Principles of Signal Transmission and Reception

RADAR
The term RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. It is a system
which uses radio waves to detect and to fix the position of targets at a distance.

Principles of Radar
Radar works on the principle of 'radio echoes'. The transmitter in a radar, radiates
the high power electrical pulses into space. When these pulses are incident on
any distant target such as a mountain, ship or aircraft, they get scattered in all
directions. The transmitter antenna receives a part of the scattered energy. This
transmitter antenna also acts as receiving antenna for the receiving pulse. The
pulse travels with the speed of light 3 � 108 ms-1. In other words, these pulses
cover a distance of 300 metres for every micro second. Hence by measuring the
time taken by the pulse to reach the target and back to the transmitter, the range
or distance of the target can be easily determined. To locate the direction of the
target, directional antennas are used.
Transmission
The transmitting system consists of a transmitter and a pulser. The receiving
system consists of a receiver and an indicator. In most of the cases, a single
antenna is used for both transmission and reception and this is achieved with the
use of TR switch (Transmitter Receiver Switch). This switching arrangement is
called as 'duplexer'. This connects the antenna to the transmitter during
transmission and to the receiver during reception. Moreover, this switch isolates
the sensitive receiver from the damaging effects of the high power transmitter.
The transmitter is essentially a high power magnetron oscillator which generates
high power pulses. This transmitter is turned on and off with a periodic pulse from
the pulser. Thus the transmitter generates periodic pulses of very short duration.
These short pulses are fed to the antenna which radiates them into the space. The
antenna is highly directional.

Reception
If the transmitted pulse hits any target, a weak echo signal returns to the same
antenna. But, now the TR switch puts the antenna in contact with the receiver.
This echo signal is amplified and demodulated by the superheat receiver. The
sensitivity of the receiver is very high. The detected output is sent to the
indicator. The indicator is a cathode ray tube. The CRT displays the original
transmitted pulse as well as the detected echo pulse along a horizontal base line.
The synchronising pulse generated by the 'timer' is supplied to both transmitting
and receiving systems. So, the indicator records the transmitted pulse as well as
the returning pulse simultaneously. The returning echo pulse appears slightly
displaced from the transmitted pulse and this displacement is a measure of the
range of the target.

Laser
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based
on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser"
originated as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation".
Principles of Laser
• Absorption of radiation
Absorption of radiation is the process
by which electrons in the ground state
absorbs energy from photons to jump
into the higher energy level. The
electrons orbiting very close to the
nucleus are at the lower energy level
or lower energy state whereas the
electrons orbiting farther away from the nucleus are at the higher energy level.
The electrons in the lower energy level need some extra energy to jump into the
higher energy level. This extra energy is provided from various energy sources
such as heat, electric field, or light.
• Spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission is the process by
which electrons in the excited state
return to the ground state by emitting
photons. The electrons in the excited
state can stay only for a short period.
The time up to which an excited
electron can stay at higher energy state
(E2) is known as the lifetime of excited
electrons. The lifetime of electrons in excited state is 10-8second. In spontaneous
emission, the electrons move naturally or spontaneously from one state (higher
energy state) to another state (lower energy state) so the emission of photons
also occurs naturally. Therefore, we have no control over when an excited
electron is going to lose energy in the form of light.
• Stimulated emission
Stimulated emission is the process by
which incident photon interacts with the
excited electron and forces it to return
to the ground state. In stimulated
emission, the light energy is supplied directly to the excited electron instead of
supplying light energy to the ground state electrons. Unlike the spontaneous
emission, the stimulated emission is not a natural process it is an artificial process.
In spontaneous emission, the electrons in the excited state will remain there until
its lifetime is over. After completing their lifetime, they return to the ground state
by releasing energy in the form of light.

Transmission
The transmitter circuit (Fig. 1)
comprises condenser microphone
transistor amplifier BC548 (T1)
followed by an op-amp stage built
around μA741 (IC1). The gain of the
op-amp can be controlled with the help of 1-mega-ohm potmeter VR1. The AF
output from IC1 is coupled to the base of transistor BD139 (T2), which, in turn,
modulates the laser beam. The transmitter uses 9V power supply. However, the
3-volt laser torch (after removal of its battery) can be directly connected to the
circuit—with the body of the torch connected to the emitter of BD139 and the
spring-loaded lead protruding from inside the torch to circuit ground. The mic is
the audio input. C1 is a coupling capacitor that connects the audio from the mic to
T1. T1 is a transistor that is used to amplify the audio a bit. C2 couples the audio
to IC1 which amplifies it some more. The audio from the IC is then routed to T2
which modulates the power to the LED. This puts the audio onto the light beam.
VR1 is a variable resistor which adjusts the gain of the IC. C3, C4 and R7 are power
filters that remove noise from the power supply. The other resistors Just supply
the right voltage to the various parts

Reception
T3 is a photo sensitive transistor which
receives the laser from the LED
transmitter. The transistor puts out a
signal that is proportional to the light
from the LED. This not only receives the
signal it also demodulates it. C5 couples this audio to T4 and T5 which amplify the
signal. The signal is them coupled through C8 to VR2. VR2 is a volume control for
IC2. IC2 amplifies the signal more and drives the speaker, LS1. To avoid 50Hz hum
noise in the speaker, keep the photo-transistor away from AC light sources such
as bulbs. The reflected sunlight, however, does not cause any problem. But the
sensor should not directly face the sun.