Module MODERN-geometry For 1ST Midterms

Math 158
MODERN GEOMETRY
EUGENE D. GABRIEL, MSE

1
Course Code: Math 158

Descriptive Title: MODERN GEOMETRY Instructor: EUGENE D. GABRIEL, MSE
ILOCOS SUR POLYTECHNIC STATE COLLEGE
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MODULE
OVERVIEW on the MODULES for MODERN GEOMETRY
I. COURSE TITLE: Modern Geometry
II. COURSE OVERVIEW:
Welcome!
Teacher education programs are meant to train you in your subject

specialization and teach you the methodology of teaching. Typical teacher
education degree programs allow you to choose the level of education you wish
to teach.
Teaching is one of those careers that can allow you for a great deal of
specialization. That’s an asset when it comes to designing your ideal career,
but it can also cause a lot of confusion.
This module incorporates the introduction to the theory and applications

of "modern geometry" ~ roughly speaking, geometry that was developed after
Euclid..
As a high school teacher, you often have more leeway for how you teach
a subject. Schools that offer Advanced Placement (AP) courses, which are
college-level, give teachers even more opportunity to engage or challenge
students as they see fit.
This module covers three major areas of non-Euclidean geometry and

their applications: spherical geometry (used in navigation and astronomy),
projective geometry (used in art), and space time geometry (used in the Special
Theory of Relativity). In addition, it treats some of the more useful topics from
Euclidean geometry, focusing on the use of Euclidean motions, and includes a
chapter on conics and the orbits of planets.
To assist you along this line, four modules have been developed to
support deeper understanding along identified topics important for you as a pre-
service teacher. The modules are as follows:
Module 1: The Classical Euclidean Geometry

Module 2: Axiomatic systems and finite geometry
Module 3: The basic ideas on non-Euclidean Geometry
Module 4: Symmetry and isometrics
Module 5: Plane Projective Geometry
Module 6: Fractal and Chaos Geometry
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III. COURSE STUDY GUIDE
:
The key to successfully finish this module lies in your hands. This module
was prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, independently and working
with honesty. As an ISPSCian, doing these will greatly help and prepare you to
become a critical thinker individual. There are activities that would really test
your honesty and being responsible learner. It is more on performance task and
the quality of the outputs that you need to accomplish. The following guides and
house rules to help you further to be on track and to say at the end of the module
“I successfully made it”. This is the essence of diligent, intelligent and
Independent learning.
1. Manage your time well. Create your own study routine. Schedule
properly your reading assignments and your activity accomplishments.
Study how you can manage to do the activities of this module in
consideration of your other modules from your other subjects. Learn also
manage your time to read and understand every part of the module. You
are free to browse and read the different lessons of this module even
prior to doing the tasks in each lesson. However, you need to ensure
that you will not miss any part of the module and you will not miss to
accomplish every activity.
2. Focus your attention. Make sure that you do things one at a time. Read
the material over and over until you are able to get the point of the lesson.
If you did not understand the readings and other tasks, re-read or you
can read other materials found in other resources like the internet or
books. If this will not work engage all possible resources. You may text
your instructor or your other family members to help you. Do not hesitate
to ask your instructor. As a facilitator, I am here to guide and process
your learning experience.
3. Give your best. In the assessment tasks whether formative or
summative, target the highest standards because you are a better
student. You have the knowledge and skills that you need to finish with
quality of your work. Do not settle with low standards, target the highest
standards in doing the activities even the assignment tasks. YOU CAN
DO IT!
4. Submit on time. You will be submitting the accomplished activities in
the modules on before the scheduled time as per announced by your
instructor. Once, I receive your output materials, I will inform you
immediately. Try your best to communicate with your instructor for
possible adjustments of submission of your outputs. Make a follow-up
trough text or any media available.
5. Be patient. I will make sure to give you my feedback on your work to
ensure that you are on the right track. While waiting for my feedback,
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you can continue working on the other activities or read other materials
related to the next lessons. Make sure that you do not miss any important
part in the module.
6. Answer confidently. In answering the activities and assignments you
are expected to do the following:
a. Write neatly and legibly on short bond papers (or encode/type) if you
are sure of your answers. Think before you write/type. If there are
activities that you do not need to write or encode then, do the activity
as directed.
b. Make sure to give your answers completely and concisely. If the
activity asked to research or make term papers/ investigation or
answer in essay form stick to the point. Cite also correctly the
references you use in your work. (do not copy what is in the web
entirely)
7. Work independently and be honest. It is expected that you work on
the activities in this module on your own. Your family members and
friends will support and help you but the activities and assignments must
be done by you. Cheating at any means is not allowed in answering or
doing the activities in this module. As an ISPSCian, you always need to
demonstrate our core values Productivity, Resiliency, Accountability,
Ingenuity, Synergy and Excellence.
8. Motivate yourself. One of the best ways to get motivated to be very
clear about what you want and why are you studying in the first place.
Remember that whatever knowledge or skill you are gaining from this
course will definitely help you in your career and your everyday
encounter with the community. Enjoy what you are doing and everything
else will follow.
9. Contact me. If any part of the module or lesson, you need help or
guidance, do not hesitate to contact me through any form. Remember, if
there is a will there is a way. (email address:
eugenegabriel1978@gmail.com or cp. # 09473109003)
10. Lastly, check your manners. It is good to go back to your manners and
right conduct. Remember that this is not only about your academics but
most important are the values you learn from the activities in the module.
You are living in a moral and ethical way in whatever you do.
Good Luck, Relax and Enjoy!

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MODULE
IV. COURSE STUDY SCHEDULE:
To keep you on track for the best use of the modules, the study schedule
is hereby presented for you to follow:
Week Topic Learning Special Instructions

Activities
Week Read Research more information or
1-3 ➢ Module 1. Information on details regarding the topics.
The Classical the identified Take note of the important
Euclidean topics in module
points and Write in a yellow or
Geometry 1. bond.
1. Types of Answer/Perfor Work on the intended learning
Euclidean m the Intended activity / in-text questions and
Geometry Learning submit to your instructor. Place
2. The five Activity answers in yellow or bond
postulates of paper.
Euclid Answer/resear Work on the research activity
3. Plane and Solid ch /perform then submit to your instructor
Figures research activity on the specified date.
4. Measurements Research activity will be
placed in a yellow paper
Answer the Check if you have answered
Activities the activities accurately. You
must have to get a high score
before proceeding to the next
activity, if not re-read the
activity and have a re-take.
Answer the Answer the assessment / Self
assessment / Check Activity then submit the
Self check soft copy/ photo in the
Activity assigned part in our google
classroom
Week Module 2. Read Research more information or
4-6 Axiomatic Information on details regarding the topics.
systems and the identified Take note of the important
finite geometry topics in module points and Write in your
samples 2 Notebook for subject
Answer/Perfor Work on the intended learning
m the Intended activity / in-text questions and
Learning submit to your instructor. Place
Activity on a yellow paper or bond
paper.
Answer/resear Work on the assignment then
ch /perform the submit to your instructor on the
Assignment specified date. Written

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MODULE
assignments will be placed in a
yellow or bond paper.
Answer all the Check if you have answered
activities the activities accurately. You
classroom
7-9 The basic ideas Information on details regarding the topics.
on non-Euclidean the identified Take note of the important
Geometry topics in module points and Write in your
1. Forerunners 3 Notebook for subject
of Non-Euclidean Answer/Perfor Work on the intended learning
Geometry m the Intended activity / in-text questions and
2. The Learning submit to your instructor. Place
discovery of Non- Activity on a yellow paper or bond
Euclidean paper.
Geometry Answer/resear Work on the assignment then
3. Axiomatic ch /perform the submit to your instructor on the
Basis of Non- Assignment specified date. Written
Euclidean assignments will be placed in a
Geometry yellow or bond paper.
. Answer the Check if you have answered
classroom
10-12 Information on details regarding the topics.
Symmetry and
the identified Take note of the important
isometrics
topics in module points and Write in your
4 Notebook for subject
submit to your instructor. Place
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Learning on a yellow paper or bond
Activity paper.
classroom.
Week Module 5: Read Research more information or

13-15 Information on details regarding the topics.
Plane Projective the identified Take note of the important
Geometry topics in module points and Write in your
1. Parallel Lines Answer/Perfor Work on the intended learning
and The Projection m the Intended activity / in-text questions and
of Infinity Learning submit to your instructor. Place
2. Fundamental Activity on a yellow paper or bond
similarity paper.
3. Projective Answer/resear Work on the assignment then
Invariants ch /perform the submit to your instructor on the
4. Projective Conic Assignment specified date. Written
Sections assignments will be placed in a
5. Pappus’ yellow or bond paper.
theorem: Dual Answer all the Check if you have answered
formulation activities the activities accurately. You
classroom

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Week Module 6: Read Research more information or
16-18 Fractal and Chaos Information on details regarding the topics.
Geometry the identified Take note of the important
topics in module points and Write in your
Learning submit to your instructor. Place
Activity on a yellow paper or bond
paper.
classroom
V. COURSE EVALUATION:
To pass the course, you must:
1. Submit all course requirements to include the following:

a. Answer sheets of the Activities in the module
b. All Outputs in the module
c. Evaluation Activities (checklist or self-test)
2. Pass all examinations:

a. Exams; Quizzes
b. Midterm examination
c. Final examination

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VI. HOW TO USE THIS MODULE?
Welcome!
The Module, “MODERN GEOMETRY”, is a course which

comprises the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for a future
educator. Kindly refer to the FLOWCHART given in the next page for
your guide on how to use the module.
DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS

MODULE. All answers to study guide,
activities, assignments, exercises and tests
should be written on a SEPARATE SHEET.
There are a number of symbols in this module to guide you as you

study:
This tells you to take note of or to remember an important point.
This tells you there is an Intended Learning Activity for you to

accomplish.
This tells you there is an assignment or research activity to be

undertaken.
This tells you there is an Assessment or Self-Test.
This tells you the summary of the module.
This tells you of the study guide for you to work upon.

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FLOWCHART ON HOW TO USE THE MODULE
STEP 1
Obtain module from your instructor and

answer the pre-test
STEP 2
Study and work at the module at your own

(or with a group as the case may be)
STEP 3
After finishing the module, type in the link

provided in the module for assessment /self-
check online
STEP 4
Complete the for assessment /self-check

online STEP 6
If you did not pass the assessment

/self-check online re-study the
module with emphasis on those
Step 5 questions not passed
STEP 6
Submit the assessment /self-check online
If you pass the assessment /self-
check, proceed to the next module
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Modern Geometry (1600 - 2000 AD)
The major Modern Geometers are listed in this chronological timeline.
ReneDescartes (1596-
1650)
in an appendix "La Geometrie" of his 1637 manuscript "Discours
de la method ...", he applied algebra to geometry and created
analytic geometry. A complete modern English translation of this
appendix is available in the book “The Geometry of Rene
Descartes“. Also, the recent book “Descartes's Mathematical
Thought” reconstructs his intellectual career, both mathematical
and philosophical.
Girard Desargues (1591-1661)

invented perspective geometry in his most important work titled
"Rough draft for an essay on the results of taking plane sections
of a cone" (1639). In 1648, he published his famous “Desargues’
Theorem” for two triangles in perspective, which later evolved
into projective geometry.
Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665)

is also recognized as an independent co-creator of analytic
geometry which he first published in his 1636 paper "Ad Locos
Planos et Solidos Isagoge". He also developed a method for
determining maxima, minima and tangents to curved lines
foreshadowing calculus. Descartes first attacked this method, but
later admitted it was correct. The story of his life and work is
described in the book “The Mathematical Career of Pierre de Fermat”.
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

was the co-inventor of modern projective geometry, published
in his "Essay on Conic Sections" (1640). He later wrote "The
Generation of Conic Sections" (1648-1654). He proved many
projective geometry theorems, the earliest including "Pascal's
mystic hexagon" (1639).
Giovanni Saccheri (1667-1733)

was an Italian Jesuit who did important early work on non-Euclidean geometry.
In 1733, the same year he died, Saccheri published his important early work on
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non-euclidean geometry, “Euclides ab Omni Naevo Vindicatus”. Although he
saw it as an attempt to prove the 5th parallel axiom of Euclid. His attempt tried
to find a contradiction to a consequence of the 5th axiom, which he failed to do,
but instead developed many theorems of non-Euclidean geometry. It was 170
years later that the significance of the work realised. However, the discovery of
non-Euclidean geometry by Nikolai Lobachevsky and Janos Bolyai was not due
to this masterpiece by Saccheri, since neither ever heard of him.
Leonhard Euler (1707-

1783)
was extremely prolific in a vast range of subjects, and is the
greatest modern mathematician. He founded mathematical
analysis, and invented mathematical functions, differential
equations, and the calculus of variations. He used them to
transform analytic into differential geometry investigating
surfaces, curvature, and geodesics. Euler, Monge, and Gauss
are considered the three fathers of differential geometry. In classical geometry,
he discovered the “Euler line” of a triangle; and in analytic geometry, the “Euler
angles” of a vector. He also discovered that the "Euler characteristic" (V-E+F)
of a surface triangulation depends only on it’s genus, which was the genesis of
topology. Euler made other breakthrough contributions to many branches of
math. Famous formulas he discovered include “Euler’s formula” (eix = cos x
+ i sin x), “Euler’s identity” (eiπ + 1 = 0), and many formulas with infinite series.
The list of his discoveries goes on and on. A representative selection of his
work (in 8 different fields) is given in the popular book “Euler: The Master of Us
All”. In 1766, Euler became almost totally blind, after which he produced nearly
half of all his work, dictating his papers to assistants. He published over 800
papers and books, and his collected works fill 25,000 pages in 79 volumes. A
large repository of his work is now available online at The Euler Archive.
Gaspard Monge (1746-

1818)
is considered the father of both descriptive geometry in
"Geometrie descriptive" (1799); and differential geometry in
"Application de l'Analyse a la Geometrie" (1800) where he
introduced the concept of lines of curvature on a surface in 3-
space.
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Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752-
1833)
made important contributions to many fields of math: differential
equations, ballistics, celestial mechanics, elliptic functions,
number theory, and (of course) geometry. In 1794 Legendre
published “Elements de Geometrie” which was the leading
elementary text on the topic for around 100 years. In his
"Elements" Legendre greatly rearranged and simplified many of
the propositions from Euclid's "Elements" to create a more effective textbook.
His work replaced Euclid's "Elements" as a textbook in most of Europe and, in
succeeding translations, in the United States, and became the prototype of later
geometry texts, including those being used today. Although he was born into a
wealthy family, in the 1793 French Revolution he lost his capital, and became
dependent on his academic salary. Then in 1824, Legendre refused to vote for
the government's candidate for the French Institute National; and as a result,
his academic pension was stopped. In 1833 he died in poverty.
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-

1855)
invented non-Euclidean geometry prior to the independent work
of Janos Bolyai (1833) and Nikolai Lobachevsky (1829),
although Gauss' work on this topic was unpublished until after
he died. With Euler and Monge, he is considered a founder of
differential geometry. He published "Disquisitiones generales
circa superficies curva" (1828) which contained "Gaussian curvature" and his
famous "Theorema Egregrium" that Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic isometric
invariant of a surface embedded in 3-space. The story of his life and work is
given in the popular book “The Prince of Mathematics: Carl Friedrich Gauss”.
Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792-

1856)
published the first account of non-Euclidean geometry to appear
in print. Instead of trying to prove Euclid’s 5th axiom (about a
unique line through a point that is parallel to another line), he
studied the concept of a geometry in which that axiom may not be
true. He completed his major work Geometriya in 1823, but it was
not published until 1909. In 1829, he published a paper on
hyperbolic geometry, the first paper to appear in print on non-Euclidean
geometry, in a Kazan University journal. But his papers were rejected by the
more prestigious journals. Finally, in 1840, a paper of his was published in
Berlin; and it greatly impressed Gauss. There has been some speculation that
Gauss influenced Lobachevsky’s work, but those claims have been refuted. In
any case, his great mathematical achievements were not recognized in his
lifetime, and he died without a notion of the importance that his work would
achieve.
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Janos Bolyai (1802-
1860)
was a pioneer of non-Euclidean geometry. His father, Farkas,
taught mathematics, and raised his son to be a mathematician.
His father knew Gauss, whom he asked to take Janos as a
student; but Gauss rejected the idea. Around 1820, Janos began
to follow his father’s path to replace Euclid's parallel axiom, but he
gave up this approach within a year, since he was starting to
develop the basic ideas of hyperbolic and absolute geometry. In 1825, he
explained his discoveries to his father, who was clearly disappointed. But by
1831, his father’s opinion had changed, and he encouraged Janos to publish
his work as the Appendix of another work. This Appendix came to the attention
of Gauss, who both praised it, and also claimed that it coincided with his own
thoughts for over 30 years. Janos took this as a severe blow, became irritable
and difficult with others, and his health deteriorated. After this he did little
serious mathematics. Later, in 1848, Janos discovered Lobachevsky’s 1829
work, which greatly upset him. He accused Gauss of spiteful machinations
through the fictitious Lobachevsky. He then gave up any further work on math.
He had never published more than the few pages of the Appendix, but he left
more than 20000 pages of mathematical manuscripts, which are now in a
Hungarian library.
Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788-

1867)
was one of the founders of modern projective geometry. He had
studied under Monge and Carnot, but after school, he joined
Napoleon’s army. In 1812, he was left for dead after a battle with
the Russians, who then imprisoned him for several years. During
this time, he tried to remember his math classes as a distraction
from the hardship, and started to develop the projective properties of conics,
including the pole, polar lines, the principle of duality, and circular points at
infinity. After being freed (1814), he got a teaching job, and finally published
his ideas in “Traite des proprietes projectives des figures” (1822), from which
the term “projective geometry” was coined. He was then in a priority dispute
about the duality principle that lasted until 1829. This pushed Poncelet away
from projective geometry and towards mechanics, which then became his
career. Fifty years later, he incorporated his innovative geometric ideas into his
2-volume treatise on analytic geometry “Applications d'analyse et de
geometrie” (1862, 1864). He had other unpublished manuscripts, which
survived until World War I, when they vanished.
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Hermann Grassmann (1809-1877)
was the creator of vector analysis and the vector interior (dot)
and exterior (cross) products in his books "Theorie der Ebbe
and Flut" studying tides (1840, but 1st published in 1911), and
"Ausdehnungslehre" (1844, revised 1862). In them, he invented
what is now called the n-dimensional exterior algebra in
differential geometry, but it was not recognized or adopted in his
lifetime. Professional mathematicians regarded him as an obscure amateur
(who had never attended a university math lecture), and mostly ignored his
work. He gained some notoriety when Cauchy purportedly plagiarized his
work in 1853 (see the web page Abstract linear spaces for a short account). A
more extensive description of Grassmann's life and work is given in the
interesting book “A History of Vector Analysis”.
Arthur Cayley (1821-1895)

was an amateur mathematician (he was a lawyer by profession)
who unified Euclidean, non-Euclidean, projective, and metrical
geometry. He introduced algebraic invariance, and the abstract
groups of matrices and quaternions which form the foundation for
quantum mechanics.
Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866)

was the next great developer of differential geometry, and
investigated the geometry of "Riemann surfaces" in his PhD
thesis (1851) supervised by Gauss. In later work he also
developed geodesic coordinate systems and curvature tensors
in n-dimensions. An engaging and readable account of
Riemann’s life and work is given in the book “Bernhard Riemann
1826-1866: Turning Points in the Conception of Mathematics”.
Felix Klein (1849-1925)

is best known for his work on the connections between geometry
and group theory. He is best known for his "Erlanger Programm"
(1872) that synthesized geometry as the study of invariants
under groups of transformations, which is now the standard
accepted view. He is also famous for inventing the well-known
"Klein bottle" as an example of a one-sided closed surface.
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David Hilbert (1862-1943)
first worked on invariant theory and proved his famous "Basis
Theorem" (1888). He later did the most influential work in
geometry since Euclid, publishing "Grundlagen der Geometrie"
(1899) which put geometry in a formal axiomatic setting based
on 21 axioms. In his famous Paris speech (1900), he gave a list
of 23 open problems, some in geometry, which provided an
agenda for 20th century mathematics. The story of his life and mathematics are
now in the acclaimed biography “Hilbert”.
Oswald Veblen (1880-1960)

developed "A System of Axioms for Geometry" (1903) as his
doctoral thesis. Continuing work in the foundations of geometry
led to axiom systems of projective geometry, and with John
Young he published the definitive "Projective geometry" in 2
volumes (1910-18). He then worked in topology and differential
geometry, and published "The Foundations of Differential
Geometry" (1933) with his student Henry Whitehead, in which they give the first
definition of a differentiable manifold.
Donald Coxeter (1907-2003)

is regarded as the major synthetic geometer of the 20th century,
and made important contributions to the theory of polytopes, non-
Euclidean geometry, group theory and combinatorics. Coxeter is
noted for the completion of Euclid's work by giving the complete
classification of regular polytopes in n-dimensions using his
"Coxeter groups". He published many important books,
including Regular Polytopes (1947, 1963, 1973) and Introduction to
Geometry (1961, 1989). He was a Professor of Math at Univ. of Toronto from
1936 until his death at the age of 96. When asked about how he achieved a
long life, he replied: "I am never bored". Recently, a biography of his remarkable
life has been published in the interesting book “King of Infinite Space: Donald
Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry”.
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Welcome to MODULE 1:
THE CLASSICAL EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
WHAT IS THE MODULE ALL ABOUT?
This module is designed for you who are enrolled in the course
“Modern Geometry”. This is the first of a series of modules that will help and
assist you become an expert pre-service educator.
YOU WILL STUDY THE FOLLOWING TOPICS IN THIS MODULE:
1. Types of Euclidean Geometry

2. The five postulates of Euclid
3. Plane and Solid Figures
4. Measurements
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Demonstrate understanding about Euclidean geometry;

2. Cite examples of plane and solid figures;
3. Identify the five postulates of Euclid; and
4. Apply Euclidean Geometry in solving problems.
Prepare yourself with the topics in module 1, remember our study guide and
follow our study schedule.
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the

Alexandrian Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook
on geometry: the Elements. Euclid's method consists in assuming a small set
of intuitively appealing axioms, and deducing many other propositions
(theorems) from these. Although many of Euclid's results had been stated by
earlier mathematicians, Euclid was the first to show how these propositions
could fit into a comprehensive deductive and logical system. The Elements
begins with plane geometry, still taught in secondary school as the first
axiomatic system and the first examples of formal proof. It goes on to the solid
geometry of three dimensions.
Much of the Element’s states results of what are now called algebra and
number theory, explained in geometrical language. Euclid The elements are
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mainly a systematization of earlier knowledge of geometry. Its superiority over
earlier treatments was rapidly recognized, with the result that ratios between
the volume of a cone and a cylinder with the same height and base.
Euclidean geometry
➢ Is an example of synthetic geometry, in that it proceeds logically from

axioms describing basic properties of geometric objects such as points
are lines, to propositions about those objects, all without the use of
coordinates to specify those objects.
➢ Euclidean geometry, sometimes called parabolic geometry which is a
geometry that follows a set of propositions that are based on Euclid’s
five postulates.
Euclid's Postulates
1. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points.
2. Any straight-line segment can be extended indefinitely in a straight line.
3. Given any straight-line segment, a circle can be drawn having the
segment as radius and one endpoint as center.
4. All right angles are congruent.
5. If two lines are drawn which intersect a third in such a way that the sum
of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two
lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far
enough. This postulate is equivalent to what is known as the parallel
postulate.
Postulate 5, the so-called Parallel Postulate was the source of much

annoyance, probably even to Euclid, for being so relatively prolix.
Mathematicians have a peculiar sense of aesthetics that values simplicity
arising from simplicity, with the long-complicated proofs, equations and
calculations needed for rigorous certainty done behind the scenes, and to have
such a long sentence amidst such other straightforward, intuitive statements
seems awkward. As a result, many mathematicians over the centuries have
tried to prove the results of the Elements without using the Parallel Postulate,
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but to no avail. However, in the past two centuries, assorted non-Euclidean
geometries have been derived based on using the first four Euclidean
postulates together with various negations of the fifth.
Two types of Euclidean geometry

1. Plane geometry which is two-dimensional Euclidean geometry.
2. Solid geometry, which is three-dimensional Euclidean geometry.
Plane Geometry
➢ Plane geometry is the study of figures on a two-dimensional surface —
that is, on a plane. You can think of the plane as a piece of paper with
no thickness at all. Technically, a plane doesn’t end at the edge of the
paper — it continues forever.
Congruence of triangles
Two triangles are said to be congruent if one can be exactly superimposed
on the other by a rigid motion, and the congruence theorems specify the
conditions under which this can occur. The first such theorem is the side-angle-
side (SAS) theorem: If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are
equal to two sides and the included angle of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent. Following this, there are corresponding angle-side-angle (ASA) and
side-side-side (SSS) theorems.
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The figure illustrates the three basic theorems that triangles are congruent
(of equal shape and size) if: two sides and the included angle are equal (SAS);
two angles and the included side are equal (ASA); or all three sides are equal
(SSS).
The first very useful theorem derived from the axioms is the basic
symmetry property of isosceles triangles—i.e., that two sides of a triangle are
equal if and only if the angles opposite them are equal. Euclid’s proof of this
theorem was once called Pons Asinorum (“Bridge of Asses”), supposedly
because mediocre students could not proceed across it to the farther reaches
of geometry. (For an illustrated exposition of the proof, see Sidebar: The Bridge
of Asses.) The Bridge of Asses opens the way to various theorems on the
congruence of triangles.
The parallel postulate is fundamental for the proof of the theorem that the
sum of the angles of a triangle is always 180 degrees. A simple proof of this
theorem was attributed to the Pythagoreans.
Proof that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees. According to
an ancient theorem, a transversal through two parallel lines (DE and AB in the
figure) forms several equal angles, such as the alternating angles α/α' and β/β',
labeled in the figure. By definition, the three angles α', γ, and β' on the line DE
must sum to 180 degrees. Since α = α' and β = β', the sum of the angles in the
triangle (α, β, and γ) is also 180 degrees.
As applied to geometry, is the correspondence between certain abstract
properties of Geometric figures such as length, area and volume and angular
measure, with numbers of the real number system
Activity 1
Answer the questions completely:
1. Based on the foregoing lesson, discuss about Euclidean Geometry.
2. In not less than 5 sentences tell something about the 5 postulates of
Euclid.
3. Cite and discuss classifications/kinds of plane and solid figures
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MEASUREMENTS
Measurement as applied to geometry, is the correspondence
between certain abstract properties of Geometric figures such as length, area
and volume and angular measure, with numbers of the real number system.
PERIMETER
Definition of Perimeter
Perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the sides of the polygon.

We denote Perimeter by “P”.
Formulas for Perimeter (P) of some polygons
A. The perimeter of a triangle is calculated using the formula:

P = side1 + side2 + side3. the perimeter of a triangle is always
expressed
in the original units.
Example:
Calculate the perimeter of a right triangle with a 9" base and sides
measuring 12" and 15". Be sure to include the units in your answer.
Solution:
P = s1 + s2 + s3
P = 9 + 12 + 15
P = 36 in
1. Triangle → P = a + b + c; where a, b, and c are the lengths of the
sides
2. a.) The perimeter of a quadrilateral is calculated using the formula:
P = s1 + s2 + s3 + s4; where s1, s2, s3 and s4are the lengths of the

sides
the perimeter of any quadrilateral is always expressed in the
original units
Example:
Solve for the perimeter of the quadrilateral below:
15c
10 cm
8 cm
20 cm
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Solution:
P = s1 + s2 + s3 + s4
P = 15cm + 8cm + 20cm + 10cm
P = 53 cm
b.) Perimeter of a rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles, as shown in

The figure below
W
90⁰
The perimeter of a rectangle is calculated using the following formula:
P = 2(length) + 2(width) = 2l + 2w
c.) Perimeter of Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram having four equal sides, as shown in the

figure below.
s s
The perimeter of a rhombus is calculated using the formula:
P = 4s; where s is the measure of a side of a rhombus
Example:
Solve for the perimeter of a rhombus whose side measures 20
inches.
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Solution:
s = 20 in
P = 4s → = 4 (20 in)
P = 80 inches
3. Perimeter of any polygon

To calculate the perimeter of any polygon, just simply add the
measures of the sides and using a single unit of measurement.
Example:
Calculate the perimeter of the polygons below:
15 cm 2 in
6cm
10cm 6in 5in
18cm 5in
15cm 8in
7 in
(a) (b)
Solutions:
a) since the polygon is a pentagon just add measures of the sides
P = 15cm + 10cm + 15cm + 18cm + 6cm

P = 64 cm
b) since the polygon is a hexagon just add measures of the sides
P = 2in + 5in + 8in + 7in + 5in + 6in

P = 33 in
4.) Perimeter of any regular polygon
To calculate the perimeter of any regular polygon, just determine the

number sides to be multiplied by the measure of s side and using s single unit
of measurement.
We denote the formula as P = n(s) where n is the number of sides and

s is the measure of a side.
Example:
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Calculate the perimeter of the regular polygons below:
4 cm
5in
(a) (b)
Solutions:
a. since the polygon is a regular octagon, just simply use the formula P = 8(s)
to calculate the perimeter
s = 5 in
P = 8s → = 8 (5in)
P = 40 inches
b. since the polygon is a regular decagon, just simply use the formula P =
10(s) to calculate the perimeter
s = 4 cm
P = 10(s) → = 10 (4cm)
P = 40 centimeters
AREA
Area refers to the size of region enclosed by the polygon. Area is

measured in square unit. A square unit is a square with one unit in length. The
standard unit for area is square units such as square meters, square
centimeters and etc.
Areas of Squares and Rectangles:
Finding the area of any quadrilaterals requires identifying a base and

an altitude. Any side can be considered as the base (b) of a quadrilateral. Its
altitude or height (h) is a segment from a vertex perpendicular to the base of a
quadrilateral. All altitudes drawn to the same base have equal lengths.
Area of a square:
The area (A) of a square is the square of the length of its side
(s). In symbol, A = s2
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Example:
Calculate the area of the square below:
Solution:
A = s2
6 in A = (6in)2
A = 36 in2
Area of a rectangle:
The area (A) of a rectangle is equal to the product of its base (b)
and height (h). In symbol A = bh
Example:
Calculate the given rectangle below:
Solution:
b = 7 in h = 3 in
3 in A = bh
A = 7 in (3in)
7 in A = 21 in2
Area of parallelograms and triangles
The area of parallelogram is equal to the product of its base

and height. In symbol A = bh
Example:
In the figure below MR = 12 cm and ER = 27 cm, solve for its
area.
Solution:
P M A A = bh
A = (ER) (MR)
A = (12 cm) (27 cm)
A = 324 cm2
E R
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Area of a triangle
The area of a triangle is equal to one half the product of base
and its corresponding height. In symbol A = ½ bh
Example:
In the figure below AC = 16 cm and BD = 9 cm, solve for its area
Solution:
B A = ½ bh
A= ½ (16c) (9cm)
A = ½ (144)
h A = 72 cm2
C
A D
Area of a trapezoid
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral that has exactly one pair of parallel

sides.
A C
B D
In the figure above, BC ║ AD. The altitude of trapezoid ABCD is a

segment perpendicular to the base and has endpoints on the bases of the
trapezoid. The base lengths (b1 and b2) and the length of the altitude (h) are
used to find the area of a trapezoid.
The area of a trapezoid is equal one half the product of the
altitude (h) and the sum of the lengths of the bases. In symbols; A = ½ (b 1 +
b2)
Example:
Find the area of the trapezoid below given AB = 12 in; BC = 16
in and AD = 22 in.
Solution:
b1 A = ½ h (b1 + b2)
B C A = ½ (12in) (16in + 22in)
A= ½ 12in (38in)
h A = ½ (456in2)
A = 228 in2
A b2 D
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Regular polygons
A polygon is called regular if it has equal sides and angles. Thus, a regular
triangle is an equilateral triangle, and a regular quadrilateral is a square. A
general problem since antiquity has been the problem of constructing a regular
n-gon, for different n, with only ruler and compass. For example, Euclid
constructed a regular pentagon by applying the above-mentioned five important
theorems in an ingenious combination.
Techniques, such as bisecting the angles of known constructions, exist for
constructing regular n-gons for many values, but none is known for the general
case. In 1797, following centuries without any progress, Gauss surprised the
mathematical community by discovering a construction for the 17-gon. More
generally, Gauss was able to show that for a prime number p, the regular p-gon
is constructible if and only if p is a “Fermat prime”: p = F(k) = 22k + 1. Because
it is not known in general which F(k) are prime, the construction problem for
regular n-gons is still open.
Three other unsolved construction problems from antiquity were finally
settled in the 19th century by applying tools not available to the Greeks.
Comparatively simple algebraic methods showed that it is not possible to trisect
an angle with ruler and compass or to construct a cube with a volume double
that of a given cube. Showing that it is not possible to square a circle (i.e., to
construct a square equal in area to a given circle by the same means), however,
demanded deeper insights into the nature of the number π. See geometry: The
three classical problems.
Terms associated with a regular polygon
A B
r
O
F C
a
E D
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1. Center (O) → is the center of the circle circumscribed about a

polygon
2. Radius (r) → is the radius of circumscribed circle

It is a segment that joins the center to a vertex of the
inscribed polygon.
3. Apothem → is the distance from the center to a side of a polygon
4. Central Angle → is an angle whose vertex is the center of the

polygon
and whose sides are two consecutive radii. Ex. ∠AOB &
∠BOC
Any regular polygon of n sides can be divided into n non-overlapping

congruent triangles
The area of a regular polygon is equal to one half the product of the
apothem and its Perimeter (P) or in symbols A = ½ aP
Example:
1. A regular pentagon PQRST is inscribed in circle O. Each side of the
pentagon is 24 cm and the radius of the circle 30 cm. Solve for

a. the perimeter
b. the apothem
c. the area of pentagon PQRST
illustration:
P
Q T
O
R a
R S
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Solutions:
a. P = 5s b. apothem = √c2 – b2 c. A = ½ aP
P = 5 (24cm) A = ½ (6 √21 cm)
P = 120 cm = √(30cm)2 – (12cm)2 (120cm)
= √ 900cm2 – 144 cm2 A = ½ 7200 √21 cm2
= √ 756 cm2 A= 360 √21 cm2
= √ 36 x 21 cm
= 6 √21 cm
Activity 2:
A. Solve for the Perimeter of the following: (round off final answers
to two decimal places if decimal)
1. Triangle whose sides are:

a.) a= 7 cm b= 34.894 cm c= 23.083 cm
b.) a= 3 ½ in b= 4 3/7 in c= 2 ¼ in
c.) a= ¾ cm b= 2 1/3 cm c= 5/6 cm
2. Quadrilateral whose sides are:

a= 1 2/7 in b= 4 1/3 in c= 3 ½ in d= 1 2/3 in
a= 3.764 cm b= 34.87 cm c= 7.098 cm d= 5.908 cm
3. Rhombus whose side is:

a.) 3 2/3 in b.) 37.09 cm
4. Rectangle whose length and width are:

a.) l= 10.3 in ; w= 4.535 in
b.) l= 4 1/3 cm ; w = 2 ½ cm
5. Regular decagon whose side is 63.007 cm
B. Solve for the Area of the following: (round off final answers to two
decimal places if decimal)
A.) Rectangle whose base and height are; B.) Square whose side
measures:
1. b= 10.65 in h= 3.403 in 1. 5.56 in
2. b= 5 in h = 7.403 in 2. 5 ¾ cm
3. b= 12 ¼ cm h = 4 ½ cm 3. 10.01 in
4. b= 25 in h= 10.1 in 4. 25 2/9 cm
5. b= 8 1/3 cm h= 15 1/6 cm 5. 125 mm
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Pythagorean Theorem
For a triangle △ABC the Pythagorean Theorem has two parts: (1) if ∠ACB
is a right angle, then a2 + b2 = c2; (2) if a2 + b2 = c2, then ∠ACB is a right angle.
For an arbitrary triangle, the Pythagorean Theorem is generalized to the law of
cosines: a2 + b2 = c2 − 2ab cos (∠ACB). When ∠ACB is 90 degrees, this
reduces to the Pythagorean Theorem because cos (90°) = 0.
Since Euclid, a host of professional and amateur mathematicians (even
U.S. President James Garfield) have found more than 300 distinct proofs of the
Pythagorean Theorem. Despite its antiquity, it remains one of the most
important theorems in mathematics. It enables one to calculate distances or,
more important, to define distances in situations far more general than
elementary geometry. For example, it has been generalized to
multidimensional vector spaces.
Activity 3:
Given triangle EDG with sides e,d and g below, solve for the unknown
side in each item given the measures of the two sides.
1. e= 20 in ; g = 21 in 6. d = 85 in ; g = 13 in E
2. g = 5 cm ; e = 12 cm 7. e = 12 cm ; g = 37 cm
3. e = 9 in ; g = 40 in 8. d = 197 in ; e = 28 in g d
4. d = 25 in ; e = 24 in 9. e = 36 cm ; g = 77 cm
5. g = 15 cm ; d = 17 cm 10. g = 33 in ; e = 56 in D G
e
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Circles
A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance
from a fix point called center. We name a circle by its center.
The circle below is called circle P, symbolized as Q, where point Q

is its center.
D B
Q
S E
T U K
PARTS OF A CIRCLE
Radius → is a segment with one endpoint at the center of the circle and
the other endpoint at any point of the circle. QS and QE are radii
(plural of radius) of circle Q in figure 63.
Chord → is a segment that joins two point on the circle. DB is a chord of
circle Q in figure 56.
Diameter → is any chord that includes or contains the center of the
circle. SE is a diameter of circle Q in figure 63.
The length of a diameter is two times the length of the radius, so that
d = 2r and r = ½ d
Secant → is any ray or line that intersects the circle in two points.
TU, TU and UT are secants of circle Q in figure 63.
Tangent → is any line, ray or segment that intersects the circle at exactly
one point. In figure 63, the tangents of circle Q are EK , KE , EK
and KE .
Thales (flourished 6th century BCE) is generally credited with having

proved that any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle; that is, for any
point C on the semicircle with diameter AB, ∠ACB will always be 90 degrees
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(see Sidebar: Thales’ Rectangle). Another important theorem states that for any
chord AB in a circle, the angle subtended by any point on the same semiarc of
the circle will be invariant. Slightly modified, this means that in a circle, equal
chords determine equal angles, and vice versa.
Thales of Miletus (fl. c. 600 bc) is generally credited with giving the first
proof that for any chord AB in a circle, all of the angles subtended by points
anywhere on the same semiarc of the circle will be equal.
Summarizing the above material, the five most important theorems of plane
Euclidean geometry are: the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees, the
Bridge of Asses, the fundamental theorem of similarity, the Pythagorean
theorem, and the invariance of angles subtended by a chord in a circle. Most of
the more advanced theorems of plane Euclidean geometry are proved with the
help of these theorems.
Solid Geometry
The most important difference between plane and solid Euclidean
geometry is that human beings can look at the plane “from above,” whereas
three-dimensional space cannot be looked at “from outside.” Consequently,
intuitive insights are more difficult to obtain for solid geometry than for plane
geometry.
Some concepts, such as proportions and angles, remain unchanged from

plane to solid geometry. For other familiar concepts, there exist analogies—
most noticeably, volume for area and three-dimensional shapes for two-
dimensional shapes (sphere for circle, tetrahedron for triangle, box for
rectangle). However, the theory of tetrahedra is not nearly as rich as it is for
triangles. Active research in higher-dimensional Euclidean geometry includes
convexity and sphere packings and their applications in cryptology and
crystallography (see crystal: Structure).
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Volume
Area deals with square units, but volume deals with cubic units. A
cubic unit is the space occupied by a 1 unit which is shown below.
The volume of a solid is the number of cubic units contain in it. We use
“V” to denote volume.
1 cubic unit
Example:
Find the volume of a cube whose side is 5 cm.
Since there are 5 layers containing 25

cubes then (5) (25) cubes is equal to 125
cubes in all.
5
cm
Hence; V (cube) = 125 cm3
To find the volume of a prism in general we have V (cube) = side x side

x side and V (rectangular solid) = length x width x height.
V (cube) = s3 = s2 (s) and V (rectangular solid) = l x w x h; where s2 and lw

are the respective areas of the bases of the solids
We can write this volume of a prism as follows; V (prism) = Bh, where B is

the area of the base and h is the height of the prism.
Likewise, if we are interested in finding the volume of a right circular cylinder,

we can also use V = Bh. The bases of the cylinder are circles and
A = πr2, so V (cylinder) = πr2h

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Example:
1. Find the volume of a rectangular solid whose dimensions are 2cm, by

3cm by 2 cm.
Solution:
2cm Since the volume is equal to the

length times width times height;
2 cm wherein the length is 2cm, the width is
3cm and the height is 2cm, then;
2cm 3 cm V = lwh
V = 2cm (3cm) (2cm)
V = 12 cm3
2. Find the volume of a tin can, having a height of 2.5 cm and radius of
1.25 cm.
Solution:
1.25 cm V (cylinder) = πr2h
= 3.14 (1.25 cm)2 (2.5cm)
= 3.14 (1.5625 cm2) (2.5cm)
5 cm V = 12.27 cm3
Another solid that we shall consider here is the pyramid. Pyramid is a solid
whose lateral faces are all triangles and has a polygonal base.
Since a pyramid can be obtained from a prism such as cube then:
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V (cube) = 3 V (pyramid) or
V (pyramid) = V (cube) = Bh
3 3
Example:
Calculate the Volume of the square pyramid below.
6 cm
5 cm
Solution:
s = 5 cm
h = 6 cm
V(pyramid) = Bh
3
= s2h
= (5cm)2 6cm
= (25cm2)6cm
= 150 cm2
Volume of a Cone
A Cone is solid with a vertex and a circular base.
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Since a cone can be obtained from a cylinder then:
V (cylinder) = 3 V (cone) V (cone) = V (right circular cylinder) = πr2h

or
3 3
Example: Calculate the Volume of the cone below.
Solution:
r = 4 cm
8 cm h = 8 cm
4 cm V(cone) = πr2h
3
= 3.14 (4cm)2 8cm
3
V(cone) = 133.97 cm3
Volume of a Sphere
There is another special formula for finding the volume of a sphere.

The volume is how much space takes up the inside of a sphere. The answer
to a volume question is always in cubic units.
Consider the sphere inside the cube. Since, a sphere can be obtained
from a cube and since, the faces of a sphere are four great circles then:
Volume of Sphere= 1/3 of 4 Times the Area of a circle times radius
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V(Sphere) = 1/3 4(πr2) r
V(Sphere) = 4/3 πr3
Example:
What is the volume of a sphere with a radius of 3 cm?
3 cm
Solution:
V(Sphere) = 4/3 πr3

= 4 x 3.14 x 3cm x 3cm x 3cm
3
= 113.04 cm3
Activity 4
Illustrate and solve for what is asked in each problem. Round off
answers to two decimal places.
1. Simon wanted to paint her ugly brown flower box red. Using the
dimensions 24 in, 18in, and 10in respectively, how many square inches
will she have to paint?
2. Dexter’s family room is the shape of a rectangular prism with a volume

of 980 cubic meters. If he decides to knock out the wall and triple the
length of his family room, what will happen to the volume?
3. George and Lita are building a tree house in the shape of a rectangular
prism for their daughter. If the tree house is going to 10 feet tall, 16 feet
wide, and 10.5 feet long how much space will there be inside? How much
space will they have to paint on the outside?
4. A pencil cup is made out of glass. It is 10 inches tall and has a radius of
3 inches. How many square inches of glass were used to make the cup?
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5. A soda can is 8 inches tall and has a radius of 3 inches. How much paper
is needed to make the label? How much room is there inside the can to
hold the content?
6. The surface area of a square pyramid is 110 square meters. The base
length is 10 meters. What is the slant height?
7. Cardo fills a rectangular container measuring 20 centimeters by 16

centimeters by 12.5 centimeters with orange juice. How many liters and
milliliters of orange juice are in the container?
8. The base of a rectangular prism is 72 m2 and height 5.8 m. Find the

volume of the rectangular prism.
9. The diameter of the base of a cylinder is 12 cm and the height is 8 cm.

Find the surface area of the solid cylinder.
10. The surface area of a sphere is 5024 square meters. What is the volume
of the sphere?
Assignment 1
Using Cardboard, cut representations of polygons (triangle, square,

rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, trapezoid, trapezium, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, octagon, nonagon, decagon) and circle.
Choose and construct also one representation of solid figures (cube,

prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone, sphere) using cardboard.
Picture the outputs then submit via online.
In this lesson you were able to demonstrate understanding about

Euclidean geometry and have identified the five postulates of Euclid.
You were able to determine plane and solid figures and applied the concepts
of Euclidean Geometry in solving problems.
Assessment / Self check 1:
I. Identify the following:
__________1. a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular

__________2. It is the sum of the lengths of the sides of a polygon
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__________3. a part of a circle between points
__________4. an angle whose vertex is the center of a circle and whose
sides are two consecutive radii
__________5. it is the number of square units contained in the interior of a
polygon
__________6. a segment from any vertex that is perpendicular to the base of
a quadrilateral
__________7. it is the distance around the circle
__________8. a segment that joins the center of a circle to a vertex of the
circumscribed polygon
__________9. two or more circles having the same center
_________10. a prism whose bases are regular hexagon
_________11. a segment joining two points on the circle
_________12. a solid with a vertex and a base
_________13. a rectangle whose sides are equal
_________14. the intersection of all the faces of a pyramid
_________15. a cylinder whose axis is perpendicular to both bases
_________16. it is the longest chord
_________17. a quadrilateral whose sides are equal
_________18. a cone whose axis is not perpendicular to the base
_________19. a segment joining two non-consecutive vertices of a polygon
_________20. the approximate value of pi in four decimal places
II. True or False: Write true if the statement is true otherwise write false.
_____1. The diameter is sometimes twice a radius.
_____2. The measure of an arc is equal to the measure of the central angle.
_____3. Congruent circles have equal radii.
_____4. A cylinder is a polyhedron.
_____5. A parallelogram with one right angle is a rectangle.
_____6. A chord is also a diameter of a circle.
_____7. All prisms are pyramids.
_____8. Circumference is the distance around a polygon.
_____9. Some rectangles are rhombi.
_____10. The measure of the minor arc is greater than the measure of the
central angle.
III. State if each of the given statements is always, sometimes or never true.
_______1. The parallel sides of a rectangle are congruent.
_______2. A rhombus is a rectangle.
_______3. The faces of a pyramid are rectangles.
_______4. Each cone is oblique
_______5. Every cylinder has two polygonal bases.
_______6. The axis of a cylinder is perpendicular to its bases.
_______7. The area of a quadrilateral is the square of the measure of its
side.
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_______8. The measure of the minor arc is less than the measure of the
major arc.
_______9. The altitude of every cone is the segment joining the vertex to the
center of the base.
_______10. Area is the distance around a polygon.
IV. Solve for the Perimeter of the following: (round off final answers to two
decimal places if decimal)
1. Triangle whose sides are:

a.) a= 7 cm b= 34.894 cm c= 23.083 cm
b.) a= 3 ½ in b= 4 3/7 in c= 2 ¼ in
1
c.) a= ¾ cm b= 2 /3 cm c= 5/6 cm
2. Quadrilateral whose sides are:

a= 1 2/7 in b= 4 1/3 in c= 3 ½ in d= 1 2/3 in
a= 3.764 cm b= 34.87 cm c= 7.098 cm d= 5.908 cm
3. Rhombus whose side is:

a.) 3 2/3 in b.) 37.09 cm
4. Rectangle whose length and width are:

a.) l= 10.3 in ; w= 4.535 in
b.) l= 4 1/3 cm ; w = 2 ½ cm
5. Regular decagon whose side is 63.007 cm
V. Solve for the Area of the following: (round off final answers to two decimal
places if decimal)
A.) Rectangle whose base and height are; B.) Square

whose side measures:
1. b= 10.65 in h= 3.403 in 1. 5.56 in
2. b= 5 in h = 7.403 in 2. 5 ¾ cm
3. b= 12 ¼ cm h = 4 ½ cm 3. 10.01 in
4. b= 25 in h= 10.1 in 4. 25 2/9 cm
1
5. b= 8 /3 cm h= 15 1/6 cm 5. 125 mm
VI. Find the Volume of the following. Reduce the answers to the lowest term if
fraction and round off to the nearest hundredths if decimal.
A. A rectangular prism given the length (l), width (w) and height (h).
1. l = 5cm ; w = 3 cm ; h = 8 cm 4. l = 6 2/3 cm ; w = 3 ½ cm ; h = 10 ¼ cm
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2. l =10.5 in ; w = 7.6 cm ; h= 12.22 cm 5. l = 8.6 in ; w = 5.7 in ; h = 4 in
3. l = 5 ¼ in ; w = 3 ½ in ‘ h = 8 ¼ in
B. A cylinder given the radius (r) of the base and height (h)
1. r = 3.5 cm ; h= 8.6 cm 4. r = 2 ½ in ; h = 5 ¼ in
2. r = 8 in ; h = 10 in 5. r = 1.02 cm ; h = 5.5 cm
3. r = 10 1/3 mm ; h = 30 mm
C. A cone given the radius (r) of the base and height (h)
1. r = 6.4 in ; h = 16.5 in 3. r = 3.2 cm ; h = 9.8 cm
2. r = 5 ½ cm ; h = 8 ¼ cm
D. A square pyramid given the edge (s) of the base and height
1. s= 6 cm ; h = 10 cm 3. s = 12.3 in ; h= 9.2 in
2. s = 3.27 in ; h = 5 in 4. s = 9 cm ; h = 12.5 cm
E. A sphere given the radius (r)

1. r = 3 in 2. r = 6.3 cm
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AXIOMATIC SYSTEMS AND FINITE GEOMETRY
1. Axiomatic System
2. Finite Geometry
1. Describe axiomatic system;

2. Differentiate the properties of axiomatic System;
3. Prove the axiomatic system;
4. Identify the concepts of finite geometry;
5. determine the different kinds of finite geometry; and
6. Draw representations of finite geometry.
7.
AXIOMATIC SYSTEM
As we look through a history of the study of axiomatic systems, it is

important to have a slight understanding of what an axiomatic system is and
how it began. An Axiomatic System is a logic structure in which we prove
statements from a set of assumptions. Axiomatic systems consist of four main
parts: undefined terms, defined terms, axioms/postulates (accepted or
unproven statements), and proved statements. Starting with undefined terms
and a list of statements, called axioms and postulates, one is able to obtain new
theorems by proving statements using only the axioms or postulates and
previously proved theorems. Historically, when axiomatic systems were first
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being studied, distinctions were made between axioms and postulates. The
word postulate was used by Euclid and other early Greek mathematicians to
stand for an assumed truth peculiar to one particular science, while an axiom
was used as an assumption common to all sciences. This difference was
commonly made by early Greek mathematicians. An example of the way these
terms were used is shown in Euclid’s book the Elements where Euclid made
distinctions between postulates and common notions (axioms).
Today, however, both terms are used interchangeably to refer to an assumed

statement.
Undefined terms are included in axiomatic systems from historical

problems that early geometers ran into. Geometers, such as Proclus, Euclid,
and Plato, tried to define most terms in their work. Common examples of these
terms that they attempted to define were point, line, and plane; however, they
quickly ran into problems. While attempting to define these terms, geometers
would frequently run into the problem of needing to define a term with another
term. This process would lead to circular definitions or an infinite chain of terms
and their definitions. An example of Euclid’s use of circular definitions can be
seen in Euclid's definitions of point and line; Euclid defined a point as ‘that
which has no part’ and a line as ‘length without breadth.’ The questions then
arise: What is 'no part'? What is 'length'? What is 'breadth'? From this common
fault that mathematicians ran into, the mathematician, David Hilbert, was
quoted as saying, “we may as well be talking about chairs, coffee tables and
beer mugs.”
An Axiomatic System consists of some undefined terms (primitive

terms) and a list of statements, called axioms or postulates, concerning the
undefined terms. One obtains a mathematical theory by proving new
statements, called theorems, using only the axioms (postulates), logic system,
and previous theorems. Definitions are made in the process in order to be more
concise.
Axiomatic System (Postulate System)
1. Undefined terms/primitive terms

2. Defined terms
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3. Axioms/postulates - accepted unproved statements
4. Theorems - proved statements
Most early Greeks made a distinction between axioms and postulates.

Evidence exists that Euclid made the distinction that an axiom (common notion)
is an assumption common to all sciences and that a postulate is an assumption
peculiar to the particular science being studied. Now in modern times no
distinction is made between the two; an axiom or postulate is an assumed
statement.
Usually, an axiomatic system does not stand alone, but other systems
are also assumed to hold. For example, we will assume:
1. the real number system,

2. some set theory,
3. Aristotelian logic system, and
4. the English language.
We will not develop any of these but use what we need from them.
One of the pitfalls of working with a deductive system is too great a

familiarity with the subject matter of the system. We need to be careful with
what we are assuming to be true and with saying something is obvious while
writing a proof. We need to take extreme care that we do not make an additional
assumption outside the system being studied. A common error in the writing of
proofs in geometry is to base the proof on a picture. A picture may be
misleading, either by not covering all possibilities, or by reflecting our
unconscious bias as to what is correct. It is crucially important in a proof to use
only the axioms and the theorems which have been derived from them and not
depend on any preconceived idea or picture. Pictures should only be used as
an intuitive aid in developing the proof, but each step in the proof should depend
only on the axioms and the theorems with no dependence upon any picture.
Diagrams should be used as an aid, since they are useful in developing
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conceptual understanding, but care must be taken that the diagrams do not
lead to misunderstanding.
Usually not all the axioms are given at the beginning of the development
of an axiomatic system; this allows us to prove very general theorems which
hold for many axiomatic systems. An example from abstract algebra is: group
theory → ring theory → field theory. A second example is a parallel postulate is
often not introduced early in studies of Euclidean geometry, so the theorems
developed will hold for both Euclidean and hyperbolic geometry (called a
neutral geometry).
Certain terms are left undefined to prevent circular definitions, and the
axioms are stated to give properties to the undefined terms. Undefined terms
are of two types: terms that imply objects, called elements, and terms that imply
relationships between objects, called relations. Examples of undefined terms
(primitive terms) in geometry are point, line, plane, on, and between. For these
undefined terms, on and between would indicate some undefined relationship
between undefined objects such as point and line. An example would be: A
point is on a line. Early geometers tried to define these terms:
1. point - Pythagoreans, “a monad having position"
Plato, “the beginning of a line"
Euclid, “that which has no part"
2. line - Proclus, “magnitude in one dimension", “flux of a point"
Euclid, “breadthless length"
Euclid made the attempt to define all of his terms. Now, points are
considered to come before lines, but no effort is made to define them a priori.
Instead, material things are used as illustrations/models to obtain the abstract
idea. The famous mathematician David Hilbert (1862–1943) is quoted as
saying, “we may as well be talking about chairs, coffee tables and beer mugs."
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An axiomatic system is consistent if there is no statement such that both
the statement and its negation are axioms or theorems of the axiomatic system.
Since contradictory axioms or theorems are usually not desired in an axiomatic
system, we will consider consistency to be a necessary condition for an
axiomatic system. An axiomatic system that does not have the property of
consistency has no mathematical value and is generally not of interest.
A model of an axiomatic system is obtained if we can assign meaning

to the undefined terms of the axiomatic system which convert the axioms into
true statements about the assigned concepts. Two types of models are used
concrete models and abstract models. A model is concrete if the meanings
assigned to the undefined terms are objects and relations adapted from the real
world. A model is abstract if the meanings assigned to the undefined terms are
objects and relations adapted from another axiomatic development.
PROPERTIES OF AN AXIOMATIC SYSTEM:
(1.) Consistency is often difficult to prove. One method for showing that an
axiomatic system is consistent is to use a model. When a concrete model has
been exhibited, we say we have established the absolute consistency of the
axiomatic system. Basically, we believe that contradictions in the real world are
impossible. If we exhibit an abstract model where the axioms of the first system
are theorems of the second system, then we say the first axiomatic system is
relatively consistent. Relative consistency is usually the best we can hope for
since concrete models are often difficult or impossible to set up. An axiomatic
system is complete if every statement containing the undefined and defined
terms of the system can be proved valid or invalid. Also, Kurt Gödel (1906–
1978) with his Incompleteness Theorem (published in 1931 in Monatshefte für
Mathematik und Physik) demonstrated that even in elementary parts of
arithmetic there exist propositions which cannot be proved or disproved within
the system.
In an axiomatic system, an axiom is (2.) independent if it is not a theorem

that follows from the other axioms. Independence is not a necessary
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requirement for an axiomatic system; whereas, consistency is necessary. For
example, in high school geometry courses, theorems which are long and
difficult to prove are usually taken as axioms/postulates. Hence in most high
school geometry courses, the axiom sets are usually not independent. In fact,
in this course, though we will be much more rigorous than in a high school
course, we may at times take some theorems as postulates.
Many people throughout history have thought that Euclid's Fifth Postulate
(parallel postulate) was not independent of the other axioms. Many people tried
to prove this axiom but either failed or used faulty reasoning. This problem
eventually led to the development of other geometries, and Euclid's Fifth
Postulate was shown to be independent of the other postulates. We will not be
assuming the parallel postulate at the beginning of our study of Euclidean
geometry; this will allow us to develop many theorems which are valid in some
non-Euclidean geometries.
(3) Models of an axiomatic system are isomorphic if there is a one-to-one

correspondence between their elements that preserves all relations. That is,
the models are abstractly the same; only the notation is different. An axiomatic
system is categorical if every two models of the system are isomorphic.
In a geometry with two undefined primitive terms, the dual of an axiom or

theorem is the statement with the two terms interchanged. For example, the
dual of "A line contains at least two points," is "A point contains at least two
lines." An axiom system in which the dual of any axiom or theorem is also an
axiom or theorem is said to satisfy the (4) principle of duality. Plane projective
geometry, which we will study later in the course, is an example of a geometry
that satisfies the principal of duality.
Example 1. Consider the following axiom set.
Axiom 1. Every ant has at least two paths.

Axiom 2. Every path has at least two ants.
Axiom 3. There exists at least one ant.
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a. What are the undefined terms in this axiom set?
The undefined terms are ant, path, and has. Note
that ant and path are elements, and has is a relation since it indicates
some relationship between ant and path.
b. Prove Theorem 1. There exists at least one path.
Note that Axiom 3 guarantees the existence of an ant, but no axiom
explicitly states that there is a path. We need to prove the theorem to
prove the existence of a path.
Proof. By Axiom 3, there exists an ant. Now since each ant must have
at least two paths by Axiom 1, there exists at least one path. //
c. What is the minimum number of paths? Prove.
The minimum number of paths is two.
Proof. By Axiom 3, there exists an ant, call it A1. Then by Axiom
1, A1 must have two paths call them P1 and P2. Hence, there are at
least two paths.
We form a model that shows it is possible to have exactly two
paths, which demonstrates that the minimum number of paths is two.
By Axiom 2, P1 must have an ant other than A1, call it A2. We form a
model where A1 and A2 both are assigned to P1 and P2, then we have
exactly two paths.
We show the model satisfies all three axioms. Axiom 1 is satisfied,
since A1 and A2 each have both P1 and P2. Axiom 2 is satisfied
since P1 and P2 each have both A1 and A2. Axiom 3 is satisfied, since
we have two ants.//
d. Find two non-isomorphic models.
In the following three non-isomorphic models, the undefined terms of
the axiomatic system are defined with letters to represent ants and sets
of letters to represent paths. In the first model, the order of the letters
for the path is necessary in order to define two distinct paths for the
pair of points. Since the number of ants in each model is different, a
one-to-one correspondence cannot be formed. Hence the models are
non-isomorphic. Also note that each of the three axioms is satisfied for
each model.
An Pat An Path An Path

t h t t
A, AB, A, {A,B},{A,C},{B, A, {A,B}, {B,C}, {C,D},{D,A}, {A,E,C}, {
B BA B, C} B, B,E}
C C,
D,
E
e. In the following three diagram models, let a dot represent an ant and a
segment represent a path. Also note that the three models below
are isomorphic to the corresponding three models above. The
correspondence can be shown by labeling each point.
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f. Additional Important Comments.

Since three of the above models are non-isomorphic, we have
shown the system is not categorical.
The above models have shown the axiomatic system
is consistent. The first three models are abstract models, which shows
that the axiomatic system is relatively consistent. The above picture
models are adapted from the "real-world"; therefore, they are concrete
models. These concrete models for the axiomatic system demonstrate
that the axiomatic system is absolutely consistent.
Since three of the above models are non-isomorphic, not every
statement containing undefined and defined terms for this system can
be proved (from the axioms) valid or invalid. Hence this axiomatic
system is not complete. For example, consider the statement "There
exist at least four ants." This statement cannot be proved valid or
invalid by using only the axioms, since we can produce a model where
the statement is valid and a model where the statement is invalid. In
this example, we are able to show the system is incomplete, which is
much easier to show than completeness.
g. Show the axioms are independent.
We need to produce a model that does not satisfy the axiom we
are showing to be independent but does satisfy the other two axioms.
This demonstrates that the axiom cannot be proved using the other two
axioms, i.e., the axiom cannot be a theorem.
First, we show Axiom 1 is independent. In the following model,
Axiom 2 and Axiom 3 are true, but Axiom 1 is not true. Axiom 1 is not
true since ant A has only one path AB. Axiom 2 is true, since
path AB has two ants A and B. Axiom 3 is true, since there exists an
ant A.
Ant Path
A, B AB
h. Next, we show Axiom 2 is independent. The following model has

Axiom 1 and Axiom 3 true, but Axiom 2 is not true. Axiom 1 is true,
since the ant is the dot with two paths represented by the segments.
Axiom 2 is not true, since each path (segment) has only one ant (dot).
Axiom 3 is true, since there is one ant represented by the dot.
The dot is an ant and segments are paths.

i. Finally, we show Axiom 3 is independent. A model where Axiom 1
and Axiom 2 are true, but Axiom 3 is not true. Consider a model with
no ants and no paths. The model satisfies both Axiom 1 and Axiom 2
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vacuously. But, since there are no ants, Axiom 3 is not true.
j. Important reminder from logic. To understand a statement

being vacuously true, we review a concept from logic. Axiom 1 is
actually a conditional statement that could be stated as "If an ant
exists, then it has at least two paths." With no ants and no paths, both
the antecedent and consequent of the conditional are false. When a
conditional has both a false antecedent and consequent, the
conditional is a true statement. Note a conditional is also a true
statement when the antecedent is false and the consequent is true. In
either case, mathematicians say the statement is vacuously true.
k. Write the dual of this system.
The dual of this axiomatic system is formed by interchanging ant and
path in each axiom.
Dual of Axiom 1. Every path has at least two ants.
Dual of Axiom 2. Every ant has at least two paths.
Dual of Axiom 3. There exists at least one path.
l. How do the system and its dual compare?
Axiom 1 and Axiom 2 are duals of each other. Axiom 3 is the dual of
Theorem 1. Hence the system and its dual are equivalent. Therefore,
this axiomatic system satisfies the principle of duality.
Example 2. Consider the following axiom set.
Axiom 1. Every ant has at least two paths.
Axiom 2. Every path has at least two ants.
Axiom 3. There exist exactly two ants.
Axiom 4. Any two paths have at most one ant in common.
Show this axiom set is not consistent.
By Axiom 3, there are two ants A and B. By Axiom 1, ant A must have
two paths p and q. By Axiom 2, path p must have two ants since by Axiom 3
there are only two ants these two ants must be A and B. Similarly, path q must
have the two ants A and B. Hence, paths p and q both have ants A and B. But
this is a contradiction since by Axiom 4 paths p and q can only have one of the
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two ants A or B in common. Thus, Axiom 4 is not consistent with the other three
axioms; therefore, the axiom set is not consistent. //
Example 3: Consider the following postulates
Postulate 1. There are at least two buildings campus.

Postulate 2. There is exactly one sidewalk between any two buildings.
Postulate 3. Not all the buildings have the same sidewalk between
them.
1. What are the primitive terms in this axiom set?
2. Deduce the following theorems:

Theorem 1. There are at least three buildings on campus.
Theorem 2. There are at least two sidewalks on campus.
3. Show by the use of models that it is possible to have

exactly two sidewalks and three buildings;
at least two sidewalks and four buildings; and,
exactly three sidewalks and three buildings.
4. Is the system complete? Explain.
5. Find two isomorphic models.
6. Demonstrate the independence of the axioms.
Solution:
1. What are the primitive terms in this axiom set?
The undefined terms are building, campus, sidewalk, and between. Note that
building, campus and sidewalk are elements and between is a relation, since
it indicates some relationship between sidewalk and building.
2. Deduce the following theorems:
Theorem 1. There are at least three buildings on campus.
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Proof. By Postulate 1, there are two buildings, call them b1 and b2. Then by
Postulate 2, there is exactly one sidewalk between b1 and b2, call it S12.
Since by Postulate 3 not all buildings have the same sidewalk between them,
there must be another building b3 that does not have S12 between it and b1
or b2. Hence, there are at least three buildings on campus.//
Theorem 2. There are at least two sidewalks on campus.
Proof . By Postulate 1, there are two buildings, call them b1 and b2. Then by
Postulate 2, there is exactly one sidewalk between b1 and b2, call it S12.
Since by Postulate 3 not all buildings have the same sidewalk between them,
there must be another building b3 which does not have S12 between it and b1
or b2. This implies with Postulate 2 that there must be a sidewalk between
either b1 and b3 or b2 and b3 which is not S12.//
3. Show by the use of models that it is possible to have exactly two

sidewalks and three buildings; at least two sidewalks and four
buildings; and, exactly three sidewalks and three buildings.
In each model, the buildings are dots and sidewalks are

segments/curves. Between is defined differently in the third model from the
first two. In the third model between means the segment connecting the dots;
whereas, in the first two models between means the separation of the dots.
Note that all three of the postulates are satisfied for each model.
Postulate 1 is satisfied, since each model has three or more points. Postulate
2 is satisfied, since there is exactly one segment/curve between each pair of
dots. Postulate 3 is satisfied, since each has two pairs of dots that have a
different segment/curve between them.
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4a. Is the system complete? Explain.

The system is not complete, since the models in part (c) are not isomorphic.
b.5 Find two isomorphic models.
. We expand on the third model from part (c).
A, B, C
{A, C}, {A, B}, {B, C}
For the two models, make the following pairings:
U ↔ A, V ↔ B, T ↔ C, 1 ↔ {A, C}, m ↔ {A, B}, n ↔ {B, C}.
6. Demonstrate the independence of the axioms.
A model where Postulate 2 and Postulate 3 are true, but Postulate

1 is not true. Consider a model with one building and no sidewalks. The model
satisfies both Postulate 2 and Postulate 3 vacuously. But Postulate 1 is not
satisfied, since there is only one building and not two as required.
A model where Postulate 1 and Postulate 3 are true, but Postulate 2 is not true.
The dots are buildings and curves are sidewalks, and between is defined as a curve
connecting two dots. Postulate 1 is satisfied, since there are three dots. Postulate 2
is not satisfied, since the left and right-hand dots have two curves connecting them.
Postulate 3 is satisfied, since between was defined as a curve connecting two dots.
a. A model where Postulate 1 and Postulate 2 are true, but Postulate 3 is not true.
Postulate 1 is satisfied, since there are two buildings. Postulate 2 is satisfied, since the two
buildings have exactly one sidewalk between them. Postulate 3 is not satisfied, since all the
buildings have the same sidewalk between them.
buildings sidewalk
A, B AB
Activity 5:
A. Answer the following questions completely:

1. Based on the forgoing lesson, describe axiomatic system.
2. Differentiate and discuss the properties of axiomatic system
3. Write down 5 take-aways learned about axiomatic system
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B. Consider the following axioms and answer the questions below:
Axiom 1. Every point has at least two lines

Axiom 2. Every line has at least two points
Axiom 3. There exists at least one point
1.What are the primitive terms? (2 pts.)
2. Deduce the theorem (2 pts.)
Theorem: there exists at least one line
3. What is minimum number of lines? Prove. (2 pts.)
4. Make three non-isomorphic models using dots and segments (6 pts.)
5. Determine the dual of the system (3 pts.)
C. Consider the following axioms and answer the questions below.
A1. Every hive is a collection of bees.

A2. Any two distinct hives have one and only one bee in common.
A3. Every bee belongs to two and only two hives.
A4. There are exactly four hives.
a. What are the undefined terms in this axiom set? (2 pts)

b. Deduce the following theorems: (9 pts)
T1. There are exactly six bees.
T2. There are exactly three bees in each hive.
T3. For each bee there is exactly one other bee not in the same hive
with it.
c. Find two isomorphic models. (6 pts)
d. Demonstrate the independence of the axioms. (4 pts)
FINITE GEOMETRY
The Euclidean plane has an infinitude of points and lines in it,
and a rich collection of theorems that continues to increase over the years. By
contrast, “miniature” geometries have just a few axioms and theorems and a
finite number of elements. These geometries are finite geometries. These
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geometries provide excellent opportunities for the study of geometries with a
simple structure.
Finite geometry followed the axiomatic systems in the late 1800’s. Finite
geometry was developed while attempting to prove the properties of
consistency, independence, and completeness of an axiomatic system.
Geometers wanted models that fulfilled specific axioms. Often the models found
had finitely many points which contributed to the name of this branch of
geometry.
The first finite geometry was a three dimensional geometry, each plane
contained seven points and seven lines. The modernity of finite geometries is
emphasized by the fact that Gino Fano is credited with being the first person to
explore finite geometries beginning in 1892. He worked primarily in projective
and algebraic geometry. He was born in 1871 in Mantua, Italy. He initially
studied in Turin. Later, he moved to Göttingen and worked with Felix Klein.
Fano served as a professor of mathematics in Turin until he was forced to leave
during World War II. He also taught in Switzerland and the United States. He
died in Verona, Italy in 1952. Even with Fano’s early work, it wasn’t until the
early 1900’s that finite geometry obtained a well-known role in mathematics.
It was not until 1906 that finite projective geometries were studied by
Veblen and Bussey. Since that time, a great many finite geometries have been
or are being studied. Many sets of points and lines that were already familiar
figures in Euclidean geometry were investigated from this new point of view.
Several of the finite geometries are an integral part of projective geometry, and
a knowledge of the finite geometries will help in the study of some of the basic
set of points and lines used in Projective Geometry. It is also find a practical
application in statistics. Considering the relatively short history of finite
geometries, there are still unsolved problems actively being researched by
leading mathematicians today.
A finite geometry is any geometric system that has only a finite number
of points. The familiar Euclidean geometry is not finite, because a Euclidean
line contains infinitely many points. A geometry based on the graphics
displayed on a computer screen, where the pixels are considered to be the
points, would be a finite geometry. While there are many systems that could be
called finite geometries, attention is mostly paid to the
finite projective and affine spaces because of their regularity and simplicity.
Other significant types of finite geometry are finite Möbius or inversive
planes and Laguerre planes, which are examples of a general type called Benz
planes, and their higher-dimensional analogs such as higher finite inversive
geometries.
Finite geometries may be constructed via linear algebra, starting
from vector spaces over a finite field; the affine and projective planes so
constructed are called Galois geometries. Finite geometries can also be
defined purely axiomatically. Most common finite geometries are Galois
geometries, since any finite projective space of dimension three or greater
is isomorphic to a projective space over a finite field (that is, the projectivization
of a vector space over a finite field). However, dimension two has affine and
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projective planes that are not isomorphic to Galois geometries, namely the non-
Desarguesian planes. Similar results hold for other kinds of finite geometries.
Finite affine plane of order 2, containing 4 points and 6 lines. Lines of the
same color are “parallel”.
The first simple finite geometry to be investigated, called a three-point

geometry.
Three-Point Geometry
Axioms for Three-Point Geometry

1. There exist exactly three distinct points in the geometry.
2. Two distinct points are on exactly one line.
3. Not all the points of the geometry are on the same line.
4. Two distinct lines are on at least one point.
Assume that the words point, line and on are undefined terms. In Axiom 4,
the two lines with a point in common are called intersecting lines.
What kinds of figures or models could be drawn to represent the geometry?

How many lines are in the geometry?
While the sets of points and lines in the figure above are such that all
the axioms of the three-point geometry hold, there is still the possibility that
the geometry might have additional lines not shown. This matter is settled by
proving two theorems. First, comparing the wording of Axioms 2 and 4,we
need to determine whether two distinct lines might be on more than one point.
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Theorem 1.1 – Two distinct lines are on exactly one point.
Proof.
By Axiom 4, two distinct lines are on at least one point.
Assume that two lines lie on more than one point. If lines l and m on
points P and Q, then Axiom 2 is contradicted, since P and Q would be
on two lines, l and m.
The exact number of lines in the three-point geometry can now be determined.
Theorem 1.2. The three-point geometry has exactly three lines.
Proof:
From Axiom 2, each pair of points is on exactly one line. Each possible
pair of points is on a distinct line, so the geometry has at least three lines.
Suppose there is a fourth line.
From Axiom 1, there are only the three points in the geometry. This fourth
line must have a point in common with each of the other 3 lines, by theorem
1.1, so that it must also be on two of the three points, which contradicts
Axiom 2.
Therefore, there can be more than three lines in geometry.
While point and line have been used as undefined terms in this first
finite geometry, other words could be substituted to give an equally
meaningful interpretation of the structure.
For example, tree could be substituted for point, and row for line, so
that the postulates would be as follows:
There exist exactly three distinct trees.

Two distinct trees are on exactly one row.
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Not all trees are on the same row.
Two distinct rows have at least one tree in common.
Other interpretations could be found by using pairs of words such as

heads and wires, students and committees, or books and libraries.
In this finite geometry (Three-Point Geometry), it should be evident

from an examination of the axioms and Fig. 1 that such Euclidean concepts
as length of a segment, measure of an angle, and area – in fact all concepts
concerning measurement – no longer apply.
In this geometry, if a triangle is defined as three distinct lines meeting

by pairs in three distinct points, not all collinear, then one and only one
triangle exists.
Another feature is that the concept of parallel lines, defined as two lines
with no points in common, does not apply, since each two lines meet in a
point.
The familiar ideas of congruence also have no meaning in this
geometry.
In order for a configuration of points and lines to be considered a finite

geometry, several properties should be satisfied. These include finiteness,
uniformity, uniqueness, and existence.
The desirable properties are:
1. The number of points is finite.
2. The number of lines is finite.
3. Each line is on the same number s of points,
where s ≥ 2.
4. Each pair of distinct points is on at most one line.
5. Each pair of distinct lines is on at most one point.
6. Not all points are on the same line.
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7.There exists at least one line.
Four-Point Geometry
Axioms;
1. There exist exactly 4 points.
2. Any two distinct points have exactly one line on both of them.
3. Each line is on exactly two points.
Theorem 1. The four-point geometry has exactly six lines.
Theorem 2. Each point of the four-point geometry has exactly 3 lines on

it
The lines meet only where points are indicated, not just where they
appear to cross in the picture.
The concept of planar duality relates the four-point geometry and the
four-line geometry. The plane dual of any valid theorem in one geometry
becomes a theorem in the other, so that it is possible to gain more information
about the new geometry rather easily. Thus, the plane duals of Theorem 1.3
and 1.4 become theorems for the four-point geometry.
A
B
C
D
Theorem 1.5 The four-point geometry has exactly six lines.
Theorem 1.6 Each point of the four-point geometry has exactly three lines on
it.
Lines exist in the four-point geometry that do not have one of the four
points in common, so these lines are parallel.
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For each of the finite geometries so far, one axiom stated the exact
number of points on a line or gave the total number of points or lines for the
geometry. Without this limiting axiom, the set of axioms might have resulted in
a geometry with an infinitude of points and lines. Indeed, most of the axioms for
finite geometries are also axioms in Euclidean geometry. For example, Axioms
2 & 3 for the finite geometry of three points hold in ordinary Euclidean geometry,
and even Axiom 4 holds when the lines are not parallel.
Four-Line Geometry
The following three axioms completely characterize the geometry called four-
line geometry:
1.There exist exactly four lines.
2. Any two distinct lines have exactly one point on both of them.
3. Each point is on exactly two lines.
Draw diagrams of points and lines that will satisfy all three axioms. Determine
the total number of points
B
D
C F
E
1. There exist exactly four lines. AE, BE, CD & AC
2. Any two distinct lines have exactly one point on both of them.
(AE & BE) – E; ( AE & CD) – D; (BE & CD) – F; (CD & AC) – C
(AE & AC) - A; ( BE & AC) – B
3. Each point is on exactly two lines. A, B, C, D, E & F
Theorem 1.3 The four-line geometry has exactly six points.
Proof:
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From Axiom 1, there are six pairs of lines. The number six is obtained as
the combination of four things taken two at a time.
By Axiom 2, each pair of lines has exactly one point on both of them. If
two of these six points are not distinct, that would be a contradiction of Axiom
3.
Also by Axiom 3, no point could exist in the geometry other than those
six on the pairs of lines.
Theorem 1.4 Each line of the four-line geometry has exactly three
points on it.
Proof:
By Axiom 2, each line of the geometry has a point in common with each
of the other three lines, and all three of these distinct points are on the given
line. Suppose there is a fourth point on one line, then by Axiom 3, it must also
be on one of the other lines. But this is impossible because the other three lines
already determine exactly one point with the given line, and by Axiom 2, they
can only determine one. Thus, each line of the geometry has exactly three
points on it.
Activity 6:
Refer to the figure on the right and answer the following:
1. Does each point of the geometry

lie on a line?
2. Do each two points of the
geometry lie on a common line?
3. Which axioms are also true
statements in Euclidean
geometry?
4. How Many triangles exist in the
geometry (all three sides must be
lines of
the geometry?
5. Does the geometry have

examples of parallel lines (lines
with no point in
common)?
6. Draw a representation for this
geometry that is different from
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those shown in the figure on the
right.
7. How many other lines are parallel
to each line?
The four-point geometry and four-line geometry are duals of each

other.
Axioms for Fano’s Geometry
Undefined Terms. Point, line, and incident.

Axiom 1. There exists at least one line.
Axiom 2. Every line has exactly three points incident to it.
Axiom 3. Not all points are incident to the same line.
Axiom 4. There is exactly one line incident with any two distinct points.
Axiom 5. There is at least one-point incident with any two distinct lines.
Here are two isomorphic models for Fano’s Geometry:

In the diagram model on the left, points are defined by the
seven dots and lines by the six straight segments and one
curved segment. Note each line contains exactly three
points.
The second model is illustrated in the table below:
points Lines
A, B, C, ADB, AGE, AFC, BEC,
D, E, F, G BGF, CGD, FDE
Activity 7:
Do as indicated:
1. Verify the models satisfy the axioms. (Since checking every
case for Axioms 4 and 5 would be tedious, check enough cases
to show sufficient understanding.) For Axioms 4 and 5, how
many cases need to be checked to verify each model?
2. Show the two models for Fano’s geometry are isomorphic.
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Fano’s Theorem 1. Two distinct lines intersect in exactly one point.
Proof. Let p and q be any two distinct lines. By Axiom 5, there is a

point A incident to both p and q. Suppose there is a second point B, distinct
from A, incident to both p and q. Then by Axiom 4, p and q are the same line,
but this contradicts that p and q are distinct lines. Thus p and q intersect in
exactly one point A. Therefore, two distinct lines intersect in exactly one
point.//
Fano’s Theorem 2. Fano’s geometry consists of exactly seven points.
Proof. By Axiom 1, there exists a line l. Then by Axiom 2, there exist exactly
three points A, B, C on line l. Now by Axiom 3, there exists a point P not on
line l. Hence we have at least four distinct points A, B, C, and P. By Axiom 4
and since P is not on line l, there are three distinct lines AP, BP, and CP. And
by Axiom 2, each of these lines contains a third point D, E, and F on AP,
BP, and CP, respectively. None of D, E or F can be any of the points A, B,
C, or P; for if this was not true, Axiom 4 would be contradicted. (Write the
details for this argument in Exercise 1.7.) Hence there are at least seven
distinct points A, B, C, D, E, F, and P.
We assert that there are exactly seven distinct points. Suppose there
exists a distinct eighth point Q. Note Q is not on l, since A, B, and C are the
only points on l. By Axioms 4 and 5, lines PQ and l must intersect at a point R.
Since A, B, and C are the only points on l, R must be one of A,
B, or C. Suppose R = A. Since D is on line AP and A = R is on line PQ, we
would have R = A, D, P, and Q collinear which contradicts Axiom 2. The other
cases for B or C are similar. Hence there are exactly seven distinct points.//
Fano’s Theorem 3. Each point in Fano’s geometry is incident with

exactly three lines.
Fano’s Theorem 4. Fano’s geometry consists of exactly seven lines.
Activity 8:
Write the dual for Fano’s axioms. Does Fano’s geometry satisfy the
principle of duality?
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Young’s Geometry
Axioms:
1. There exists at least one line.
2. Every line of the geometry has exactly three points on it.
3. Not all points of the geometry are on the same line.
4. For two distinct points, there exists exactly one line on both of them.
5. If a point does not lie on a given line, then there exists exactly one line
on that point that does not intersect the given line.
Theorems:
1. Prove that Young’s geometry includes at least 9 points.
2. Find the exact number of points in the geometry.
3. Find the exact number of lines in the geometry.
4. Prove that two lines parallel to a third line are parallel to each other
Finite Projective Plane
Axioms:
1. Every two distinct points determine a unique line.
2. Every two distinct lines meet at a unique point.
3. There exist four points, no three of which are on the same line.
4. There exist only finitely many points.
Theorems:
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1. For any two lines of a projective plane, there exists a one-to-one
correspondence between the points on one line and the points on the
other one.
2. All the points of a finite projective plane are on the lines through any
given point.
3. For a finite projective plane, there exists an integer n > 0 such that
(i) every line contains n + 1 points,
(ii) the total number of points in the plane is n 2 + n + 1,
(iii) every point is on n + 1 lines, and
(iv) the total number of lines in the plane is n 2 + n + 1.
(This number n is called the order of the finite projective plane.)
Finite Affine Plane
Axioms:
1. Every two distinct points determine a unique line.
2. Any point not on a line l is on precisely one line missing the line l.
3. There exist four points no three of which are on the same line.
4. There exist only finitely many points.
Definition: If l1 and l2 are lines of an affine plane and l1 = l2 or l1 and l2 do not

meet, we say that they are parallel.
Theorems:
1. If two lines are parallel to a third one, then they are parallel to each
other.
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2. All lines in a finite affine plane have the same number of points, and
all points are on the same number of lines.
3. There exists an integer n > 0 such that:
(i) the total number of points is n2,
(ii) each line is parallel to n lines,
(iii) the total number of lines is n2 + n,
(iv) each line meets n2 other lines,
(v) there are n + 1 parallel classes of lines.
(This number n is called the order of the finite affine plane)
Activity 9:
A. Draw every representation of each axiom in Fano’s Geometry.
B. Make a concrete representation of Four-point Geometry.
Assignment 2:
Conduct a research regarding the application of axiomatic system in real life.
Format:
Tile:
Introduction:
Discussion:
My point of view:
Conclusion
In this lesson you have described an axiomatic system and have

differentiated the properties of axiomatic system. You were able also
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to prove the axiomatic systems. You have Identified the concepts of finite
geometry and determined the different kinds of finite geometry; and have drawn
examples of finite geometry.
Assessment/ Self check 2
I. Identify the following:
1. It consists of some undefined terms (primitive terms) and a list of

statements, called axioms or postulates, concerning the undefined terms
2. a proposition that is accepted as true in order to provide a basis for logical
reasoning
3. it is termed as a common notion
4. a formal series of statements showing that if one thing is true something
else necessarily follows from it
5. according to the Pythagoreans, it is a monad having position
6. according to Euclid, it is breathless length”
7. A condition of an axiomatic system by which there is no statement such
that both the statement and its negation are axioms or theorems of the
axiomatic system
8. a type of model where the meanings assigned to the undefined terms are
objects and relations adapted from the real world.
9. a condition of axiomatic system if the axiom is not a theorem that follows
from the other axioms
10. a condition of models of an axiomatic system where there is a one-to-one
correspondence between their elements that preserves all relations
11. A type of consistency by which abstract objects are exhibited
12. a condition of axiomatic system where every statement containing the
undefined and defined terms of the system can be proved valid or invalid
13. An axiom system in which the dual of any axiom or theorem is also an
axiom or theorem is said to satisfy the _______________.
14. is any geometric system that has only a finite number of points.
15. He was credited with being the first person to explore finite geometries
beginning in 1892.
16. This kind of finite Geometry has exactly three points.
17. This kind of finite geometry has exactly six points.
18. This kind of geometry has exactly six lines.
19. Each point in this finite geometry has exactly three lines on it
20. A kind of geometry that affirms that a line contains infinitely many
points
II. Enumeration
1. Give the four components of an axiomatic system.
2. Give the two kinds of models in an axiomatic system
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3. Name the two components of an undefined terms
4. Determine the two kinds of consistency in an axiomatic system
5. Give the three axioms in the four-line Geometry and give their dual (10
pts.)
III. Consider the following postulate set.
P1. Every herd is a collection of cows.

P2. There exist at least two cows.
P3. For any two cows, there exists one and only one herd
containing both cows.
P4. For any herd, there exists a cow not in the herd.
P5. For any herd and any cow not in the herd, there exists one
and
only one other herd containing the cow and not containing
any
cow that is in the give herd.
a. What are the primitive terms in this axiom set?
b. Deduce the following theorems:

T1. Every cow is contained in at least two herds.
T2. There exist at least four distinct cows.
c. Find two isomorphic models.

d. Demonstrate the independence of the axioms.
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THE BASIC IDEAS ON NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
1. Forerunners of Non-Euclidean Geometry

2. The discovery of Non-Euclidean Geometry
3. Axiomatic Basis of Non-Euclidean Geometry

1. Determine the creation of Non-Euclidean Geometry;
2. Identify the forerunners of Non-Euclidean Geometry;
3. Identify the discoveries of Non-Euclidean Geometry;
4. Compare Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries.
Since the dawn of time, Man has always been concerned to

understand the world he lived in. He observed carefully and accurately the
shapes of nature and felt the need to theorize, and later, to find mathematical
proofs for various empirical elements. If we examine with some attention, in
fact, we have a daily need to use Geometry. When we say something is far
away, we are referring to a length and this is Geometry. When we discuss about
the area of a football field, we use Geometry. If we say that a dress is wide, we
are thinking of volumes, and therefore thinking in Geometry. Geometry
accompanies us all the time. One of the most important books ever written is
probably Euclid’s Elements. Its volumes have provided a model for the rigorous
development of mathematical ideas, which is still used today.
The Euclidean Geometry defines the situations of the plan. However,

when we are dealing with different surfaces, we are faced with the impossibility
of solving problems through the same geometry. Unlike what happens with the
initial four postulates of Euclid, the Fifth Postulate, the famous Parallel
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Postulate, revealed a lack intuitive appeal, and several were the
mathematicians who, throughout history, tried to show it.
Many retreated before the findings that this would be untrue; some had
the courage and determination to make such a falsehood, thus opening new
doors to Geometry. One puts up, then, two questions. Where can be found the
clear concepts of such Geometries? And how important is the knowledge and
study of Geometries, beyond the Euclidean, to a better understanding of the
world around us? The study, now developed, seeks to answer these questions.
Since the primary objective is a response to these earlier questions, this study
is divided into three phases. The first phase focuses on the historical evolution
of Geometry, from its beginnings to the work of the Greek Euclid. In a second
phase, the main precursors of Geometry are presented and, subsequently, the
discoverers of Non-Euclidean Geometries, the Elliptic and Hyperbolic
Geometries themselves, being the most outstanding among all the non-
Euclidean, and even some models of its representations. The third and final
phase is related to the analysis of the presence of Non-Euclidean Geometries
in Art and in the Real, the study of Geometry in Secondary Education and Non-
Euclidean Geometries in Higher Education, ending up with some philosophical
implications that one understands be relevant, given all the controversy
generated around these non-Euclidean theories of Geometry.
The Forerunners of Non-Euclidean Geometries
(The fifth postulate of Euclidean geometry) Several mathematicians

tried to prove the correctness of Euclid‟s 5th Postulate for a long time. Although
they could get close to real conclusions, they failed, as its primary objective was
to prove the Postulate, and not conclude that this could be false (Saccheri,
Legendre, Farkas Bolyai, Gauss). Moreover, even with assurances regarding
their results, the fear of facing the mathematical community, and the shame of
being marginalized by their act of courage, always stopped them from
publishing such findings. As Greenberg said, it is delightfully instructive to
observe the mistakes made by capable people as they struggled with the
strange possibility that they or their culture might not accept their conclusions.
, but it was finally shown to be impossible.
Postulate 5, the Parallel Postulate If a straight line meets two straight

lines, so as to make the two interior angles on the same side of it taken together
less than two right angles, these straight lines, being continuously produced,
shall at length meet on the Alternative, but equivalent, version of the Parallel
Postulate Given a line l and a point P not on l, there is only one-line m containing
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P such that l||m. These alternative versions the most commonly used version,
but there are several others. It is interesting that one of the other equivalent
versions is the statement that “the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°”. We
prove this as a theorem, and the
Alternative version of the Parallel Postulate will be a very important

piece of the proof. They are equivalent because if you started with the “the sum
of angles in triangle is 180°” you could prove the parallel postulate. All theorems
whose proofs rely on the Parallel Postulate, plus the Absolute Geometry
theorems, are what is known as Euclidean Geometry or Flat Geometry. Euclid's
famous treatise, the Elements, was most probably a summary of side on which
are the angles that are less than two right angle what was known about
geometry in his time, rather than being his original work. In it, he sets out five
geometric "postulates", the fifth of which is this: If a straight line falling on two
straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right
angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on
which are the angles less than the two right angles.
Discovery of non-Euclidean geometry
The beginning of the 19th century would finally witness decisive steps
in the creation of non-Euclidean geometry. Circa 1813, Carl Friedrich Gauss
and independently around 1818, the German professor of law Ferdinand Karl
Schweikart had the germinal ideas of non-Euclidean geometry worked out, but
neither published any results. Then, around 1830, the Hungarian
mathematician János Bolyai and the Russian mathematician Nikolai
Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately published treatises on hyperbolic
geometry. Consequently, hyperbolic geometry is called Bolyai-
Lobachevskian geometry, as both mathematicians, independent of each
other, are the basic authors of non-Euclidean geometry. Gauss mentioned to
Bolyai's father, when shown the younger Bolyai's work, that he had developed
such a geometry several years before, though he did not publish. While
Lobachevsky created a non-Euclidean geometry by negating the parallel
postulate, Bolyai worked out a geometry where both the Euclidean and the
hyperbolic geometry are possible depending on a parameter k. Bolyai ends his
work by mentioning that it is not possible to decide through mathematical
reasoning alone if the geometry of the physical universe is Euclidean or non-
Euclidean; this is a task for the physical sciences.
Bernhard Riemann, in a famous lecture in 1854, founded the field of

Riemannian geometry, discussing in particular the ideas now called manifolds,
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Riemannian metric, and curvature. He constructed an infinite family of
geometries which are not Euclidean by giving a formula for a family of
Riemannian metrics on the unit ball in Euclidean space. The simplest of these
is called elliptic geometry and it is considered to be a non-Euclidean geometry
due to its lack of parallel lines. By formulating the geometry in terms of a
curvature tensor, Riemann allowed non-Euclidean geometry to be applied to
higher dimensions.
Axiomatic basis of non-Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry can be axiomatically described in several ways.

Unfortunately, Euclid's original system of five postulates (axioms) is not one of
these as his proofs relied on several unstated assumptions which should also
have been taken as axioms. Hilbert's system consisting of 20 axioms most
closely follows the approach of Euclid and provides the justification for all of
Euclid's proofs. Other systems, using different sets of undefined terms obtain
the same geometry by different paths. In all approaches, however, there is an
axiom which is logically equivalent to Euclid's fifth postulate, the parallel
postulate. Hilbert uses the Playfair axiom form, while Birkhoff, for instance,
uses the axiom which says that:
"there exists a pair of similar but not congruent triangles."
In any of these systems, removal of the one axiom which is equivalent

to the parallel postulate, in whatever form it takes, and leaving all the other
axioms intact, produces absolute geometry. As the first 28 propositions of
Euclid (in The Elements) do not require the use of the parallel postulate or
anything equivalent to it, they are all true statements in absolute geometry.
axiom form, since it is a compound statement (... there exists one and only one
...), can be done in two ways. Either there will exist more than one line through
the point parallel to the given line or there will exist no lines through the point
parallel to the given line. In the first case, replacing the parallel postulate (or its
equivalent) with the statement "In a plane, given a point P and a line ℓ not
passing through P, there exist two lines through P which do not meet ℓ" and
keeping all the other axioms, yields hyperbolic geometry. The second case is
not dealt with as easily. Simply replacing the parallel postulate with the
statement, "In a plane, given a point P and a line ℓ not passing through P, all
the lines through P meet ℓ", does not give a consistent set of axioms. This
follows since parallel lines exist in absolute geometry, but this statement says
that there are no parallel lines. This problem was known (in a different guise) to
Khayyam, Saccheri and Lambert and was the basis for their rejecting what
was known as the "obtuse angle case". In order to obtain a consistent set of
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axioms which includes this axiom about having no parallel lines, some of the
other axioms must be tweaked. The adjustments to be made depend upon the
axiom system being used. Among others these tweaks will have the effect of
modifying Euclid's second postulate from the statement that line segments can
be extended indefinitely to the statement that lines are unbounded. Riemann's
elliptic geometry emerges as the most natural geometry satisfying this axiom.
To obtain a non-Euclidean geometry, the parallel postulate (or its

equivalent) must be replaced by its negation. Negating the Playfair's axiom
form, since it is a compound statement (..there exists one and only one ...), can
be done in two ways. Either there will exist more than one line through the point
parallel to the given line or there will exist no lines through the point parallel to
the given line. In the first case, replacing the parallel postulate (or its equivalent)
with the statement "In a plane, given a point P and a line ℓ not passing through
P, there exist two lines through P which do not meet ℓ" and keeping all the other
axioms, yields hyperbolic geometry. The second case is not dealt with as easily.
Simply replacing the parallel postulate with the statement, "In a plane, given a
point P and a line ℓ not passing through P, all the lines through P meet ℓ", does
not give a consistent set of axioms. This follows since parallel lines exist in
absolute geometry, but this statement says that there are no parallel lines. This
problem was known (in a different guise) to Khayyam, Saccheri and Lambert
and was the basis for their rejecting what was known as the "obtuse angle
case". In order to obtain a consistent set of axioms which includes this axiom
about having no parallel lines, some of the other axioms must be tweaked. The
adjustments to be made depend upon the axiom system being used. Among
others these tweaks will have the effect of modifying Euclid's second postulate
from the statement that line segments can be extended indefinitely to the
statement that lines are unbounded. Riemann's elliptic geometry emerges as
the most natural geometry satisfying this axiom.
Activity 10:
Answer the question completely
1. Based on the foregoing lesson, discuss how non-Euclidean geometry

was discovered?
2. Identify the forerunners of non-Euclidean Geometry and identify their
contributions to Geometry.
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Comparison of Euclidean geometry and non-Euclidean geometry
A. Euclidean geometry
B. Parabolic geometry
C. Spherical geometry
Euclidean Non- Euclidean
Parabolic geometry Hyperbolic geometry Spherical geometry
Euclid (300 B.C) Lobatchevski , Bloyai G .F .B .Riemann (1850)

(1830)
Euclidean geometry in The negatively curved Spherical geometry is

this classification is non-Euclidean geometry is called elliptical geometry,
parabolic geometry, called hyperbolic geometry but the space of elliptic
through the name is less geometry is really has
often used. points = antipodal pairs
on the sphere.
Euclidean Geometry is Hyperbolic Geometry can Elliptic Geometry is

what we're familiar with on be derived from the answer derived from the last
a day to day basis and to Saccheri's Quadrilateral answer to Saccheri's
follows Euclid's Parallel where the two remaining Quadrilateral where the
postulate; given a Straight angles are smaller than 90 two remaining angles are
Line and a Point not on degrees. It's typically only larger than 90 degrees.
that Line, there is only one used to very high level Unlike Hyperbolic
Line you can draw that math and physics and Geometry, Elliptic
passes through that Point some models of the Geometry is widely used
AND is parallel to the first universe revolve around by pilots and ship
Line. the use of Hyperbolic captains because it
Geometry. This leads to a describes the Geometry
variation of Euclid's on the surfaces of
Parallel Postulate, and in Spheres. Similar to
Hyperbolic Geometry this Euclidean and
new version states; given a Hyperbolic Geometries, it
Straight Line and a Point too has its own variation
not on that Line, there are on the original Parallel
Postulate which states;
given a Straight Line and
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at least two lines parallel to a Point not on that Line,
the initial Line. there are no lines parallel
to the initial Line.
Euclidean geometry is flat Negatively curved Positively curved

so its curvature is zero.
5th axiom/parallel axiom: Given a straight line and a Given a straight line and
given a straight line and a point not on the line. there the point not on the line,
point not on the line, there exists an infinite number of there are no straight lines
exists one and only one straight lines through the through the point parallel
straight line through the point parallel to the original to the original line.
point which is parallel to line.
the original line.
The sum of the angles of The sum of the angles of a The sum of the angles of
a triangle is 180 degrees. triangle is less than 180 a triangle is always
Geometry Is on plane: degrees Geometry is on a greater than 180
pseudo sphere: degrees. Geometry is on
a sphere:
In Euclidean geometry, In hyperbolic geometry In spherical geometry

given a point and a line, there are at least two there are no such lines.
there is exactly one line distinct lines that passes
through the point that is in through the point and are
the same plane as the parallel to (in the same
given line and never plane as and do not
intersects it. intersect) the given line.
Definition of a line is Lines are defined such

“breadth less length” and that the shortest distance
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a straight line being a line between two points lies
“which lies evenly with along them. Lines in
the points on itself”. spherical geometry are
great circles. A great
circle is the largest circle
that can be drawn on a
sphere. Great circles are
lines that divide a sphere
into two equal.
If two lines are parallel to This is false in hyperbolic

a third line, then the two geometry.
lines are parallel to each
other.
If two lines are parallel This is false in hyperbolic
then, two lines are geometry.
equidistant
Lines that do not have an This is false in hyperbolic
end (infinite lines),also do geometry.
not have a boundary (a
point that they are
headed toward, yet never
reach)
Euclidean geometry is Non Euclidean geometry Spherical geometry is
geometry on a plane(like are on a sphere. plane geometry on the
the surface of a piece of Hyperbolic geometry is surface of a sphere. So
paper), and deals with associated with „curved‟ a straight line on the
points and lines space surface of a sphere
would become an arc,
and the longest line
would equate to the
diameter of the sphere.
In Euclidean geometry . . In non-Euclidean
. is a triangle geometry . . . is a triangle.
euclidean geometry deals while non-Euclidean
with more structured geometry has more
mathematics, such as abstract shapes, ones with
triangles. no describable, or
permanent name
Euclidean geometry has Hyperbolic geometry has Spherical geometry has
1 parallel line through any at least 2 parallel lines no parallel lines
given point not on a line
Euclidean geometry is Hold in two and three Hold in two and three
hold in two dimensions. dimension. dimension
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Euclidean geometry is A modern use of Concepts of spherical
used in surveying and Hyperbolic geometry is in geometry may also be
building the theory of special applied to the oblong
Relativity, particularly sphere; though minor
minskowski space time modifications must be
,and gyro vector space implemented on certain
formulas. Two practical
application of the
principal of spherical
geometry are to
navigation and
astronomy
It has simple trigonometry It has spherical
geometry
Activity 11:
In not less than 10 sentences discuss the comparison between

Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries.
HYPERBOLIC GEOMETRY
Geometry Except for Euclid’s five fundamental postulates of plane

geometry, which we paraphrase from [Kline 1972], most of the following
historical material is taken from Felix Klein’s book [1928]. Here are Euclid’s
postulates in contemporary language (compare [Euclid 1926]):
1. Each pair of points can be joined by one and only one straight line
segment.
2. Any straight line segment can be indefinitely extended in either

direction.
3. There is exactly one circle of any given radius with any given center.
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4. All right angles are congruent to one another.
5. If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles
on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if
extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles are less
than two right angles.
Of these five postulates, the fifth is by far the most complicated and
unnatural. Given the first four, the fifth postulate can easily be seen to be
equivalent to the following parallel postulate, which explains why the
expressions “Euclid’s fifth postulate” and “the parallel” are often used
interchangeably:
“Given a line and a point not on it, there is exactly one line going through
the given point that is parallel to the given line.”
For two thousand years Mathematicians attempted to deduce the fifth

postulate from the four simpler postulates. In each case one reduced the proof
of the fifth postulate to the conjunction of the first four postulates with an
additional natural postulate that, in fact, proved to be equivalent to the fifth:
Proclus (ca. 400 a.d.) used as additional postulate the assumption that
the points at constant distance from a given line on one side form a straight
line.
The Englishman John Wallis (1616–1703) used the assumption that

to every triangle there is a similar triangle of each given size.
The Italian Girolamo Saccheri (1667–1733) considered quadrilaterals

with two base angles equal to a right angle and with vertical sides having equal
length and deduced consequences from the (non-Euclidean) possibility that the
remaining two angles were not right angles.
Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728–1777) proceeded in a similar fashion

and wrote an extensive work on the subject, posthumously published in 1786.
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Göttingen mathematician Kästner (1719–1800) directed a thesis of
student Klügel (1739–1812), which considered approximately thirty proof
attempts for the parallel postulate.
This postulate is to hyperbolic geometry as the parallel postulate is to

Euclidean geometry. Unusual consequences of this change came to be
recognized as fundamental and surprising properties of non-Euclidean
geometry: equidistant curves on either side of a straight line were in fact not
straight but curved; similar triangles were congruent; angle sums in a triangle
were not equal to π, and so forth. That the parallel postulate fails in the models
of non-Euclidean geometry that we shall give will be apparent to the reader.
The unusual properties of non-Euclidean geometry that we have mentioned will
all be worked out in Section 13, entitled “Curious facts about hyperbolic space”.
History has associated five names with this enterprise, those of three
professional mathematicians and two amateurs.
The amateurs were jurist Schweikart and his nephew Taurinus (1794–
1874). By 1816 Schweikart had developed, in his spare time, an “astral
geometry” that was independent of the fifth postulate. His nephew Taurinus had
attained a non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry by the year 1824.
The professionals were Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), Nikola˘ı

Ivanovich Lobachevski˘ı (1793–1856), and János (or Johann) Bolyai (1802–
1860). From the papers of his estate it is apparent that Gauss had considered
the parallel postulate extensively during his youth and at least by the year 1817
had a clear picture of non-Euclidean geometry. The only indications he gave of
his knowledge were small comments in his correspondence. Having satisfied
his own curiosity, he was not interested in defending the concept in the
controversy that was sure to accompany its announcement. Bolyai’s father
Fárkás (or Wolfgang) (1775– 1856) was a student friend of Gauss and
remained in correspondence with him throughout his life. Fárkás devoted
much of his life’s effort unsuccessfully to the proof of the parallel postulate and
consequently tried to turn his son away from its study. Nevertheless, János
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attacked the problem with vigor and had constructed the foundations of
hyperbolic geometry by the year 1823. His work appeared in 1832 or 1833 as
an appendix to a textbook written by his father. Lobachevski˘ı also developed
a non-Euclidean geometry extensively and was, in fact, the first to publish his
findings, in 1829. See [Lobachevski˘ı 1898; Bolyai and Bolyai 1913].
Gauss, the Bolyais, and Lobachevski˘ı developed non-Euclidean

geometry axiomatically on a synthetic basis. They had neither an analytic
understanding nor an analytic model of non-Euclidean geometry. They did not
prove the consistency of their geometries. They instead satisfied themselves
with the conviction they attained by extensive exploration in non-Euclidean
geometry where theorem after theorem fit consistently with what they had
discovered to date. Lobachevski˘ı developed a non-Euclidean trigonometry that
paralleled the trigonometric formulas of Euclidean geometry. He argued for the
consistency based on the consistency of his analytic formulas. The basis
necessary for an analytic study of hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry was laid
by Leonhard Euler, Gaspard Monge, and Gauss in their studies of curved
surfaces. In 1837 Lobachevski˘ı suggested that curved surfaces of constant
negative curvature might represent non-Euclidean geometry. Two years later,
working independently and largely in ignorance of Lobachevski˘ı’s work, yet
publishing in the same journal, Minding made an extensive study of surfaces of
constant curvature and verified Lobachevski˘ı suggestion. Bernhard Riemann
(1826–1866), in his vast generalization [Riemann 1854] of curved surfaces to
the study of what are now called Riemannian manifolds, recognized all of these
relationships and, in fact, to some extent used them as a springboard for his
studies. All of the connections among these subjects were particularly pointed
out by Eugenio Beltrami in 1868. This analytic work provided specific analytic
models for non-Euclidean geometry and established the fact that non-
Euclidean geometry was precisely as consistent as Euclidean geometry itself.
We shall consider in this exposition five of the most famous of the

analytic models of hyperbolic geometry. Three are conformal models
associated with the name of Henri Poincaré. A conformal model is one for
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which the metric is a point-by-point scaling of the Euclidean metric. Poincaré
discovered his models in the process of defining and understanding Fuchsian,
Kleinian, and general automorphic functions of a single complex variable. The
story is one of the most famous and fascinating stories about discovery and the
work of the subconscious mind in all of science. We quote from [Poincaré
1908].
The three Hyperbolic models
In the 19th century, mathematicians developed three models of

hyperbolic geometry that can now be interpreted as projections (or maps) of the
hyperbolic surface. Although these models all suffer from some distortion—
similar to the way that flat maps distort the spherical Earth—they are useful
individually and in combination as aides to understand hyperbolic geometry.
In 1869–71 Beltrami and the German mathematician Felix

Klein developed the first complete model of hyperbolic geometry (and first
called the geometry “hyperbolic”). In the Klein-Beltrami model (shown in the
figure below), the hyperbolic surface is mapped to the interior of a circle,
with geodesics in the hyperbolic surface corresponding to chords in the circle.
Thus, the Klein-Beltrami model preserves “straightness” but at the cost of
distorting angles. About 1880 the French mathematician Henri
Poincaré developed two more models.
In the Poincaré disk model (see figure below), the hyperbolic surface
is mapped to the interior of a circular disk, with hyperbolic geodesics mapping
to circular arcs (or diameters) in the disk that meet the bounding circle at right
angles.
In the Poincaré upper half-plane model (see figure below), the

hyperbolic surface is mapped onto the half-plane above the x-axis, with
hyperbolic geodesics mapped to semicircles (or vertical rays) that meet the x-
axis at right angles. Both Poincaré models distort distances while preserving
angles as measured by tangent lines.
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In the Klein-Beltrami model for the hyperbolic plane, the shortest paths,
or geodesics, are chords (several examples, labeled k, l, m, n, are shown). In
the Poincaré disk model, geodesics are portions of circles that intersect the
boundary of the disk at right angles; and in the Poincaré upper half-plane
model, geodesics are semicircles with their centers on the boundary.
The Lorentz model or hyperboloid model employs a 2-dimensional

hyperboloid of revolution (of two sheets, but using one) embedded in 3-
dimensional Minkowski space. This model is generally credited to Poincaré, but
Reynolds (see below) says that Wilhelm Killing and Karl Weierstrass used this
model from 1872.
This model has direct application to special relativity, as Minkowski 3-

space is a model for spacetime, suppressing one spatial dimension. One can
take the hyperboloid to represent the events that various moving observers,
radiating outward in a spatial plane from a single point, will reach in a fixed
proper time. The hyperbolic distance between two points on the hyperboloid
can then be identified with the relative rapidity between the two corresponding
observers.
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Activity 12:
Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer each item.
1. What is the main difference between Euclidean and non-Euclidean

geometry?
A. Euclidean geometry only deals with straight lines, while non-

Euclidean
geometry is the study of triangles.
B. Euclidean geometry assumes that the surface is flat, while non-

Euclidean geometry studies curved surfaces.
C. Non-Euclidean geometry assumes that the surface is flat, while

Euclidean geometry studies curved surfaces.
D. Non-Euclidean geometry only deals with straight lines, while

Euclidean geometry is the study of triangles.
2. _____ geometry is the study of the geometry of spherical surfaces.
A. Spherical C. Euclidean
B. Hyperbolic D. Circular
3. _____ geometry is the geometry of saddle-shaped surfaces.
A. Spherical C. Euclidean
B. Hyperbolic D. Parallel
4. To prove the lines are parallel, if angle 3 measured 30 degrees, what must
angle 6 measures?
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A. 60 D. 15
B. 30 E. 180
C. 90
5. Which of the following is not a converse statement you can use to prove lines
are parallel?
A. If the corresponding angles are congruent, then the lines are

parallel.
B. If the alternate interior angles are congruent, then the lines are
parallel.
C. If the alternate exterior angles are congruent, then the lines are
parallel.
D. If the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
E. If the interior angles on the same side of the transversal are
congruent, then the lines are parallel.
6. What must angle 8 equal if angle 1 measures 120 degrees and you wanted
to prove the lines parallel?
A. 120 D. 30
B. 60 E. 180
C. 90
7. _____ geometry studies the geometry of saddle-shaped surfaces.
A. Hyperbolic C. Spherical
B. Elliptic D. Euclidean
8. The sum of interior angles in a triangle drawn on a hyperbolic surface will be

_____ 180 degrees.
A. Equal to C. Greater than
B. Less than D. Either greater than or less than
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9. Which of these is true about hyperbolic geometry?
A. It is the study of saddle-shaped surfaces
B. It was developed in the 1800s
C. It is important in the study of special relativity
D. All of these answers are correct
10. The Parallel Postulate states that _____?
A. If a straight line intersects two straight lines forming two interior

angles on the same side that add up to less than 180 degrees, then the
two lines, if extended indefinitely, will meet on that side on which the
angles add up to less than 180 degrees.
B. If a straight line intersects two straight lines forming two interior

C. If a straight line intersects two straight lines forming two interior

D. If a straight line intersects two straight lines forming two interior

angles on the opposite side that add up to less than 70 degrees, then
the two lines, if extended indefinitely, will meet on that side on which the
11. The Parallel Postulate refers to the two straight lines crossing on the _____
side of the interior angles.
A. Same C. Neither Same nor Opposite
B. Opposite D. Both Same and Opposite
12. The Parallel Postulate is also known as _____.
A. Euclid's Fifth Postulate C. Euclid's Third Postulate
B. Euclid's Fourth Postulate D. Euclid's Second Postulate
13. Statement: Through two given points there is...

Euclidean: one and only one line.
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Spherical: ?
A. two lines. C. a great circle.

B. a circle. D. perpendicular lines.
14. Statement: Through a point not on line m, there exists...

Euclidean: one and only one line through the point parallel to line m.
Spherical: ?
A. no line through the point parallel to line m.
B. two lines through the point parallel to line m.
C. one line through the point parallel to line m.
D. many lines through the point parallel to line m
15. Statement: The sum of the measure of angles of a triangle is...

Euclidean: 180⁰.
Spherical: ?
A. 180⁰. C. less than 180⁰.
B. between 180⁰ and 540⁰. D. greater than 540⁰.
16. Statement: Through any two given points there is...

Euclidean: one and only one line.
Spherical: ?
A. two lines. C. a great circle.
B. a circle. D. perpendicular lines.
17. In spherical geometry, a triangle can have more than one right angle.
A. True B. False
18. In spherical geometry, all lines of latitude are great circles.

A. True B. False
19. In spherical geometry, all lines of longitude are great circles.

A. True B. False
20. Statement: Through a point not on line m, there exists...

Euclidean: one and only one line perpendicular to line m.
Spherical: ??
A. 4 lines perpendicular to line m.
B. 2 lines perpendicular to line m.

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C. 3 lines perpendicular to line m.
D. 1 line perpendicular to line m.
Assignment 3:
Answer the following briefly:
1. Define parallel and perpendicular.
2. State Playfair’s postulate.
3. Define congruent triangles.
4, Define similar triangles.
5. State Pasch’s theorem/postulate.
6. State the supplementary angle theorem, vertical angle theorem, and

exterior angle theorem.
7. State SAS/SSS/ASA congruence and SAS/SSS/ASA similarity.
8. Define neutral (or absolute) geometry.
9. Define chord, diameter, central angle, inscribed angle, tangent to
a circle.
In this lesson you determined the creation of Non-Euclidean

Geometry and have identified the forerunners of Non-Euclidean
Geometry. You were able also to identify the discoveries of Non-Euclidean
Geometry; and have compared Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries.
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Assessment/Self Check 3:
A. TRUE or FLASE. Write yes if the statement is true otherwise

write no.
1. Euclid's triangle postulate was not accepted by other mathematicians and

eventually gave rise to non-Euclidean geometry.
2. Generally speaking, there are three types of non-Euclidean geometry.
3. There is a maximum area of a triangle in hyperbolic geometry.
4. In hyperbolic geometry, there is a maximum length of a line.
5. You may have heard someone ask you to draw a triangle consisting of
three right angles. Of course, in Euclidean geometry, this is an absurd idea.
However, it is possible in elliptical geometry.
6. There can be more than one line connecting two points in elliptic geometry.
7. The Pythagorean Theorem holds true in at least one of the types of non-
Euclidean geometry.
8. At very small scales, non-Euclidean geometry is essentially the same as

Euclidean geometry.
9. There are no parallel lines in spherical geometry.
10. The maximum sum of angles in a triangle in elliptical geometry

approaches 360°.
11. Euclid’s 1st/2nd/3rd/4th/5th postulate hold in

Euclidean/spherical/hyperbolic geometry.
12. Euclid’s 5th postulate is inconsistent with the other four.
13. Euclid’s 5th postulate is independent from the other four.
14. In neutral geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to 180◦
15. In neutral geometry, given a line ` and a point P not on `, there might be
no lines parallel to ` passing through P.
16. In Euclidean geometry, a line and a circle can have exactly one point of
intersection.
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17. In neutral geometry, given two parallel lines l1 and l2, there exists a
unique line m which is perpendicular to both l1 and l2.
18. The exterior angle theorem is true in Euclidean geometry.
19. The exterior angle theorem is true in hyperbolic geometry.
20. In Euclidean geometry, a right angle cannot be inscribed in a circle.
B. Draw the 3 Hyperbolic models (The Klein-Beltrami model, the

Poincaré disk model, and the Poincaré upper half-plane model). (15
pts.
References
Book:
Hernadez, Dolores F. Geometry Quezon City: Bookman Inc. 1993
Online Resources:
https://tutors.com/math-tutors/geometry-help/axiomatic-system-definition
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/geomtry/C1AxiomSystem/AxSysWorksheet.htm
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/geomtry/C1AxiomSystem/AxiomaticSystem.htm
http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/geomtry/C1AxiomSystem/history.htm
file:///C:/Users/This%20PC/Documents/fingeom.pdf
file:///C:/Users/This%20PC/Documents/finitegeomet.pdf
file:///C:/Users/This%20PC/Documents/publication_12_29416_6034.pdf
http://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/
MATH_1150%ts_of Euclidean_Geometry/4.1%3A_Euclidean
https://www.britannica.com/science/Euclidean-geometry
https://www.dummies.com/education/math/pre-algebra/plane-geometry-
points-lines-angles-and-shapes/
https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/loci/joma/hyperbolic-geometry-
introduction
https://www.britannica.com/science/hyperbolic-geometry
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https://www.britannica.com/science/non-Euclidean-geometry#ref235579
http://library.msri.org/books/Book31/files/cannon.pdf
MID-TERM EXAMINATION
(Examination will be given online: wait for the instruction of your
instructor)
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Math 158

EUGENE D. GABRIEL, MSE

Course Code: Math 158

I. COURSE TITLE: Modern Geometry

II. COURSE OVERVIEW:

Teacher education programs are meant to train you in your subject

This module incorporates the introduction to the theory and applications

This module covers three major areas of non-Euclidean geometry and

Module 1: The Classical Euclidean Geometry

Course Code: Math 158

Course Code: Math 158

Good Luck, Relax and Enjoy!

Course Code: Math 158

Week Topic Learning Special Instructions

Course Code: Math 158

Course Code: Math 158

Week Module 5: Read Research more information or

Course Code: Math 158

To pass the course, you must:

1. Submit all course requirements to include the following:

2. Pass all examinations:

Course Code: Math 158

The Module, “MODERN GEOMETRY”, is a course which

DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS

There are a number of symbols in this module to guide you as you

This tells you to take note of or to remember an important point.

This tells you there is an Intended Learning Activity for you to

This tells you there is an assignment or research activity to be

This tells you there is an Assessment or Self-Test.

This tells you the summary of the module.

Course Code: Math 158

Obtain module from your instructor and

Study and work at the module at your own

After finishing the module, type in the link

Complete the for assessment /self-check

If you did not pass the assessment

Course Code: Math 158

The major Modern Geometers are listed in this chronological timeline.

Girard Desargues (1591-1661)

Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665)

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

Giovanni Saccheri (1667-1733)

Course Code: Math 158

Leonhard Euler (1707-

Gaspard Monge (1746-

Course Code: Math 158

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-

Nikolai Lobachevsky (1792-

Course Code: Math 158

Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788-

Course Code: Math 158

Arthur Cayley (1821-1895)

Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866)

Felix Klein (1849-1925)

Course Code: Math 158

Oswald Veblen (1880-1960)

Donald Coxeter (1907-2003)

Course Code: Math 158

THE CLASSICAL EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

WHAT IS THE MODULE ALL ABOUT?

YOU WILL STUDY THE FOLLOWING TOPICS IN THIS MODULE:

1. Types of Euclidean Geometry