LECTURE 3 – PART 2

THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

THE CELL, CYTOSOL, AND ORGANELLES

Cytoplasm
 Cell contents
 Includes organelles and cytosol
 Excludes nucleus

Cytosol
- is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles
- constitutes about 55% of total cell volume
- is the site of many chemical reactions required for a cell’s existence

Cell Organelles:
 Cytoskeleton
 Flagella, cilia & centrioles
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Mitochondrion
 Nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear envelope
 Vesicles, e.g. lysosome
Cytoskeleton
 Maintains shape of cell
 Positions organelles
 Changes cell shape
 Includes: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

Centrosome
 Structure:
o Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other
 Composed of microtubules: 9 clusters of 3 (triplets)
o Pericentriolar material
 Composed of tubulin that grows the mitotic spindle
 Function: moves chromosomes to ends of cell during cell division
Cilia and Flagella
 Specialized for motion
 Flagellum: single tail like structure on sperm
o Propels sperm forward in reproductive tract
 Cilia: hair-like projections
o Found in respiratory system: move mucus

Ribosomes
 Made within the nucleus (in nucleolus)
 Sites of protein synthesis (on E.R. or freely within cytoplasm)
 Consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) + proteins
 Contain large and small subunits
 Can be attached to endoplasmic reticulum or free in cytosol
Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.)
 Structure: network of folded membranes
 Functions: synthesis, intracellular transport
 Types of E.R.
o Rough E.R.: studded with ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis)
o Smooth E.R. lacks ribosomes. Functions:
 lipid synthesis
 release of glucose in liver cells into bloodstream
 drug detoxification (especially in liver cells)
 storage and release of Ca2+ in muscle cells (where smooth E.R. is known as
sarcoplasmic reticulum or SR)
Golgi Complex
 Structure:
o Flattened membranes (cisterns) with bulging edges (like stacks of pita bread)
 Functions:
o Modify proteins -> glycoproteins and lipoproteins that:
 Become parts of plasma membranes
 Are stored in lysosomes, or
 Are exported by exocytosis

Small Bodies
 Lysosomes: contain digestive enzymes
o Help in final processes of digestion within cells
o Carry out autophagy (destruction of worn out parts of cell) and death of old cells
(autolysis)
 Tay-Sachs: hereditary disorder; one missing lysosomal enzyme leads to nerve
destruction
  Peroxisomes: detoxify; abundant in liver
 Proteasomes: digest unneeded or faulty proteins
o Faulty proteins accumulate in brain cells in persons with Parkinson or Alzheimer disease.

Mitochondria
 Structure:
o Sausage-shaped with many folded membranes (cristae) and liquid matrix containing
enzymes
o Have some DNA, ribosomes (can make proteins)
 Function:
o Nutrient energy is released and trapped in ATP; so known as “power houses of cell”
o Chemical reactions require oxygen
 Abundant in muscle, liver, and kidney cells
o These cells require much ATP
Nucleus
 Round or oval structure surrounded by nuclear envelope with nuclear pores
 Contains nucleolus: makes ribosomes that pass into cytoplasm through nuclear pores
 Store genetic material (DNA) in genes arranged in 46 chromosomes (the human genome
containing 30,000 genes!)
 DNA contains information for directing protein synthesis:
o In this cell
o In new cells (formed by cell reproduction)
Packing of DNA into a Chromosome

Somatic Cell Division

 In all body cells except gametes
 Interphase
o Period of growth and development of cell
o Preparation for reproduction: DNA synthesis
 Mitotic Phase = division of nucleus
o 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
 Cytokinesis= division of cytoplasm

Cell Cycle
Is an orderly sequence of events in which a somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides in two
Prophase

 Chromatin condenses into pairs of chromatids connected at centromeres

 Centrosomes form the mitotic spindle (composed of microtubules) that extends from pole to
pole of the cell
o Some chemotherapy drugs fight cancer cells by inhibiting formation of the mitotic
spindle
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus break down
Metaphase
Centromeres of chromatid pairs are aligned along microtubules at the center (“equator”) of the
metaphase plate

Anaphase
 Centromeres split, separating “sister chromatids” (chromosomes)
 Chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of spindle by microtubules of the mitotic spindle
 Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) begins by the formation of a cleavage furrow
Telophase

 Chromosomes revert to threadlike chromatin

 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear
 Mitotic spindle breaks up
 Cytokinesis is completed

Cellular Diversity

 Because structure determines function, cells differ in structure related to their functions.
o Nerve cells may reach several feet in length to carry nerve impulses from spinal cord to
toe
o Muscle cells can produce effective contractions because they are cylindrical or spindle-
shaped
o Microvilli increase surface area of intestinal cells to maximize absorptive ability
 Most cells are microscopic; the diameter of the largest human cell (an oocyte) can barely be
seen with the unaided eye.

Aging and Cells

 A number of factors contribute to aging:
o May be programmed genetically
o Decreased rate of mitosis; nerve cells and skeletal muscle cells cannot be replaced
o Telomeres (DNA at tips of chromosomes)
 Telomeres shorten with aging
 Progeria (rapid aging): profound telomere shortening
o Protein damage by glucose cross-links
o Free radicals damage
o Autoimmune responses
Cancer
 is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled or abnormal cell division
o Tumor formation (neoplasm)
 Benign Tumor
 Malignant Tumor

Types

 Carcinoma
o Arise from epithelial cells
o Melanoma
 Sarcoma
o Arise from muscle cells or connective tissues
o Osteogenic sarcoma
o Leukemia
o Lymphoma

Causes

 Carcinogens
 Oncogenes
 Oncogenic viruses

Therapy

 Surgery
 Chemotherapy
 Radiation therapy

Medical Terms
 Anaplasia
 Hyperplasia
 Hypoplasia
 Metaplasia
 Dysplasia
 Atrophy
 Hypertrophy
 Hypotrophy

Tumor Markers
- A substance introduced into circulation by tumor cells that indicates the presence of a tumor,
as well as the specific type.
- Used to screen, diagnose, make a prognosis, evaluate a response to treatment, and monitor
for recurrence of cancer.