Cell biology Sir.

AVNEESH KUMAR

All living things are made of cells, and cells are the smallest units that can be alive. Life on Earth is
classified into five kingdoms, and they each have their own characteristic kind of cell. However the biggest
division is between the cells of the prokaryote kingdom (the bacteria) and those of the other four kingdoms
(animals, plants, fungi and protoctista), which are all eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and
simpler than eukaryotic cells, and do not have a nucleus.

    Prokaryote = "before carrier bag" i.e. without a nucleus

Eukaryote = "good carrier bag"i.e. with a nucleus

 We'll examine these two kinds of cell in detail, based on structures seen in electron micrographs (photos
taken with an electron microscope). These show the individual organelles inside a cell.  

Eukaryotic Cells 

 Cytoplasm (or Cytosol). This is the solution within the cell membrane. It contains enzymes for
glycolysis (part of respiration) and other metabolic reactions together with sugars, salts, amino acids,
nucleotides and everything else needed for the cell to function.

 Nucleus. This is the largest organelle. Surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which is a double
membrane with nuclear pores - large holes containing proteins that control the exit of substances
such as RNA and ribosomes from the nucleus. The interior is called the nucleoplasm, which is full of
chromatin- a DNA/protein complex in a 1:2 ratio containing the genes. During cell division the
 chromatin becomes condensed into discrete observable chromosomes. The nucleolus is a dark region
of chromatin, involved in making ribosomes.

 Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria). This is a sausage-shaped organelle (8µm long), and is where
aerobic respiration takes place in all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria are surrounded by a double
membrane: the outer membrane is simple and quite permeable, while the inner membrane is highly
folded into cristae, which give it a large surface area. The space enclosed by the inner membrane is
called the mitochondrial matrix, and contains small circular strands of DNA. The inner membrane is
studded with stalked particles, which are the site of ATP synthesis.

 Chloroplast. Bigger and fatter than mitochondria, chloroplasts are where photosynthesis takes place,
so are only found in photosynthetic organisms (plants and algae). Like mitochondria they are
enclosed by a double membrane, but chloroplasts also have a third membrane called the thylakoid
membrane. The thylakoid membrane is folded into thylakoid disks, which are then stacked into piles
called grana. The space between the inner membrane and the thylakoid is called the stroma. The
thylakoid membrane contains chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments arranged in
photosystems, together with stalked particles, and is the site of photosynthesis and ATP synthesis.
Chloroplasts also contain starch grains, ribosomes and circular DNA.

 Ribosomes. These are the smallest and most numerous of the cell organelles, and are the sites of
protein synthesis. They are composed of protein and RNA, and are manufactured in the nucleolus of
the nucleus. Ribosomes are either found free in the cytoplasm, where they make proteins for the
cell's own use, or they are found attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they make
proteins for export from the cell. They are often found in groups called polysomes. All eukaryotic
ribosomes are of the larger, "80S", type.

 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER). Series of membrane channels involved in synthesising and
transporting materials, mainly lipids, needed by the cell.

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER). Similar to the SER, but studded with numerous ribosomes,
which give it its rough appearance. The ribosomes synthesise proteins, which are processed in the
RER (e.g. by enzymatically modifying the polypeptide chain, or adding carbohydrates), before being
exported from the cell via the Golgi Body.

 Golgi Body (or Golgi Apparatus). Another series of flattened membrane vesicles, formed from the
endoplasmic reticulum. Its job is to transport proteins from the RER to the cell membrane for export.
Parts of the RER containing proteins fuse with one side of the Golgi body membranes, while at the
other side small vesicles bud off and move towards the cell membrane, where they fuse, releasing
their contents by exocytosis.

 Vacuoles. These are membrane-bound sacs containing water or dilute solutions of salts and other
solutes. Most cells can have small vacuoles that are formed as required, but plant cells usually have
 one very large permanent vacuole that fills most of the cell, so that the cytoplasm (and everything
else) forms a thin layer round the outside. Plant cell vacuoles are filled with cell sap, and are very
important in keeping the cell rigid, or turgid. Some unicellular protoctists have feeding vacuoles for
digesting food, or contractile vacuoles for expelling water.

 Lysosomes. These are small membrane-bound vesicles formed from the RER containing a cocktail
of digestive enzymes. They are used to break down unwanted chemicals, toxins, organelles or even
whole cells, so that the materials may be recycled. They can also fuse with a feeding vacuole to
digest its contents.

 Cytoskeleton. This is a network of protein fibres extending throughout all eukaryotic cells, used for
support, transport and motility. The cytoskeleton is attached to the cell membrane and gives the cell
its shape, as well as holding all the organelles in position. There are three types of protein fibres
(microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules), and each has a corresponding motor
protein that can move along the fibre carrying a cargo such as organelles, chromosomes or other
cytoskeleton fibres. These motor proteins are responsible for such actions as: chromosome
movement in mitosis, cytoplasm cleavage in cell division, cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells, cilia
and flagella movements, cell crawling and even muscle contraction in animals.

 Centriole. This is a pair of short microtubules involved in cell division. Before each division the
centriole replicates itself and the two centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, where they initiate
the spindle that organises and separates the chromosomes (see module 2).

 Undulipodium (Cilium and Flagellum). This is a long flexible tail present in some cells and used
for motility. It is an extension of the cytoplasm, surrounded by the cell membrane, and is full of
microtubules and motor proteins so is capable of complex swimming movements. There are two
kinds: flagella (no relation of the bacterial flagellum) are longer than the cell, and there are usually
only one or two of them, while cilia are identical in structure, but are much smaller and there are
usually very many of them.

 Microvilli. These are small finger-like extensions of the cell membrane found in certain cells such as
in the epithelial cells of the intestine and kidney, where they increase the surface area for absorption
of materials. They are just visible under the light microscope as a brush border.

 Cell Membrane (or Plasma Membrane). This is a thin, flexible layer round the outside of all cells
made of phospholipids and proteins. It separates the contents of the cell from the outside
environment, and controls the entry and exit of materials. The membrane is examined in detail later.

 Cell Wall. This is a thick layer outside the cell membrane used to give a cell strength and rigidity.
Cell walls consist of a network of fibres, which give strength but are freely permeable to solutes
(unlike membranes). A wickerwork basket is a good analogy. Plant cell walls are made mainly of
cellulose, but can also contain hemicellulose, pectin, lignin and other polysaccharides. They are built
 up in three layers called the primary cell wall, the secondary cell wall and the middle lamella. There
are often channels through plant cell walls called plasmodesmata, which link the cytoplasms of
adjacent cells. Fungal cell walls are made of chitin (poly-glucosamine). Animal cells do not have a
cell wall, though they do have a layer of carbohydrate outside the cell membrane called the cell coat,
or glycocalyx.  

Prokaryotic Cells  [back to top]

 Cytoplasm. Contains all the enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions, since there are no
organelles
 Ribosomes. The smaller (70 S) type.

 Nucleoid (or Nuclear Zone). The region of the cytoplasm that contains DNA. It is not surrounded
by a nuclear membrane.

 DNA. Always circular, and not associated with any proteins to form chromatin.

 Plasmid. Small circles of DNA, used to exchange DNA between bacterial cells, and very useful for
genetic engineering.

 Cell membrane. made of phospholipids and proteins, like eukaryotic membranes.

 Mesosome. A tightly-folded region of the cell membrane containing all the membrane-bound
proteins required for respiration and photosynthesis. Can also be associated with the nucleoid.

 Cell Wall. Made of murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein (i.e. a protein/carbohydrate
complex, also called peptidoglycan). There are two kinds of cell wall, which can be distinguished by
 a Gram stain: Gram positive bacteria have a thick cell wall and stain purple, while Gram negative
bacteria have a thin cell wall with an outer lipid layer and stain pink.

 Capsule (or Slime Layer). A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell wall, like the glycocalyx
of eukaryotes. Used for sticking cells together, as a food reserve, as protection against desiccation
and chemicals, and as protection against phagocytosis.

 Flagellum. A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for propulsion. The motor is embedded in the
cell membrane and is driven by a H+ gradient across the membrane. Clockwise rotation drives the
cell forwards, while anticlockwise rotation causes a chaotic spin. This is the only known example of
a rotating motor in nature.

  Summary of the Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells  

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells  

small cells (< 5 mm) larger cells (> 10 mm)

always unicellular often multicellular

no nucleus or any membrane-bound organelles, such always have nucleus and other membrane-bound
as mitochondria organelles
DNA is linear and associated with proteins to form
DNA is circular, without proteins
chromatin
ribosomes are small (70S) ribosomes are large (80S)
no cytoskeleton always has a cytoskeleton
motility by flexible waving undulipodium, made of
motility by rigid rotating flagellum made of flagellin
tubulin
cell division is by binary fission cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
reproduction is always asexual reproduction is asexual or sexual
huge variety of metabolic pathways common metabolic pathways

Cell biology
Light micrograph of a moss's leaf cells at 400X magnification.

Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "container") is an academic discipline that studies
cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their
environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level.
Cell biology research extends to both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the
many specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans.

Cells and the Cell Theory are fundamental concepts in biology. Cells are the structural and functional unit of
all known living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is
sometimes called the building block of life.[1] The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small
room. The descriptive name for the smallest living biological structure was chosen by Robert Hooke in a
book he published in 1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small
rooms monks lived in.[2]

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to cell biology:

Essence of cell biology

 Cell -The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest
unit of an organism that is classified as living.
 Cell theory - Theory which states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All cells
come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and all cells contain
the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to
the next generation of cells.
 Cell biology - (formerly cytology) The study of cells.
 Cell division - The process of one parent cell separating into two or more daughter cells.
 Endosymbiotic theory - The evolutionary theory that certain eukaryotic organelles originated as
separate prokaryotic organisms which were taken inside the cell as endosymbionts.
 Cellular respiration - The metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell
membrane to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products.
 Lipid bilayer - A membrane composed of lipid molecules (usually phospholipids). The lipid bilayer
is a critical component of all biological membranes, particularly cell membranes.

Aspects of cells

 Homeostasis - The property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living
organism, that regulates its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition.
 Life - A condition of growth through metabolism, reproduction, and the power of adaptation to
environment through changes originating internally.
 Microscopic - A term used to described those objects, like cells, which are too small to be seen easily
by the naked eye and which require a lens or microscope to see them clearly.
 Unicellular - Organisms which are composed of only one cell.
 Multicellular - Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having differentiated cells that
perform specialized functions.
 Tissues - A collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an organism.
 Cellular differentiation - A concept in developmental biology whereby less specialized cells become
a more specialized cell type in multicellular organisms.
Types of cells

By organism
 Eukaryote - Organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures enclosed within
membranes, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
o Animal cell - Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Animalia, characteristically having no
cell wall or chloroplasts.
o Plant cell - Eukaryotic cells belonging to kingdom Plantae and having chloroplasts, cellulose
cell walls, and large central vacuoles.
o Fungal hypha - The basic cellular unit of organisms in kingdom fungi. Typically tubular,
multinucleated, and with a chitinous cell wall.
o Protista - A highly variable kingdom of eukaryotic organisms which are mostly unicellular
and not plants, animals, or fungi.
 Prokaryote - A group of organisms whose cells lack a membrane-bound cell nucleus, or any other
membrane-bound organelles, including bacteria and archaea.
o Bacterial cells - A prokaryotic cell belonging to the mostly unicellular Domain Bacteria.

o Archea cell - A cell belonging to the prokaryotic and single-celled microorganisms in

Domain Archea..

By function
 Gamete - A haploid reproductive cell. Sperm and ova are gametes. Gametes fuse with another
gamete during fertilization (conception) in organisms that reproduce sexually.
o Sperm - Male reproductive cell (a gamete).

o Ovum - Female reproductive cell (a gamete).

 Zygote - A cell that is the result of fertilization (the fusing of two gametes).
o Egg - The zygote of most birds and reptiles, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. The
largest existing single cells currently known are (fertilized) eggs.
 Meristemic cell - Undifferentiated plants cells analogous to animal stem cells.
 Stem cell- Undifferentiated cells found in most multi-cellular organisms which are capable of
retaining the ability to reinvigorate themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into
a diverse range of specialized cell types.
 Germ cell - Gametes and gonocytes, these are often . Germ cells should not be confused with
"germs" (pathogens).
 Somatic cell - any cells forming the body of an organism, as opposed to germline cells.

Cell type

A cell type is a distinct morphological or functional form of cell. When a cell switches state from one cell
type to another, it undergoes cellular differentiation. A complete list of distinct cell types in the adult human
body may include about 210 distinct types.

Human cell types

 lymphoid: B cell  · T cell (Cytotoxic T cell, Natural Killer T cell, Regulatory T
cell, T helper cell) · Natural killer cell
myeloid: granulocytes (Basophil granulocyte, Eosinophil granulocyte,
Blood/immune
Neutrophil granulocyte/Hypersegmented neutrophil)  · Monocyte/Macrophage
· Red blood cell (Reticulocyte)  · Mast cell  · Thrombocyte/Megakaryocyte  ·
Dendritic cell

thyroid (Thyroid epithelial cell, Parafollicular cell)  · parathyroid (Parathyroid

Endocrine system
chief cell, Oxyphil cell)  · adrenal (Chromaffin cell) · pineal (Pinealocyte)

glial cells: Glioblast (Astrocyte, Oligodendrocyte) · Microglia

Nervous system Magnocellular neurosecretory cell  · Stellate cell · Boettcher cell

pituitary (Gonadotrope, Corticotrope, Thyrotrope, Somatotrope, Lactotroph )

Pneumocyte (Type I pneumocyte, Type II pneumocyte) · Clara cell · Goblet

Respiratory system
cell · Alveolar macrophage

Circulatory system Myocardiocyte · Pericyte

stomach (Gastric chief cell, Parietal cell) · Goblet cell · Paneth cell

G cells · D cells · ECL cells · I cells  · K cells  · S cells

Digestive system
Enteroendocrine cells · Enterochromaffin cell · APUD cell

liver (Hepatocyte, Kupffer cell)

bone: Osteoblast · Osteocyte · Osteoclast · teeth (Cementoblast, Ameloblast)

Cartilage/bone/ cartilage: Chondroblast · Chondrocyte

muscle/
skin/hair: Trichocyte · Keratinocyte  · Melanocyte (Nevus cell)
integumentary
system muscle: Myocyte

other: Adipocyte  · Fibroblast · Tendon cell

Urinary system Podocyte  · Juxtaglomerular cell  · Intraglomerular mesangial

cell/Extraglomerular mesangial cell  · Kidney proximal tubule brush border cell
 · Macula densa cell

Reproductive system male (Spermatozoon, Sertoli cell, Leydig cell)  · female (Ovum)

General cellular anatomy

 Cellular compartment - All closed parts within a cell whose lumen is usually surrounded by a single
or double lipid layer membrane.
 Organelles - a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is separately enclosed
within its own lipid membrane or traditionally any subcellular functional unit.

Organelles
 Cell nucleus - a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the
cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large
variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes.
 Mitochondrion - a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[3] Often called
"cellular power plants", mitochondria generate most of cells' supply of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), the body's main source of energy.
 Chloroplast - organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis.
 Lysosome - organelles that contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-
out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.
 Vesicle - a relatively small intracellular, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances .
 Golgi apparatus - a eukaryotic organelle that processes and packages macromolecules such as
proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell; it is a part of the endomembrane system.
 Endoplasmic reticulum - an organelle composed of an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles
and cisternae.
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - sections of endoplasmic reticulum which are not studded
with ribosomes which is connected to the nuclear envelope. It is has functions in several
metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and calcium
concentration, drug detoxification, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins.
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum - sections of the endoplasmic reticulum which are studded with
protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). [4] Its
primary function is the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins.
 Peroxisome - ubiquitous organelles in eukaryotes that participate in the metabolism of fatty acids and
other metabolites. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides.
 Vacuole - membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of
secretory, excretory, and storage functions.
 Nucleolus - a roughly spherical sub-organelle of the cell nucleus. Its main function is to produce and
assemble ribosome components (i.e. RNA, proteins).
 Ribosome - complexes of RNA and protein that are found in all cells. Ribosomes build proteins from
the genetic instructions held within messenger RNA.
  Centrosome - the main microtubule organizing center of animal cells as well as a regulator of cell-
cycle progression.

Structures
 Cell membrane - (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma or "phospholipid bilayer") is a
semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells; it contains a wide array of functional macromolecules.
 Cell wall - a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which
provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism.
 Cytoskeleton - is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within the cytoplasm it is composed
of three types of fibers: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
 Centriole - A barrel shaped microtubule structure found in most eukaryotic cells other than those of
plants and fungi.
 Spindle fiber - The structure that separates the chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell
division.
 Cytoplasm - a gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells, it includes all cytosol,
organelles and inclusions.
 Cytosol - is the internal fluid of the cell, and where a portion of cell metabolism occurs.
 Inclusions - chemical substances found suspended directly in the cytosol.
 Chromosome - organized structures of DNA and proteins that are found in cells.
 Plasmid - an extrachromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA and capable of
sexual replication, it is typically ring shaped and found in bacteria.

Molecules
 DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in
the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses.
 RNA -Ribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid made from a long chain of nucleotide , in a cell it is
typically transcribed from DNA.
 Enzymes - Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (i.e. accelerate) the rates of specific chemical reactions
within cells.

Size and Biology

Sizes of cells, viruses, and other small things

Biology is a visually rich subject area. However, many of the most interesting biological events and
structures are smaller than the unaided human eye can see. In fact, human eyes have a resolution of about
100 µm. On the chart below, notice that of all the structures listed, only the plant cell is within our
resolution--just barely.

The light microscope

The light microscope has a limit of resolution of about 200 nm
(0.2 µm). This limit is due to the wavelength of light (0.4-0.7 µm).
Cells observed under a light microscope can be alive, or fixed and
stained

Image courtesy of
WebPath
The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) has a limit of
resolution of about 2nm. This is due to limitations of the lens used
to focus electrons onto the sample. A TEM looks at replicas of
dead cells, after fixation and heavy metal ion staining. Electrons
are scattered as they pass through a thin section of the specimen,
and then detected and projected onto an image on a fluorescent
screen.

Image courtesy of
WebPath
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) also has a limit of 2nm.
Like the TEM, the SEM allows you to look at replicas of dead cells,
after fixation and heavy metal ion staining. With this technique,
electrons are reflected off the surface of the specimen.

Image courtesy of
CIPE

Major Events in Cell Biology

History of studying cells

Because of the limitations of the human eye, much of the early biological research concentrated on
developing tools to help us see very small things. As imaging technology became more sophisticated,
biological discoveries abounded. Below is a timeline detailing some of those major events in biology.

The Cell Theory

When Schleiden and Schwann proposed the cell theory in 1838, cell biology research was forever changed.
The cell theory states that:
1. All life forms are made from one or more cells.
2. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells.
3. The cell is the smallest form of life.

The cell theory also provides us with an operational definition of "life."

Introduction

The goal of this exercise is to introduce you to the kinds of cells that make up all living systems, and to
contrast cells with viruses. You should be able to name the six kingdoms, understand the differences
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and be able to describe the basic functions of the eukaryotic cell
organelles.

Organization

The cell is a unit of organization

Cells are classified by fundamental units of structure and by the way they obtain energy. Cells are classified
as prokaryotes or eukaryotes, which will be covered in more detail in the next two pages of this tutorial.

Living things are classified in six kingdoms based on structure. Within prokaryotes, which appeared 3.5
billion years ago, are the kingdoms Monera (Eubacteria) and Archaea. Within eukaryotes, which evolved 1.5
billion years ago, are the kingdoms Protista, Plantae, Fungae, Animalia.

Cells are also defined according the need for energy. Autotrophs are "self feeders" that use light or chemical
energy to make food. Plants are an example of autotrophs. In contrast, heterotrophs ("other feeders") obtain
energy from other autotrophs or heterotrophs. Many bacteria and animals are heterotrophs.
Multicellular Organisms
Multicellular organisms are created from a complex organization of cooperating cells. There must be new
mechanisms for cell to cell communication and regulation. There also must be unique mechanisms for a
single fertilized egg to develop into all the different kinds of tissues of the body. In humans, there are 10 14
cells comprising 200 kinds of tissues!

Prokaryotes

Characteristics of prokaryotic cells.

As mentioned in the previous page, prokaryotes include the kingdoms of Monera (simple bacteria)
and Archaea. Simply stated, prokaryotes are molecules surrounded by a membrane and cell wall.
Prokaryotic cells lack characteristic eukaryotic subcellular membrane enclosed "organelles," but
may contain membrane systems inside a cell wall.
Prokaryotic cells may have photosynthetic pigments, such as is found in cyanobacteria ("blue
bacteria"). Some prokaryotic cells have external whip-like flagella for locomotion or hair like pili
for adhesion. Prokaryotic cells come in multiple shapes: cocci (round), baccilli (rods), and spirilla
or spirochetes (helical cells).

Bacteria & antibiotics

Pseudomonas bacteria

The cell wall is the target for antibiotics, as well as for carbohydrates
that our immune system uses to detect infection. A major threat to
humankind is the antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria have been
selected by overuse of antibiotics.
Sympathy for the life of bacteria

Eukaryotes

Basic structure
The basic eukaryotic cell contains the following:
1. plasma membrane
2. glycocalyx (components external to the plasma membrane)
3. cytoplasm (semifluid)
4. cytoskeleton - microfilaments and microtubules that suspend organelles, give shape, and allow
motion

5. presence of characteristic membrane enclosed subcellular organelles

Characteristic biomembranes and organelles
Plasma Membrane
A lipid/protein/carbohydrate complex, providing a barrier and containing
transport and signaling systems.

Nucleus
Double membrane surrounding the chromosomes and the nucleolus. Pores
allow specific communication with the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is a site
for synthesis of RNA making up the ribosome.

Mitochondria
Surrounded by a double membrane with a series of folds called cristae.
Functions in energy production through metabolism. Contains its own
DNA, and is believed to have originated as a captured bacterium.

Chloroplasts (plastids)
Surrounded by a double membrane, containing stacked thylakoid
membranes. Responsible for photosynthesis, the trapping of light energy for
the synthesis of sugars. Contains DNA, and like mitochondria is believed to
have originated as a captured bacterium.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the cell.
Covered with ribosomes (causing the "rough" appearance) which are in the
process of synthesizing proteins for secretion or localization in membranes.
Ribosomes
Protein and RNA complex responsible for protein synthesis.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the cell.
A site for synthesis and metabolism of lipids. Also contains enzymes for
detoxifying chemicals including drugs and pesticides.

Golgi apparatus
A series of stacked membranes. Vesicles (small membrane surrounded
bags) carry materials from the RER to the Golgi apparatus. Vesicles move
between the stacks while the proteins are "processed" to a mature form.
Vesicles then carry newly formed membrane and secreted proteins to their
final destinations including secretion or membrane localization.

Lysosymes
A membrane bound organelle that is responsible for degrading proteins and
membranes in the cell, and also helps degrade materials ingested by the cell.

Vacuoles
Membrane surrounded "bags" that contain water and storage materials in
plants.

Peroxisomes or Microbodies
Produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxic compound that can be
produced during metabolism.

Cellwall
Plants have a rigid cell wall in addition to their cell membranes.

Viruses

Basic characteristics of viruses

Simply stated, viruses are merely genetic information surrounded by a protein coat. They may contain
external structures and a membrane. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites--meaning that they require
host cells to reproduce. In the viral life cycle, a virus infects a cell, allowing the viral genetic information to
direct the synthesis of new virus particles by the cell. There are many kinds of viruses. Those infecting
humans include polio, influenza, herpes, smallpox, chickenpox, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
causing AIDS.
Biology and AIDS
Recent studies show that having low virus levels allow longer life (Science 272, 1124 (1996))
Molecular studies of HIV have led to the development of drugs that interfere with viral biology. Taking a
combination of three drugs, indinavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine caused 85% of patients to have no
detectable virus in their blood. Data being collected will show if these and other drugs will make AIDS
treatable.

Note that that since 1981, there have been 2.5 million deaths by AIDS and 20-40 million deaths by malaria.

Cell Structure - The Complexity of the "Simple" Cell

Each person begins as a single cell -- a cell structure formed by the joining of the mother's egg and the
father's sperm. That single cell contains the digital code to make thousands of other kinds of cells, from fat
cells to bone cells -- from brain cells to lung cells. There are muscle cells, skin cells, vein cells, capillary
cells and blood cells… Ultimately, from that one original cell, the human body will have something like 30
trillion cells conducting an orchestra of different functions.

In the first half of this century, scientists still assumed that the cell was a fairly simple blob of protoplasm.
Without electron microscopes and other technology, the cell was treated as a "black box" that mysteriously
performed its various functions -- an unobservable collection of "gelatin" molecules whose inner workings
were unknown.

Through the marvels of 21st century technology, scientists now understand the following:

Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly small, weighing less than 10 -12 grams, each is in
effect a veritable micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of
intricate molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more
complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living
world.
Each microscopic cell is as functionally complex as a small city. When magnified 50,000 times through
electron micrographs, we see that a cell is made up of multiple complex structures, each with a different role
in the cell's operation. Using the city comparison, here's a simple chart that reveals the awesome intricacy
and design of a typical cell:

Evolution

The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.

Origin of the first cell

There are three leading hypotheses for the source of small molecules that would make up life in an early
Earth. One is that they came from meteorites (see Murchison meteorite). Another is that they were created at
deep-sea vents. A third is that they were synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey
experiment); although it is not sure Earth had such an atmosphere. There is essentially no experimental data
to tell what the first self-replicate forms were. RNA is generally assumed to be the earliest self-replicating
molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions (see RNA
world hypothesis). But some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, like
clay or peptide nucleic acid.[13]

Cells emerged at least 3.0–3.3 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. An
important characteristic of cells is the cell membrane, composed of a bilayer of lipids. The early cell
membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain
per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded
RNA. But the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required
structural proteins before they could form.[14]

Origin of eukaryotic cells

The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. It is almost
certain that DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are what remains of ancient
symbiotic oxygen-breathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, where the rest of the cell seems
to be derived from an ancestral archaean prokaryote cell – a theory termed the endosymbiotic theory.

There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of
mitochondria, or viceversa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells.
Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all extant eukaryotes,
may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. An 'origin of sex as vaccination'
theory suggests that the eukaryote genome accreted from prokaryan parasite genomes in numerous rounds of
lateral gene transfer. Sex-as-syngamy (fusion sex) arose when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized
genomes containing co-evolved, vertically transmitted symbionts that conveyed protection against
horizontal infection by more virulent symbionts.[15]

History

 1632 – 1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek teaches himself to grind lenses, builds a microscope and
draws protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.
 1665: Robert Hooke discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early microscope.[4]
 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidate the principle that plants and
animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and
thus founding the cell theory.
 The belief that life forms are able to occur spontaneously (generatio spontanea) is contradicted by
Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) (although Francesco Redi had performed an experiment in 1668 that
suggested the same conclusion).
 1855: Rudolph Virchow states that cells always emerge from cell divisions (omnis cellula ex
cellula).
 1931: Ernst Ruska builds first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin.
By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously-
unresolvable organelles.
 1953: Watson and Crick made their first announcement on the double-helix structure for DNA on
February 28.
 1981: Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution detailing the endosymbiotic theory.

ANIMAL CELLS AND TISSUES

Organization of the Animal Body | Epithelial Tissue | Connective Tissue | Muscle Tissue

Nervous Tissue | Learning Objectives | Terms | Review Questions | Links

Organization of the Animal Body

Animals are multicellular heterotrophs whose cells lack cell walls. At some point during their lives, all
animals are capable of movement, although not all animals have muscles they use for this. In the most
commonly encountered animals, the mobile stage is the adult, although some animals (such as corals and
sponges) have sessile (or nonmobile) adult phases and mobile juvenile forms. Both animal and plant
evolutionary history show the development of multicellularity and the move from water to land (as well as a
secondary adaptation back to water, for example dolphins, whales, duckweed, and elodea).

Animals developed external or internal skeletons to provide support, skin to prevent or lessen water loss,
muscles that allowed them to move in search of food, brains and nervous systems for integration of stimuli,
and internal digestive systems.

Organs in animals are composed of a number of different tissue types. For example, the stomach shown in
Figure 1, has epithelial tissue making linings and secreting gastric juices, connective tissues

Figure 1. Cells and tissues that comprise the stomach. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of
Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Plants are simpler organisms than animals, having three organ systems and fewer organs than do vertebrate
animals. Organs are composed of tissues, which are in turn composed of cells. Plants have three tissue types:
ground, dermal, and vascular. Animals have four: epithelial, connective, muscle, and bone.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. Functions include lining, protecting, and
forming glands. Three types of epithelium occur:

 Squamous epithelium is flattened cells.

 Cuboidal epithelium is cube-shaped cells.
 Columnar epithelium consists of elongated cells.

Any epithelium can be simple or stratified. Simple epithelium has only a single cell layer. Stratified
epithelium has more than one layer of cells. Pseudostratified epithelium is a single layer of cells so shaped
that they appear at first glance to form two layers.

Figure 2. Cuboidal epithelium. The image is cropped from Loyola University's LUMEN site at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl1-04.jpg. Note the single layer
of simple cuboidal epithelium lining either side of a tubule.
Figure 3. Epithelium lining the intestine of a rat, as seen with SEM.
This image is from http://130.102.208.100/FMRes/FMPro?-
db=images.fp3&key=32816&-img, used by permission of
Nanoworld.

Figure 4. Columnar epithelial cells. The above image is cropped

and modified from Loyola University's LUMEN site at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/
hl1-12.jpg. Note: I have outlined one of the columnar epithelium
cells.
Functions of epithelial cells include:

 movement materials in, out, or around the body.

 protection of the internal environment against the external environment.
 Secretion of a product.

Glands can be single epithelial cells, such as the goblet cells that line the intestine. Multicellular glands
include the endocrine glands. Many animals have their skin composed of epithelium. Vertebrates have
keratin in their skin cells to reduce water loss. Many other animals secrete mucus or other materials from
their skin, such as earthworms do.

Figure 5. Glandular epithelium. The image is from Loyola

University's LUMEN site at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages
/hl1-24.jpg).

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue serves many purposes in the body:

 binding
 supporting
 protecting
 forming blood
 storing fats
 filling space

Connective cells are separated from one another by a non-cellular matrix. The matrix may be solid (as in
bone), soft (as in loose connective tissue), or liquid (as in blood). Two types of connective tissue are Loose
Connective Tissue (LCT) and Fibrous Connective Tissue (FCT). Fibroblasts (LCT) are separated by a
collagen fiber-containing matrix. Collagen fibers provide elasticity and flexibility. LCT occurs beneath
epithelium in skin and many internal organs, such as lungs, arteries and the urinary bladder. This tissue type
also forms a protective layer over muscle, nerves, and blood vessels.

Figure 6. Adipose tissue, a type of connective tissue. The image is cropped

from Loyola University's LUMEN page at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl2-
11.jpg.
Adipose tissue, shown in Figure 6, has enlarged fibroblasts storing fats and reduced intracellular matrix.
Adipose tissue facilitates energy storage and insulation.

Fibrous Connective Tissue has many fibers of collagen closely packed together. FCT occurs in tendons,
which connect muscle to bone. Ligaments are also composed of FCT and connect bone to bone at a joint.

Cartilage and bone are "rigid" connective tissues. Cartilage, shown in Figure 7, has structural proteins
deposited in the matrix between cells. Cartilage is the softer of the two "rigid" connective tissues. Cartilage
forms the embryonic skeleton of vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks and rays. It also occurs in the
human body in the ears, tip of the nose, and at joints such as the knee and between bones of the spinal
column.

Figure 7. Cartilage, a type of "soft" connective tissue. The

image is cropped from Loyola University's LUMEN page at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages
/hl4A-36.jpg.

Bone, shown in Figure 8, has calcium salts in the matrix, giving it greater rigidity and strength. Bone also
serves as a reservoir (or sink) for calcium. Protein fibers provide elasticity while minerals provide elasticity.
Two types of bone occur. Dense bone has osteocytes (bone cells) located in lacunae connected by canaliculi.
Lacunae are commonly referred to as Haversian canals. Spongy bone occurs at the ends of bones and has
bony bars and plates separated by irregular spaces. The solid portions of spongy bone pick up stress.

Figure 8. Bone. The first image of bone is cropped from Loyola University's LUMEN page at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl4A-40.jpg. Note the haversian canal and
surrounded by osteocytes and a mineralized matrix. The second image shows the structure and
vascularization of bone. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer
Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Blood is a connective tissue of cells separated by a liquid (plasma) matrix. Illustrations of blood cells are
shown in Figure 9. Two types of cells occur. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) carry oxygen. White blood cells
(leukocytes) function in the immune system. Plasma transports dissolved glucose, wastes, carbon dioxide
and hormones, as well as regulating the water balance for the blood cells. Platelets are cell fragments that
function in blood clotting.

Figure 9. Elements of the blood. The left image below is cropped from Loyola University's LUMEN site at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl2B-51.jpg. Note the red blood cells and the
single neutrophil. The right image below is cropped from Loyola University's LUMEN site at
http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl2B-64.jpg. Erythrocytes as seem with the
SEM. The bottom image is human red blood cells, platelets and T-lymphocyte (erythrocytes = red; platelets
= yellow; T-lymphocyte = light green) (SEM x 9,900). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at
www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue facilitates movement of the animal by contraction of individual muscle cells (referred to as
muscle fibers). Three types of muscle fibers occur in animals (the only taxonomic kingdom to have muscle
cells):

 skeletal (striated)
 smooth
 cardiac

Muscle tissue and organization is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Organization of muscle tissue. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with
permission.
Muscle fibers are multinucleated, with the nuclei located just under the plasma membrane. Most of the cell
is occupied by striated, thread-like myofibrils. Within each myofibril there are dense Z lines. A sarcomere
(or muscle functional unit) extends from Z line to Z line. Each sarcomere has thick and thin filaments. The
thick filaments are made of myosin and occupy the center of each sarcomere. Thin filaments are made of
actin and anchor to the Z line.

Skeletal (striated) muscle fibers, shown in Figure 11, have alternating bands perpendicular to the long axis
of the cell. These cells function in conjunction with the skeletal system for voluntary muscle movements.
The bands are areas of actin and myosin deposition in the cells.

Figure 11. Striated muscle cells. The left image of striated muscle fibers is cropped from Loyola
Smooth muscle fibers, shown in Figure 12, lack the banding, although actin and myosin still occur. These
cells function in involuntary movements and/or autonomic responses (such as breathing, secretion,
ejaculation, birth, and certain reflexes). Smooth muscle fibers are spindle shaped cells that form masses.
These fibers are components of structures in the digestive system, reproductive tract, and blood vessels.

Figure 12. Smooth muscle cells. The image of smooth muscle cells is cropped from Loyola University's
LUMEN site at http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl3A-42.jpg.

Cardiac muscle fibers are a type of striated muscle found only in the heart. The cell has a bifurcated (or
forked) shape, usually with the nucleus near the center of the cell. The cells are usually connected to each
other by intercalated disks, as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Cardiac muscle cells. The top image of cardiac muscle cells is cropped from Loyola University's
LUMEN site at http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl3A-48.jpg. Note the dark
band of the intercalated disk that separates two muscle cells. The bottom image is of a heart muscle cell
(nucleus, mitochondria, actin-myosin) (TEM x15,400). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at
www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue, shown in Figure 14, functions in the integration of stimulus and control of response to that
stimulus. Nerve cells are called neurons. Each neuron has a cell body, an axon, and many dendrites. Nervous
tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit nerve messages. Glial
cells are in direct contact with neurons and often surround them.

Figure 14. Organization of a neutron. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by
Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. Humans have about 100 billion neurons in their
brain alone! While variable in size and shape, all neurons have three parts. Dendrites receive information
from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus,
mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic cells. The axon conducts messages away from the
cell body. Neurons are shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Neurons. The left image of large multipolar neuron (center of image) is cropped from Loyola
University's LUMEN site at http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/Histo/HistoImages/hl3-03.jpg.
The right image shows Pyramidal Neurons from the Central Nervous System (SEM x3,960). This
image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
 THE ORGANIZATION of CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS, SYSTEMS, and the ORGANISM

Cells work together to make organisms. There are two types of cells: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic
cells.
 Eukaryotic ( you – care – ee – ot – ick ) cells have a nucleus.
 Prokaryotic ( pro – care – ee – ot – ick ) cells do not have a nucleus. These are usually
bacteria cells.

Many different cells make up a multicellular organism. The human body is much more than a group of
cells. The cells in a human body work together to make individuals. Cells form an organism in this pattern:

cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → the organism.

These plant cells

This is a mix of These You can see Red blood cells are
each have a tiny
bacteria cells. Paramecia are the nucleus human cells that do
nucleus.
None of them have unicellular in this not have a nucleus.
a nucleus. They are organisms human
examples of cheek cell.
with a
prokaryotic cells.

Cells are the smallest unit of any living thing. Some organisms are unicellular, meaning they are made
up of one cell. Bacteria are an example of unicellular organisms. Most bacteria cells are prokaryotic. Most
cells of multicellular organisms are eukaryotic. Humans are multicellular. There are certain ways cells are
arranged in multicellular organisms so that organisms can live. The first organization that cells make is
called a tissue. When cells work together to perform a specific job, they make tissues. Tissues are a group of
cells working together to perform a specific function. An example of tissues can be found in a human’s
lungs. Lungs are made up of special cells that take oxygen from the air and give it to the human body. All
of these tissues work together to make up an organ.

Muscle cells
are very long
cells. Many
of them
together
make up your
muscle
tissue.

The brain is the

organ that controls
The heart is the the body. When you breathe in
muscular organ
air, it goes into the The stomach is the organ
in the body that
organ called the lungs. that holds acid in it to help
pumps blood.
 An organ is a complex system of tissues working together to perform a life task for a human body. Heart,
lungs, eyes, brain, and stomach are a few of the organs that reside in the human body.

The skeletal
system is made The
up of all of the digestive
bones in your system is
body. It gives used to
the body support digest and
and it protects absorb
food.
The lungs, blood, heart, the organs from
arteries, capillaries, and getting
veins make up the damaged.
circulatory system. They
carry oxygen to every

Various organs work together to form an organ system. An organ system is a group of organs working
together to keep the human body alive. The following are some of the systems that exist in the human body:

 the digestive system

 the respiratory system
 the endocrine system
 the immune system
 the skeletal system
 the nervous system
  the integumentary system
 the muscular system
 the circulatory system
Following are the functions of some of the major organ systems:

 The integumentary system is made up of human skin. It protects the body from infection and keeps the
body from losing water.

 The skeletal system is used to provide protection for human organs and to support the body. The
skeletal system is made up mostly of the bones in the human body. The bone marrow inside the bones is
responsible for making new blood cells.

 The muscular system works closely with this system to assist humans in movement.

 The nervous system is made up of the brain and nerve cells, which helps to control all of the functions
of the human body. It assists in monitoring the five senses.

 The endocrine system uses glands in the human body to excrete chemicals to help control the human
body. Various chemicals are released through the endocrine system. They are released when the body is
hungry, needs more blood cells, or acts in an emergency.

 The respiratory system is made up of the nose, mouth, throat, trachea, and lungs. This system is used to
allow breathing. When humans breathe, they inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Lungs have tiny
sacs called alveoli. These sacs help get oxygen to the lungs by the blood that is flowing from the heart.

 The circulatory system carries oxygen to all parts of the body. The heart pumps red blood cells to the
lungs through the arteries. The arteries carry this oxygenated (oxygen rich) blood to the whole body.
The capillaries are smaller tubes that release the blood to each cell and then collect the blood again to
deliver it to the veins. The veins carry the blood back to the heart.

 The digestive system takes in food and turns it into energy that the body uses. Food is chewed in the
mouth into small pieces that the body can digest easier. Saliva is added to the food to start the digestion
process. Food travels down the esophagus and goes to the stomach. The stomach releases acid to digest
the food more. The small intestine absorbs the energy in the food and gives it to the blood to carry to
other body parts. The large intestine absorbs water from the food. The anus helps the food leave the
body.

When all of these organ systems work together, they make up

what is known as the organism. An organism is any living thing, a plant,

a fungus, an animal, a paramecium, or a bacterium. Nonliving

things, like a rock or a virus, are not organisms