Eex10707 Cable Fault Localization

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Fundamentals Of
Cable Fault Localization
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: Fundamentals of Cable Fault Localization W. A. Roussel on 874-1320
Engineering Encyclopedia Electrical
Fundamentals of Cable Fault Localization
CONTENTS PAGES
CABLE THUMPING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONS, OPERATIONAL

PRINCIPLES, AND BASIC LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUES................................................... 1
Thumper Constructions.................................................................................................... 1
Series-Gap Type .................................................................................................1
Pulse Type.......................................................................................................... 3
Acoustical Detector Auxiliary Device ................................................................ 3
Earth-Gradient Detector Auxiliary Device ......................................................... 4
Thumper Operational Principles ...................................................................................... 4
Generating a High Energy Pulse in a Series-Gap Thumper ................................ 4
Generating a High Energy Pulse in a Pulse-Type Thumper ............................... 6
Basic Localization Techniques ........................................................................................ 6
Determination of Correct "Thump" Voltage Level............................................. 6
Sectionalizing..................................................................................................... 7
Acoustical Localization ...................................................................................... 7
Earth-Gradient Localization ............................................................................... 8
TONE TRACING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION, OPERATIONAL

PRINCIPLES, AND BASIC LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUES................................................. 10
Equipment Construction ................................................................................................ 10

Tone Generator.................................................................................................10
Signal Tracer .................................................................................................... 11
Equipment Operational Principles ................................................................................. 11
Tone Generator.................................................................................................11
Signal Tracer .................................................................................................... 11
Basic Localization Techniques ...................................................................................... 11
Methods ........................................................................................................... 11
Minimizing Interference and Crosstalk ............................................................ 12
TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONS,

OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES, AND BASIC LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUES .................... 13
Equipment Constructions............................................................................................... 13
Low-Voltage Type ........................................................................................... 13
Arc-Reflection Types ....................................................................................... 14
Equipment Operational Principles ................................................................................. 14
Transmission of Pulses..................................................................................... 14

Detection of Reflected Pulses........................................................................... 15

Short-Circuit Cable Faults................................................................................ 15
Open-Circuit Cable Faults................................................................................ 15
Basic Localization Techniques ...................................................................................... 15
Steps in Localization ........................................................................................ 15
Sectionalizing...................................................................................................18
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ 20

CABLE THUMPING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONs, OPERATIONAL

PRINCIPLES, AND BASIC LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUES
A cable thumper is an electrical test set that generates repetitive high-voltage high-energy pulses. A cable
thumper transmits these pulses into a power cable in order to cause a fault in the cable to break down and,
consequently, produce an audible sound and a strong current in the earth surrounding the fault. The sound
reveals the location of the fault. If the sound is not easily heard at the surface of the earth, an acoustical
detector is used to locate the cable fault. Alternatively, an earth-gradient detector can be used to locate the fault
by sensing the earth currents that flow near the fault.
Thumper Constructions
There are two basic types of cable thumpers: the series-gap type and the pulse type. There are two basic types
of detectors: the acoustical detector and the earth-gradient detector. Either type of detector can be used with
either type of thumper. The constructions of thumpers and detectors are explained in the next four subject
headings.
Series-Gap Type
Figure 1 is an illustration of a series-gap type of cable thumper. The illustration shows the following:
• A knob-controlled variable transformer. This transformer controls the magnitude of high-voltage output
pulses.
• A kilovoltmeter. This meter indicates the voltage of the thumper’s built-in impulse capacitor.
• A primary ammeter that indicates the input current.
• A microammeter that indicates the output current.
• A power cord.
• An output test lead.
• Jacks for connecting the battery leads.
• An impulse-control gap handle. This handle adjustments the dimension of the series gap.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Figure 1. Illustration of a Cable Thumper

Pulse Type
Pulse-type cable thumpers have the same general construction as series-gap cable thumpers. The important
difference in construction is that a set of additional components allow the rate that output pulses are generated
to be adjusted independently from the output voltage adjustment.
Acoustical Detector Auxiliary Device

Figure 2 is an illustration of an acoustical detector, an auxiliary device that is used with both types of thumpers.
An acoustical detector has two sound transducers that are placed on the ground above a buried cable. The
sound made by the cable when its insulation breaks down under the stress of the thumper’s high-voltage pulse
causes an upscale deflection of the detector’s output level meter. A set of headphones can also be plugged into
the detector so that the amplified and filtered sound of the breakdown can be heard.
Figure 2. Acoustical Detector

Earth-Gradient Detector Auxiliary Device

Figure 3 is an illustration of an earth-gradient detector. This detector has two spikes that are driven into the
earth above a buried cable. The current that flows through the earth in the vicinity of a cable when the cable’s
insulation breaks down under the stress of the thumper’s high-voltage pulse causes a difference in potential
between these spikes. When connected to the spikes, the microammeter of the detector deflects to the left or to
the right according to the direction of the current flowing from one spike to the other.
Figure 3. Earth-Gradient Detector
Thumper Operational Principles
Generating a High Energy Pulse in a Series-Gap Thumper

Figure 4a is a simplified schematic diagram of a series-gap thumper. The thumper’s high-voltage power supply
is similar to the power supply of a DC applied potential test set. This power supply charges an impulse
capacitor. A kilovoltmeter indicates the magnitude of the impulse capacitor’s voltage. A variable transformer
is used to control the maximum voltage that charges the impulse capacitor.

Figure 4. Schematic Diagrams of Thumpers
Before a test, the series gap is adjusted to a maximum dimension. The voltage of the capacitor is adjusted to
the level that is appropriate for testing the cable, and the dimension of the series gap is subsequently adjusted
until it flashes over. This flashover causes a pulse of high voltage to be transmitted into the cable under test
and also discharges the capacitor. A short interval of time (approximately one to 30 seconds) elapses before the
capacitor charges to a voltage level high enough to again cause the series gap to flash over. Pulses of high
voltage are repeatedly transmitted into the cable. The interval of time between pulses can be shortened by
adjusting the gap to a smaller dimension. Making the gap smaller consequently reduces the peak voltage
magnitude of the output pulses.

Generating a High Energy Pulse in a Pulse-Type Thumper

Figure 4b is a simplified schematic diagram of a pulse-type thumper. The operational principle of a pulse-type
thumper is the same as that of a series-gap thumper except that the time interval between pulses is controlled by
a high-voltage contactor and a timing circuit. For a pulse-type thumper, the time interval between pulses can be
adjusted without affecting the voltage magnitude of the output pulses.
Basic Localization Techniques
Determination of Correct "Thump" Voltage Level

The initial level of pulse voltage that is used to locate a cable fault is approximately equal to the cable’s AC
voltage rating. If this level of voltage is not sufficiently high to cause a breakdown, the pulse voltage is
increased. The pulse voltage is not increased to a level greater than that recommended for applied potential
testing by the AEIC Standard CS5 or CS6 (Figure 5). The probability of causing an insulation breakdown in a
portion of the cable that has not already failed increases with the use of higher pulse voltage. Additionally, the
probability of a failure increases with the number of times a cable is pulsed when test voltage in excess of the
recommended value is used.
Test Voltages for XLPE or EPR Cables
Rated Voltage Insulation 80% Test 65% Test 40% Test

Thickness Voltage Voltage Voltage
5 kV AC 115 mils 36 kV DC 29 kV DC 18 kV DC
Figure 5. Table of Test Voltages for XLPE or EPR Cables

Sectionalizing
Before a cable is tested through use of a thumper, any other cables that are connected to the same circuit must
be disconnected to eliminate the possibility that test pulses will weaken the insulation of the other cables.
Acoustical Localization
Figure 6 illustrates the basic method of using an acoustical detector to locate a fault in a buried cable. The
pulses transmitted by the cable thumper cause the damaged insulation of the cable to break down repeatedly.
Each breakdown produces a sound. This sound can sometimes be heard above the ground. But for those cases
when the sound is not loud enough to be heard, an acoustical detector is used to locate the damaged insulation.
The acoustical detector is able to distinguish the relative intensity and time delay between the arrival of the
thump sound at its two pickups. The technician moves the location of the acoustical pickups until the thump
sound is equal in intensity in the two earpieces of the headphones. The location of the fault is then directly
below and midway between the pickups.
Figure 6. Fault Localization Through the Use of an Acoustical Detector

Earth-Gradient Localization
Figures 7a and 7b illustrate the basic method of using an earth-gradient detector to locate a fault in a buried
cable. Current flows in several paths through the earth from the point of the damaged insulation to the driven
rod. These paths are represented by broken-line curves in Figure 7. These currents produce a voltage gradient
between any two points at the surface of the earth. The technician locates the fault by placing the spikes of the
earth-gradient detector at different surface locations along a straight line between the ends of the cable. At
successive locations (1, 2, and 3) the technician reads the deflection of the detector until he reads a reversal of
deflection (location 4). The technician backtracks until he finds a location (5) where there is a null deflection.
The technician then reads deflections (6, 7, and 8) along a line that crosses the first line at a right angle. The
location of the fault is at the second null deflection (location 8). Through the use of this method, the technician
does not need to know the route of the buried cable in order to locate the cable fault.

Figure 7. Fault Localization Through the Use of an Earth-Gradient Detector

TONE TRACING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION, OPERATIONAL

PRINCIPLES, AND BASIC LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUES
Equipment Construction
Tone tracing equipment includes a tone generator and a signal tracer.
Tone Generator
A tone generator, sometimes called a transmitter, is illustrated in Figure 8. A tone generator is a suitcase-size
test set that is powered by 120 volts. It has controls that adjust the magnitude of high-voltage DC output and
the frequency of its oscillator output
Figure 8. Constructions of a Tone Generator and a Signal Tracer

Signal Tracer
Figure 8 also contains an illustration of a signal tracer. The signal tracer consists of a hand-held detector and an
insulated-shaft probe. The signal tracer is sensitive to those frequencies that the tone generator produces, and it
filters all other audio-frequency signals.
Equipment Operational Principles
Tone Generator
The tone generator has a built-in sine-wave oscillator that injects an audio-frequency current into the core
conductor of a faulted cable. This audio frequency current is driven by a solid-state amplifier that is typically
rated at 2.5 watts of output power. The output is usually a single frequency, but some models have more than
one selectable frequency. Audio frequencies are in the range of 10 Hz to 10,000 Hz depending on the specific
model and manufacturer of the tone generator.
The tone generator also has a built-in high-voltage DC source that can be used to break down a high-resistance
shunt fault for the purpose of providing a low-resistance path for the audio-frequency current
.
Signal Tracer
The signal tracer has an inductive pickup built into its probe. The output signal of this probe and the sound in
the headphones become stronger as the probe is brought closer to a cable.
Methods
The basic method of locating a shunt fault is to adjust the high-voltage DC output of the tone generator to a
magnitude that will make the damaged insulation in the cable flash over. The audio-frequency current allows
the technician to trace the path of the buried cable. The location of the fault is found by sweeping the probe
over the surface of the earth above the cable and listening for the characteristic sound of flashover in the
headphones.
The basic method of locating an open-circuit fault is to adjust the high-voltage DC output to a minimum and
adjust the audio-frequency current to a maximum. The location of the fault is found by sweeping the probe
over the surface of the earth above the cable and listening for the audio tone.

Maximum Signal - For a shunt fault, the characteristic sound of a flashover will be loudest in the detector’s
headphones when the probe is oriented directly above the fault.
For an open circuit fault, the audio tone heard in the detector’s headphones will fade and become inaudible
when the technician sweeps the probe past the location of the open circuit.
Null Signal - The probe’s inductive pickup has a directional characteristic such that whenever the probe is
oriented in parallel with a cable that is carrying an audio tone, its output signal strength will become near zero
(null signal). When the probe is oriented perpendicular to a cable carrying an audio tone, its output signal will
reach a maximum
Minimizing Interference and Crosstalk

Electromagnetic interference is produced by any cable that is energized with normal voltage. In order to
minimize interference, nearby cables should be de-energized to whatever extent is possible without disrupting
electrical service.
The audio-frequency current that is intentionally injected into one power cable can unintentionally induce an
audio-frequency current in another cable that is buried nearby. This unintentional induced current, called
crosstalk, can mislead the technician who is tracing the path of a cable. In order to minimize crosstalk, de-
energized cables should be connected to ground on both ends.

TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONS,

OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES, AND BASIC LOCALIZATION TECHNIQUES
A time-domain reflectometer, sometimes called a TDR, is used to measure the distance along the length of a
cable to a cable fault.
Equipment Constructions
Time-domain reflectometers can be classified into two general types: the low-voltage type and the pulse-type.
Low-voltage time-domain reflectometers are general purpose instruments that can be used to test
communication cables (telephone, twisted pair, cable television, radio-frequency transmission) or power cables.
Pulse-type time-domain reflectometers are definite-purpose instruments that are used to test power cables.
Low-Voltage Type
Figure 9 is an illustration of a low-voltage type of time-domain reflectometer. The front panel has a single-trace
oscilloscope display that shows the waveforms of a transmitted pulse and the resultant reflected pulses. A
numerical display indicates the distance in feet or meters to a cable fault. Front-panel controls include devices
to adjust the voltage magnitude of the transmitted pulse, the pulse duration, an input parameter called
propagation factor, and various aspects of the oscilloscope display.
Figure 9. Low-Voltage Time-Domain Reflectometer

Arc-Reflection Types
Figure 10 is a general arrangement diagram of an arc-reflection type of time-domain reflectometer. This type of
time-domain reflectometer is a modified version of a low-voltage time-domain reflectometer. An impulse
generator (thumper) and a coupler are added. The thumper transmits a high-voltage pulse that breaks down the
insulation of a high-resistance shunt fault so that it will produce a reflected wave. The coupler protects the
time-domain reflectometer from the high voltage of the transmitted pulse while allowing the time-domain
reflectometer to read the reflected pulse.
Equipment Operational Principles
Transmission of Pulses
Low-voltage time-domain reflectometers transmit a half-sine pulse of 50ns (50 nanosecond), 100ns, 200ns,
500ns, 1µs, 2µs, 5µs, or 10µs duration, and 10 volt peak magnitude from a 50 ohm source impedance. Arc-
reflection time-domain reflectometers transmit a rapid rate-of-rise pulse of up to 30 kV and approximately 1250
joules of energy.
Figure 10. Arrangement of an Arc-Reflection Time-Domain Reflectometer

Detection of Reflected Pulses

Figure 11 shows two oscilloscope traces as they might appear on a time-domain reflectometer. Each trace
shows a transmitted pulse and a reflected pulse. The transmitted pulse will reflect from any discontinuity in the
cable’s insulation structure such as a splice, tap connection, termination, sharp bend, crimp, water-saturated
section of insulation, an open circuit fault, or a shunt fault.
Short-Circuit Cable Faults

The reflected wave of a short-circuit cable fault (shunt fault) has a voltage polarity that is opposite the polarity
of the transmitted pulse. Figure 11a shows the typical shape of a wave that was reflected from a shunt fault.
Open-Circuit Cable Faults

The reflected wave of an open-circuit cable fault has a voltage polarity that is the same polarity as the
transmitted pulse. Figure 11b shows the typical shape of a wave that was reflected from an open-circuit fault.
Steps in Localization
The following steps are used in locating a fault in a buried cable:
• Before using a time domain reflectometer, the cable to be tested is disconnected from as much power
system apparatus as is practical.
• An insulation resistance test, an applied potential test, or a circuit continuity test is conducted on the
cable as needed to determine whether the fault is an open circuit fault, a high-resistance shunt fault, or a
low-resistance shunt fault. Note: In the context of cable testing, a low resistance fault is roughly defined
as a fault having less than 1000 ohms resistance between the core conductor and the cable shield or
sheath.
• If the fault is a low-resistance shunt fault or an open-circuit fault, a low-voltage time-domain

reflectometer is used to measure the distance between the origination end of the cable to the cable fault.

Figure 11. Oscilloscope Traces for Faulted Cables

• If the fault is a high-resistance shunt fault, an arc-reflection time-domain reflectometer is used to measure
the distance between the origination end of the cable to the cable fault.
• Through use of the information of the facility’s cable and raceway layout drawing, the approximate
location of the cable fault is determined. If needed, acoustical localization, earth-gradient localization, or
tone tracing is used to determine the location of the cable fault more exactly.
• The site of the cable fault is excavated, and the cable is repaired as needed.
Measuring Time Delay of the Reflected Image - A typical model of a time-domain reflectometer has a
movable cursor on its oscilloscope display that facilitates the measurement of the time delay of the reflected
wave. The time delay is the interval between the peak of the transmitted pulse and the leading edge of the
reflected wave (see Figure 11). Some models of time-domain reflectometers have a numerical display that
indicates the distance in feet or meters that corresponds to the time interval defined by the position of the
cursor.
Calculating the Distance to a Fault - The distance to a fault is calculated through the use of the formula:
c ×p× t
• d=
2
• Where d is the distance to the fault, t is the time interval measured by the movable cursor of the
oscilloscope, c is the speed of light (984 feet/µs or 300m/µs), and p is the propagation factor for the
cable.
Compensating for Wave Propagation Velocity - The propagation factor, p, is used in the distance formula to
compensate for the fact that a transmitted pulse travels at a velocity less than the speed of light. Propagation
factor is equal to:
v
• p=
c
• Where p is the propagation factor, v is the velocity of a pulse in the cable, and c is the speed of light.
Propagation factors for different constructions of cable range from 0.03 to 0.99. Information about the
propagation factor of a particular cable can be obtained from the cable’s manufacturer. Propagation factors for
the most commonly used cables are given in the instructional literature of time-domain reflectometers.

Sectionalizing
Taps, terminations, switches, transformers, and other cables connected to the cable under test will cause
reflected waves to appear on the oscilloscope trace. These reflected waves are sometimes difficult to
distinguish from the reflected wave of a fault. For this reason, before a cable is tested it is disconnected from as
many of these devices as is practical. When disconnecting other devices is not practical, the oscilloscope trace
can be compared with another oscilloscope trace that was recorded when the power distribution circuit was
known to be in good condition. Any reflected pulse that appears on the latest trace that did not appear on the
earlier trace is very likely to represent a cable fault. Figure 12 is an example of two traces that were recorded
from the same distribution system with the second trace showing a high-resistance fault.

Figure 12. Comparison of Arc-Reflection Traces

GLOSSARY
Acoustical Detector An auxiliary device used with a thumper to locate the

sound produced by the breakdown of damaged cable
insulation.
AEIC The Association of Edison Illuminating Companies
Cross-Linked Polyethylene An insulation material used in medium-voltage and high-

voltage power cables.
Earth-Gradient Detector An auxiliary device used with a thumper to locate the
earth current that flows in the vicinity of damaged cable
insulation when the cable breaks down.
EPR Ethylene propylene rubber
Ethylene propylene rubber An insulation material used in medium-voltage and high-

voltage power cables.
Impulse Capacitor The component of a cable thumper that stores the energy
that is transmitted into the cable as a high-voltage pulse.
Origination End The open-circuit end of a cable that receives the

transmitted pulse from a time-domain reflectometer.
Propagation Factor The velocity of a pulse traveling through a cable divided

by the speed of light.
TDR A time-domain reflectometer.
Thumper An electrical test set that generates high-voltage high-

energy pulses and that is used to break down a cable fault
to produce a audible sound.
Time-Domain Reflectometer An electrical instrument that measures the time intervals

between the transmission of an electrical pulse and the
reception of reflected pulses.
XLPE Cross-Linked Polyethylene

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

CABLE THUMPING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONS, OPERATIONAL

TONE TRACING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION, OPERATIONAL

Equipment Construction ................................................................................................ 10

TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONS,

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Detection of Reflected Pulses........................................................................... 15

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CABLE THUMPING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONs, OPERATIONAL

• A primary ammeter that indicates the input current.

• A microammeter that indicates the output current.

• An output test lead.

• Jacks for connecting the battery leads.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Figure 1. Illustration of a Cable Thumper

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Acoustical Detector Auxiliary Device

Figure 2. Acoustical Detector

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Earth-Gradient Detector Auxiliary Device

Figure 3. Earth-Gradient Detector

Thumper Operational Principles

Generating a High Energy Pulse in a Series-Gap Thumper

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Figure 4. Schematic Diagrams of Thumpers

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Generating a High Energy Pulse in a Pulse-Type Thumper

Basic Localization Techniques

Determination of Correct "Thump" Voltage Level

Test Voltages for XLPE or EPR Cables

Rated Voltage Insulation 80% Test 65% Test 40% Test

35 kV AC 345 mils 100 kV DC 81 kV DC 50 kV DC

Figure 5. Table of Test Voltages for XLPE or EPR Cables

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Figure 6. Fault Localization Through the Use of an Acoustical Detector

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Figure 7. Fault Localization Through the Use of an Earth-Gradient Detector

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

TONE TRACING: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION, OPERATIONAL

Figure 8. Constructions of a Tone Generator and a Signal Tracer

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Equipment Operational Principles

Basic Localization Techniques

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Minimizing Interference and Crosstalk

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY: EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTIONS,

Figure 9. Low-Voltage Time-Domain Reflectometer

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Equipment Operational Principles

Figure 10. Arrangement of an Arc-Reflection Time-Domain Reflectometer

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Detection of Reflected Pulses

Short-Circuit Cable Faults

Open-Circuit Cable Faults