Measurement of Industrial

Parameters (II)
 Level Measurement
 Most industrial processes use liquids such as water,
chemicals, fuel, and the like, as well as free flowing solids
(powders and granular materials).
 These materials are stored in containers ready for on-demand
use.
 It is, however, imperative to know the levels and remaining
volumes of these materials so that the containers can be
replenished on an as-needed basis to avoid the cost of large
volume storage.

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 Level Measurement
 Dipsticks
 Dipsticks offer a simple means of measuring level approximately.
 The ordinary dipstick consists of a metal bar on which a scale is
etched.
 The bar is fixed at a known position in the liquid-containing vessel.
 A level measurement is made by removing the instrument from
the vessel and reading off how far up the scale the liquid has
wetted.
 As a human operator is required to remove and read the dipstick,
this method can only be used in relatively small and shallow
vessels.

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 Level Measurement

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 Level Measurement
 Simple float with level indicator and angular arm float

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 Level Measurement
 An alternative way of using pulleys

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 Level Measurement
 Ultrasonics can be used for single point or continuous level
measurement of a liquid or a solid.
 This arrangement gives a single-point measurement.

 As soon as liquid fills the gap, ultrasonic waves from the

transmitter reach the receiver.

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 Level Measurement
 This arrangement gives a continuous level measurement.

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 Level Measurement
 Ultrasonic waves from the transmitter are reflected by the
surface of the liquid to the receiver; the time for the waves to
reach the receiver is measured.
 The time delay gives the distance from the transmitter and
receiver to the surface of the liquid, from which the liquid
level can be calculated knowing the velocity of ultrasonic
waves.
 As there is no contact with the liquid, this method can be
used for solids and corrosive and volatile liquids.

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 Level Measurement
 Bubbler devices require a supply of clean air or inert gas

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 Level Measurement
 Gas is forced through a tube whose open end is close to the
bottom of the tank. The specific weight of the gas is
negligible compared to the liquid and can be ignored.
 The pressure required to force the liquid out of the tube is
equal to the pressure at the end of the tube due to the liquid,
which is the depth of the liquid multiplied by the specific
weight of the liquid.
 This method can be used with corrosive liquids as the
material of the tube can be chosen to be corrosion resistant.

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 Level Measurement
 Resistive tapes can be used to measure liquid levels

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 Level Measurement
 Resistive tapes can be used to measure liquid levels
 Resistive element is placed in close proximity to a conductive
strip in an easily compressible nonconductive sheath;
 the pressure of the liquid pushes the resistive element against
the conductive strip, shorting out a length of the resistive
element proportional to the depth of the liquid.
 The sensor can be used in liquids or slurries, it is cheap but is
not rugged or accurate, it is prone to humidity problems, and
measurement accuracy depends on material density.

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 Humidity
 Many industrial processes such as textiles, wood, chemical
processing and the like, are very sensitive to humidity;
 Consequently it is necessary to control the amount of water
vapor present in these processes.

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 Humidity
 Humidity is a measure of the relative amount of water vapor
present in the air or a gas.

 Or

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 Humidity
 The higher the temperature of the air the more water it can
hold, so relative humidity measurement needs knowledge of
the temperature and of the amount of water vapour that the
air will hold at various temperatures.
 Certain substances change their dimensions with change in
humidity. Examples are human hair, animal membranes and
some wood fibres. Note that they are not sensitive to
temperature change.

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 Humidity
 Hair Hygrometer
 Hair extension is a function
of relative humidity.
 A bunch of hair is used for
increased mechanical
strength.
 Recommended for 25% to
95% relative humidity.
 Temperature range: -18 0C
to 70 0C.

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 Humidity
 Animal membranes have a larger elongation compared to hair
but the calibration drift is large.
 Wood has a good extension property particularly if it is cut at
right angles to grain orientation. However, it’s accuracy is
poor.

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 Humidity
 Electrolytic Hygrometer
 Employs an electrolytic cell which consists of a hollow glass
tube with two platinum electrodes spirally wound around the
inside wall.
 The electrodes are covered with a thin, hygroscopic film of
phosphoric pentoxide (P2O5). The sample gas is passed
through the glass tube and the P2O5 film attracts and absorbs
all of the moisture.

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 Humidity
 Electrolytic Hygrometer
 This assembly, called the sensing element, is surrounded by a
protective metal body . The complete assembly is plumbed
into the analyzer’s flow system.

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 Humidity
 Electrolytic Hygrometer
 In operation, the sample gas
enters the cell at a known flow
rate, and the film absorbs all the
moisture molecules present in
that gas flow.
 A DC voltage of approximately
24 volts is applied across the
electrode terminals.
 This causes moisture to
electrolyze in the film.
 Each electrolyzed water
molecule displaces two
electrons from the anode to the
cathode.

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 Humidity
 Electrolytic Hygrometer
 The electrolysis current, which is
measured in microamps, gives the
electrical charge, or Coulombs,
displaced per second.
 Consequently, since the elementary
charge of an electron is known, one
can determine by current
measurement the rate at which
water molecules enter the cell.
 This, combined with the known
total flow rate, of the gas through
the cell, gives a known
concentration of moisture in the
sample gas.

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 pH measurement
 pH is a parameter that quantifies the level of acidity or
alkalinity in a chemical solution.
 It defines the concentration of hydrogen atoms in the
solution in grams/litre and is expressed as:

 where H+ is the hydrogen ion concentration in the solution.

 The value of pH can range from 0, which describes extreme
acidity, to 14, which describes extreme alkalinity. Pure water
has a pH of 7.

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 pH measurement
 pH measurement is required in many process industries, and
especially those involving food and drink production.
 The most universally known method of measuring pH is to
use litmus paper or some similar chemical indicator that
changes colour according to the pH value.
 Unfortunately, this method gives only a very approximate
indication of pH unless used under highly controlled
laboratory conditions.

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 pH measurement
 The pH meter consists of two special electrodes, which are
immersed into the test solution.
 The reference electrode contains a solution of electrolyte
that is allowed to leak very slightly into solution under test.
 This provides an electrical connection between the reference
electrode and the test solution.
 The pH sensitive electrode contains a buffer solution of
known pH.
 The difference in the 2 pHs sets up a potential difference.
 A temperature compensator maintains the working
temperature.

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 pH measurement

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 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conductivity is widely used to analyze gases and gas
mixtures.
 This is because gases differ in their ability to conduct heat.

Gas Thermal conductivity

Air 1
CO2 0.585
CO 0.958
Helium 6.08
Hydrogen 7.35
Nitrogen 1.015
Oxygen 1.007

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 Thermal Conductivity
 The most common
method:
 Two chambers each
containing a wire filament.
 One chamber allows the
sample gas pass through it
while the other is sealed
and contains a reference
gas such as air.

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 Thermal Conductivity
 The bridge is calibrated by
allowing the same gas to
surround the two filament
resistors.
 The resistor R2 is adjusted
to yield a balanced bridge
condition.
 Then the gas in the
measuring chamber is
replaced by the gas under
test. (same T and P)

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 Thermal Conductivity
 If the test gas has
constituents of different
conductivities from the
reference gas, R4 will be
cooled at a different rate.
 Change in R4 causes the
bridge to unbalance.
 Unbalance actuates a meter
which indicates the change
in composition of the gas.

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 Thermal Conductivity
 Analyzing a complex gas:
 Passing the sample through
one chamber.
 Then through an apparatus
which removes one
constituent of the sample and
finally through another
chamber.
 The difference in thermal
conductivities determines the
percentage of the removed
constituent.

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 Further Reading
1. Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation and Process
control by WC Dunn
2. Measurement and Instrumentation Principles by AS Morris
3. A Course in Electronics and Electrical Measurements and
Instrumentation, 13th Edition by JB Gupta

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