Electronics

Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology

and applications that deal with the emission, flow and
control of electrons in vacuum and matter.[1] It uses active
devices to control electron flow by amplification and
rectification, which distinguishes it from classical electrical
engineering which uses passive effects such as resistance,
capacitance and inductance to control current flow.

Electronics has had a major effect on the development of

modern society. The identification of the electron in 1897,
along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube
which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, Surface-mount electronic components
inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age.[2]
This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by
Lee De Forest of the triode, which made electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals
possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950, this field was called "radio technology" because its
principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes.

The term "solid-state electronics" emerged after the first working transistor was invented by William
Shockley, Walter Houser Brattain and John Bardeen at Bell Labs in 1947. The MOSFET (MOS transistor)
was later invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET was the
first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses,
revolutionizing the electronics industry, and playing a central role in the microelectronics revolution and
Digital Revolution. The MOSFET has since become the basic element in most modern electronic
equipment, and is the most widely used electronic device in the world.

Electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunication, and signal processing. The ability
of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information-processing possible. Interconnection
technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging technology, and other varied forms of
communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed electronic components
into a regular working system, called an electronic system; examples are computers or control systems. An
electronic system may be a component of another engineered system or a standalone device. As of 2019
most electronic devices[3] use semiconductor components to perform electron control. Commonly,
electronic devices contain circuitry consisting of active semiconductors supplemented with passive
elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that
involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, integrated circuits,
optoelectronics, and sensors, associated passive electrical components, and interconnection technologies.
The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes
amplification of weak signals possible.

The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid-state electronics.

Contents
Branches of electronics
Electronic devices and components
History of electronic components
Types of circuits
Analog circuits
Digital circuits
Heat dissipation and thermal management
Noise
Electronics theory
Electronics lab
Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Packaging methods
Electronic systems design
Mounting options
Electronics industry
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Branches of electronics
Electronics has branches as follows:

1. Digital electronics
2. Analogue electronics
3. Microelectronics
4. Circuit design
5. Integrated circuits
6. Power electronics
7. Optoelectronics
8. Semiconductor devices
9. Embedded systems
10. Audio electronics
11. Telecommunications
12. Nanoelectronics
13. Bioelectronics

Electronic devices and components

An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the electrons or their
associated fields in a manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Components
are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB),
to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for
example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components
may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated
circuits. Some common electronic components are capacitors,
inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often
categorized as active (e.g. transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g.
resistors, diodes, inductors and capacitors).[4]

History of electronic components

Vacuum tubes (Thermionic valves) were among the earliest One of the earliest Audion radio
receivers, constructed by De Forest
electronic components.[5] They were almost solely responsible for
in 1914.
the electronics revolution of the first half of the twentieth
century.[6][7] They allowed for vastly more complicated systems
and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long-distance
telephony and much more. They played a leading role in the field
of microwave and high power transmission as well as television
receivers until the middle of the 1980s.[8] Since that time, solid-
state devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are
still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF
amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar
amplifiers and some microwave devices.

The first working point-contact transistor was invented by John Electronics Technician performing a
Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947.[9] In voltage check on a power circuit card
April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use in the air navigation equipment room
transistor circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be aboard the aircraft carrier USS
the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for the Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72).
commercial market. [10][11] The 608 contained more than 3,000
germanium transistors. Thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future
IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used
for computer logic and peripherals. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that
were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised
applications.[12]

The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in
1959.[13][14][15][16] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and
mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[12] Its advantages include high scalability,[17] affordability,[18]
low power consumption, and high density.[19] It revolutionized the electronics industry,[20][21] becoming
the most widely used electronic device in the world.[15][22] The MOSFET is the basic element in most
modern electronic equipment,[23][24] and has been central to the electronics revolution,[25] the
microelectronics revolution,[26] and the Digital Revolution.[16][27][28] The MOSFET has thus been
credited as the birth of modern electronics,[29][30] and possibly the most important invention in
electronics.[31]

Types of circuits
Circuits and components can be divided into two groups: analog and digital. A particular device may
consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types. An important electronic technique in
both analog and digital electronics involves the use of feedback. Among many other things this allows very
linear amplifiers to be made with high gain, and digital circuits such as registers, computers and oscillators.

Analog circuits

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are

constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits.
Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as
opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.

The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge,

especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a
single component, to systems containing thousands of components.

Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many

non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers,
modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum
tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and
oscillators.
Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency
One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These drive chassis
days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor
techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually
called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital.

Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of
both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of
voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier
can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output. In fact, many
digital circuits are actually implemented as variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all
aspects of the real physical world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining
analog behavior.

Digital circuits

Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most
common physical representation of Boolean algebra, and are the basis of all digital computers. To most
engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of
digital circuits. Most digital circuits use a binary system with two voltage levels labeled "0" and "1". Often
logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High".
However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the
logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as he sees fit to facilitate his design.
The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.

Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made.

Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are
constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors are another example.

Building blocks:

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)

Logic gates
 Adders
Flip-flops
Counters
Registers
Multiplexers
Schmitt triggers

Highly integrated devices:

Memory chip
Microprocessors
Microcontrollers
Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)
Field-programmable Analog Arrays (FPAA)
System On Chip (SOC)

Heat dissipation and thermal management

Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long
term reliability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve
greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as
water cooling. These techniques use convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy.

Noise
Electronic noise is defined[32] as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure
its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated
with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be
decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as shot noise
cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties.

Electronics theory
Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also
necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.

Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknown variables such as
the voltage at a certain node or the current through a certain branch of a network. A common analytical tool
for this is the SPICE circuit simulator.

Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic field theory.

Electronics lab
Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the
development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and
detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a
physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards electronics lab simulation
software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice.

Computer-aided Design (CAD)

Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building blocks such
as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits.
Electronic design automation software programs include schematic capture programs and printed circuit
board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD),
EAGLE PCB and Schematic, Mentor (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre
Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad and many others.

Packaging methods
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early
electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct
circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods used. Most modern day electronics
now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing)
Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) –
characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly
have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to the European .

Electronic systems design

Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and
systems, such as mobile phones and computers. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and
development of an electronic system (new product development) to assuring its proper function, service life
and disposal.[33] Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex
electronic devices to satisfy specified requirements of the user.

Mounting options
Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:

Through-hole (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')

Surface mount
Chassis mount
Rack mount
LGA/BGA/PGA socket

Electronics industry
The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics
industry is the semiconductor industry sector,[34] which has annual sales of over $481 billion as of
2018.[35] The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in 2017.[36] The
most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET), with an estimated 13 sextillion MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and
2018.[37] In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony
and Hitachi who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S.
manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.[38]

See also
Outline of electronics
Atomtronics
Audio engineering
Biodegradable electronics
Broadcast engineering
Computer engineering
Consumer electronics
Electronic engineering
Electronics engineering technology
Fuzzy electronics
Index of electronics articles
Marine electronics
Robotics
Semiconductor industry
Silicon
Capacitor

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Further reading
The Art of Electronics ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0

External links
Electronics (https://curlie.org/Science/Technology/Electronics/) at Curlie
http://www.dictionary.com/browse/electronics
Navy 1998 Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series (NEETS) (http://www.phy.davids
on.edu/instrumentation/NEETS.htm)
DOE 1998 Electrical Science, Fundamentals Handbook, 4 vols.
Vol. 1, Basic Electrical Theory, Basic DC Theory (https://www.constructionknowledge.ne
t/public_domain_documents/Div_16_Electrical/Elec_Science_1_DOE_Fundamentals_1
992.pdf)
Vol. 2, DC Circuits, Batteries, Generators, Motors (https://www.constructionknowledge.ne
t/public_domain_documents/Div_16_Electrical/Elec_Science_2_DOE_Fundamentals_1
992.pdf)
Vol. 3, Basic AC Theory, Basic AC Reactive Components, Basic AC Power, Basic AC
Generators (https://www.constructionknowledge.net/public_domain_documents/Div_16_
Electrical/Elec_Science_3_DOE_Fundamentals_1992.pdf)
Vol. 4, AC Motors, Transformers, Test Instruments & Measuring Devices, Electrical
Distribution Systems (https://www.constructionknowledge.net/public_domain_document
s/Div_16_Electrical/Elec_Science_4_DOE_Fundamentals_1992.pdf)

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