Engineering Science: Kinetics (Linear Motion)

Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi)
HD in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

TRN3402 Fundamental Engineering Science
Engineering Science: Kinetics

(Linear Motion)
a. Motion of a Particle
x
x
x1 x2
In one dimension, if a particle (small body in which there are no rotational effects) moves from
x1 to x2 it is said to have a displacement x2 - x1. If the small displacement x takes place in a
small time t, the particle has a velocity v, given by,
dx Limit x
v 
dt t  0 t
This result can be shown graphically by plotting displacement x against time t as follows:
x
Slope  v
t
x
x
t
Thus the velocity is given by the slope of the displacement / time curve.
Similarly if the velocity increases by a small amount v in a time t, the particle has an
acceleration,
d v Limit  v
a 
dt t  0 t
This can also be represented graphically by plotting velocity v against time t as shown below:
v
Slope  a
v t
v
t
t
The slope of the curve represents the acceleration a.
Kinetics Page 1 of 50
Last Updated: Aug 2016
Example
A body moves according to the equation

x  20t  t 2
where x is the displacement in metres from a reference position. Find
i) the velocity of the body at t = 3 seconds;
ii) the acceleration;
iii) the time when the velocity becomes 0.
dx
i) velocity , v  20  2t
dt
velocity at t=3, v = 20 –2(3) = 14 m/s
dv d  dx  d
    ( 20  2t ) ∴acceleration , a  2m / s
2
ii)acceleration, a 
dt dt  dt  dt
iii)when the velocity becomes 0,v=0 ∴ v  20  2t  0  t  10 s
b. Uniform Motion or Constant Velocity Case in One Dimension
The special case of uniform motion i.e. the velocity is constant, results in the following formula
dx
in one dimension; = constant = v c ; Integrating for with respect to t,
dt
x1 t1
dx
 dt dt = t v c dt
x0 0
and  x 1 - x 0  v c  t 1  t 0 ;
this equation is often written in the form,
x = x 0  v c t;
where, t  t 1 ; t 0  0; and x = x 1
x v
v
Slope   v  cons tan t Slope  a0
t t
xs
vc
x
x1 t t
x0 t0 t1
t
t0 t1
Area  v c  ( t 1  t 0 )  x 1  x 0
Hence, for uniform or constant velocity the acceleration is zero.
Uniform acceleration is often encountered under the force of gravity and also leads to some
simplifications.
v t
dv dv
dt
 a c  constant;  dt dt = 0 a c dt
v0
thus, v - v 0  a c t; or v = v 0  a c t
t x t
dx dx
and substituting for v,
dt
 v 0  a c t , integrating again, 0 dt dt  x dx   v
0
0  a c t dt
0
 x = x 0  v 0 t + 21 a c t 2
dv dx
Also from, a= ; substituting for dt = , gives,
dt v
dv
a= v; and adx = vdv ; integrating,
dx
v x
 vdv =  adx;
v0 x0
and if a = a c  constant, then,
1
2 v 2

 v 0 2  a c  x - x 0  or,
v 2  v 0  2a c  x - x 0 
2
(These equations can be represented graphically as follows:

v
v
Slope   a  cons tan t
x
x  f (t , t)
2
t
v
t t
Notation
A short hand notation for derivatives is often used in text books:
d d2
 x  x and 2  x  x etc.
dt dt
Example
After traveling a distance 1000m from its starting point a car continues, in a straight line, for
a further of 10 s. The distance travelled increases uniformly with time until it reaches a point
1200m from its starting point. What is its velocity during this period?
1200 - 1000
From equ. x - x 0  vt; v=  20 m s
10
Example
At a distance 20m from the end of a gun barrel, a bullet, travelling in a straight line, moves
according to the expression x = x 0  90 t - 2t 2 . What is the distance travelled after 5s and
the velocity of the bullet? How long before it comes to rest and how far will it have
travelled? What is the velocity after travelling for 700m.
x = x 0  90 t - 2t 2
x = 20 + 90  5 - 2  52 = 420m
dx
v=  90  4 t = 70 m s
dt
at rest,
v = 0; 90 - 4t = 0  t = 22.5s
and x = 20 + 90  22.5 - 2  22.52  1032.5m
v 2  v 0  2a c  x - x 0 
2
v 2  90 2  2  4 ( 700  0)  8100  5600

v = 50 m s
Example
The distance between Hong Kong and Beijing is about 1 500 km. The flight time was two
and a half hours. Determine the average velocity of the aircraft.
Solution:
the displacement is 1 500 km  1 500  103 m
the time taken is 2.5 hours  2.5  3600 sec  9000 sec
1 500  10 3
the average velocity of aircraft is v  166.66 m/s
9000
Example
A space ship after travelling 5 Gm from Earth in a straight line, has a velocity of 100 Mm/s.
It then decelerates at 500 km/s2. How long before it is brought to a stop and how far will it
have travelled from Earth? If the ship then accelerates back towards Earth at 500 km/s2 what
is its velocity when it is 100 Mm from Earth and how long will it have travelled back?
v = v0  a c t v 0  100Mm/s; a c = -500km/s2
t = 200s = 3min. 20s.
x = x 0  v 0 t + 12 a c t 2 ;
x = 5 + 100  10 3  200  21  500  10 6   200
2
The ship is x = 15 Gm from Earth when it stops.
v 2  v 0  2a c x - x 0 ; v 0  0; x 0  15 Gm; x = 100 Mm
2
v 2  2  500  10  6  14. 9  122 Mm / s
The Earth ship is travelling at v = 122 Mm/s, using v = v 0  a c t , hence,

122
t=  244 s;
0.5  10 -3
x=5Gm
100Mm/s v=0
100Mm 4.9Gm 10Gm
c. Aircraft Speed
A spaceship travelling in the space with the engine off may be assumed to move with constant
speed as the resistance is negligible.
An aircraft travels at constant speed if

Propulsion force of the engine = resistance force
Units for speed

SI Units: m/s, km/hour
Imperial Units: mile/hour (mph)
1 knot (nautical mile per hour)= 1.852 km/hr = 1.1508 mph

where 1 nautical mile =1.1508 mile
= distance of (1/60) degree in longitude
Aircraft speeds
Ground speed
It is the aircraft speed over or relative to the ground. Its value is affected by wind and calculated
by the addition of two vectors, air speed and wind speed .
Air speed
It is the speed through or relative to the air, which is equal to the forward speed. It is not
affected by the wind.
In still air: air speed = ground speed
With wind speed, ground speed = vector sum (air speed &wind speed)
Air speed relative to sound speed

Sound speed at sea-level = 340 m/s=661 knots= 1224 km/hr
Sub-sonic = speed below sonic speed
Transonic= speed approaching and passing through the sound barrier
Supersonic = speed above sonic velocity
Hypersonic = speed exceeds about 5 times the sonic speed (rocket driven)
Mach number
Mach 1 = speed of sound at the altitude where the aircraft is flying
Airliner cruise speed = Mach 0.85 (880-950 km/h)
Concorde cruise speed = Mach 2 (2130 km/hr) , at altitude of 15 km , sound speed 1065km/h
Transonic speed= can only maintain for very short periods.
d. Equations of Motion in Two Dimensions (Projectile)
If a particle travels on a curved path at any point along this path its motion can be defined by;
dr
a displacement vector r , and its velocity v = which has components
dt
dx dy
vx  and v y 
dt dt
d2r
and its acceleration a = 2 which has components
dt
d2x d2y
ax  2 ; ay  2
dt dt
Motion of a Projectile
A special case of two dimensional motion occurs for the motion of a projectile under the
influence of gravity.
y
_
v Initial velocity at t = 0, tangential to path
vy
Projectile path y = f(x)
vx x
In this case the components of acceleration are:
a x  0; and a y   g using equ. above integrating gives,

v x  c; v y  -gt + b; where c and b are constants of integration
when t = 0, v x  v x, 0 and v y  v y, 0
v x  v x, 0 and v y  v y, 0  gt integrating again gives
x = v x, 0 t; and y = v y, 0 t - 21 gt 2 since x = 0, and y = 0 when t = 0
Example
A tennis ball is fired from a practice machine at a velocity of 20 m/s and makes an angle with
the horizontal of 60. Assuming the effect of air friction is negligible how far will it have
traveled when it hits the ground, if it weighs 50 g.
20 m/s
60
When the ball hits the ground y = 0; and from above equ.
y = v y,0 t - 21 gt 2
For y = 0; v y,0 t - 12 gt 2  0;
2v y,0
t(v y,0  21 g.t) = 0; has roots t = 0 and t =
;
g
The velocity v = 20 m/s has components in the x an y directions,
v y,0  v sin 60   17.32 m / s ; v x,0  v cos 60   10 m / s

2v y,0
therefore, t = . s , and x  v x ,0 . t  35.31 m
 353
g
Example
A child fires a toy water gun and the water jet strikes a target 1 m from the ground and 20 m
away. If the gun is being held at an angle of 5 above the horizontal and 50 cm above the
ground, what is the exit velocity from the gun's muzzle?
20
x = v x,0 t = 20;  v.cos .t = 20; and v = ;
cos .t
y = y 0 + v y,0 t - 21 gt 2
1.0  0.5  v.sin .t - 12 gt 2
v.sin .t - 12 gt 2  0.5  0
t. sin 
2 gt  20 .  0. 5  0
1 2
t. cos 
1
2 gt 2  20. tan  0. 5  0
2(20.tan   - 0.5)
t=  0.505
g
20 20
v   39.75 m / s
t cos  0.5.cos 5
(Angular Motion, Centripetal Force)
A. Angular Motion
a. Relationship between angular displacement, velocity and acceleration
Angular Position
In the figure below, the angular position of r is defined by the angular 　, measured between a
fixed reference line and r. Here r extends perpendicular from the axis of rotation at point O to a
point P in the body.

P
 d
ref. line
Angular Displacement
The change in angular position, often measured as a differential dθ　 is called the angular
displacement which measured in degrees, radians, or revolutions.
Note: 1 rev (revolution) = 2π radian = 360o
Angular Velocity, ω
The time rate of change in the angular position is called the angular velocity ω . Since dθ　
occurs during an instant of time dt, then
d

dt
This vector has a magnitude which is often measured in rad/s.
If the line OP makes N revs/min (RPM), its equivalent angular velocity is

2N
 (unit: rad/s)
60
Angular Acceleration, α
The angular acceleration α is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity. It is a vector
quantity and its magnitude could be written as:
d d 2
 or  2
dt dt
The line of action of ω is the same as that for α ; however, its sense of direction depends on
whether α is increasing or decreasing with time. In particular, if α is decreasing, α is called an
angular deceleration and therefore has a sense of direction which is opposite to ω.

 
Angular Acceleration Angular Deceleration
b. Constant Angular Acceleration Motion
If the angular acceleration of the body is constant, then it yields a set of formulae which related
the body’s angular velocity, angular position, and time. These equations are similar to equations
of linear motion in previous sections. The equations are:
   o  t
   o   o t  12 t 2
 2   o2  2 (   o )
Remark: Angle should be measured in radian when using these equations.

θo and ωo are the initial angular position and velocity of the body respectively.
Example
A rotor is found to complete 6 revolutions from rest in 5 seconds. Assuming uniform acceleration
during the period, what is the angular acceleration of the motion?
Solution
Angular displacement d = 6  2 = 12

Initial angular velocity o = 0
Time period t = 5 s
1
   o   o t  t 2
2
1
   o   o t  t 2
2
1
12  0    5 2
2
  3.016 rad/s 2
Example
A rotor accelerates uniformly from rest with an angular acceleration of 5 rad/s2. What will be its
angular velocity after 6 sec and the total angular displacement made in that period?
Solution
Initial angular velocity o = 0

Angular acceleration  = 5 rad/s2
Time period t = 6 s
   o  t  0  5  6  30 rad/s
1 1
   o   o t  t 2  0  6   5  6 2  90 rad
2 2
c. Relationship between Linear and Angular Motion
P’

s

r P
O
Consider a line OP turning at a constant angular velocity of  rad/s, the distance s covered by
point P related to the angular displacement  equals
s  r
s  rt
s
Thus, v  r
t
u
If the point P has an initial velocity u and the corresponding angular velocity o equals
. It
r
then accelerates with a uniform angular acceleration  to a linear velocity v and the
corresponding angular velocity , we have
  o

t
r  r o v  u
r   a
t t
Thus, a  r
Example
The wheel of a vehicle is found rotating at a speed of 300 rev/min. Find the travelling velocity of
the vehicle if the wheel diameter is 0.9 m.
Solution
2  300
Angular velocity    10 rad/s
60
0.9
Travelling velocity v  r   10  14.1 m/s (50.9 km/h)
2
Example
A video recorder can wind a tape of 15m long in 15 seconds when it is in fast winding mode as
shown in the figure below. Assuming the time for accelerating is negligible. If the mean diameter
of the tape holder, D, is assumed to be 50 mm, what is the angular speed ω of the tape winder?
After the tape has been wound for 15m, it was stopped by applying torque to the motor. What is the
angular deceleration of the tape if it is stopped in further 0.75 revolution?
tape

D
holder
Solution
a) The perimeter of the tape holder is = 2πr = 2π(50/2) = 50π mm

The number of revolution required to wind the tape is:
= length of tape / perimeter
= 15 m / 50 π mm = 15 000 / 50 π revolution
Therefore, the radian required is: (15 000 / 50π)2π radian = 600 radian.
Hence the angular speed = 600 radian / (15 s) = 40 rad/s
b) 0.75 revolution = 0.75  2π = 4.712 rad

initial angular velocity ωo = 40 rad/s
final angular velocity ω = 0 rad/s
angular displacement dθ　= 4.712 rad
using ω2 - ωo2 = 2αdθ

0 - 402 = 2  α 　 4.712
α = - 169.8 rad/s2
(- ve sign indicates it is decelerating)
B. Rotation of a Rigid Body (Torque and Moment of Inertia)
dm
r
O T, 
Consider a rigid body is rotating about O with an angular acceleration . By Newton’s law
of motion, there must be a torque applied to the rigid body to give this acceleration.
Let dm be the elemental mass of the body.

The tangential inertia force to be applied on dm  dm    r
Therefore, the turning moment or torque due to the tangential inertia force,
T  dm    r 2
The total torque can be found by summation of all the elemental torque.
T    r 2 dm  I o
where I o   r 2 dm is the moment of inertia of the whole mass of the body about O.
a. Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia of a body about an axis relates to the resistance of turning this body
about this particular axis. A rotor with large moment of inertia requires a high starting
torque to initiate the motion.
The moment of inertia of an object is defined by
I o   r 2 dm (unit: kg-m2)
The moment of inertia of some common bodies are shown below:

a) a small concentrated mass
r m
I  mr 2
b) a sphere of mass m and radius r
2 2
I mr
5
c) a thin disc of mass m and radius r
1 2
I mr
2
d) a slender rod of length l
1
I ml 2
12
b. Radius of Gyration
Imagine the mass of the body is focused at a particular radius k from the rotating axis, Io
could be expressed as I o  mk 2 , where k is defined as the radius of gyration.
Io
k (unit: m)
m
It should be remember that the radius of gyration relates to the shape and size of the rigid
body, however, it cannot be measured physically.
For a cylinder or disk of uniform thickness, radius of gyration k = r/21/2
Example
A rotor has a mass of 250 kg and a radius of gyration of 0.6 m. If it is initially turning at 1000
rev/min, estimate the braking torque to be applied to rotor so that it will stop in 30 s.
Solution
Moment of inertia I  mk 2  250  0.6 2  90 kgm 2
2  1000
Initial angular velocity  o   104.7 rad/s
60
Final angular velocity   0
Time period t  30 s
  o 0  104.7
Angular acceleration     3.49 rad/s 2
t 30
Braking torque T  I  90  3.49  314 Nm
C. Angular Momentum (moment of momentum)
The angular momentum of a body is the moment of linear momentum about the axis of rotation.
For a particle of mass m moving in a circular path of radius r at velocity v, the moment of its
linear momentum = mv  r.
Therefore, the angular momentum  mvr  mr 2  I (unit: kg m2/s or Nms)
Also, the total angular momentum of a system remains unchanged unless an external torque is
applied to the system.
Conservation of Angular Momentum:

Sum of Angular Momentum before impact = Sum of Angular Momentum after impact
I
Torque applied = rate of change of angular momentum   I
t
is known as the moment of momentum or the angular momentum about the polar axis.
Impact of Rotating Discs
Conservation of Angular Momentum applies to those problems where there are no external
torque. For example the impact of bodies A and B having polar moments of inertia
I G, A and I G, B , respectively,
angular momenta before impact = angular momenta after impact
I G, AA,0  IG, BB,0  IG, AA,1 + IG, BB,1
Example
A system consisting of a flywheel A connected to one element of a positive action clutch and
a flywheel B attached to the other element. Flywheel A weighs 250 N and has a radius of
gyration of 25 cm. Flywheel B weighs 500 N and has a radius of gyration of 30 cm. When
flywheel A is rotating at 100 rpm and flywheel B is at rest, the clutch is suddenly engaged.
Neglecting all friction and inertia of all clutch elements except the flywheels, determine the
speed of the flywheels immediately after they are engaged.
250  0. 252 500  0. 32

IA  ; IB 
9.81 9. 81
After the clutch has engaged the angular velocity of the flywheel A and B are the same and
equal to . i.e. the coefficient of restitution e = 0. Then using Conservation of Angular
Momentum.
Angular Momenta before = Angular Momenta after
I A  100  0  I A   I B
250  0. 252  100
  25. 8 rpm
250  0. 252  500  0. 32
Tutorial Problems
1. A flywheel of 150 kg has a radius of gyration of 500 mm. Find its angular acceleration when a
torque of 12 Nm is applied. Neglect friction in bearings. (0.32 rad/s2)
2. A winding drum of mass 200 kg and has a radius of gyration of 1.5 m. Find the torque required
to raise the speed from 40 to 80 rpm in 1 minute if the friction torque in bearings is 10 Nm.
(41.4 Nm)
D. Centripetal /Centrifugal Force
Consider a particle of mass m rotating in a circular path of radius r with a constant speed as
shown in the figure below. At both point A and B, the particle has the same velocity in
magnitude, but in different direction. Since there is a change in velocity vector V in the
time interval t, there should be an acceleration when the particle move from A to B.
A 
r
 VA
B VB
V
VA
VB
Let V be the magnitude of the velocity vector VA and VB.
V  V   if  is small
V V   V2
The acceleration of the particle, a    V     2r
t t r
The direction of this acceleration is towards the centre of the circular motion and is called
the centripetal acceleration.
Since a force should be acted in the same direction to give the centripetal acceleration, this
force is known as the centripetal force.
mV 2
F  ma   m 2 r .
r
Inertia force
m
Centripetal force
constant 
If the particle m is attached to a string with no mass, then the tension in the string constrains
the particle to move on a circular path as shown above. This tension represents the
centripetal force.
a. Common examples
Conical Pendulum
The figure below shows a body of mass m suspended by a light weight cord of length l. If
the mass is rotating about the vertical axis at constant angular velocity, the cord will be
slightly displaced. Simple pendulum type governor applies this principle in the speed
control of an engine.
 h T

m  2r
mg
r
m  2r
mg
r m 2 r  2 r
tan  tan   
h mg g
r  2r g
Therefore,  h
h g 2
Example
Find the height of a simple pendulum type conical governor when running at a speed of 80 RPM.
What will be the change in speed when the height is reduced by 6 mm?
Solution
2  80
  8.378 rad/s
60
g 9.81
h   0.1398 m
 2
8.378 2
New pendulum height  0.1398  0.006  0.1338 m
g 9.81
New speed,     8.563 rad/s (or 81.77 RPM)
h 0.1338
Therefore, the change in speed = +1.77 RPM
Example
A mass of 2 kg is attached to the end of a 0.7 m long string and it is whirled round in a vertical
circle. What is the maximum and minimum tension in the string when the string is turning at 4
rev/s?
Solution
F T
T + mg F + mg
At top At bottom
Centripetal force F  m 2 r  2  2  4  0.7  884 N

2
Maximum tension occurs at the bottom of the path

T  F  mg  884  2  9.81  903.6 N
Minimum tension occurs at the top of the path

T  F  mg  884  2  9.81  864.4 N
Example
A small block B is supported by a turntable which starting from rest is rotated in such a way that
the block undergoes a constant tangential acceleration a t  18 . m / s2 . The coefficient of static
friction between the block and the turntable is 0.6. Determine (a) how long it will take for the
block to start slipping on the turntable, (b) the speed v of the block at that instant.
60 cm
a r   r 2
A v
B mg
F
N
Free body diagram
Solution
Dynamic Equilibrium F  mr 2  0 (1)

Vertical Equilibrium   N  mg  0 (2)
From Law of Friction slipping occurs when F  N  mg (3)
Equation of motion    0  t and at   .r (4)
Hence, using (1) and (3)
F  m 2 r  mg
g 0.6  9.81
   3.132 rad/s
r 0 .6
r 0.6  3.132
From (4) t   1.044 s
at 1.8
v   .r  3.131 0.6  1.8 m/s
Example
For a model aeroplane connected by a string traveling in a circle with radius r and mass m,
the centripetal force provided to the aeroplane = tension in the string
= mv2 /r = mr ω2
Example
For an model plane of mass 3 kg traveling at constant speed of 50 km per hour at a radius of 15 m,
find the centripetal force required.
F = mv2 /r
= 3 * (50*1000/3600)2 /15
= 38.6 N
Example
For a space shuttle revolving around the earth, the centripetal force will be provided by the
gravitation force due to the earth GMm /r2 .
Where r = R+H
R = radius of earth, and
H= altitude above the earth
G = Universal gravitational constant
mv2 /r = GMm /r2
v2 = GM /r
b. Vehicle Banking
While a vehicle is rounding a curve track with a constant speed, the centrifugal force will
act on the vehicle radially outwards. However, this force is balanced by the frictional force
between the road and tyres, otherwise the vehicle will skid outwards. The road banking will
eliminate side thrust on the tyres caused by the centrifugal effect, thus it results in reducing
the tendency of side-skidding and overturning when rounding a corner at high speed.
Vehicle Round Curved Track
1) Motorcycle Round an Unbanked Track
r Fc
hcosα
F
mg
N
At limiting condition of skidding,
Normal reaction on tyre, N  mg
Frictional force on tyre, F  N  mg
With force equilibrium in horizontal direction,

mV 2
mg  Fc 
r
Therefore, the maximum speed to avoid side-skidding, V  gr (m/s)
Form above equation, we can see that side-skidding tends to occur at small values of  and r.
If there is no side-skidding, the angle of tilt, , of the motorcycle rounding at velocity V can
be determined.
mV 2
 h  cos  mgh  sin 
r
V2 V 2 
tan   or   tan 1  
rg  rg 
It can be shown that when  > tan-1 , side-skidding will occur.
2) Motorcycle Round a Banked Track
 
 
r Fc
 mg
N
The centripetal force will be provided by the normal reaction and the frictional force.
3) Motor vehicle Round an Unbanked Track
a a
r
Fc
h
Fi Fo
mg
Ni No
Resolve all forces along horizontal direction

Fi  Fo    N i  N o   Fc
mV 2
mg 
r
Therefore, the maximum speed to avoid side-skidding, V  gr (m/s)
Take moment about c.g.

M  0 N i a  Fi h  Fo h  N o a
mV 2
Ni a  h  Noa
r
mV 2
Ni a  h  mg  N i a since N i  N o  mg
r
1 mV 2 h 
Therefore, N i   mg   (Total reactions on inner wheels)
2 ra 
1 mV 2 h 
N o   mg   (Total reactions on outer wheels)
2 ra 
Since the inner wheels leaves the ground at the point of overturning, the total reactions at
inner wheels will be zero.
1 mV 2 h 
N i   mg  0
2 ra 
gra
Thus, it gives the maximum speed to avoid overturning, V  (m/s)
h
4) Motor vehicle Round a Banked Track
a
a
Fc
r
N
R
h 
mg  F
  tan 1   +
mg
Fc
The centripetal force will be provided by the normal reaction and the frictional force.
mV 2
Fc   mg tan    
r
5) Banking of aircraft
For an aircraft to turn round a circle, the centripetal force required is provided by banking. It
is similar to the case of banking on road for the motor car. However, force is due to the lift
on the aircraft but not the reaction force by the road surface.
L sin  = mv2 /r
L cos  = W = mg
Tan  = v2 /gr
Where  = angle of banking
The angle of banking depends on the radius of the turning circle and the aircraft speed. If
the angle of banking is greater or less than the correct value, the aircraft sideslips inwards or
outwards.
Example
An aircraft turns round a circle of radius 200 m when cruising at a speed of 100 knots. Find the
correct angle of banking.
V = 100 knots = 100 * 0.514 = 51.4 m/s
Tan  = v2 /gr = 51.42 / (9.81*200)
 = 54o
(Periodic Motion, Vibration)
a. Free Vibration
Vibration is a rhythmic motion back and forth across an equilibrium position. A body may
vibrate when its equilibrium state has been disturbed. A mass spring system is one of the
most typical examples. A system will vibrate with a constant frequency known as the
natural frequency when it is free to vibrate without the presence of external force. The
amplitude of vibration will remain constant if there is no friction or damping. However,
with air resistance or friction, the amplitude of vibration will diminish after a few cycles.
b. Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M) is one of the simplest type of vibration. It is defined as a
periodic motion (i.e. motion repeats itself regularly) in which its acceleration is
proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and is always directed towards that point.
v
Reference
Position a
 
a   kx where k is a constant
(Negative sign indicates the opposite sense of acceleration)
Consider a particle P move in a circular path of radius, a, with a constant angular velocity,
.
v
vcos
vsin P

A O x Q B
 is the angular displacement from OB
If time t is measured from OB,   t
If Q is the projection of P on the diameter AB, the displacement of Q from O is

  
x  A cos   A cos t

The maximum displacement x  A is termed as the amplitude of the motion.
Velocity of Q along AB = Velocity component of P parallel to AB

 dx d  
v   A cos t   A sin t
dt dt
A sin t  A sin   PQ  A2  x 2
 
v   A2  x 2
vmax  A when x  0 at centre
Acceleration of Q along AB

 dv d  
a   A sin t    2 A cos t
dt dt
 
a   2 x
amax   2 A when x  A
Thus, the acceleration of Q is proportional to the displacement from the fixed point O and is
always directed towards O, so that the motion of Q is Simple Harmonic.
Period, T, is defined as the time taken for one complete revolution of P.

2
T

a a
since  2  , 
x x
x Displacement
T  2  2
a Acceleration
Frequency, f (Unit: cycles/sec, Hz)

1 1 a
f  or f 
T 2 x
Example
A body perform S.H.M. in a straight line. Its velocity is 12 m/s when the displacement is 50 mm,
and 3 m/s when the displacement is 100 mm, the displacement being measured from the mid-
position. Calculate the frequency and the amplitude of the motion. What is the acceleration when
the displacement is 75 mm?
Solution
v   A2  x 2
v1  12 m/s at x1  50 mm (1)
v2  3 m/s at x 2  100 mm (2)
12   A2  0.052
3   A2  0.12
12 A2  0.052

3 A2  0.12
A2  0.0025
16 
A2  0.01
A  0.1025 m
Substitute into (1)

12   0.1025 2  0.05 2
  134 rad/s
1  134
Frequency, f     21.3 Hz
T 2 2
Acceleration when x  75 mm
a   2 x  1342  0.075  1,347 m/s2
c. Mass on a Vertical Spring
k k k
O’ d
O m
m
x x, x , x
mg
mg

d  static deflection
   
mg  kd ( F  k x )
 
mg
 d 
k
 
 
Restoring force =  k d  x
 
   
ma  mg  k d  x
 
sub. mg with  kd
 
ma   kx
 k 
a x
m
k
 n  (rad/s)
m

Since x is measured from O, the motion is S.H.M. about O.
m
Thus, we have T  2 (sec)
k
1 1 k
f   (Hz)
T 2 m
d mg
or T  2 (sec) (since k  )
g d
1 1 g
f   (Hz)
T 2 d
d. Vibration of Cantilever Beam
l y, y , y
This is similar to the wing of an aircraft.
Deflection of the beam can be expressed as

Fl 3
y
3EI
where F is the force required to be applied at the end of the cantilever to produce deflection
y.
 Restoring force of the elastic element when displaced by y is

3EI
F y
l3
Equation of motion
3EI
 y  My
l3
3EI
My  y0
l3
3EI
 n  (rad/s)
Ml 3
Ml 3
Thus, we have T  2 (sec)
3EI
1 1 3EI
f   (Hz)
T 2 ML3
e. Simple Pendulum
A mass of m kg suspended at the end of a light cord of length l is given a small

displacement  from the equilibrium position OA and then released.
l

A s
a
mg
Restoring Force =  mg sin 
since F = ma
 mg sin   ma
a   g sin 
s
If  is small, sin     where s is the arc length.
l
s
we have a  g
l
compare to a   2 x (S.H.M)
g
Thus, 
l
2 l
Period, T  2 (sec)
 g
1 1 g
Frequency, f   (Hz)
T 2 l
Example
A simple pendulum was observed to perform forty oscillations in 100 sec of amplitude of 4. Find :
a) The length of the pendulum
b) The max. linear acceleration of the pendulum
c) The max. velocity of the bob
d) The max. angular velocity of the pendulum
Solution
100
a) Period, T   2.5 sec
40
l 
T  2
g l
l
2.5  2
9.81
l  1.55 m O
a
2 2 2
b) T or    2.51 rad/s
 T 2.5
4
Amplitude, a  OA  l  1.55     0.1084 m
180
amax   2 A  2.512  0.1084  0.683 m/s 2
c) & d) Max. angular velocity of the pendulum and linear velocity of the bob occurs when it
passes through the mid-position
4
Max. angular velocity,  max    2.51  0.175 rad/s
180
Max. velocity, vmax   max l  0.175  1.55  0.272 m/s
f. Forced vibration, resonance and harmonics
The effect of free vibration may not be harmful for free vibration. However, if an elastic
system is continuously disturbed by a force, the situation will be different. This is known as
forced vibration. When the frequency of the disturbing force matches with the natural
frequency of the elastic system, the amplitude of vibration will grow and become infinite if
there is no damping. This phenomenon is known as resonance.
Resonance may be very harmful or destructive to structure such as aircraft wings. The
source of disturbance may come from some moving parts such as motor, exhaust fan,
gearbox, turbine or engine.
The resonant effect is most pronounced at the fundamental (natural) frequency, but it may
also occur at higher orders of frequency known as harmonics.
If  is the natural frequency, then
2nd harmonic = 2 .
3rd harmonic = 3 
Resonance effect may also be constructive when it is applied in radio or musical instrument.
In many engineering situations, vibration or resonant effect has to be reduced or avoided. It

can be done by keeping the natural frequency well below or above the expected forcing
frequency. This may be achieved by increasing or decreasing the stiffness of a system.
Another common way to reduce vibration is by adding damping effect. This becomes more
significant in space or in very high altitude with negligible air resistance.
Tutorial
1. A particle describes simple harmonic motion has a displacement given in metre by
X= 0.05 sin (4t)
Where t is the time measured in second.
Find the angular frequency (in rad/s), period, amplitude and maximum speed.
At the instant t = 7/6 second, find the displacement, velocity and acceleration.
Ans.: 4 rad/s, 0.5 sec, 0.05 m , 0.628 m/s; 0.043 m, -0.314 m/s, -6.84 m/s2
2. A body executing S.H.M. has a velocity 0.1 m/s and acceleration 0.1 m/s2 when displaced 0.1
m from the equilibrium position. Find the amplitude, period and frequency of the motion.
Ans.: 0.14 m, 6.28 sec, 0.16 Hz
(Simple Machines, MA,VR, Efficiency)
a. MA,VR, Efficiency
A machine is a device by means of which a force (called effort) applied at one point can be
used to overcome another force (called load) at some other point.
The purposes of employing a machine instead of applying the effort directly are:
i)To enlarge the effect of the magnitude of the applied force (effort saving)
ii)To enlarge movement (work more quickly)
iii)To change the point of application and/or lines of action of the applied force (more
convenience)
As the magnitudes of effort and load are different, and their extents of movement (and
hence their velocities) are different, it is necessary to define the following:
Mechanical Advantage
The mechanical advantage (M.A.) of a machine is defined as the ratio of the load to the
effort.
load ( L)
i.e. M . A.  [ a large M.A. means that purpose (i) is satisfied ]
effort ( E )
Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio (V.R.) of a machine is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by the
effort to the distance moved by the load in the same time.
dis tan cemoved by effort (d E )

i.e. V .R. 
dis tan cemoved byload inthe sametime(d L )
[ a small V.R. (less than 1) means that purpose (ii) is satisfied ]
Efficiency
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the useful work done by the machine to the total
work put into the machine.
useful work output (Wout )

i.e. efficiency 
work input (Win )
The relationship among these three quantities (all ratio, no unit) can be derived as follows:
Wout LdL
efficiency  
Win E  dE
(L / E) M . A.
 
(d E / d L ) V . R.
Note: Practically, machine efficiencies are less than 100%. If the machine efficiency is
100%, we call the machine a perfect machine or an ideal machine.
In calculating machines problems, the following points should be noted:
i) The V.R. can always be found by considering the geometry of the machine. The
M.A. can be found by experiments only, or from the value of V.R. and efficiency.
ii) M.A. and efficiency of a machine increases slightly as the load becomes heavier;
V.R. is constant.
iii) In compound machinery ( a combination of simple machines), the total velocity ratio
is the product of the individual simple machines.
i.e. V.R.Total = V.R.1 x V.R.2 x .... x V.R.n
iv) M.A.  V.R.
b. Lever System
Lever consists of any rigid body which is pivoted about an axis called the fulcrum. Effort is
applied at one point on the lever, and overcomes the load at some other point. Distance from
fulcrum to point of application of the effort is called the effort arm; distance from fulcrum
to point of application of the load is called the load arm.
Neglecting friction at fulcrum and weight of lever (both usually small), levers are
perfect machines.
L
dE
dL
F
Taking moment about F, dL x L = dE x E
L dE
 
E dL (Note: in perfect lever only)
V . R.  M . A.
Three classes of Lever System:
L Fulcrum,C E
a b
When the lever is in equilibrium, moment about the fulcrum C is zero.
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

La = Eb
E = La/b
The load L can be raised by a smaller force E (Effort) because a is less than b.
Fulcrum
Effort
Load
First-Class Lever
Effort
Fulcrum
Load
Second-Class Lever
Effort
Fulcrum
Load
Third-Class Lever
c. Pulley System
i) A single fixed pulley
V.R. = 1
E L
ii) A single moving pulley

By geometry, when E moves upward 2m, L only moves up 1m.
E
E
E P
2m
F P F
o
1m
L o
(a) (b)
Consider the above figure. Point f is a fixed point. The length of cord from F to P is also
kept constant. When point P travel 2m, the centre of the circle raises 1 m. Therefore, V.R. =
2 in the pulley system in figure 6a.
iii) Blocks of Pulleys
E E
L
L
V.R. = 4 V.R. = 6
V.R. = 6
Consider a single string passes round a set of pulleys as shown in the above figures.
In general, (if effort is acting downward as in the figures, but attentions must be paid)
V.R. = no. of sections of string supporting the lower block.
Another method is first assume the efficiency of the pulley system is 100% (a perfect
machine) and determine the M.A. of the pulley system by considering the tension of the
string and the load.
However, efficiency < 1 for 3 reasons:
i) weight of lower block and string;

ii) friction in pulley bearing;
iii) strings often not vertical.
Example
A system of pulleys consists of an upper block fitted with three pulleys and a lower block fitted
with two pulleys. A downward acting effort of 90 N is required to raise a body having a mass of 30
kg. Calculate the efficiency of the system and the work done by the effort in lifting the body for a
distance of 100 mm. Neglect friction and weight of pulleys.
Solution:
V.R. = Total number of sections of string supporting the lower block = 5
The load of the system is equal to the weight of body,
L = mg = 30 x 9.81 = 294.3 N
M.A. = load (L) / effort (E) = 294.3 N / 90 N = 3.27
The efficiency of the system,
 = M.A. / V.R. = 3.27 / 5 = 0.654 = 65.4 %
Distance moved by the effort (dE) = V.R. x Distance moved by the load (dL)
 dE = 5 x 0.1 m = 0.5 m
Work done by the effort,
Win = E x dE = 90 x 0.5 = 45 J
d. Screw Jack
Effort is applied to turn the screw and the load is raised by every pitch of the screw when
the effort is completely turned a revolution. Since the effort turns one round move 2l, L is
raised by p, therefore:
2l
V . R. 
p
l
Since the ratio V.R. is comparative large, screw jack is common used to lift heavy
load. However, as the friction in the thread is large as well, the efficiency of a screw jack is
usually small through it can lift heavy load.
Example
A screw jack is used to lift a mass of 300kg. The screw has a thread with a pitch of 8 mm. An effort
of 54 N has to be applied tangentially at a radius of 250 mm to lift the load. Calculate the velocity
ratio, the mechanical advantage and the efficiency of the screw jack.
Solution:
Load = mg = 300 x 9.81 = 2943 N
Velocity ratio, V.R.= 2l / p = 2 x 250 mm / 8 mm = 196
Mechanical Advantage, M.A. = L / E =2943 N / 54 N = 54.5
Efficiency,  = M.A. / V.R. = 54.5 / 196 = 0.278 = 27.8 %
e. Gears
Toothed gears are used to transmit motion and power between shafts rotating in a specified
velocity ratio. Although there are other ways of doing this, few provide the positive drive
without slip and permit such high torque to be transmitted as the toothed gear. Furthermore,
gears adequate lubricated operate at remarkably high efficiencies over a very wide speed
range (limited only by imperfections arising during manufacturing or assembly). Normally
the velocity ratio is required to be constant, that is, the same in all positions of the mating
gears. The load torque that can be transmitted by gears is not limited by slip as in belt drives,
but by the tooth stresses and gear materials.
Gear Train
Any series of toothed gears arranged so as to transmit rotational motion from an input shaft
to an output shaft is called a gear train.
Since most gear trains are designed to produce a speed reduction, the gear ratio is usually
defined as the input speed : output speed ratio, thus giving a factor greater than unity (1). A
“+” or “-” sign can be used to indicate the same or opposite direction of rotation.
For any pair of meshing wheels in a train, the velocity ratio is inversely proportional to the
number of teeth in the wheels. In addition, the local linear velocity at the contact point of
the meshing gears must be the same, otherwise slipping will occur. For two external gears
the direction of rotation is opposite, but for an external-internal pair it is the same.
Gear Ratio
The gear ratio, G, of a pair of meshing gears, A and B, can be expressed as:
A B
 T
G A  B
B TA
The number of teeth, T, is proportional to the diameter of the gear. The -ve sign signifies
that A and B rotate in opposite direction.
Simple Train
Figure below shows a simple train of external gears. The gear ratio is easily expressed in
terms of number of teeth.
A A B
G  
C B C A T B T
since  B and  C .
 T   T  T B TA C TB
  B  C   C
 TA   TB  TA
The -ve signs signify that A B rotate in opposite direction.

C
B
A
Compound Train
Figure below shows a compound gear train A, B, C, D. The gears B and C are said to be
compounded and rotate together with the same speed, giving
 A  A C
G  x
D B D
  T   T  T xT
  B  D   B D
 TA  TC  TA xTC
Power Transmission
The power transmitted by a rotating shaft/gear can be calculated as:
Power = Torque x Angular velocity = 　　　
If, allowing for friction, the efficiency of the unit is 　, then
output power

input power
Example
The winch shown below consists of a double-reduction compound gear train A,B,C and D. It has an
effort drum 72 cm dia. rotating with the first gear wheel A and a load drum 18 cm dia. rotating with
the last wheel D. The number of teeth on each gear is as follow: Ta =12, Tb =60, Tc =20, Td =80. If
the efficiency of the gear train is 85 %, calculate the effort required to lift a load of 1100 kg.
Solution:
For each revolution of the effort drum,
distance moved by the effort, dE =  x diameter of effort drum (De) =  De
distance moved by the load, dL =  x diameter of load drum (Dl) x reduction ratio of gear train
=  Dl x (D / A)
Hence the velocity ratio for the winch is
dE De D  D T xT
V .R.    ex A  ex b d
d L D x  D Dl  D Dl Ta xTc
l
A
72 60 x80
 x =80
18 12 x 20
M.A. = efficiency x V.R. = 0.85 x 80 = 68
Effort, E = L / M.A. = 1100 x 9.81/ 68 = 158.7 N
Tutorial
1. For the three levers shown in the following figures, determine
i) the vertical force F required to lift the load L if L = 180N.

ii) the mechanical advantage for each lever.
iii) State the assumptions made in your calculations.
4 2
(a
F L
(b
1 F
L
2
(c 60 L
5
2. A 200kg block is to be lifted from the ground by using a 3-m long lever. If the maximum force
that can be applied to the lever is 350N, determine the position of the fulcrum.
3. Determine the force required to lift a 200N load with each of the pulley systems shown in the
figures. Neglect friction and the weight of the pulleys.
F
F
F
200 200N
Kinetics (a (b 200N
Page 48 of 50
(c
F
200N
(d 200N
(e
4. For pulley system (d), if the actual applied force is 60 N, calculate the mechanical advantage and
efficiency of the system.
5. A screw jack has a lever arm of 40 cm and a pitch of 5 mm. Determine the force required to lift a
load of 270 kg if the jack has an efficiency of 30 percent.
6. Power is transmitted to a shaft from an engine via a gear train. The simple gear train consists of
two gears, the number of teeth of the input and the output gears are 20 and 80 respectively. The
gear train has an efficiency of 95%.
a) Calculate the gear ratio of the gear train.

b) If the input power to be transmitted from the engine is 1 kW at 1500 r.p.m., what is
the output torque from gear train?
7. In the gear drive shown below, a drum with diameter 45 cm rotates with the gear A and another
drum is keyed to the gear D. A load of one tonne is to be raised by a rope wrapped round drum
D and the effort is applied to a rope wrapped round drum A. B and C form a compound wheel
rotating together. The number of teeth on each gear is as follows: A 25, B 100, C 20, D 100.
a) Determine the diameter of the drum D if the velocity ratio of the machine is 37.5.
b) If the efficiency of the machine is 65 %, what is the effort required?
8. A pump is driven by an electric motor via a reduction gear box. The motor develops 50 kW at
3600 r.p.m. when the pump is running at 540 r.p.m. and the gear box is transmitting a torque of
866Nm.
a) Calculate the torque produced by the motor;
b) The efficiency of the gear box and,
c) The friction torque in the gear box at the output shaft.
Answers
1. i) a) 90N b) 60N c) 83.2N

ii) a) 2 b) 3 c) 2.16
iii) 100% efficiency, lever has no weight, no friction, point load.
2. 0.454 m from the block

3. a) 100N b) 100N c) 50N d) 50N e) 50N
4. MA = 3.33, efficiency = 83.3%
5. 17.5N
6. a) 4 b) 24.2 Nm
7. a) 24 cm b) 402 N
8. a) 132.6Nm b) 97.9% c) 18.58Nm

Engineering Science: Kinetics (Linear Motion)

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Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi)

HD in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

Engineering Science: Kinetics

The slope of the curve represents the acceleration a.

A body moves according to the equation

iii)when the velocity becomes 0,v=0 ∴ v  20  2t  0  t  10 s

b. Uniform Motion or Constant Velocity Case in One Dimension

(These equations can be represented graphically as follows:

A short hand notation for derivatives is often used in text books:

v 2  90 2  2  4 ( 700  0)  8100  5600

the displacement is 1 500 km  1 500  103 m

t = 200s = 3min. 20s.

The ship is x = 15 Gm from Earth when it stops.

v 2  2  500  10  6  14. 9  122 Mm / s

The Earth ship is travelling at v = 122 Mm/s, using v = v 0  a c t , hence,

100Mm 4.9Gm 10Gm

An aircraft travels at constant speed if

Units for speed

1 knot (nautical mile per hour)= 1.852 km/hr = 1.1508 mph

In still air: air speed = ground speed

Air speed relative to sound speed

d. Equations of Motion in Two Dimensions (Projectile)

In this case the components of acceleration are:

a x  0; and a y   g using equ. above integrating gives,

v x  v x, 0 and v y  v y, 0  gt integrating again gives

x = v x, 0 t; and y = v y, 0 t - 21 gt 2 since x = 0, and y = 0 when t = 0

v y,0  v sin 60   17.32 m / s ; v x,0  v cos 60   10 m / s

(Angular Motion, Centripetal Force)

a. Relationship between angular displacement, velocity and acceleration

Note: 1 rev (revolution) = 2π radian = 360o

If the line OP makes N revs/min (RPM), its equivalent angular velocity is

b. Constant Angular Acceleration Motion

Remark: Angle should be measured in radian when using these equations.

Angular displacement d = 6  2 = 12

Initial angular velocity o = 0

a) The perimeter of the tape holder is = 2πr = 2π(50/2) = 50π mm

b) 0.75 revolution = 0.75  2π = 4.712 rad

using ω2 - ωo2 = 2αdθ

B. Rotation of a Rigid Body (Torque and Moment of Inertia)

Let dm be the elemental mass of the body.

The moment of inertia of some common bodies are shown below:

b) a sphere of mass m and radius r

c) a thin disc of mass m and radius r

d) a slender rod of length l

For a cylinder or disk of uniform thickness, radius of gyration k = r/21/2

C. Angular Momentum (moment of momentum)

Therefore, the angular momentum  mvr  mr 2  I (unit: kg m2/s or Nms)

Conservation of Angular Momentum:

Impact of Rotating Discs

I G, AA,0  IG, BB,0  IG, AA,1 + IG, BB,1

250  0. 252 500  0. 32

Angular Momenta before = Angular Momenta after

Centripetal force F  m 2 r  2  2  4  0.7  884 N

Maximum tension occurs at the bottom of the path

Minimum tension occurs at the top of the path

Dynamic Equilibrium F  mr 2  0 (1)

mv2 /r = GMm /r2

Vehicle Round Curved Track

1) Motorcycle Round an Unbanked Track

With force equilibrium in horizontal direction,

2) Motorcycle Round a Banked Track

3) Motor vehicle Round an Unbanked Track

Power = Torque x Angular velocity = 　　　

If, allowing for friction, the efficiency of the unit is 　, then