history of codeswitching,
motivations for codeswitching, and the use of codeswitching in the media and in advertising are discussed.
Further, the appropriateness of using this language style to reach consumers in advertising is also examined
in light of language attitudes and general attitudes toward the practice. Greater understanding of how to
employ bilingual advertising (such as codeswitching) among an increasingly interconnected world still
remains of interest to international and cross-cultural advertisers.
Chapter 14
Foreign Language Display in Advertising from a Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic
Perspective: A Review and Research Agenda...................................................................................... 298

Jos Hornikx, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Frank van Meurs, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
When targeting consumers on a global scale, companies make strategic use of languages in their advertising
campaigns. This chapter presents an overview of theories and research regarding the effectiveness of the
use of foreign languages (foreign language display, FLD) in advertising. The aim is to bring together
theories and empirical studies from various domains, and to show principled explanations for the
effectiveness of FLD from two perspectives. The first, psycholinguistic perspective examines the way in
which foreign languages in advertising are mentally processed; the second, sociolinguistic perspective
links the foreign language use to characteristics of the country where the foreign language is typically
spoken. This chapter presents empirical evidence for the benefits and drawbacks of FLD, and identifies
areas for further research.
Chapter 15
The Moderating Role of Language on Perceived Risk and Information-Processing Online............... 319
The present study analyzes whether the cultural values associated with a given language affect perceived
risk online and information-processing by website users. We propose an information-processing model
for the online context in which perceived risk online is an antecedent and consumer loyalty towards
the service is the ultimate outcome. We chose a processing language (Spanish vs. English) between-
subjects experimental design. The final sample comprised 227 individuals, 52% of whom browsed the
site in their mother tongue, and 48% in a second language. The results demonstrated that the cultural
dimension ‘uncertainty avoidance’ moderates the effect of perceived risk on perceived ease of use and
usefulness. Attitude towards the website is influenced by perceived ease of use or perceived usefulness,
depending on whether the language used to process the information on the site conveys cultural values
with a shorter or longer-term orientation.
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 346
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 353

xv
Foreword
One of the most important forces of social and economic change today is the increasing interconnection
and interdependence of people and organizations located in different countries. People however often
disagree on whether we are experiencing too much or too little globalization.
Many believe that globalization threatens their way of life or that it creates a world with few winners
and many losers, and that therefore countries should fight against it. Others argue instead that countries
should find ways to accelerate their links to global trading networks, because the new markets offer great
opportunities and because trade barriers hurt producers in poor countries.
Whatever their position, people are rarely indifferent to globalization. From an academic point of
view, globalization is interesting because it often requires consumers to make difficult trade-offs and to
hold potentially conflicting beliefs. To make an example, can one at the same time enjoy foreign-made
goods and believe that it is important to support local producers?
It is my belief that many tensions associated with globalization stem from two opposing trends. Both
of these trends relate to how globalization is impacting diversity. Luckily, both of these trends feature
prominently across the chapters of this book.
First, globalization leads to a decrease in diversity between countries. Whereas few decades ago, people
in different regions lived very different lives, we can now observe a remarkable cultural convergence.
For example, teenagers today listen to the same music, dress in the same way, and play the same games
regardless of whether they live in New York, Rotterdam, or Beijing. Many people find this decrease in
diversity worrisome because cultural homogenization is leading to the erosions of traditions.
Second, globalization also leads to an increase in diversity within countries. Contemporary societies
are vastly more diverse than they used to be, as can be easily noticed by taking a walk in the center of
Rotterdam or most other major cities. Many people find this increase in diversity worrisome because it
raises questions about old ways of thinking and the role of people in society.
In sum, a paradox of globalization is that it both increases and decreases diversity. On the one hand,
in a sleepy Italian town one can nowadays eat sushi and Indian food. On the other hand, these restaurants
look pretty much the same as those found in similarly sleepy towns in other countries or continents.
These two trends raise important new questions for marketing researchers and this book is an effort to
provide an answer to many of them.
With regard to the decrease in diversity between countries, one of the most visible aspects of glo-
balization is the spread of English as the new lingua franca. The recent growth of English as the global
language has been quite extraordinary and the process is still gathering pace. Due to the process of cul-
tural homogenization that accompanies globalization, messages in English are very common in many
countries that don’t have English as an official language. At the same time, a backlash against “linguistic

Foreword
imperialism” can be detected among many people. Understanding how the global marketplace impacts
linguistic processes is therefore central to the more general endeavor of understanding how globalization
impacts marketing practice and consumer behavior. The insights in this area brought by the authors of
the various chapters of this book dedicated to language issues are thus timely and important.
Second, with regard to increasing diversity within countries, today companies face much more seg-
mented markets than they used to. One of the most obvious research topics in this area is ethnic market-
ing, which is the study of how to effectively target and reach members of ethnic and cultural minorities.
Ethnic minorities are important for companies because of their growing size and spending power. More
generally, understanding the impact of greater cultural diversity on consumption is central to the agenda
of many researchers studying the global marketplace. This book is therefore a welcome addition to the
current body of work in marketing and consumer behavior.
Stefano Puntoni
Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Stefano Puntoni is a professor of marketing at the Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University. He is a former
MSI Young Scholar and the recipient of various grants and awards. Stefano’s research investigates the social and emotional
determinants of consumer behavior, with an emphasis on the consequences of globalization. His work has appeared in lead-
ing journals including Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, International Journal of Research in
Marketing, Management Science, and Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. He currently serves as Area
Editor at the International Journal of Research in Marketing. He holds a PhD in marketing from London Business School.
xvi
xvii
Preface
Culture is one of the most abstract and hardly measurable influencers of human behavior, as suggested by
many authors (Liu, Furrer & Sudharshan, 2001; Voss, Roth & Rosenzweig, 2004). For example, Gefen
and Heart (2006) have demonstrated that the individuals’ culture affects their behavior as consumers.
Cross-cultural research in the sphere of business management and marketing has increased in recent
years due to the globalization of markets (Okazaki, 2004; Zhang, Beatty & Walsh, 2005; Kirkman, Lowe
& Gibson, 2006; Okazaki & Mueller, 2007; Okazaki & Skapa, 2008; Okazaki, Mueller & Taylor, 2010;
Craig & Douglas, 2011; Engelen & Brettel, 2011).
Within this context it is vital to take into account the cultural differences that exist in different markets.
Academic research has shown that although markets are shifting toward globalization, the behavior of
consumers in relation to products or services differs depending on the cultural values of their country
of origin.
Since the 1980s there has been an on-going debate regarding the most suitable approach to the study
and comparison of cultures, the principal perspectives being those of: Hofstede (2001); Hall (1976);
Schwartz (1994); and House, Ganges, Javidan, Dorfman and Gupta (2004) with their GLOBE model
(Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness). Most of this research draws on the
framework proposed by Hofstede (2001), who developed the cultural dimensions: a) power distance –
the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed
unequally; b) uncertainty avoidance – the degree to which a society tolerates uncertainty and risks; c)
individualism/collectivism – the degree to which people in a given society create strong or weak links
with groups; d) masculinity/femininity – the distribution of roles between the genders; and e) long-term/
short-term orientation – in the thinking of individuals from a given culture. His works are unquestion-
ably the most influential scholarly works on national culture (Kirkman et al., 2006; Gong, 2009). For
Sondergaard (1994) the approach proposed by Hofstede (2001), based on measuring cultural differences
between countries overall, constitutes a very large-scale attempt to classify nations in terms of broad
value differences based on a rigorous research design, a systematic data collection, and a coherent
theory to explain national variations. De Mooij (2010, 144-145) explains that in comparative research
the properties of individuals as observed within a country are aggregated and then treated as country-
level variables. To find explanations for phenomena at country level, the aggregate can be correlated to
other country-level variables. This is called between-system or between-country comparison, although
the data are collected from individuals.
Nevertheless, other authors, such as McCoy, Everard and Jones (2005) and McCoy, Galletta and King
(2007), consider Hofstede’s (2001) approach to be extremely limited, since Hofstede’s seminal work is
now several decades old and it is unrealistic to believe that the cultural values have not witnessed any

Preface
changes over the years. In addition, another limitation derives from the assumption implicit in the use
of ‘country scores’ is that the scores of each country reflect the collective culture of all individuals from
that nation. With these premises, McCoy et al. (2005, 2007) advocate the measurement of cultural dif-
ferences at an individual level rather than using a collective approach at country level.
Regardless the approach adopted to examine the differences between countries, at both individual and
aggregate levels, the achievement of a better understanding of the extent to which these cultural differences
affect the consumer behaviour (online and offline) is extremely relevant for managers and marketers.
The globalized nature of markets – due in part to the development of information and communica-
tions technologies (ICT) and the Internet in particular – has increased the importance of national cultural
values in online consumer behavior (Zahed, Van Pelt & Song, 2001). By definition, the potential users
of any website are international and intercultural. Within this context, it is vital to take into account
the cultural differences that exist among Internet users, and the extent to which these differences may
affect user behavior (Chau, Cole, Massey, Montoya & O’Keefe, 2002; Li, Hess, McNab & Yu, 2009).
Cultural differences may help to explain why certain online marketing strategies are successful in some
countries yet less so in others (Jin, Park & Kim, 2008). Several studies undertaken in the online context
have demonstrated that some cultural dimensions (uncertainty avoidance and individualism) intervene
in the process of user attitude-formation and in user behavior (Bredillet, Yatim & Ruiz, 2010; De Mooij,
2011; Lim, Leung, Sia & Lee, 2004; Noh, Lee, Kim & Garrison, 2013; Zhao, Kim, Suh & Du, 2007).
Nowadays the crucial role of language in intercultural relations is widely acknowledged, the words
used in a language being ‘symbols’ that work as vehicles for cultural transfer (Hofstede, 2001). Tavassoli
(2002) and Puntoni, Langhe, Stijn and Van Osselaer (2009) demonstrated the influence of language on
the effectiveness of marketing communication and pointed out that, depending on the language in which
subjects process information, consumer behavior may vary.
The field of psycholinguistics has studied how consumers use information processing and its effect on
memory, perception and attitude (Lowrey, 2002; Luna, Peracchio & De Juan, 2005; Luna & Peracchio,
2007; Noriega & Blair, 2008; Wyer, 2002). The literature shows that the way in which a person processes
information is conditioned by cultural values – both those of the individual and those associated with
the language concerned – and is thus flexible (Singh, 2002). Hence, a bilingual consumer can exhibit
styles of information-processing that are similar to those of native consumers (Tavassoli, 2002; Puntoni
et al., 2009). Furthermore, recent research has demonstrated that language is associated with cultural
frameworks, such that communicating in a given language can increase cognitive access to the cultural
values associated with that language (Luna, Ringberg & Peracchio, 2008; Marian & Kaushanskaya,
2004; Ross, Xun & Wilson, 2002; Wong & Hong, 2005). This opens up the possibility of communicat-
ing different cultural values via communications campaigns by deliberately using different languages.
Accordingly, this book provides a new approach to cross-cultural research by analyzing not only the
cross-cultural differences between consumers but also the capacity of the language – as a vehicle for
cultural values, to influence consumer behavior. In the globalized context of the economy, this research
will be of particular interest to business managers and marketers, as it demonstrates that cultural can be
used as an additional tool in their strategies.
This book is likely to be of interest both to academics, in the context of undergraduate and post-
graduate teaching, and also to researchers studying issues relating to the role of culture and language in
the area of business management and marketing.
More specifically, the potential audiences are the following:
xviii
Preface
• Those researchers focusing on cross-cultural analyses and/or on the effect of language in the con-
text of business management, marketing, or consumer behavior.
• Academics, including lecturers from disciplines related to this broad topic area, as the content
can be used by teaching staff at both undergraduate and post-graduate level in subjects includ-
ing business management, marketing, consumer behavior, international marketing, and marketing
communications, for example. Furthermore, by covering both online and offline markets, the book
would be of interest to academic staff in disciplines related to website design, website usability,
accessibility, and so on.
• This book will also help undergraduate and post-graduate students to identify new research prob-
lems in the areas it addresses.
• Another significant audience for the book comprises the many professionals working in business
management and marketing in an international context, and those working in website design and
management, with a global perspective. In these latter areas, it is vital that professionals under-
stand how the cultural values and language of users can influence the success or failure of a web-
site or indeed of the products and services it is commercializing.
To achieve the above-mentioned goals, the 15 chapters included in the book are structured into three
sections. The first two sections deal with cross-cultural marketing research adopting a both conceptual
(Section 1) and empirical (Section 2) research approaches. Section 3 focuses on the role of language as
a key factor in managing the cultural diversity in a global marketplace, including theoretical and applied
research perspectives.
Section 1 is divided in six chapters. In the Chapter 1 entitled Effect of Globalization on Multicultural
Consumer Behavior, professors Manrai, L.A. (University of Delaware, USA), Manrai, A.K. (University
of Delaware, USA) and Mady, T.T. (Concordia University, Canada) provide a comprehensive overview
of the current state-of-the-art of cross-cultural and cross-national consumer research, identifying a
dearth of research on multicultural consumer behavior (MCB). On this premise, the authors examine
the mechanisms of multicultural consumer behavior in a globalized economy and develop a conceptual
model capturing the effect of globalization on multiculturalism. Chapter 2 entitled The Globalisation of
the Media: Towards Cultural Homogeneity? by professor Virkar, S. (University of Oxford, UK), examines
in depth the role of global media on culture, critically analyzing the theories claiming that pan-global
commercial broadcasting can forge a global culture and promote a global cultural convergence. The author
highlights pointed out that the globalization of the media, as the general process of globalization itself,
is a phenomenon of many facets and suggests that many positive outcomes derive from the globalization
process, as it allows for diversity and quality through increased competition in global, national, and local
markets. This author concludes that global media also contributes to the production and dissemination
of different cultures to different parts of the world and that cultural convergence is not inevitable, as sug-
gested by the theories of cultural homogeneity. Professor Kijpokin Kasemsap (Suan Sunandha Rajabhat
University, Thailand) addresses in Chapter 3, entitled The Roles of Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Global
Marketing, the most relevant cross-cultural perspectives in global marketing, providing theoretical an
practical insights into the role played by cross-cultural consumer ethnocentrism toward global brand,
country-of-origin perceptions, animosity and trust, the global brand reputation and cross-cultural so-
cial networking services. Meanwhile, Chapter 4, Teenagers’ Socio and Cultural Values: Relation with
Entrepreneurship, by professors Dutshke, G. (Universidade Atlântica, Portugal), García del Junco, J.
(University of Sevilla, Spain), Espansandi Bustelo, F. (Univesity of Sevilla, Spain), Dutschke, M. (ESE
xix
Preface
João de Deus, Portugal), and Palacios Florencio, B. (Universidad Pablo Olavide, Spain) addresses an
exploratory research aims to identify the relations between teenagers’ socio and cultural values and their
want to become entrepreneurs. In concrete, if socio and cultural dimensions identified by Hofstede and
Minkov (2010) are related with the want to become entrepreneur. Professor Codignola, F. (Università
degli studi di Milano-Bicocca, Italy) examines in Chapter 5, entitled The Globalization of the Art Market:
A Cross-Cultural Perspective where Local Features meet Global Circuits, the not-yet-conceptualized
framework of the art market in cross-cultural context. The author specifically identifies divergences and
convergences concerning consumer behavior and art goods in a global economy. The results support the
notion that in the current art market cultural diversity influences consumer attitudes. Finally, Chapter
6 entitled A Framework of Brand Strategy and the “Glocalization” Approach: The Case of Indonesia
and carried out by Japutra, A. (Oxford Brookes University, UK), Nguyen, N. (East China University
of Science and Technology, China) and Melewar, T.C. (Middlesex University, UK) develop a branding
strategy framework to successfully operate in such a culturally diverse market. These researchers focus
their study on the case of Indonesia providing several interesting and very much needed contributions
regarding the challenges that companies face in building a strong international brand. They also propose
a conceptual framework for “glocalization”, consumer-brand relationships and societal marketing that
are prominent in order to build and/or strengthen a brand in a culturally diverse market.
Section 2 is made up of the following four chapters. Chapter 7 entitled The Formation of Usage Inten-
tion of Electric Cars: A Comparative Study of Denmark, Belgium, and Italy is carried out by professors
Barbarossa, C. (Luiss Guido Carli University), De Pelsmacker, P. (University of Antwerp, Belgium),
Beckman, S. (Copenhagen Business School, Denmark), Moons, I. (University of Antwerp, Belgium),
Gwozdz, W. (Copenhagen Business School, Denmark). In this chapter an empirical cross-cultural re-
search has been conducted to assess how the intention to use electric cars is indirectly and directly af-
fected by green self-identity, environmental concern and moral obligation and attitude towards electric
cars. The authors propose a theoretical model and empirically test it in Denmark, Belgium and Italy
using the Hofstede theoretical framework. On the other hand, professors Jiménez, N. and San-Martín,
S. (University of Burgos, Spain) in Chapter 8 entitled A Cross-National Effect of Ethnocentrism on
Purchase Intention provide a better understanding of the role of socio-psychological and cultural fac-
tors (patriotism, cultural openness and collectivism) in the ethnocentrism phenomenon via conducting
a cross-national empirical study to a sample of Spanish and Mexican consumers aiming to analyze their
behavior when evaluating foreign products. The results show that both in Mexico, an emerging market,
and in Spain, a developed market, patriotism and cultural openness are antecedents of ethnocentrism,
however the authors found that collectivism only influences the ethnocentrism of Mexican consumers,
the ethnocentrism negatively affects purchase intention of foreign products only in the case of Spanish
consumers. Another interesting study related to this empirical perspective of cross-cultural marketing
research was carried out by García-Maroto, I. and Muñoz-Leiva, F. (University of Granada, Spain).
Entitled Adoption of Biomass Heating Systems: Cross-Market Segmentation of the European Region
this Chapter 9 focuses on the adoption of biomass heating systems identifying its main socio-economic
drivers and examining its potential adopters within the European market via applying the theories of
adoption of innovations or new systems. The authors conduct cross-market segmentation of potential
adopters of biomass heating systems in Spain, Germany, UK, France, Norway and Sweden, providing
relevant recommendations for a successful commercialization of this type of heating for end-consumers.
Professors Danbury, A. (University of Bedfordshire, UK), Palazzo, M. (University of Salerno, Italy),
Mortimer, K. (University of Northampton, UK), and Siano, A. (University of Salerno, Italy) in Chapter
xx
Preface
10 entitled Cultural Perspectives on Advertising Perceptions and Brand Trustworthiness explore the
creation of a trustworthy brand identity through advertising by undertaking focus group research in the
UK and Italy to identify the characteristics of print advertisements perceived as portraying a trustworthy
image. The results show that advertisements that are simple, straightforward and clear are perceived as
being more trustworthy, although some differences had been found between national samples in relation
to factors such as color perception and consumer ethnocentrism.
The third section of the book looks at issues related to the role the language plays as a key factor in
managing the cultural diversity in a global Marketplace. This section is divided in the following five chap-
ters. Chapter 11, entitled A Review of Psycho- vs. Socio-Linguistics Theories: An Application to Marketing
Research and authored by Alcántara-Pilar, J. M., Del Barrio-García, S., Crespo-Almendros, E., and Porcu,
L. (Universidad of Granada, Spain), reviewing the most salient socio- and psycholinguistic theories and
their application to the marketing field. On the basis of this conceptual framework, this chapter analyses
Code-switching, Cultural Frame Switching and Foreign Language Display as concepts being broadly
implemented in the previous marketing and consumer behavior literature. The authors also reveal the
future research lines to be undertaken in the discipline of linguistics and their application to marketing.
Professor Noriega, J. (University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA) in Chapter 12 (Cultural Frame
Switching: Marketing Implications) discusses a phenomenon referred to as cultural frame switching; a
psychological process experienced by bicultural individuals whereby exposure to a culturally significant.
This chapter focuses on the antecedents of this phenomenon, the cues which can activate either cultural
identity, or existing research on the subject matter. Chapter 13 entitled Codeswitching: An Alternative
Approach to Traditional Communication Methods for Reaching Multilinguals in the Global Marketplace
whose authors are Bishop, M.M. (University of New Hampshire, USA) and Peterson, M. (University
of Wyoming, USA) addressed about language codeswitching which refers essentially to the alternation
between two languages in communication by bilinguals. The history of codeswitching, motivations for
codeswitching, and the use of codeswitching in the media and in advertising are discussed in this chapter.
Foreign Language Display in Advertising from a Psycholinguistic and Sociolinguistic Perspective: A
Review and Research Agenda is the Chapter 14 carried out by Hornikx, J. and van Meurs, F. (Radboud
University Nijmegen, Netherlands). This chapter clarifies the role of the strategic use of languages in
advertising campaigns adopting both psycolinguistic and sociolinguistic theoretical perspectives. After
presenting the most relevant research on the effectiveness of the foreign language display, the authors
provide empirical evidence for the beneficial effects and drawbacks of FLD. Finally, professors Alcántara-
Pilar, J.M., Del Barrio-García, S., Porcu, L. and Crespo-Almendros, E. (University of Granada, Spain)
in Chapter 15 entitled The Moderating Role of Language on Perceived Risk and Information-Processing
Online analyze whether the cultural values associated with a given language affect the website users’
perceived risk online and information-processing. They propose an information-processing model for
the online context in which perceived risk online is an antecedent and consumer loyalty towards the
service is the ultimate outcome. Researchers found that the cultural dimension ‘uncertainty avoidance’
moderates the effect of perceived risk on perceived ease of use and usefulness, while the influence of
perceived ease of use or usefulness on attitude towards the website depends on whether the language used
to process the information on the site conveys cultural values with a shorter or longer-term orientation.

xxi
Preface

Lucia Porcu
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Acknowledgment
We would like to express our gratitude to the many people who made this book possible providing sup-
port, offering comments and assisting in the editing, proofreading and design.
First, we thank Teodoro Luque and Alberto Castañeda (University of Granada, Spain), Don Schultz
(Medill Northwestern University, USA), Philip J. Kitchen (ESC Rennes School of Business, France)
and T.C. Melewar (Middlesex University Business School, UK), for assisting us as EAB members in
the process of editing.
We are also very grateful to Stefano Puntoni (Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands) for his
support.
We also wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their invaluable collaboration and all the authors
who participated via submitting their manuscripts.
Last but not least important, we would like to thank the IGI Global publisher for enabling us to edit this
book and our editorial contacts, Vince D’Imperio and Hayley Kang, for their advises and help.


Lucia Porcu
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