MODULE 5

ES . I N
N O T
KTU
MI

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 Potentiometers
• A potentiometer is an instrument designed to
measure an unknown voltage by comparing it
with a known voltage.
• The known voltage mayTbe E S . I N
supplied by a
U N O
standard cellKorTany other known voltage-
reference source.
• extensively used for a calibration of
voltmeters ammeters and wattmeters

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 Characteristics of potentiometer
• A potentiometer measures the unknown voltage
by comparing it with a known voltage source rather
than by the actual deflection of the pointer. This
ensures a high degree of accuracy.
. I N
O T ES
• As a potentiometer
K T U N
measures using null or balance
condition, hence no power is required for the
measurement.
• Determination of voltage using potentiometer is
quite independent of the source resistance.

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 Types
• DC POTENTIOMETER
• AC POTENTIOMETER

ES . I N
N O T
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DC POTENTIOMETER
• the switch S in ‘operate’ position and
the galvanometer key K kept open, the
battery supplies the working current
through the rheostat and the slide
wire.
• The working current through the slide
wire may be varied by changing the

ES . I N
rheostat setting.

N O T • The method of measuring the

KTU unknown voltage, E1, depends upon
the position for the sliding contact
such that the galvanometer shows
zero deflection, i.e., indicates null
condition
• Zero galvanometer deflection means
that the unknown voltage E1 =E2,
across position a–c of the slide wire.
• Thus, determination of the values of
unknown voltage

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 standardisation
• The process of adjusting the working current
so as to match the voltage drop across a
portion of sliding wire against a standard
reference source is known E as
S . I N
standardisation
U N O T
• Put switch S K T
in calibrate position

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CROMPTON’S dc POTENTIOMETER
• It consists of a dial switch which has fifteen
(or more) steps.
• Each step has 10 Ω resistance.
• So the dial switch has E S . I N
Ω
U N O T
total 150 resistance.
• The working K
T
current of this potentiometer is
10 mA and therefore each step of dial switch
corresponds to 0.1 volt.
• So the range of the dial switch is 1.5 volt

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 • The dial switch
is connected in
series with a
circular slide
ES . I N
wire.
U N O T • The circular
K T
slide wire has
10 Ω resistance.
So the range of
that slide wire
is 0.1 volt.

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 Procedure for Measurement of
Unknown emf
• At first, the combination of the dial switch and the
slide wire is set to the standard cell voltage.
• The switch ‘S’ is thrown to the calibrate position and
the galvanometer switch ‘K’ is pressed until the
E S . I
rheostat is adjusted for zero deflectionN on the
galvanometer.
U N O T
KT on the galvanometer is
• After the null deflection
approached the protective resistance is shorted so as
to increase the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
• Final adjustment is made for the zero deflection with
the help of the rheostat. This completes the
standardisation process of the potentiometer.

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• After completion of the standardisation, the switch ‘S’
is thrown to the operate position thereby connecting
the unknown emf into the potentiometer circuit.
• With the protective resistance in the circuit, the
potentiometer is balanced by means of the main dial
and the slide wire adjustment.
• As soon as the balanced is approached,
. I N the protective
resistance is shorted and O T
final E S
adjustments are made
KTU
to obtain true balance. N
• After the final true balance is obtained, the value of
the unknown emf is read off directly from the setting
of the dial switch and the slide wire.
• The standardization again should be made after the
measurement

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 APPLICATIONS OF dc
POTENTIOMETERS
Practical uses of dc potentiometers are
• Measurement of current
• Measurement of high voltage
• Measurement of resistance ES . I N
U N O T
• Measurement T
K of power
• Calibration of voltmeter
• Calibration of ammeter
• Calibration of wattmeter

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 Calibration of Voltmeter by
Potentiometer

ES . I N
U N O T
• K T
The potential divider network consists of two rheostats.
• One for coarse and the other for fine control of calibrating
voltage.
• With the help of these controls, it is possible to adjust the supply
voltage so that the pointer coincides exactly with a major division
of the voltmeter
• The voltage across the voltmeter is stepped down to a value
suitable for the potentiometer with the help of the volt–ratio box
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• The potentiometer measures the true value
of the voltage.
• If the reading of the potentiometer does not
match with the voltmeter E S . I N
reading, a positive
U N O T
KT is indicated.
or negative error
• A calibration curve may be drawn with the
help of the potentiometer and the voltmeter
reading

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 Calibration of Ammeter by
Potentiometer

ES . I N
N O T
KTU
• A standard resistor S of high current carrying capacity is placed in series
with the ammeter under test.
• The voltage drop across S measured with the help of the potentiometer
and then the current through S and hence the ammeter can be computed
by dividing the voltage drop by the value of the standard resistor.
• Current, I=Vs/S is the voltage drop across the standard resistor S.

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• compare the reading of the ammeter with
the current found by calculation.
• If they do not match, a positive or negative
error will be induced.OTES.IN
T U N
• A calibrationK curve may be drawn between
the ammeter reading and the true value of
the current as indicated by the potentiometer
reading

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 Calibration of Wattmeter by
Potentiometer

ES . I N
N O T
KTU
• In this calibration process, the current coil of the wattmeter is supplied
from LV supply and potential coil from the normal supply through potential
divider –phantom loading arrangement
• The voltage V across the potential coil of the wattmeter under calibration is
measured directly by the potentiometer.
• The current through the current coil is measured by measuring the voltage
drop across a standard resistor connected in series with the current coil
divided by the value of the standard resistor
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• The true power is then VI, where V is the
voltage across the potential coil and I is the
current through the current coil of the
wattmeter. E S . I N
U N O T
• The wattmeter T
K reading may be compared
with this value, and a calibration curve may
be drawn.

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 AC potentiometer
• the magnitude as well as phase angle of the
unknown voltage is compared to achieve
balance
E S . I N
CLASSIFICATION OF AC POTENTIOMETERS
U N O T
K T
• Polar Potentiometer
• Coordinate Potentiometer

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 Polar Potentiometer
• As the name indicates, in these potentiometers,
the unknown emf is measured in polar form, i.e.,
in terms of its magnitude and relative phase.
• The magnitude is indicated by one scale and the
phase with respect to some E S . I N
reference axis is
U
indicated by another N O T
scale.
KT
• There is provision for reading phase angles up to
360°.
• The voltage is read in the form V – Ɵ
Example: Drysdale polar potentiometer

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 2. Coordinate Potentiometer
• Here, the unknown emf is measured
in Cartesian form.
• Two components along and
perpendicular to some standard axis
are measured and indicated directly
by two different scales known as in .IN
phase (V1) and quadrature (V2)
O T E S
scales KT U N
• Provision is made in this instrument
to read both positive and negative
values of voltages so that all angles
up to 360° are covered.
Example: Gall–Tinsley and Campbell–Larsen type
potentiometer

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Drysdale Polar Potentiometer

ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 CONSTRUCTION
• The slide wire S1–S2 is supplied from a phase shifting circuit
for ac measurement.
• The phase shifting circuit is so arranged that the magnitude
of the voltage supplied by it remains constant while its phase
can be varied through 360°.
ES . I N
• The phase shifting circuit consists of two stator coils
N O T
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connected in parallel supplied from the same source; their
currents are made to differ by 90° by using very accurate
phase shifting technique.
• The two windings produce rotating flux which induces a
secondary emf in the rotor winding which is of constant
magnitude but the phase of which can be varied by rotating
the rotor in any position.
• The phase of the rotor emf is read from the circular dial
attached in the potentiometer.
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 OPERATION
• Before the ac measurement, the potentiometer is
first calibrated by using dc supply for slide wire
and standard cell for test terminals T1 and T2.
• The unknown alternating voltage to be measured
is applied across test terminals
E S . I
and N the balance is
achieved by varying U N O
the
T
slide wire contact and
K T
the position of the rotor.
• The ammeter connected in the slide wire circuit
gives the magnitude of the unknown emf and the
circular dial in the rotor circuit gives the phase
angle of it.

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 Advantages
• An ac potentiometer is a very versatile
instrument. By using shunt and volt–ratio box,
it can measure wide range of voltage, current
and resistances. ES . I N
U N O T
• As it is able to T
Kmeasure phase as well as
magnitude of two signals, it is used to
measure power, inductance and phase angle
of a coil, etc.

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 Disadvantages
• due to mutual inductances of various
potentiometer parts ,a slight difference is
observed in the magnitude of the current of
quadrature wire with compared . I Nto that in the
in–phase potentiometerO T ES
wire.
K T U N
• The presence of mutual inductances in the
various parts of the potentiometer and the
inter capacitance, the potential gradient of
the wires is affected.

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 Calibration of Wattmeter
• The current coil of the wattmeter is supplied
through a stepdown transformer
• the potential coil from the secondary of a
variable transformer whose primary
. I N is supplied
O
from the rotor of a phase T E S
shifting transformer
K T U N
• The voltage V across the potential coil of the
wattmeter and the current I through the current
coil of wattmeter are measured by the
potentiometer, introducing a volt–ratio box and a
standard resistor

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 AC Bridges
• most popular, convenient and accurate
instruments for measurement of
– unknown inductance,
– capacitance and some otherS . I N
related quantities
U N O TE
• KTarms, an alternating power
consists of four
supply, and a balance detector.

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 GENERAL BALANCE EQUATION FOR
FOUR-ARM BRIDGE
• At balance, no current flows
through the detector,, the
potentials at points B and C
are the same. ES . I N
U N O T
T
• voltage dropKfrom A to B
equals the voltage drop from
A to C, both in magnitude and
phase

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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MEASUREMENT OF SELF-INDUCTANCE
• Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
• Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance Bridge

ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
• unknown inductor L1 of resistance R1
in arm AB is compared with the
standard known inductor L2 of
resistance R2 on arm AC
• Branch BD and CD contain known non-
inductive resistors R3 and R4
ES . I N
respectively.
N O T
KTU
• The bridge is balanced by varying L2
and one of the resistors R3 or R4
• Under balanced condition
– currents in the arms AB and BD are
equal (I1). Similarly, currents in the
arms AC and CD are equal (I2).
– (V3 = V4) and (V1 = V2).

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 Maxwell’s Inductance–Capacitance
Bridge
• The unknown inductor L1 of effective
resistance R1 in the branch AB is
compared with the standard known
variable capacitor C4 on arm CD.
• The other resistances R2, R3, and R4
are known as non– inductive resistors.
ES . I N
O T
• The bridge is preferably balanced by
N
KTU
varying C4 and R4, giving
independent adjustment settings.
• Under balanced condition
– currents in the arms AB and BD are
equal (I1). Similarly, currents in the
arms AC and CD are equal (I2).
– (V3 = V4)and (V1 = V2).

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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Advantages of Maxwell’s Bridge
1. The balance equations are independent of each other, thus the two
variables C4 and R4 can be varied independently.
2. Final balance equations are independent of frequency.
3. The unknown quantities can be denoted by simple expressions involving
known quantities.
ES . I N
N O T
4. Balance equation is independent of losses associated with the inductor.
KTU
5. A wide range of inductance at power and audio frequencies can be
measured.
Disadvantages of Maxwell’s Bridge
1. The bridge, for its operation, requires a standard variable capacitor, which
can be very expensive if high accuracies are asked for. In such a case,
fixed value capacitors are used and balance is achieved by varying R4 and
R2.
2. This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q inductors (1< Q < 10).

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 Schering Bridge
• C1 -The unknown capacitor along
with its internal resistance r1
• C2 -standard loss-less capacitor.
• R3 is a non-inductive resistance
placed on arm BD.
• The bridge is balanced by varying
ES . I N
N
the capacitor C4 and the non-O T
KTU
inductive resistor R4 parallel with
C4, placed on arm CD.
• Under balanced condition, since
no current flows through the
detector, nodes B and C are at the
same potential, i.e., V1 = V2 and
V3 = V4.

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
Wien’s Bridge
• Under balanced
condition, V1=V2 and
V3=V4.
ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
• used for display, measurement and analysis of
waveform and other phenomena in electrical and
electronic circuits
• very fast X-Y plotters, displaying an input signal
versus another signal or versus time.
• The ‘stylus’ of this ‘plotter’ is
E S
a . I N
luminous spot
U N O T
KT
which moves over the display area in response to
an input voltage.
• The luminous spot is produced by a beam of
electrons striking a fluorescent screen.

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 Parts of CRO
Main part of CRO is CRT
1. Electron gun
2. Deflection plate system
ES . I N
3. Fluorescent screen
U N O T
K T
4. Glass envelope
5. Base.

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Block diagram of CRO

ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 Vertical Deflection System

• The main function of this amplifier is to

amplify the weak signal so that the amplified
signal can produce the desired signal.
• To examine the input signals
E S . I
are N applied to
U N O T
KT
the vertical deflection plates(Y) through the
input attenuator and number of amplifier
stages.

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Horizontal Deflection System
• The horizontal (X) deflection plates are fed by a
sweep voltage that provides a time base
• When external signals are to be applied
N to the
T E
horizontal deflection system, S . I
they can also be fed
T U N
through the horizontal
Oamplifier, via the sweep
K
selector switch in the external position.
• When the sweep selector switch is in the internal
position, the horizontal amplifier receives an
input from the saw tooth sweep generator which
is triggered by the synchronizing amplifier.

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 Types of Sweeps
There are four basic types of sweeps
Free Running or Recurrent Sweep
• As the name suggests, the saw tooth waveform is repetitive i.e. a new
sweep is started immediately after the previous sweep.
Triggered Sweep
• Some time the waveform to be observed may not be periodic so it is
ES . I N
desired that the sweep circuit remain inoperative and the sweep be
N O T
KTU
initiated by the waveform under examination. In such cases we use
triggered sweep.
Driven Sweep
• Generally a driven sweep is used where the sweep is free running but
triggered by the signal under test.
Non Saw Tooth Sweep
• This is used for finding the phase difference between the two voltages.
Another important application is that we can compare frequency of
input voltages using non saw tooth sweep

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 Lissajous Patterns
• Measurement of Phase

ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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Frequency Measurements

ES . I N
N O T
KTU

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 Applications of CRO
• Voltage measurement
• Current measurement
• Examination of waveform
E S . I N
• Measurement ofU O
phase
N Tand frequency
KT

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 Dual Trace Oscilloscopes

ES . I N
N O T
K TU
• There are two separate vertical input channels, A and B, and these use
separate attenuator and preamplifier stages.
• Therefore the amplitude of each input, as viewed on the oscilloscope, can
be individually controlled.
• After pre amplification, the two channels meet at the electronic switch.
• This has the ability to pass one channel at a time into the vertical amplifier,
via the delay line.

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• There are two common operating modes for the electronic
switch,
– alternate
– Chop
• The time base circuit is similar to that of a single input oscilloscope.
• Switch S2 allow the circuit to be triggered on either the A or B
channel waveforms, or on line frequency, or on an external signal.
• N
B channel via switch S1. T ES I
The horizontal amplifier can be fed from the sweep generator, or the
.
N O
•
KTU
This is the X-Y mode and the oscilloscope operates from channel A as
the vertical signal and channel B as the horizontal signal, giving very
accurate X-Y measurements.
• Several operating modes can be selected from the front panel for
display, such as channel A only, channel B only, channels A and B as
two traces, and signals A + B, A − B, B − A or −(A + B) as a single trace.

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 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
(DSO)
• In this DSO, the waveform to be stored is digitized
and then stored in a digital memory.
• The conventional cathode ray tube is used in this
oscilloscope hence the cost is less.
E
• The power to be applied toTmemory S . I N
is small and can
be supplied by K U N O
T battery.
small
• Due to this the stored image can be displayed
indefinitely as long as power is supplied to memory.
• Once the waveform is digitized then it can be further
loaded into the computer and can be analyzed in
detail.

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 Block Diagram
• the input signal is applied
to attenuator
• attenuated signal is then
applied to the vertical
amplifier
• Signal is digitized by an A/ ES . I N
N O T
KTU
D to create a data set that
is stored in the memory
• The data set is processed
by the microprocessor
and then sent to the
display.
• mostly successive
approximation type of A/
D converter is used

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• The digitizing the analog input signal means
taking samples at periodic intervals of the input
signal.
• The rate of sampling should be at least twice as
fast as the highest frequency
E S . I
presentN in the input
signal, according U
to N O T
sampling theorem
K T
• This ensures no loss of information.
• The sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples
per second is used. This requires very fast
conversion rate of A/D converter
• hence flash ADCs are used

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• The sampling rate and memory size are
selected depending upon the duration and
the waveform to be recorded.
• Once the input signal Is sampled,
E S . I N the A/D
U
converter digitizes Nit,O T
The signal is then
K T
captured in the memory.
• Once it is stored in the memory, many
manipulations are possible as memory can be
read out without being erased

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