WELDING ENGINEERING

Dr. Sreekanth Dondapati

Associate Professor, SMEC
VIT, Chennai

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 Classification of Welding Processes
1. Cast-Weld Processes
I. Thermit Welding
II. Electroslag welding
2. Arc and Flame Welding Processes
I. Seam welding Processes
II. Arc Spot Welding
3. Resistance welding Processes
I. Spot welding
II. Seam Welding
III. Zonal Welding
4. Solid State Welding Processes
I. High heat input processes
II. Low heat input processes

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 Welding Processes

1. Cast-welding Processes

Thermit Welding

Electroslag Welding

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 Seam welding Processes
I. Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)
II. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
III. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
IV. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
V. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
VI. Electro Gas Welding (EGW)

Arc Welding (AW)

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 Welding Processes

Seam welding Processes

Carbon Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

(SMAW)

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 Gas Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)

Submerged Arc Welding

(SAW)

Dr. Sreekanth Dondapati

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

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 PHYSICS OF WELDING

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POWER DENSITY

• Heat required for fusion of faying surfaces of components being welded

comes from different sources in different fusion welding processes
• Each type of heat source has capability to supply heat at different energy
densities (kW/mm2).
• Even for a given arc power (arc current I X arc voltage V), different
welding processes provide heat at different energy densities due to the
fact that it is applied over different areas on the surface of base metal in
case of different processes

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Effect of power density

Power density/Energy Density

Heat Generated

Heat input
Effect of energy density and time on
energy input

Heat application Time

Optimum Power Density is required

Fusion Time & Cooling Rate

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 Fundamentals of welding arc, mechanisms of electron
emission

1. A welding arc is an electric discharge that develops primarily due to flow of

current from cathode to anode.

2. Flow of current through the gap between electrode and work piece needs
column of charged particles for having reasonably good electrical
conductivity.

3. These charged particles are generated by various mechanisms such as

thermal emission, field emission and secondary emission etc.

4. Density of charged particles in gap governs the electrical conductivity of

gaseous column.

5. In an electric arc, electrons released from cathode (due to electric field or

thermo-ionic emission) are accelerated towards the anode because of
potential difference between work piece and electrode.

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 Fundamentals of welding arc, mechanisms of electron
emission

6. These high velocity electrons moving from cathode toward anode collide
with gaseous molecules and decompose them into charged particles i.e.
electrons and ions.

7. These charged particles move towards electrode and work piece as per
polarity and form a part of welding current.

8. Ion current becomes only about 1% of electron current as ions become

heavier than the electrons so they move slowly. Eventually electrons
merge into anode.

9. Arc gap between electrode and work piece acts as pure resistance load.

10.Heat generated in a welding arc depends on arc voltage and welding

current.

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 Emission of Free electrons
• Free electrons and charged particles are needed between the electrode
and work for initiating the arc and their maintenance.

• Ease of emitting electrons by a material assessed on the basis of two

parameters work function and ionization potential

Thermo-ionic emission
• Increase in temperature of metal increases the kinetic energy of free
electrons and as it goes beyond certain limit, electrons are ejected from
the metal surface.

Field emission:
• Free electrons are pulled out of the metal surface by developing high
strength electro-magnetic field

• High potential difference (107 V/cm) between the work piece and
electrode is established for the field emission purpose

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 Secondary emission
• High velocity electrons moving from cathode to anode in the arc gap
collide with other gaseous molecules.

• This collision results in decomposition of gaseuous molecules into

atoms and charged particles (electrons and ions).

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 Polarity in arc welding process

Electrons always flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode in
an external circuit.
In arc welding, if the welding electrode is connected with the negative
terminal (DCEN) then electrons will flow from the electrode to the base
metals, or vice versa.

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 Arc Initiation
Touch Start

Field Start
• high strength electric field (107 V) is
applied between electrode and work piece
so that electrons are released from
cathode electro-magnetic field emission

• commonly used in mechanized welding

processes such as plasma arc and GTAW
process where direct contact between
electrode and work piece is not preferred.

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 Maintenance of Arc
For maintaining of the arc two conditions must be fulfilled

(1) Heat dissipation rate from the arc region should be equal to that of heat
generated to maintain the temperature of the arc

(2) Number of electrons produced should be equal to that of electrons lost to

the work piece and surroundings

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 Maintenance of Arc

DC AC

Arc Blow due to Magnetic

field

Current and voltage waveforms in a.c.

welding

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There are two commonly used methods for maintaining the arc in A.C.
welding:
(1) use of low ionization potential elements in coatings flux
(2) use of low power factor power source.

Low Ionization Potential Elements: Titanium Oxide, Potassium Silicate,

Calcium Carbonate

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Low Power Factor

• Power factor is defined as ratio of actual power drawn from the power
source to perform the welding and apparent power drawn into the
welding circuit line

• Usually high power factors preferred (>0.9)

• But to maintain arc stability, low power factors (0.3) are preferred.

setting proper power factor to have current

and voltage out of phase

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Comparison of AC and DC welding power sources

Dr. Sreekanth Dondapati

Characteristics of welding power sources

Arc Welding Power Sources

• Various welding processes require special power sources having Low voltage
and High current power sources (for arc welding) for good weld
• AC (transformers) or DC (generators) – with Constant Current / Constant
Voltage characteristics
• Current rating: 70-400 Amps at 60% to 80% duty cycle

Heat input is the function of Arc Voltage, Arc Current and Travel speed

Arc length is related to Arc Voltage

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 Arc Characteristics

Voltage supplied by electrical generating stations is 240 – 480 V, and open

circuit voltage is 50-80V. Once the arc starts, the working voltage falls down to
10-30V. As arc is the source of welding energy, it’s study is important.

Typical Arc Characteristics as

compared to Ohm’s Law

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 Arc length control

Arc Characteristics for welding copper using GTA welding

Variation of voltage and

current with change in
arc-length

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 Arc length control

Output characteristics for constant-voltage power supply unit

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 Arc Welding Power Source

Power Source Supply

(i) Welding Transformer AC
(ii) Welding Rectifier DC
(iii) Welding Generators AC/DC
(IV) Inverter type welding power source DC

• Welding transformers, rectifiers and DC generators - used in shops

• DC and AC generators - at site where domestic line supply is not
available
• Rectifiers and transformers are usually preferred because of lower
noise, higher efficiency and lower maintenance as compared to
generators

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 Types of Electrodes
Core wire diameters – 0.7 to 10 mm

Deposition rate  welding current
Welding current – 60 Amps to 450 Amps
Vertical and Overhead welding – 5 mm and 170 Amps (max)
• MILD STEEL COATED ELECTRODES
• LOW ALLOY STEEL COATED ELECTRODES
Electrode Coding
E7018‐X 
E Indicates that this is an electrode
70 Indicates how strong this electrode is when welded. Measured in thousands of psi.
1 Indicates in what welding positions it can be used.
8 Indicates the coating, penetration, and current type used.
X Indicates that there are more requirements. 
Welding Positions
1 Flat, Horizontal, Vertical (up), Overhead
2 Flat, Horizontal
4 Flat, Horizontal, Overhead, Vertical (down)

Welding Engineering
 Electrode Coating
• To facilitate the initiation or striking of an arc and to stabilise it so that it can be easily
maintained.
• To provide a gas shield which protects the molten metal droplets from oxygen and
nitrogen in the air as they are transferred through the arc.
• To provide a slag which protects the hot, solidifying metal from oxidation. The
characteristics of the slag (e.g. melting point, surface tension, and viscosity) determine
the shape of the weld bead and the suitability of the electrode for positional welding.
• To supply alloying elements to the weld metal; this means that an inexpensive
rimming steel core wire can be used for many different weld metal compositions.
Class Electrode Coating Penetration Current Type
Exxx0 Cellulose, Sodium  Deep DCEP
Exxx1 Cellulose, Potassium  Deep AC, DCEP
Exxx2 Rutile, Sodium Medium  AC, DCEN
Exxx3 Rutile, Potassium  Light AC, DCEP, DCEN
Exxx4 Rutile, Iron Powder  Medium AC, DCEP, DCEN
Exxx5 Low Hydrogen, Sodium  Medium DCEP
Exxx6 Low Hydrogen, Potassium  Medium AC, DCEP
Exxx7 Iron Powder, Iron Oxide  Medium  AC, DCEN
Exxx8 Low Hydrogen, Iron Powder  Medium AC, DCEP
Exxx9 Iron Oxide, Rutile, Potassium  Medium AC, DCEP, DCEN
Welding Engineering
Types of Coating

Welding Engineering
 Types of Weld Joints

Picture Courtesy: GMAW Handbook,  
The Goodheart and Willcox Co. Inc.

Welding Engineering
Lap Joint T Joint Butt Joint

Corner Joint

Welding Engineering
Picture Courtesy: GMAW Handbook,  
The Goodheart and Willcox Co. Inc.

Welding Engineering
Picture Courtesy: GMAW Handbook,  
The Goodheart and Willcox Co. Inc.

Welding Engineering
Grove and Fillet Welding Positions

For groove welding positions-

•1G – (flat welding position)
•2G – (horizontal welding position)
•3G – (vertical welding position)
•4G – (welding position overhead or overhead)
•5G – (uphill/downhill vertical welding position)
•6G/6GR – (overhead vertical welding position)

For fillet welding positions-

•1F – (flat welding position)
•2F – (horizontal welding position)
•3F – (vertical welding position)
•4F – (welding position overhead or overhead)
3 September 2021
 Weld Symbols

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 Welding Symbols

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 Welding Symbol Parts

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An H-section placed perpendicular on a square plate is to be welded all
around using a fillet weld with a leg length of 8mm by CO2 welding . The
weld is to be made at site. Show a sketch of the weld and its welding symbol

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Two plates are to be welded with a single V butt using SMAW process. A
sealing run is also to be laid which is required to be ground flush. Sketch the
desired weld and its symbol.

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Two plates 30 mm thick are to be joined by partial penetration single V
groove weld using submerged arc welding process, the groove angle is 60°,
the depth of penetration is 10 mm and with no root opening. Sketch the
desired weld and show the welding symbol if the effective throat is to be 13
mm.

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