Bureau of Agriculture

Small Dam
And
Reservoir Design

Training Manual

September 2015

Bahir Dar1. INTRODUCTION

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Contents
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Background........................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 The need and planning of constructing of dams ............................................................... 5
1.3 Characterization of the dam in this manual....................................................................... 6
2. WATER DEMAND ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Principles of Irrigation Demand Estimation ......................................................................... 8
2.2 Estimation of water requirement in growing a crop.............................................................. 8
2.3 Amount of water to be stored ................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Gross & Net irrigation requirement (NIR) .......................................................................... 10
2.5 Terms of Water requirements of Irrigation of a crop .......................................................... 10
2.6 Duty of irrigation ................................................................................................................ 11
3. RUNOFF/WATER YIELD ESTIMATION ................................................................................... 13
3.1 Determination of Dependable annual rainfall ............................................................... 13
3.2 Runoff estimation ............................................................................................................. 15
4. ESTIMATION OF SEDIMENT AND EVAPORATION .............................................................. 16
4.1 Estimation of reservoir sediment load ................................................................................ 16
4.2 Sediment Yield ....................................................................................................................... 17
4.3 Estimation of bed load .......................................................................................................... 18
4.4 Determination of Evaporation loss ...................................................................................... 18
5. RESERVOIRS SELECTION AND DESIGN ............................................................................ 19
5.1 Geology of the reservoirs ................................................................................................ 19
5.2 Reservoir capacity and area determination.................................................................. 19
5.3 Dead Storage Allocation ....................................................................................................... 20
5.4 Reservoir Sediment Trap Efficiency ......................................................................................... 21
5.5 Determination of reservoir Intake level (New Zero level) ................................................ 24
5.5.1 Reservoir area-capacity method .................................................................................. 24
5.5.2 Maximization of the reservoir water use ..................................................................... 25
5.5.3 Determination of useful life ........................................................................................... 26
5.6 RESERVOIR OPERATION ANALYSIS ............................................................................. 26
6. RESERVOIR FLOOD ROUTING ............................................................................................. 27

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7. Design of Masonry/Concrete Dams ...................................................................................... 35
7.1 Site Selection for Gravity Dams .............................................................................................. 36
7.2 Designing of the dam body of Masonry or Gravity dam ...................................................... 37
7.3 Designing a Spillway ................................................................................................................. 41
7.4 Silt Excluder Gate / Undersluice / ........................................................................................... 42
7.5 Outlet design .............................................................................................................................. 42
7.6 Stability Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 43
8. DESIGN OF EARTH EMBANKMENT DAMS ........................................................................... 46
8.2 Advantages & Disadvantages Embankment dams .............................................................. 51
8.3 Embankment dam site selection Criteria and requirements ................................................ 51
8.4 Embankment dam Criteria and requirements ...................................................................... 53
8.4.3 Rock Source Area. ............................................................................................................. 54
8.4.4 Filter or Drain Material ...................................................................................................... 55
8.6.1 Determination of phreatic line (seepage line) ................................................................. 55
8.7.1 Dam type selection .......................................................................................................... 57
8.7.2 Preliminary section of the dam ....................................................................................... 58
8.7.3 Dam height (H) determination .................................................................................... 58
8.7.4 Free board Determination ........................................................................................... 58
8.7.5 Determination of Crest length of the dam ................................................................... 61
8.7.6 Determination of Dam Top width ............................................................................... 61
8.2 Design of dam core zone ................................................................................................. 61
8.2.1 Impervious Core Thickness .................................................................................... 61
8.2.2 Side Slopes of the Core zone ................................................................................. 62
8.3 Design of dam shell/casing zone ................................................................................... 62
8.3.1 Thickness of shell ........................................................................................................... 62
8.3.3 Design of Slope protection .......................................................................................... 63
8.4 Design of drainage filter zones ............................................................................................... 64
8.4.2 Chimney drain design ................................................................................................. 64
8.4.3 Design of Horizontal drainage filter .................................................................................. 64
8.4.4 Design of Rock toe............................................................................................................. 65
8.4.5 Design of Drainage trench ................................................................................................ 66

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 8.5 Seepage control through foundation ................................................................................... 66
8.5.1 Cutoff .......................................................................................................................... 66
8.5.2 Blanket Design ............................................................................................................ 67
8.6 Spill way Type .................................................................................................................... 68
8.7 Design of spill way components ......................................................................................... 68
8.7.1 Entrance channel (Approach channel) ........................................................................ 69
8.7.2 Control structure ......................................................................................................... 69
8.7.3 Chute channel.............................................................................................................. 70
8.7.4 design of Side wall ...................................................................................................... 72
8.7.5 Energy Dissipation work (Terminal structure) ........................................................... 72
8.7.6 Discharge/exit channel ................................................................................................ 73
8.8 Staff gauge .......................................................................................................................... 74
8.9 Conveyance structure .......................................................................................................... 75
8.9.1 Pipe outlet level........................................................................................................... 75
8.9.2 Pipe diameter and wall fixation .................................................................................. 75
8.9.3 Gate Controls .............................................................................................................. 79
8.9.4 Outlet Energy dissipating device ................................................................................ 79
9. METHODS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES OF FINITE HEIGHT ........................ 81
10. GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES OF CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIRS/PONDS
AND EMBANKMENT DAMS .......................................................................................................... 84
10.1 Compaction ............................................................................................................................ 85
10.2 Construction machines required ............................................................................................. 86
10.3 Pond monitoring ..................................................................................................................... 86

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1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The construction of dams ranks with the earliest and most fundamental of civil engineering
activities. All great civilizations have been identified with the construction of storage reservoirs
appropriate to their needs, in the earliest instances to satisfy irrigation demands arising through
the development and expansion of organized agriculture. Operating within constraints imposed
by local circumstance, notably climate and terrain, the economic power of successive
civilizations was related to proficiency in water engineering. Dam construction represents a
major investment in basic infrastructure within the policy of Ethiopia. Great experiences of
micro earth dam construction have been developed in Amhara National Regional State since
1980s E.C. About 25 Micro earth dams have been so far developed in the region outof which
some are functional and others suffering by different obstacles. Small water harvesting
development programs (ponds and roof tanks) have been so far started in the past inspired of the
challenges confronted there.

In recognition of this, and reflecting the relatively indeterminate nature of many major design
inputs, dam engineering is not a stylized and formal science. As practiced, it is a highly specialist
activity which draws upon many scientific disciplines and balances them with a large element of
engineering judgment; dam engineering is thus a uniquely challenging and stimulating field.
Provision of the safe retention and storage of water is the primary purpose of a dam and hence
corollary to this, every dam must represent a design solution specific to its site circumstances.
The design therefore also represents an optimum balance of local, technical and economic
considerations at the time of design and construction.

1.2 The need and planning of constructing of dams

The Planning Process involves the project proponent and the designer. At this stage, the needs
that are to be met by the project and the concept of the project are identified and developed.
Project objectives and requirements are determined.

 (What is the project expected to do?) Conceptual development proposals and sketches are
prepared based on reconnaissance or pre-feasibility-level investigations and available
information for a number of alternate site locations.
 (How is the project going to work?). A preliminary assessment of the water supply
potential is conducted.

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  (Is there enough water to satisfy projected demands?) Project locations with insufficient
water supply potential are rejected. A reconnaissance-level investigation would include a
review of existing information (aerial photos, test hole logs, maps) and a site inspection to
identify site characteristics which may constrain or support a particular development
concept and to identify potential downstream impacts. Preliminary costs and benefits are
estimated based on experience with other projects and available information on the project
under consideration. Project alternatives are ranked to assess the relative viability of each.
After discussion with the project proponent, one or two sites are selected for further
preliminary engineering investigations. After the initial planning, if the project appears to
be technically feasible, preliminary engineering studies are performed for one or more sites.

Preliminary engineering studies would include: topographical surveys of the dam and spillway
locations and the reservoir area; a project hazard potential assessment; a geological dam site
description; a geotechnical assessment; and a preliminary design, complete with cost estimate.
The overall project feasibility can be assessed based on the costs and benefits of the proposed
project. This final assessment completes the project planning phase. It is noted that some design
activities are included in the planning phase. There is an overlap between planning and design,
as preliminary designs and costs (design function) are required for the information of the
proponent. Although there is an overlap between the planning and design functions, it is still
convenient to treat them as separate functions. The final design, including construction drawings
and specifications, is completed, documented and approved for submission to the pertinent
provincial water resources agency, if this is required prior to construction.

1.3 Characterization of the dam in this manual

Study, design and construction of the dam require multi- professional disciplines, resources
and times. The following key factors would be critically considered to characterize the
storage dams:

 When the study and design of the dam is conducted, specialized and qualified team
composition are paramount like watershed management expert, hydrologist, dam
engineer, geotechnical engineer, Irrigation engineer, irrigation agronomist, socio-
economist and so on. Hence, without qualified and experienced staffs, studying and
design of dams may not be easily completed.
 Constructions of dams are sensitive in investment cost, quality and work quantity
and time utilization. Hence, to assure construction quality, time utilization and
unnecessary cost encourage, high resources supplies like machineries and tools,
skilled and unskilled man powers & time span of construction are required. These
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 critical issues will be considered during study and design investigation to actual
implementing areas.
 Operation and maintenance of the dams are the other issues that would be in mind
during study and design investigation. Maintaining of the dam will be difficult in
normal way and will be simple technically and economically to study, design and
construct another new dam rather than repairing the defected existing dams.
Therefore to avoid any substantial issues in the dam project planning and development,
the following care shall be undertaken:

 Limitation of the dam height would be appropriate at this level. Classification of the
dam according to height would be essential for this manual.
 Catchment area type & size, soil and land cover data would be very crucial. The
maximum catchment area will be critically considered with respect to rainfall
distribution pattern and amount, runoff yield, sediment yield and so on.
 Location of site and topographical map is mandatory. Hence, site selection team
would consider so many factors before decisions.
 Climate and hydrology data would be required during dam planning.
 Water demand data is very important
 Geological data and dam site data including the hydraulic condition is also very
essential.

According to the above significant issues, the minimum team compensation to execute the
dam project planning and development would include the following disciplines:
 Dam Engineer
 Geotechnical/Engineering geologist
 Surveyor
 Irrigation Agronomist
 Socio-economist

Based on this approach and its implementation urgency, this manual would be specifically effective
and used as a good input to apply at the ground for engineers, technicians and extension staffs.

The general ground condition of soil, land cover condition and rainfall distribution pattern and
amount is highly variable in Amhara National Regional State. Respecting site specific condition will
be made before limiting the dam height catchment area, rainfall amount and sediment yield condition
otherwise detail and time taking investigation will be conducted.

 For this purpose, the dam height will be small according to the dam height which is less than
15 meter. For this particular case, it is better to consider less than 8m dam height from detail
study and design investigation point of view.
 The catchment area would be considered from its point of runoff yield estimation and
sediment yield generating amount. It is better to check the land use condition as well as the
soil depth and type during limiting the catchment area size. From practical point of view, it
is better to limit the catchment area extent and its parallel integrated catchment management

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 extension work. Hence, if the catchment area is degraded type, it is better to reduce the
catchment area .It is also better to limit to maximum of Catchment area to command area
ratio of 5:1 to 30:1. It is also better to check the command area ratio to reservoir area ratio
greater than around 2.5.The reservoir capacity to dam fill materials varied from 2:1 for poor
site to 20:1 for good site(Golze, 1977).
 Rainfall distribution and amount would be critically forecasted based on existing
metrological and hydrological data. Therefore, the monthly rainfall distribution as well as
the annual rainfall distribution of long term recorded of at least 10 years data will be
essential.

2. WATER DEMAND ANALYSIS

2.1 Principles of Irrigation Demand Estimation

The purpose to which a water harvesting project shall be proposed shall be pre-determined
whether it is an irrigation, water supply or for both. Therefore methods of total water
demand analysis shall be discussed for each purpose.

Primarily, the field is expected to receive water from rain falling on the land surface. But the
distribution of rain may be rather uncertain both in time and space. Also some of the rain as in a light
shower does not reach the ground as it may be intercepted by the leaves of the plant during a heavy
downpour; much of the water might flow away as surface runoff. Hence, only a certain amount of
falling rain may be effective in raising the soil moisture that is actually useful for plant growth.
Hence, for proper crop growth, the effective rain has to be supplemented by artificially applying
water to the field by irrigation.

The amount of water needed to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the crop field is
termed as crop water requirement. The value of crop water requirement is identical to
evapotranspiration. Crop water requirement varies with time and space, as the
evapotranspirative demand varies with local climate and crop condition(Hargreaves and
Samani, 1982).

2.2 Estimation of water requirement in growing a crop

The water that is required to irrigate a field or plot of land growing the particular crop not
only has to satisfy the evapotranspiration needs for growing the crop, but would also include
the following:
 Losses in the form of deep percolation while conveying water from the inlet of the
field upto its last or tail end as the water gets distributed within the field
 Water requirement for special operations like land preparation, transplanting,
leaching of salts, etc.

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2.3 Amount of water to be stored
 You must first compare your pond water requirements - the water needed to initially
fill your pond and to compensate for seepage and evaporation losses - with the water
available from your source. If you find that your water source provides enough water
to fill the pond in a reasonable period of time, to fill it when you want to fill it, and to
compensate for water losses throughout the year, you will not need a reservoir.
 If you find that your water source does not provide enough water to fill the pond and
to compensate for water losses at certain times of the year, but there is enough water
available over the year, you may decide to build a reservoir and store the water you
will need.
 If you decide to build a reservoir, you will encounter one of two situations:

 Your source provides a supply of water throughout the year;

If your daily water flow is great enough throughout the year to compensate for water losses
by seepage and evaporation, but not great enough to fill the pond in a reasonable period of
time, and to fill it when you want to fill it, you will only need a reservoir with a volume
equal to the pond volume, or even less, since the reservoir is being supplied constantly.

Example

Your water flow is sufficient to compensate for water losses but not enough for filling the
pond.
To fill your pond initially, you need 4 l/s for six days.
Your source supplies only 1 l/s during those six days.
, you find that a flow of 1 l/s provides 86.4 m3 of water per day.
In six days, your source will supply 86.4 m3 /day x 6 = 518.4 m3.
Therefore, the volume of your reservoir can be reduced by 518.4 m3.

 Your source dries up completely and provides no water at certain times of the year.

If your daily flow is not great enough throughout the year to fill the pond in a reasonable
period of time when you want to fill it, and to compensate for water losses by seepage and
evaporation, the reservoir will have to be large enough to provide for the total water
requirements.

Example

Your water flow is insufficient to compensate for the total water requirements (filling plus
water losses). If The volume of your pond is 2 073 m3.

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 You have calculated that the water losses will average, during the culturing period (240
days), the following: seepage 34.56 m3 /day and evaporation 8.64 m3 /day. Total water
losses will therefore be 34.56 + 8.64 = 43.2 m3 /day.
 During this period, your water source supplies only 0.25 l/s or 21.6 m3 /day. But much
more water is available outside this period to fill your reservoir in 60-80 days.
 You will need to store in this reservoir the water needed for pond filling (2 073 m3) plus
the water required to compensate for the losses during 240 days.
 Water losses each day: 43.2 m3
Water available each day: 21.6 m3
Stored water used each day: 43.2 - 21.6 = 21.6 m3
For 240 days, your storage will need to be 21.6 m 3 x 240 = 5184 m3
Total water volume to be stored: 2 073 m3 + 5184 m3 = 7257 m3.

2.4 Gross & Net irrigation requirement (NIR)

The net irrigation requirement (NIR) is defined as the amount of irrigation water required to be
delivered in the field to meet the consumptive requirement of crop as well as other needs such as
leaching, pre-sowing and nursery water requirement (if any). Thus,

NIR = CIR + LR + PSR + NWR -RF

Where; LR = Leaching requirement; PSR = Pre-sowing requirement; NWR = Nursery water

requirement, RF= rainfall

Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR) is defined as the amount of water required to meet the net
irrigation requirements plus the amount of water lost as surface runoff and through deep percolation.
Considering a factor µ called the water application efficiency or the field application efficiency
which accounts for the loss of irrigation water during its application over the field, we have

Eqn-2.1

2.5 Terms of Water requirements of Irrigation of a crop

It is essential to know the water requirement of a crop which is the total quantity of water required
from its sowing time up to harvest. Naturally different crops may have different water requirements
at different places of the same country, depending upon the climate, type of soil, method of
cultivation, effective rain etc.
The total water required for crop growth is not uniformly distributed over its entire life span which is
also called crop period. Actually, the watering stops some time before harvest and the time duration
from the first irrigation during sowing up to the last day before harvest is called base period. Though
crop period is slightly more than the base period, they do not differ from practical purposes.
Sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown, the land is very dry. In such cases, the soil is
moistened with water as it helps in sowing the crops. This is known as paleo irrigation. The total
depth of water required to raise a crop over a unit area of land is usually called delta.
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2.6 Duty of irrigation

Duty (d) is defined as the area of the land which can be irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of water was
applied to the land continuously for the entire base period of the crop. In other words it means the
area of land that can be irrigated with unit volume of irrigation water. Imagine a field growing a
single crop having a base period B days and a Delta, Δ mm which is being supplied by a source
located at the head (uppermost point) of the field, If the water supplied is just enough to raise the
crop within A hectares of the field, then a relationship may he found out amongst all the variables as:

Volume of water supplied = B*1*60*60*24 m3

Area of crop irrigated = A*104 m2
Equating the above two equations gives Volume of water supplied per unit area:
Volume of water supplied per unit area (m3/ha)
It is expressed in hectares / cumecs or cumecs/ha or reciprocally as cumecs/ha

Hence, knowing two of the three variables B, A and Δ , the third party may be found out. Base
period (B): the base period is the period between the first watering and the last watering. The base
period is slightly different from the crop period which is the period between the time of sowing and
the time of harvesting the crop.
Delta ( ): is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period. If the entire
quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth of water would have
been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by dividing the total
quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop by the area of the land (in ha)

Delta ( ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Total area of land (ha)

The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows. Considering the area of
land of A-hectares. If Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the total quantity of water used in the base
period of B days is equal to that obtained by a continuous flow of 1 cumec for B days.

Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3

If Delta ( ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of A- hectares, the quantity of
water is also given by:

Equating the volumes of water given in equations (a) and (b)

1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)*

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 Eqn-2-2

Or

Where A = in ha, = in m, B = in days

Duty of water varies from head regulator to the canal out let because of various losses. The duty of
water goes on increasing as the water flows from the head to the tail of the canal system. Thus, in
order to specify duty two things must be stated clearly: Base of duty and position of measurement of
duty.

Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that decrease it (by decreasing
various losses). The duty of irrigation water depends upon Type of crop, Climate season and type of
soil and Efficiency of cultivation methods.

Example: The base period, duty of water and area under 2003 irrigation schedule of Koga scheme
in Amhara region are given below for various crops under a canal system. If the losses in the
reservoir and canals are respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir capacity based on the duty.

Crop Wheat Potato maize Barley Vegetable

Base period B (days) 120 320 180 120 120

Duty , d (ha/cumec) 1,800.00 3,500.00 1,500.00 1,500.00 2,500.00

Area irrigated (ha) 2,541 1,694 847 1,271 847

Calculation is tabulated here below.

Note that volume of water is determined by 1st finding the discharge in cumecs by dividing the
irrigable area by duty and then multiplying the cumecs by base period in seconds. i.e

For wheat:

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Crop Wheat potato maize barley Vegetable Sum

8.64 -
= * B, ha / ha  m
A 0.58 0.79 1.04 0.69 0.41

Volume of water (ha-m) 4,909.7ha-m

1,463.72 1,338.26 878.23 878.23 351.29

 Total volume of water with no loss is equal to 4,909.7 ha-m

4909.7
 Volume at head of canal =  6,546.3 ha-m
0.75
6546.3
 Volume of reservoir =  7701.53 ha-m
0.85

Therefore, the volume of reservoir is 7,701.53 ha-m=7,701.53 x104m3 =77.02 MCM

3. RUNOFF/WATER YIELD ESTIMATION

3.1 Determination of Dependable annual rainfall

In the same procedure as discussed in the hydrology data testing section, the annual rainfall data
must also be tested against the tests of outlier tests. For example after all tests, Annual rainfall data
of Bahir Dar National Meteorological Station has been arranged for determination of the dependable
rainfall of Bahir Dar for catchment yield analysis. Analysis of rainfall data by using Weibul
distribution showed that the 85% dependable annual rainfall of Bahir Dar is 1191.60mm which is the
rainfall of 1987 year. Therefore, the monthly data of the year 1987 has been used for yield analysis.

Outlier data checking shows that one data of 1982 (894.6mm) is lower outlier. Because the presence
of outliers in the data causes difficulties when fitting a distribution to the data (Siriwardena and
Weinmann, 1996). Low and high outliers are both possible and have different effects on the analysis.
As quoted by Rao, Grubs and Beck (1972) used the previous equations to calculate outliers.

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Table 1 Bahir Dar met. station annual daily rainfall data for determining 85% dependable rainfall
Rainfall in Descending Order Rank m/(n+1)*100

1422.6 1 5.3
1418.2 2 10.5
1398.6 3 15.8
1396.9 4 21.1
1380.0 5 26.3
1352.2 6 31.6
1317.9 7 36.8
1311.2 8 42.1
1310.0 9 47.4
1306.1 10 52.6
1297.3 11 57.9
1288.7 12 63.2
1257.3 13 68.4
1217.5 14 73.7
1216.7 15 78.9
1191.6 16 84.2
1188.0 17 89.5
1186.4 18 94.7
1120.6 19 100.0
From the table the rainfall data of 1987 year shows 85% dependable rainfall

Table 2 : 85% dependable rainfall

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total/1987/

Rainfall(mm) 0 0 1 8 198 235 208 302 133 97 9 0 1192

Note that as dependable rainfall is increasing up to 100% it means that the rainfall which comes
every year can be selected. That is for design purpose, taking the minimum annual rainfall for yield
determination will guarantee a safe yield for small catchements. However if we are selecting a
dependable rainfall which is smaller, say 50%, it means that the probability of getting such rainfall is
50%. For example for a 20 year data, the 50% dependable rainfall comes once in 10 years which
means 50% dependable. Therefore, for catchment rainfall runoff yield determination in drier areas, it
is advisable to take the smallest rainfall among all data sets for design purpose which means nearly
100% dependable rainfalls.

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3.2 Runoff estimation
If the river has observed data, the primary choice is to adopt the gauged data. Otherwise, the designer
is forced to use rainfall – runoff models or formulas to estimate the runoff yield to the reservoir. The
simplest technique is adopting the rational formula for small sized watersheds. It estimates the direct
runoff components of the rainfall (not base flow). Hence, base flow can be measured during site
investigation and approximated from local people’s information. For dry streams, the main water
source for the intended irrigation purpose is surface runoff from the catchments. The yield estimation
is shown below.

Dependable Yield (Y) = R*A*C Eqn-3-1

Where R = Dependable Rainfall (mm), in this case 85% dependable rain fall is adapted),A =
Catchment area , C = Runoff coefficient

Runoff coefficient is a parameter that tells the relative proportion of effective rainfall to the total
rainfall. It can be professionally estimated from standard tables based on the land use, soil and land
scape properties of the watershed.

As an example, a Dam planned to be designed with a watershed area (A = 682.5ha), the runoff
coefficient (C= 0.3), and having 85% dependable rainfall estimated in table 2, catchment yield
estimation can be described as shown in table 3 below.

Table 3 : 85 % dependable rainfall and catchment yield

Table : 85 % dependable rainfall and catchment yield

Effective Runoff Catchment Catchment

Month Rainfall(mm) coeff.C=* Area (ha) yield (ha.m) Remark

Jan 0 0.30 682.50 0.00

Feb 0.1 0.30 682.50 0.02
Mar 0.8 0.30 682.50 0.16
Apr 8.3 0.30 682.50 1.70
May 197.6 0.40 682.50 53.94
Jun 234.5 0.40 682.50 64.02
Jul 208.1 0.36 682.50 51.13
Aug 302.4 0.36 682.50 74.30
Sep 133.3 0.30 682.50 27.29
Oct 97.2 0.30 682.50 19.90
Nov 9.3 0.30 682.50 1.90
Dec 0 0.30 682.50 0.00
Total 1191.60 294.38 2,943,759.00m3
*see Runoff coefficient values selection in hydrology section

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4. ESTIMATION OF SEDIMENT AND EVAPORATION

4.1 Estimation of reservoir sediment load

Underestimation of sediment inflow into a reservoir could lead a dam to loss large portion of live
storage in a period of two three years. In 1980’s dam constructed on Borkena River, Ethiopia in a
response to major drought of 1984/85, were silted up in one year. It is known that a number of micro
dams in Amhara and Tigray regions of Ethiopia have also been seriously affected by sediment. This
section discusses methods commonly applied in Ethiopia for estimating sediment inflow and
distribution into a reservoir. From practical point of view all small and larger reservoirs shall have at
least two years inflow and sediment load daily or storm data ahead of the implementation of the dam.
It is known that small dams are not expected to have annual base flows or intermittent or dry streams
can be selected for runoff storage purposes(Simpson et al., 2005).

For example, the sediment load of a certain dam watershed been estimated to be
47,755,360.00 Kg/yr from the whole catchment (i.e. from 6.83 Km2 excluding the reservoir
area) using Universal soil loss equations.
The modified universal soil loss equation (USLE) for Ethiopian condition by Hurni (1985)
was used to compute the total average annual soil loss from sheet and rill erosion within the
watershed for it considers different catchment characteristics. Of course, the major weakness
of this equation is that it could not estimate gully, stream bank and channel erosions. For
ease of computation, the six parameters of the USLE are estimated for each of the mapping
units. Thus, the total sum of average soil loss from all mapping unit within the watershed
may estimate the total soil loss of a watershed. The modified universal soil loss equation is
given as:
A= R*K*L*S*C*P Eqn-4-1

Where, A = Average annual soil loss (ton/ha); R = Rainfall erosive factor; K = Soil erodibility
factor; S = Slope length factor; C = Cover factor; P = Management factor; L=slope length factor

16
4.2 Sediment Yield
Even though sediment yield is not as such important for small scale diversion projects, it tells us how
our top soils are being eroded by running water. Similar to the soil losses, sediment yields are also
very high at the out let of the watershed. The transporting ability of the runoff to move all the eroded
sediments is insufficient. As a result deposition occurs in reservoirs, depressions, at the toe of the
hills where changes slope. Thus the amount of erosion in the watershed is generally more than the
amount of sediment leaving the watershed at the outlet point. Hence, the sediment yield cannot be
estimated from erosion estimates within the watershed unless additional data are
available(Haregeweyn et al., 2012).

Similar to that of erosion estimates, sediment yield is also calculated using empirical equation. The
most common method for estimating sediment yield is sediment delivery ratio (1/A0.127), which is
developed from reservoir survey, Where Sediment load to the reservoir = Estimated soil loss x
Delivery ratio(Renfro, 1975). Delivery ratio for a given watershed is related with the catchment area
A (ha).

Example, estimated soil loss from the whole catchment excluding the reservoir area as shown above
was 47,755,360.00 Kg/yr

Delivery ratio = 1/ (A 0.127), A= catchments area in ha. = 683ha.

= 1/ (683 0.127) = 0.27

Sediment load to the reservoir = 47,755,360.00 Kg/yr x 0.27 = 12,946,070.94 Kg/yr

Considering the type of reservoir operation (i.e. water stored temporarily and the deposited sediment
is subjected to shrinkage during long period) , density of the deposited sediment has been adapted to
be 1200 Kg/m3 ; usually between 1100-1400 kg/m3(Lane and Koelzer, 1943).

1. Estimated sediment volume = 12,946,070.94 Kg/yr

1200Kg/m3

= 10,788.39 m3/yr

2. Suspended sediment in flow rate = 10788.39 m3/yr/6.83KM2

= 1579.56 m3/yr/Km2

17
4.3 Estimation of bed load
Bed load from experiences and reservoir studies(Morris et al., 2008) showed that 10-20% of the
suspended load computed above by Using Universal soil loss equation and hence for the example
project features, 20% is selected to be more safe since the catchment is steeper and bed loads are
seen in the river and computed as follows. For small watersheds low values can be selected or no
dead load can be assumed or taken(White, 2001).

Example: for the above watershed with river carrying some larger materials Bed load = 20% of
suspended load can be given and:

= 0.2x 1579.56 m3/yr/Km2

= 315.91 m3/yr/Km2

Hence, total sediment in flow rate = 1579.56 m3/yr/Km2/yr/Km2 +315.91 m3/yr/Km2

= 1895.47m3/yr/Km2

Therefore, it has been found that the annual sediment rate to be impounded in the reservoir wills
1895.47 m3/yr/km2. Multiplying this rate by the catchment area will give the total amount of
sediment to be impounded each year after the completion of the reservoir.

In conclusion why we did such assumptions before designing a water structure? In the 1st case we
should select the best watershed for our reservoir in terms of sediment and secondly we should
design a mechanism to avoid siltation and thirdly we arrange our outlet at safe locations.

4.4 Determination of Evaporation loss

The evaporation loss from the reservoir water is estimated using U.S geological survey method as
shown below.

………..U.S geological survey method

Eqn-4-2

Where E = Monthly evaporation loss in m, T = Mean annual temp.

18
Table 4 : monthly evaporation rates estimation from the Reservoirs (for Bahir Dar area)
Minimum Maximum Mean Evaporation
Temperature, temperature temperature loss
Month (°C) ( °C) ( °C) (m/month)
Jan 8.429 26.546 17.487 0.103
Feb. 10.364 28.125 19.245 0.109
Mar 12.865 29.575 21.220 0.117
Apr 14.639 29.931 22.285 0.121
May 14.847 28.041 21.444 0.118
Jun 14.414 25.941 20.177 0.113
Jul 14.007 23.959 18.983 0.108
Aug 14.067 24.199 19.133 0.109
Sep 13.434 25.351 19.393 0.110
Oct 13.240 26.412 19.826 0.112
Nov 11.026 26.619 18.822 0.108
Dec 8.931 25.676 17.304 0.102
TOTAL 1.329

Therefore, the annual evaporation as found using US geological survey method is equal to 1.329m or
1329.0mm.Now the evaporation rate at annual basis has been found, the next task is finding the
reservoir water area at each month.

5. RESERVOIRS SELECTION AND DESIGN

5.1 Geology of the reservoirs

During the feasibility study, enough test pits of depth range shall be dug in the reservoir area. From
these pits , the reservoir geology can be well characterized. Its alluvialness and pervious property or
water tightness such as alluvial, plastic and sticky clay with high water content (wet to moist) shall
be discussed. From observation of the drill whole logs, laboratory test results and performed in-situ
field tests, the geological condition of the abutments shall be well described in the design report.

In general the following soil parameters laboratory test results shall be identified at field
conditions and sampled for laboratory so that dam structural analysis or geo-technique of the
dam would be safely considered during design before construction. Parameters such as
specific Gravity , Liquid Limit (%) , Plastic Limit (%) , Permeability (cm/sec Dry density (g/cc), Cohesion
(KN/m2) and Angle of internal friction(Degree) shall be well take from valley floor and
abutments and tested in the laboratory.

5.2 Reservoir capacity and area determination

During Dam site selection, due attention should be given to the storage capacity of the reservoir and
its relative location from the areas that will be highly affected by reservoir inundation. The reservoir

19
nature could vary based on the topography of the planned reservoir area. Some areas have limited
gorge shaped storage along the natural river courses and others may have sufficient flat area (pocket)
upstream of the dam at reasonable dam height. Better storage capacity reservoirs with small dam
height are best preferred sites.

Different methods can be utilized to obtain water level – stage capacity and water level – Surface
water area curves from the contour map prepared at the reservoir site. The end area method is
employed here.

The formula is

V= 0.5h (A0+2(A1+A2+A3+…. +An-1) +An) Eqn-5-1

Where A0, A1, A2, A3……An = the area enclosing each contour

h = Vertical distance between contours

V = Storage capacity

Figure 1 reservoir contours

5.3 Dead Storage Allocation

As sediment enters a reservoir it deposits as the flow velocity reduces. The coarser portion of the
sediment load deposits in a delta at the upstream end of the reservoir and the finer portion deposits in
reaches closer to the dam.

Most dams have been designed with a dead storage capacity below which there are no outlets and
therefore the water in this zone cannot be used. Many designers incorrectly assumed that sediments
would naturally deposit in this dead storage uniformly. But this is not the case and a good proportion
of the sediments deposited are found in the upper reaches of the reservoir, thus reducing the live
storage volume. Sedimentation has a number of consequences: depletion of storage (reducing yield
and flood attenuation capability), abortion of outlet structures and mechanical equipment.

20
In addition to the above explanation the incoming sediment is not totally deposited in the
reservoir; therefore to allocate the dead storage volume from the total volume of the
reservoir, estimation of the trapped sediment by the reservoir is necessary.

5.4 Reservoir Sediment Trap Efficiency

The amount of sediment deposited within a reservoir depends on the trap efficiency. Reservoir trap
efficiency is the ratio of the deposited sediment to the total sediment inflow and depends primarily
upon the fall velocity of the various sediment particles, flow rate and velocity through the reservoir
(Strand and Pemberton, 1982), as well as the size, depth, shape, and operation rules of the reservoir.
The particle fall velocity is a function of particle size, shape, and density; water viscosity; and the
chemical composition of the water and sediment. The rate of flow through the reservoir can be
computed as the ratio of reservoir storage capacity to the rate of flow. The potential for reservoir
sedimentation and associated problems can be estimated from the following six indicators.

The reservoir storage capacity (at the normal pool elevation) relative to the mean annual volume of
river flow. The average and maximum width of the reservoir relative to the average and maximum
width of the upstream river channel.

The ratio of the reservoir capacity to the mean annual stream flow volume can be used as an index to
estimate the reservoir sediment trap efficiency. A greater relative reservoir size yields a greater
potential sediment trap efficiency and reservoir sedimentation. Churchill (1948) developed a trap
efficiency curve for settling basins, small reservoirs, flood retarding structures, semi-dry reservoirs,
and reservoirs that are frequently sluiced.

Using data from Tennessee Valley Authority reservoirs, Churchill (1948) developed a relationship
between the percent of incoming sediment passing through a reservoir. The sedimentation index is
defined as the ratio of the period of retention to the mean velocity through the reservoir. The
Churchill curve has been converted to a dimensionless expression by multiplying the sedimentation
index by g, acceleration due to gravity.

Brune (1953) developed an empirical relationship for estimating the long-term reservoir trap
efficiency for large storage or normal pond reservoir based on the correlation between the relative
reservoir size and the trap efficiency observed in Tennessee Valley Authority reservoirs in the
southeastern United States. The quantity of sediment, which would be trapped in the reservoir has
been computed using the well-known Brune’s curves(Heinemarm, 1981) and the reduced capacities

21
due to sediment accumulation in the years of operation can be shown (Verstraeten and Poesen,
2000).

Reservoir Capacity (C)

In determining trap efficiency of a reservoir, the initial or 1st year capacity of the reservoir shall be
determined from topomap reservoir contours say in ha-m. For this example project, capacity is
determined to be 224.69ha-m in previous section.

Inflow capacity (I)

Again In determining trap efficiency of a reservoir, the second reservoir parameter which must be
determined annually is the inflow into the reservoir which means the average yield of runoff from
the watershed. The inflow shall be simulated from the watershed and climate parameters for un-
gaged catchment and from the measured discharge data for the gaged catchment. For this example a
project, inflow has been determined to be 294.38ha-m in previous sections.

Capacity: Inflow Ratio ( )

This is an important parameter directly to be used to draw a curve for the given reservoir. Therefore
as Brune stated this ratio can be used to determine the trap efficiency parameter Lamda (l) as shown
below.

And Eqn-5-2

Based on this explanation the trap efficiency of an example reservoir has been summarized in the
following period, i.e every five years which agrees that noticeable thickness of sediment deposited
will not come significant for analysis in less than 5 years time unless there are special watersheds.

For example, using analysis outputs in previous section, the annual sediment amount for example
reservoir can be generalized as: Sediment load/year = 1895.47m3/km2/yr x 6.83/Km2 = 12,946.07
m3/yr

Estimated Full Reservoir Level; FRL = 1824.00 m.a.s.l and capacity at FRL = 224.69 ha.m, the
sediment per year can be computed in table 5 below.

22
Table 5 : Estimation of the quantity of trapped sediment in the reservoir
Annual Net
Sedime reservoir
nt Average Sediment capacity
Dischar Capacity , River inflow 0.19(Log( Trap Deposite Sediment for N
C/I))
Year ge, Vt C Discharge, I C/I Efficiency, E d outflow years

E=0.97(0.19)^L
og(C/I)
(ha-m) (ha-m) (ha-m/year) (ha-m) (ha-m) (ha-m)

Col-1 Col-2 Col-3 Col-4 Col-5 Col-6 Col-7 Col-8 Col-9 Col-10
0.00 0.00 224.69 294.38 0.76 1.22 0.96 0.00 0.00 224.69
5.00 6.47 218.22 294.38 0.74 1.24 0.96 6.23 0.24 218.46
10.00 12.95 211.74 294.38 0.72 1.27 0.96 12.46 0.49 212.23
15.00 19.42 205.27 294.38 0.70 1.30 0.96 18.67 0.75 206.02
20.00 25.89 198.80 294.38 0.68 1.33 0.96 24.87 1.03 199.82
25.00 32.37 192.32 294.38 0.65 1.36 0.96 31.05 1.31 193.64
30.00 38.84 185.85 294.38 0.63 1.39 0.96 37.22 1.61 187.46
35.00 45.31 179.38 294.38 0.61 1.43 0.96 43.38 1.93 181.31
40.00 51.78 172.90 294.38 0.59 1.47 0.96 49.52 2.26 175.17
45.00 58.26 166.43 294.38 0.57 1.51 0.96 55.64 2.62 169.05
50.00 64.73 159.96 294.38 0.54 1.55 0.95 61.74 2.99 162.95
55.00 71.20 153.49 294.38 0.52 1.60 0.95 67.82 3.39 156.87
60.00 77.68 147.01 294.38 0.50 1.65 0.95 73.87 3.81 150.82

Procedure of filling the table

Col-1 is filled by the engineer as he needed to find the information say every 2, 3, 4,
5…years. For our example it is done every 5 years time.

Col-2(i+1) =annual sediment discharge times 5 years in ha-m = (12,946.07 *5 /10,000) ha-m

Col-3(i+1) =col-3(i) - Col-2(i+1)

Col-4=all filled by same as the 1st year or design year yield data for easier computation

Col-5=(col-3)/(col-4); Col-6= equation----; Col-7= equation…..; Col-8=col-2*col-7

Col-9=col-2-col-8; Col-10=col-3(1)-col-8

From experience, the governing factor of the life of the dam is the incoming sediment to the
reservoir. Therefore the sediment volume which would be filled by the sediment for 30 years service
life is computed as 37.22ha-m of the reservoir volume that would be allocated for dead storage
initially and the sediment volume rises to 61.74ha-m, volume which would be filled by sediment after
50 years.

23
5.5 Determination of reservoir Intake level (New Zero level)
5.5.1 Reservoir area-capacity method
Determination of the reservoir outlet or new zero level can be made by using reservoir capacity
versus reservoir area curve in such a way that the outlet level should be located such that an optimum
command area must be irrigated with optimum reservoir life storage. To get more command area, it
requires raising the outlet elevation as high as possible but such decision may affect the reservoir life
volume by making high dead storage volume. On the other hand lowering the outlet, may increase
the life storage but will command less irrigable land. More over lowering of the reservoir outlets
must coincide with the amount of sediment to be impounded in the reservoir for a given number of
service lives. Therefore, fixing the outlet level is a matter of optimizing the available command area,
the reservoir storage capacity and the sediment volume to be impounded. This method is
optimization will be done by simple excel sheet and topographic map at larger scales (say 1:1000,
1:1000) and the engineers’ investigatory decision. there are also other methods of fixing newzero
level but for small dams such methods undermine the outlet level and are impractical to use.

Newzero level can be fixed by using Empirical area reduction method(Jolly, 1982) using the
following model.

AP = C P m (1-p) n Eqn-5-3

Where Ap = Dimension less relative sediment area; P = Dimension less relative depth; C,m,n =
Dimension less constant determined by the type of the reservoir .

Reservoir outlet level can also be determined by using Area Incremental method(Haupt and Kidd,
1965) of the sediment distribution pattern. The area-incremental method is the purely mathematical
method based on the assumption that the area curve after sedimentation will be parallel to the
original curve i.e the sediment area is constant at all corresponding elevations and the sediment
volume is uniformly distributed vertically above the new zero elevation. The equation for
computation is as shown:

Vs=Ao*(H-Ho) +VO Eqn 5-5

Where Vs=Sediment volume to be distributed, VO=Sediment volume corresponding to new zero

level, H=Original reservoir depth corresponding to Full Reservoir Level, Ho=Height to which the
reservoir is completely field with sediment, A=Surface area of the reservoir at the new zero level and
it is the correction factor. Based on the above mathematical equation, the incoming sediment volume

24
is distributed in to two portions. The first is VO which is below the new zero level and the second is
uniformly distributed over the height (H-Ho) with constant sediment area Ao.

NPL

Capacity
Area newzero

Figure 2 Reservoir capacity curve

5.5.2 Maximization of the reservoir water use
It is a great success that installation of the movable outlet level position in response to sediment
depth increment annually. The fact that a fixed or one level outlet will not compromise the problem
of losing the live storage while the outlet is higher and the problem of losing the commanding land
when the outlet level is lowered. Therefore it is customary and efficient when a design of the new
zero level is made with moving up stoplogs fixing the new zero level at the optimum reservoir level
possible.

So as to use the reservoir water efficiently as discussed earlier initially the new zero level would be
set at levels that can accommodate the sediment trapped in 30 years and raises to the level that can
accommodate the volume of the sediment trapped in 50 years by providing submerged front entrance
intake tower designed as follows. The Intake tower height = the new zero level for 50 yrs sediment –
the new zero level for 30 yrs sediment.

if the newzero level for 50yrs sediment entrance =1814.50m and for 30yrs is equal to 1812.50m then
the intake tower height is computed as:

= 1814.50 -1812.50 m a.s.l =2.00m

Height of intake mechanism = 2.00m

25
For ease of operation, the intake tower height is 2.00m and the tower can be divided by ports at a
given interval considering the available volume of water. At regular inspection of the sediment level
in dry season, the ports (openings) are closed by RCC stop logs (corrosion resistant material).

5.5.3 Determination of useful life

The life of the dam depends on the return interval of the flood to design the spill way, the allocated
dead storage, the incoming sediment per year and Work man ship quality of the dam and related
structures.

As discussed earlier, the 30 yrs Maximum Draw Down Level (MDDL) and the 50yrs Maximum
Draw Down Level (MDDL) are estimated to be filled by the sediment after 30 and 50 years
respectively, if the catchments are untreated. But if the catchments are treated, the expected filling
time of MDDL by the sediment may be longer which would be safer. Hence, considering the worst
case of watershed treatment level for 30 yrs time and considering the annual incoming rate of
sediment in to the reservoir:

Useful life of the reservoir =30 yrs sediment volume capacity/annual sediment volume

=28.75 years

Take 30 years as useful life of the dam for the finical analysis of the project. But for 50yrs sediment,
useful life shall be extended to 48 yrs.

5.6 RESERVOIR OPERATION ANALYSIS

Reservoir operation is a technique that shows the behavior of the reservoir capacity in
response to the water inflows to the reservoir and losses from the reservoir. The reservoir
operation study is commonly conducted using monthly data. Some of the important data for
reservoir operation study include Reservoir capacity, reservoir surface area, Reservoir
sedimentation, Inflow data (design yield), Reservoir Evaporation loss, irrigation water
demand and livestock water demand.
as to The cattle water Requirement for computing the total volume of water can be done
primarily by making an assessment of the number of each animal type and then the daily
26
 intake rate of each animal in the given climate condition can be obtained from experimented
tables. The value of cattle number shall also be predicted for the future conditions and
environmental situations.

Table 6 : Example of reservoir operation Table.

Initial Inflow (ha.m) Evaporation rate Final

Crop Livestoc
Mont live live Deficit Surplus
Surface Evapor evapora demand k
h storage Inflow storage (ha.m) (ha.m)
Rainfall Reservoir ation tion (ha.m) demand
(ha.m) (ha.m) (ha.m)
(mm) area (ha) rate ,m (Ha.m) /ha-m

col.1 col.2 col.3 col.4 col.5 col.6 col.7 col.8 col.9 col.10 col.11
Sep 187.2 179.7 36.8 40.14 0.11 4.41 9.70 0.015 209.95 0.00 22.67
Oct 187.29 145.51 29.7
0 38.38 0.11 4.28 39.09 0.015 173.69 0.00 0.00
Nov. 173.69 23.410 4.79
9 36.67 0.11 3.95 10.18 0.015 164.33 0.00 0.00
Dec. 164.39 10.10 2.07 35.12 0.10 3.58 12.96 0.015 149.84 0.00 0.00
Jan. 149.83 0.01 0.00 29.82 0.10 3.06 37.84 0.015 108.93 0.00 0.00
Feb. 108.94 0.00 0.00 26.02 0.11 2.85 41.64 0.015 64.43 0.00 0.00
Mar 64.433 19.40 3.97 21.20 0.12 2.48 47.12 0.015 18.79 0.00 0.00
Apr 18.79 29.13 5.96 17.17 0.12 2.08 22.52 0.015 0.14 0.00 0.00
May 0.14 237.5 48.6 16.07 0.12 1.89 21.60 0.015 25.27 0.00 0.00
Jun 25.27 121.71 24.9
3 16.07 0.11 1.81 2.45 0.015 45.90 0.00 0.00
Jul 45.90 233.51 47.8
2 40.14 0.11 4.35 2.60 0.015 86.75 0.00 0.00
Aug 86.75 217.52 44.5
1 40.14 0.11 4.37 2.84 0.015 124.06 0.00 0.00
1212. 1217.3 249.
4 356.96 1.33 39.12 250.54 0.181 1172.0 0.00 22.67
65 53 29 9

How to use the table

col.9=col.1+col.3-col.6-col.7-col.8

col.11=col.9-col.1

6. RESERVOIR FLOOD ROUTING

Flood routing refers to the process of calculating the passage of a flood hydrograph through a system
over the spillway. it is very useful specially when the catchment area to reservoir ratio is too high.
Flood routing is not required for those storage structures where small catchments can be used for
runoff generation. To be safe however such routing techniques can be processed and understand how
much flood would come out after a certain storm has started for a given watershed. If the system is a
reservoir, the term storage routing or reservoir routing is applied. Storage routing is similar in many

27
respects to channel routing. The inflow hydrograph to the storage reservoir corresponds to the
hydrograph at the upstream cross section. The hydrograph of the outflow from the reservoir
corresponds to the hydrograph at the downstream cross section. Just as the storage in a channel reach
affects the shape of the downstream hydrograph, the storage in a reservoir also affects the
characteristics of the outflow hydrograph.

A number of design (or synthesis) problems depend on the routing of a flood hydrograph through a
storage facility. In such designs, the sizing of the spillway requires an understanding of the
interrelationships between the storage characteristics at the site and both the physical and energy
characteristics of the spillway. In comparison to other hydrologic problems, storage routing is
relatively complex where the following variables are involved:

1. The input (upstream) hydrograph

2. The output (downstream) hydrograph
3. The stage-storage relationship
4. The energy loss (weir and/or orifice) coefficients
5. Physical characteristics of the outlet facility (,weir type, weir crest length)
6. The storage volume-versus-time relationship
7. The depth-discharge relationship
8. The target peak discharge allowed from the reservoir.

The problem is further complicated in that the inflow and outflow hydrographs can be from either
storms that have occurred (actual measured events) or from design storm models. In the analysis
case, the hydrographs (inflow and outflow) are measured runoff events. The stage-storage
relationship is known, as it can be determined from site characteristics.

Since the storage facility actually exists, the physical characteristics of the outlet facility are also
known. The variables that are not known are the loss coefficients and the stage discharge
relationship, which depend on the loss coefficients. Thus the objective in analysis is to determine
values of the loss coefficients. In the synthesis or design case, the inflow hydrograph is usually
derived from a design storm model, although the design could be based on a measured hydrograph
for a severe storm. The outflow hydrograph is not known, although a target peak discharge is known.
The stage-storage relationship is known, and values for the loss coefficients are assumed. The design
problem would be to determine (1) the physical characteristics of the outlet facility, which would

28
determine the outflow hydrograph that meets the target discharge, (2) the storage volume-versus-
time relationship, and (3) the depth-discharge relationship.

THE ROUTING EQUATION

The equation for storage routing is based on the conservation of mass. Specifically, the inflow (I),
outflow (O), and storage (S) are related by

Eqn 6-1

Where dS is the change in storage during the time interval dt. Both I and O are time-varying
functions, with I and O being the inflow and outflow hydrographs, respectively. Approximating
dSldt by Sl t, Equation 11-1 can be rewritten as

If the subscripts 1 and 2 are used to indicate values at times t and (t + t), respectively, and the I and
O are the averages of the two time inflows and outflows, then Equation 6-1 can be written as

Eqn 6-2

Rearranging the equation yields

Eqn 6-3

This equation is called ISD (Inflow-Storage-Discharge) reservoir routing developed by LG Puls of

the US Army Corps of Engineers. Here it is assumed that the outflow (i.e., discharge) from the
reservoir is a function of the pool elevation provided that the spillway and the sluices have no gates
(i.e., uncontrolled reservoirs) or with constant gate openings, if provided with control gates for which
poor elevation vs. discharge curves are drawn.

Rearranging the equation and multiplying the equation by 2 and then dividing by yields the
following final equation

I1 + I2 + ( )=( ) Eqn 6-4

29
This form of the equation is known as modified Puls equation which can be used in the example
project in the next section. The process of reservoir routing will be discussed in detail by the
example project in the following section. The selected reservoir routing method is Modified Puls
method.

To use the modified Puls Method the stage-storage-discharge relationship must be developed from
topographic characteristics of the site and the hydraulic characteristics of the reservoir outlet. For
this purpose Elevation Versus capacity data, Elevation Versus outflow data and Elevation Versus

( )data shall be required. The inflow hydrograph computation has been simulated already

in the Design flood computation in hydrology section. the maximum inflow hydrograph for a given
watershed was computed and found as shown in table 7 below.

Table 7 : Inflow hydrograph

HYDROGRAPH Hydrograph ordinates Remark
TIME (m3/s)
0.00 0.00
0.50 0.00
0.82 0.26
1.00 0.41
1.32 3.57
1.50 5.11
1.82 26.00
2.07 41.87
2.32 64.71
2.57 64.87
2.82 65.09 Peak flood
3.07 51.93
3.32 39.48
3.69 16.97
4.19 3.45
4.69 0.00

Elevation Versus outflow data is obtained by selecting a control structure for spillway. The volume
of water that a spillway discharges depends on the type of the control structure to be used for the
spillway. The control structure type selected for example can be a simple broad crested spillway or
outflow machine. The discharge that can pass over this control structure is computed at an interval of
depth or head of 0.20m is given in the next page. The general equation of the discharge over the
broad crested spillways is given by

Q = CLH 3/2 Eqn 6-5

30
Where Q = Discharge over the spillway, m3/s, C = Coeff. Of discharge = 1.70 and L = crest
length

For arranging data for Elevation (Vs data computation, routing period, Δt is the time

interval between I1 and I2 or Q1 and Q2, which is fixed by accounting the maximum inflow flood not
to miss. From experience, such routing period is obtained by selecting 1/4th to 3/4th of the peak flood
hydrograph time. Therefore Δt is taken as 0.25 times the raise of the inflow time.

i.e. Δt = 0.25 x 2.82 hr = 0.70hr=0.70*60*60 seconds.

Using Δt= 0.7 hr ; is calculated ( table 8).

Routing Method selected for this reservoir is known as Modified Puls method(Borah and
Bera, 2003) as derived in the previous section.

I1 + I2 + ( )=( ) …………… modified puls equation

The spillway crest length was selected and checked for its outflow depth and L=8m is economic and
all the routing calculation is shown in the following tables.

Table 8 :
Reservoir routing, Outflow & storage data computation for Spill way crest
length= 8.0m (Adapted from Mugechit Report).
Outflow, Storage,s
Sr.Nr Elevation Q=1.7LH^(3/2) (m3) (2S/∆t+Q)(m3/s

1.00 1824.00 0.00 - 0.00

2.00 1824.20 1.22 68,877.28 55.88
3.00 1824.40 3.44 137,754.55 112.77
4.00 1824.60 6.32 172,193.19 142.98
5.00 1824.80 9.73 208,086.86 174.88
6.00 1825.00 13.60 351,661.54 292.70
7.00 1825.20 17.88 426,715.32 356.54
8.00 1825.40 22.53 539,295.98 450.54
9.00 1825.60 27.52 617,823.70 517.86

The above table is showing the outflow capacity of the spillway device every 0.2m stage interval and
interpolated S and computed (2S/∆t+Q) values above the full reservoir level or spillway crest level.
In other words, storage above the spillway level for each stage must be interpolated from the
reservoir capacity-elevation data and then the value multiplied by 2 and then divides by ∆t plus
outflow Q will be computed for each state (0.2m).

31
The next important step is to change the inflow hydrograph which has been constructed based on
rainfall duration into a hydrograph with hydrograph time duration of routing period (0.70hr in this
case). This requires an interpolation, from the inflow hydrograph for each time of routing step as
shown in table 9 below.

Table 9 : interpolated hydrograph versus routing time steps

Remark
Routing period(hr) Inflow Hydrograph (m3/s)

0.00 0.00
0.70 0.16
1.40 4.26
2.10 44.64
2.82 65.07 Peak flood
3.50 28.48
4.20 3.37

Using the above table and rigorous interpolation principles the routing table has been done as shown
in table 10 below. To compute the tabular values for the case ; initial values of Storage (S) above the
spillway and outflow (O) are zero. In that case it possible to fill the first row zero and start at the
second row. However if the S and O values are initially non zero routing arrangement must start at
first row and (Ij+Ij+1 ) shall be filled at row one and there would be a minor change in steps.

32
 Table 10: Modified Puls method of routing (case initial S & O are zero)
Design Reservoir
Inflow,I Total 2*SJ/∆t- 2S(j+1)/∆t Outflow depth over elevation(m
Time (m3/sec) inflow,Ij-1+Ij Qj** +Q(j+1) (m3/sec) the spillway )

0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0000 1824.0000

0.70 0.286 0.286 0.000 0.286 0.011 0.0019 1824.0019

1.40 5.747 6.033 0.264 6.297 0.170 0.0299 1824.0299

2.10 53.323 59.070 5.957 65.028 1.270 0.2233 1824.2233

2.82 65.084 129.407 62.488 191.895 8.760 1.5402 1825.5402

3.50 32.963 109.047 174.375 283.422 12.150 2.1362 1826.1362

4.20 3.872 36.835 259.122 295.957 12.810 2.2522 1826.2522

4.90 0.000 3.872 270.337 274.209 11.72 2.0606 1826.0606

5.60 0.000 0.000 250.769 250.769 10.13 1.7810 1825.7810

6.30 0.000 0.000 230.509 230.509 8.77 1.5419 1825.5419

7.00 0.000 0.000 212.969 212.969 5.73 1.0074 1825.0074

7.70 0.000 0.000 201.509 201.509 4.64 0.8158 1824.8158

** ( )=( ) for use in column-4

Considering safety on one hand and economical construction of the spillway on the other
side, a spillway crest length of 8.0m has been adopted for a design overflow/outflow flood
of 12.81m3/sec in table 11 which gives the depth at the spillway control point as 2.25m. The
spillway top bank level is found by adding 2.25m from Normal Pool Level.
Dam height = 1824+2.25=1826.25m.
The routing result shows that the reservoir is big as compared to the catchment yield and the
outflow is small as compared to the inflow as shown the fig.1 below.

33
 Reservoir routing
70
60
Hydological ordinate, m3/s

50
40
30 inflow

20 outflow

10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-10
time, hr

Figure 3 Inflow-outflow hydrographs

The above graph shows that the outflow hydrograph peak comes 1.4hrs late after the peak of
the inflow hydrograph. We can see that the area of the hydrograph above the outflow
hydrograph is the amount of storage in the reservoir.

34
 7. Design of Masonry/Concrete Dams
Gravity (Masonry and concrete or cyclopean) dams require solid foundations and abutments. It
resists the water pressure and other forces due to its weight (or gravitational forces). Thus the
stability of a gravity dam depends upon its weight. The upstream side is usually kept vertical and
the downstream side can be constructed with a slope of (1V:0.75H; see figure 4). Dams constructed
of stone masonry or concrete are generally safer and durable than the other types of dams, but
they are more expensive.

The upstream side of a masonry dam can be covered with chicken-wire mesh and plastered to
prevent seepage through the dam wall. However, some seepage water does not pose a threat to
the stability of the dam.

Masonry and concrete dams are regarded as relatively expensive structures, but this is not always
the case if the dam is small. When the ground conditions are suitable and when plenty of stones
are available, their construction is strongly recommended. Masonry concrete dams can be
constructed during any season of the year and they can remain uncompleted for years because
they are normally not damaged by over-flowing water. A typical masonry or concrete dam is shown
in figure 4.

Figure 4 a typical Masonry or Concrete Dam

During construction of the dam placing 0.25 meter thick concrete sandwich on the body of the dam
is very important to minimize seepage problem.

35
7.1 Site Selection for Gravity Dams
A dam is relatively a huge structure requiring a large amount of money. Care shall be taken while
selecting the site of the dam. When selecting a dam site, an exhaustive study of the potential
alternative should be conducted, including both physical and socio-economic factors. The villagers
of the area are the most important sources of practical information for such a study, and they often
have immediate proposals on suitable sites. However, it is important to consult as many
stakeholders as possible to avoid personal biases from individual or small groups. Possible dam
sites must be compared carefully, and a number of site visits are essential to identify critical
features

The following factors shall be considered very carefully when selecting the site of a dam:-

 Topography, As far as possible, the dam should be located where the river has a narrow
gorge which opens out upstream to create a large reservoir. In that case, the length of the
dam would be small and the capacity of the reservoir on its upstream would be large, that
would also minimize the embankment volume
 Suitable foundation, Suitable foundation should exist at the site for the particular type of dam.
If suitable foundation is not available but it can be improved by adopting various measures.
For gravity dams of great height, sound rock is essential. However, earth dams can be
constructed on almost any type of foundation. Provided suitable measures are adopted.
 Type suitability and viability of construction materials, the dam requires a large quantity
should be available at or near the dam site to reduce the cost. This will also help to decide
what type of dam is to be constructed. A rock-fill dam is obviously not a good choice if there
are no stones in the areas.
 Water tightness of reservoir, the bed and sides of the reservoir should be quite watertight to
reduce leakage losses of the stored water.
 Small submerged area, the area submerged by the reservoir on the upstream of the dam
should be small. Moreover, the reservoir should not submerge costly land and property. It
should also not submerge rare structure of archaeological or historical importance.
 Accessibility, the site should be easily accessible. It should be preferably well-connected by a
road line. This would facilitate transportation of labor and materials.
 Low sediments, the dam site should be such that the reservoir would not silt up quickly. The
life of the reservoir depends upon the rate of silting. If any tributary carries relatively large
quantity of sediments, the dam should be constructed upstream of the confluence of that
tributary with the river.

36
  Minimum overall cost, the site should be such that it entails the minimum overall cost of the
project, including subsequent maintenance. Generally, two or three probable sites are
selected and rough estimates are made. The site which entails the minimum overall cost can
be tentatively selected.
 Height of embankment, this will help determine whether the dam can be constructed by the
villagers on their own, or if outside assistance is required. Flat reservoir areas of low-value
land that can store a relatively large volume of water with a low embankment height.
 Location of irrigable areas in relation to the dam
 Size, vegetation cover and other physical characteristics of the catchment area.
After identifying possible dam sites, they must be ranked in order of priority consider the factors
above.

To assure community support, frequent meeting should be organized to discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of different sites with the villagers.

7.2 Designing of the dam body of Masonry or Gravity dam

Forces acting on the Dam

The most common external forces that act on the Dam are:-

 Water pressure
 Uplift pressure
 Frictional force between the dam bottom and the foundation material
 Pressure due to earthquake forces
 Silt pressure
 Wave pressure
 Ice pressure
 The stabilizing forces is the weight of the dam itself
But only some of the forces are usually considered in the design of small masonry/concrete dams as
explained in the following and as shown in figure below.

 Static water Pressure (Pw):-

Once water that comes from the upper catchment enters to the reservoir found at deep
Gorge of the river, it will be accumulated and will have a static water pressure on the
Vertical upstream face of the dam. This pressure will act horizontally on the surface of the
Dam in the Down ward direction and as a result it develops overturning moment on the
Dam.

37
 Self-weight of the Dam (w):-
It is the vertically down ward force due to the self-weight of the dam body and is the only
force that develops a resisting moment on the Dam.
 Accumulated silt pressure (Ps):-
It is the horizontal pressure developed on the surface of the Dam like the hydrostatic water
pressure. It can be assumed to a given value of silt depth for small dams that can be
constructed by experts
 Friction force at the base of the Dam to counter balance the horizontal sliding force:-
This force is a force that act horizontally in the upward direction (towards the reservoir) in
order to counter balance the sliding action of the Dam. This force is a function of the
friction factor which has different value depending up on the types of contacting surfaces.
Most of the time the recommended friction factor (f) of contact surfaces as per ARORA
should not exceed 0.65 to be safe against sliding.
 Uplift pressure that acts at the bottom of the Dam due to seepage water (Pu):-
This force is the force that can be developed at the bottom of the Dam and act vertically in
the upward direction. The force is due to the seepage water through the bottom of the
Dam especially when the foundation materials are pervious. As a result this force will
develop an overturning moment on the body of the Dam. But this force can be neglected if
the foundation material is continuous basalt.

Figure 5 External forces that act on the Dam

38
Bottom width of the Dam

This bottom width (B) of the Dam is a function of all forces that act on the Dam body. The minimum
width of the Dam is the width at which the over turning moments are fully counterbalanced by the
resisting moment (moment due to self-weight of the dam in this case).There for the actual width of
the dam should exceed from that minimum allowable width depending up on the final result after
stability analysis has been done.

Possible assumptions for the design:-

 Unit weight of water is = 9.81 KN/M2

 Unit weight of Masonry is = 22 KN/M2 (24 KN/M2 for concrete)
 Saturated unit weight of soil is = 18 KN/M2
 Angle of internal repose (Ø) is = 300
The developed moment due to all forces are calculated about the toe of the Dam.

Moment of Overturning (Mo) = Moment of Resisting (Mr) -----------------------1

A. Moment of Overturning (Mo) is developed due to the forces of:-

1-Static water Pressure (Pw):-
Pw = ½ * γw*hw2
Then, moment about toe due to Pw is

M1 = Pw*lever arm = Pw*(hw/3)

2-Accumulated silt pressure (Ps):- Moment about toe due to Ps is

Ps = ½*γsub*K*hs2, but

γsub = γsat - γw =18KN/M2 - 9.81KN/M2 = 8.19KN/M2

The value of angle of internal friction ϕ can be taken from table 11, but it is usually taken to be 300

Where K = active earth pressure due to silt

Then, moment about toe due to Ps is
M2 = Ps*lever arm = Ps*(hs/3)

39
Table 11 : Internal angle of friction for different type of soil

Soil type Internal angle of friction Ø

Gravel 400 – 55o

Sandy-gravel 35o – 50o
Sandy-loose 28o – 34o
-dense 34o – 45o
Silt, silly sand-loose 20o – 22o
-dense 25o – 30o

3- Uplift pressure (Up):- Moment about toe due Up is

Up = ½*B*γw*hw
Then, moment about toe due to Up is
M3 = Up*lever arm = Up*((2B)/3)
Total Over turning moment (Mo) = M1 + M2 + M3
B. Moment of Resisting (Mr) is developed due to the forces of:-
1-Rectangular section of Dam (W1):-

W1 = Tw*hm* γm

Then, moment about toe due to W1 is

M1 = W1*lever arm =W1*((B-Tw) + (Tw/2))
2- Triangular section of Dam (W2):-

W2 = ½*(B-Tw)*hm* γm

Then, moment about toe due to W2 is

M2 = W2*lever arm =W2*2/3(B-Tw)

Total Resisting moment (Mr) = M1 +M2

Then by substituting the values of Mo and Mr in equation 1 above, the only unknown will be the
bottom width B of the dam, which is the minimum width that can be used for initial estimate for
the actual width. At this first trial width all external forces that act on the dam will be counter
balanced by the stabilizing moment due to the self-weight of the dam without any safety factor.
But the actual safe width of the bottom of the dam will be fixed after the required stability analysis
has been done.

The recommended top width for masonry dam having height less than 5 m is 1 meter and for dam’s
having height between 5-12 meter is 1.5 meter.

40
7.3 Designing a Spillway
A spillway is an important component of a dam; a spillway allows water to leave the dam and so
protects it from over-topping when there is excess water coming into the reservoir.

Normally a spillway is located at one side of the dam embankment. If the topography permits, a
spillway location not direct contact with the dam is to be preferred. In masonry or concrete dams,
excess water can be allowed to pass over the dam embankment because it cannot cause any harm
to the structure.

There are many types of spillway. Which one of the different types you use will dependent on the
location of the spillway, the space available for the spillway and the construction materials. The
common types are:

 A spillway constructed by cutting through the soil on top of a soil or rock surface
 A spillway consisting of a raised masonry or concrete wall called a weir.
Spillways of the first type should be protected from erosion by planting a runner-type grass
such as Bermuda grass and by fertilizing and watering it regularly and keeping animals off
the spillway areaway.

A spillway founded on rock rarely requires erosion protection, and that is why it is much-preferred
option wherever possible.

The safest option is to construct the spillway some distance from the embankment, but this is not
always possible. If the spillway is adjacent to the embankment, it should be long enough on the
downstream side to ensure that the flow from the spillway does not cause any damage to the toe
(the lowest section of the downstream side) of the embankment

For maximum safety, a so- called training wall is constructed downstream of the weir to ensure that
the water flow will not damage the embankment at any time. The training wall should be high, lone
and strong enough to prevent erosion on the embankment.

Spillway size
Excess flood water coming in to the reservoir must pass through a spillway safely and not cause any
damage to the dam embankment or to surrounding land. Therefore the size of the spillway must be
adequate. The size or the capacity of an adequate spillway expend on the run-off the catchments
area and on the storage capacity of the reservoir. Very detailed calculations are needed to
accurately determine the size of spillway that will required for a particular dam. But in the absence
of hydrological or climatic data, and in the case of small dams, the dimensions indicated in table
below can be applied safely.

41
 Recommended spillway dimensions for small dams
Spillway dimension
Catchment area(ha)
Width(m) Depth below dam crest (m)

Less than 500 10 1.0

Between 500 and 1,000 15 1.5

However, if a suitable location and space is available for the spillway and the area received heavy
rainfall, it is advisable to make the dimensions even greater than those recommended. The benefits
in terms of dam safety can outweigh the additional cost involved

A qualified should be consulted to determine the capacity of the spillway in the case of a dam on a
catchment area exceeding 1,000 hectares.

7.4 Silt Excluder Gate / Undersluice /

Small dam should have 1 meter by 1 meter gate. The importance of this gate is to safely
dispose the coming flood directly at the beginning of the rainy season and it is also
important to remove the accumulated silt in the reservoir easily. The gate is located at the
downstream side of the embankment. Care should be taken during construction to
minimize erosion due to high pressure.

7.5 Outlet design

In the case of masonry or concrete dams, a steel pipe can be buried in the embankment without
risk of dam failure. Installation of outlets in this type of dams is simple and cheapest as the
embankments are not very thick and made of martial that cannot be washed out. Therefore
masonry or concrete dams are usually provided with several outlets at different heights. One
advantage of this is that the level at which water is tapped can be varied depending on the water
level in the dam. The outlet can also serve as auxiliary spill ways. A large outlet located at a low
point in the embankment can sometimes be used for the removal of silt from the reservoir. Such a
large outlet can be opened to let water pass through when there are flash floods early in the rainy
season and, in the process, clean out soil from the dam.

Outlets should be provided with a trash track at the entrance and a gate at the other end. The trash
rack is a simple square mesh of wire bars and is installed to ensure that an unwanted material such
as branches and other debris does not block the outlet.

Outlet capacity (Q) = duty in ℓ/s/ha x irrigated area in ha

Economical size (D) of gravity main is determined by Lean formula as:-

D=0.97 *√Q to 1.22 *√Q)
42
 Where, D= Pipe diameter in meter
Q= Discharge of spring in m3/sec.
After obtaining pipe diameter, the velocity (V) of water flowing through the gravity main
should be checked using the formula:-
Q=AV,
V=Q/A Where, A= (ΠD2)/4
The outlet is designed to release 1.84ℓ/s/ ha water demand for 180ha

Therefore; Outlet capacity = 1.84ℓ/s/ha x 150ha

= 0.276ℓ/s

= 0.280m3/s

To be safe D = 1.22 *√Q =1.22 *√0.28 = 0.64m take D= 0.6m

Discharging capacity of the pipe at full reservoir is discussed in this manual of 8.13.3.

7.6 Stability Analysis

Basic assumptions that should be taken are:-

 Maximum allowable friction factor, f between masonry and concrete can be taken from
table 12.
 Minimum factor of safety against overturning is 1.5
 Maximum safe bearing capacity of Gravel material is 440 KN/M2 and for other materials
can be taken from table 13.

Table 12 : Coefficient of friction between concrete and cohesive and non-cohesive soil

Non cohesive soils Type of material Μ

Sand 0.56
Non cohesive soils Gravel 0.60
Rubble/stone 0.70
Clay 0.2
Cohesive soils
Sandy clay 0.3

Table 13 presumptive safe bearing capacity

43
 No_ Types of Rock/Soil kN/m2
1 Rock
1.1 Hard Sound rock 3240
1.2 Laminated rock 1620
1.3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken rock 880
1.4 Soft rock 440
2 Non-Cohesive soils
2.1 Compact gravel ,sand and gravel 440
2.2 Compact and dry coarse sand 440
2.3 Compact and dry medium sand 245
2.4 Fine sand, silt 150
25 Loss gravel or sand 245
2.6 Loss and dry fine sand 100
3 Cohesive soils
3.1 Hard or stiff clay, soft shall 440
3.2 Medium clay 245
33 Moist clay and sand clay mixture 150
3.4 Soft clay 100
3.5 Very soft clay 50 (Source;
Arora 2003)

The applied forces and their moment about the toe of Dam are shown below on the self-
explanatory table.

Table 14 Forces and moments that act and developed on the Dam

Horizontal Force
Symbol Vertical Force (KN) (KN) Lever arm (m) Moment about toe (KN-M)
2
Pw ½ * γw*hw hw/3 -(Pw*(hw/3))

W1 Tw*hm* γm (B-Tw) + (Tw/2) +(W1*((B-Tw) + (Tw/2)))

W2 ½*(B-Tw)*hm* γm 2/3(B-Tw) +(W2*2/3(B-Tw))

2
Ps ½*γsub*K*hs hs/3 -(Ps*(hs/3))

Up -(½*B*γw*hw) (2B)/3 -(Up*((2B)/3))

∑M+ Summation of all +ve moments

∑M- Summation of all -ve moments

∑ ∑V ∑H ∑M = ∑M+ ∑M-

44
  Check for Overturning
∑
∑

 Check for Sliding

∑
∑

 The resultant of all forces acting on the structure should fall within the middle third
of the dam base so that tension will not develop at the base.
∑
| |
∑
 The contact pressure (stress) at the toe or heel of the weir body should be less than
the allowable bearing pressure of the foundation material.
∑
( )

Finally the bottom width of the dam will be the value of B at which the above conditions are
satisfied.

45
8. DESIGN OF EARTH EMBANKMENT DAMS
8.1 principles and definitions

In many tropical and subtropical climates such as Ethiopia where there exists uneven rainfall
distribution, wet season crop failure and dry season agriculture become very challenging. Ethiopia
receives enough annual rainfall however, such rainfall occurs in two to three months where crop
length of growing period is higher than the rainfall period. For more populated nations like Ethiopia,
irrigation will be an employment investment which guarantees equity since, it is possible to build
dams anywhere in the nation. Therefore for better engagement of all citizens under work,
construction of multipurpose dams (irrigation, fishery, recreation, hydropower etc) is a sound
strategy for the country.

Therefore sound policy in construction of dams means creating reliable water supply for both
domestic and agriculture. There is less dependable rainfall and to rely upon stream-flow at a time
when temperatures and evaporation are often at a peak can be unrealistic and risky.

The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials excavated
or obtained close by. The materials available are utilized to the best advantage in relation to
their characteristics as an engineered bulk fill in defined zones within the dam section. The
natural fill materials are placed and compacted without the addition of any binding agent,
using high-capacity mechanical compacting machine. An embankment dam may be defined
as an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river. At the back of this barrier,
water gets collected, forming a pool of water. The side on which water gets collected is
called the upstream side, and the other side of the barrier is called the downstream side. The
lake of water which is formed upstream is often called a reservoir or pond. The water
collected in this lake can be used for recreation, or as a reservoir of drinking water, or it can
be tapped off into surrounding farm land for irrigation. The energy of this collected water
can be used to turn a mill to grind wheat or to turn the blades of a turbine to generate
electrical power. And in times of flood the dams can serve as protections for the towns and
cities farther down the river. Apart from these numerous advantages and uses (such as
navigation, irrigation, electricity, flood control, etc.) of a dam, it sometimes helps us in

46
planning water strategy and helps us in controlling the advancement of enemies and their
forces.

Principles of storage Pond design and construction

There are different types of water harvesting structures practiced all over the world
depending on the purpose and the economy of construction. Storage structures such as
ponds can be constructed across a stream or a gully and such ponds are said to be onstream
ponds. Ponds can also be design and constructed away from the stream near the command
area which are said to be off-stream ponds. There are various types of ponds depending the
construction method(Golze, 1977).

Embankment Type
This type of reservoir is constructed on the top of a hill. The suitability conditions for the
site of this type are as follows.
 Adequate altitude to the command area and the water resource
 Existence of the available water resource such as a natural/artificial lake or a river
Excavated type
 This type of reservoir is constructed on a flat plain. The suitability conditions for the
site of this type are as follows.
 Existence of the available water resource from which water can be led to the
reservoir easily by gravity
 Adequate altitude to the command area
 Suitable geological conditions, i.e. easy excavation and impervious layer if possible
Cut-and-bank type
This type of reservoir is constructed on a gentle slope of a hill or a mountain foot. The
suitability conditions for the site of this type are as follows.
 Existence of the available water resource from which water can be led to the
reservoir easily by gravity
 Adequate altitude to the command area
 Availability of excavated materials for the impervious embankment materials
Resource and Application

Off-stream ponds are essential where the runoff generated from the watershed caries
considerable amount of sediment and when it is sought to store water from a large river
source. All the runoff or water is set to be collected into the pond when it is sediment free.
Storage off-stream ponds require safe canal and silt basin near the upstream of the pond and

47
spillways may or may not be required. As an example there are more than 600 Modern
diversion structures thought Amhara region where lined main canals have been built. All the
main canals have a minimum dimension of 0.50mx0.50m with an average inflow capacity of
0.2m3/s.

Figure 6 the offstream ponds design

Discuss

 Cumulate the clean flows of three months (September, October and November)
passing through the canal and design a pond with workable storage capacity of
2000m3 for all number of modern structures in your woreda or zone.
 Arrange also a night storage mechanism for same beyond these three months.
 Evaluate the economic advantage over there.
 Arrange also the outlet positions of the canals after storage relative to the command.

48
 Figure 7 : half dug half fill/embankment dams
Principles and definitions of embankment dams

A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary
purpose of storing water when rainfall is abundant and maintain water temporal distribution.

Storage dams are constructed to impound water in periods of surplus supply for use in periods of
deficient supply. These periods may be seasonal, annual, or longer. Many dams in the Western
United States impound the spring runoff for use in the summer dry season.

Therefore dams are reliable water banks used for critical water shortage periods of the year. Dams
become economically feasible when they are built upon the available construction materials under
various technical treatments. The most abundantly available construction material is known as earth
or soil of various types. Ethiopia is endowed with all the resources which can be integrated in the
building up of earth embankment dams because there is rainfall, there is also core material , there is
an excellent shell or shoulder material as well as sand and gravel and there is a sound topographical
setting ideal for water bank or reservoir. The purpose of this manual is to assist water technician and

49
engineers design and construct such embankment dams though other dam types can be used based on
the site condition(Hirschfeld and Poulos, 1973).

An embankment dam is a massive artificial earth-fill dam typically created by the placement
and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound/pile of various compositions of soil, sand, clay
and/or rock. It has a semi-permanent waterproof natural covering or shell for its surface and a dense,
water tight or proof core material. This makes such a dam impervious to surface or seepage erosion.

Earth fill dams are the most common type of dam principally because their construction uses
materials from required excavations and locally available, natural materials, requiring a minimum of
processing. Using large quantities of required excavation and locally available borrow are economic
factors favoring the earth fill dam. Moreover, earth fill dams can be constructed on weaker
foundations than other dam types and in areas where topography is less favorable to other dam types.
Earth fill dams will probably continue to be more prevalent than other types for storage
purposes(Novák et al., 2007).

The embankment dam or partial embankment dam is the project component which provides the
barrier or confinement for capturing and storing runoff from the watershed basin above the location
of the dam site. The embankment also provides a freeboard or safety allowance. Freeboard between
the top of the embankment and the full supply level of the reservoir contains the effect of wind
generated waves and provides an allowance for an increase in reservoir elevation during passage of
floods through the spillway system. The downstream slope shall be protected from wind and runoff
erosion by a grass cover. Embankments may incorporate embankment seepage control measures
consisting of an internal granular filter system.

Figure 8 : core and shell material zones

50
Depending on annual inflows and demand, the water level in the reservoir may vary from empty to
Full Supply Level. During periods of above average runoff, the reservoir level may remain close to
Full Supply Level throughout one or more years which results in saturation of the embankment and
surrounding foundation (a negative effect for the dam body). Hence as usual reservoir process, a dam
will be in e good condition when it is filled during rainy periods and then gradually drawdown
during dry season. This implies that unused reservoir water shall be removed from a reservoir as a
matter of safety.

8.2 Advantages & Disadvantages Embankment dams

Advantages & Disadvantages Embankment dams:
- Suitability to wide valley and relatively steep-sided gorges alike;
- Adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions;
- The use of natural materials, minimizing the need to transport large quantities of
processed materials to the site;
- The embankment design is extremely flexible in its ability to accommodate different
fill materials, e.g. earth fills and /or rock fills, if suitably zoned internally;
- If properly designed, the embankment can safely accommodate an appreciable
degree of settlement – deformation without risk of serious cracking and possible
failure;
- The construction process is highly mechanized and effectively continuous;
- The unit costs of earth fill and rock fill have risen much more slowly in real terms
than those for mass concrete.

Disadvantages of the embankment dam:

- Greater susceptibility to damage or destruction by overtopping, with a consequent
need to ensure adequate flood relief and a separate spillway;
- Vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation;
- Erosion danger on the downstream slopes unless properly protected;
- Construction materials and construction processes are affected by weather.

8.3 Embankment dam site selection Criteria and requirements

Selection from engineering geology aspect(Novák et al., 2007);

 what is the depth of overburden that must be removed to reach an acceptable

foundation for the dam wall;
 what are the rock types which make up the foundation and to what extent are they
affected by surface weathering;
51
 what are the engineering properties of the foundation rock types (important
properties are strength, deformability and durability);
 What is the geological structure of the foundation (i.e jointing, faulting and folding
of the rock strata). A full description of the defect pattern in the rock mass should
include orientation, spacing, extent or persistence and aperture or openness;
 how permeable is the rock foundation (i.e to what extent are the rock defects such as
joints, faults and bedding open);
 where can adequate supplies of construction materials such as clay, sand, gravel and
rock fill be obtained, preferably as close as possible to the dam site;
 will the rock that must be excavated to provide a spillway for the dam be acceptable
for use as rock fill in the construction of the dam embankment;
 Will the spillway require concrete lining and an energy dissipation structure at its
downstream end or is the spillway rock sufficiently erosion resistant that these can be
omitted.
 Investigate the foundations generally encountered :

o Solid Rock foundation: Solid rock foundations such as granite, gneiss, etc. have a strong
bearing power. They offer high resistance to erosion and percolation. Almost every kind
of dam can be built on such foundations. Sometimes, seams and fractures are present in
these rocks. They must be grouted and sealed properly.
o Gravel Foundations: Course sands and gravels are unable to bear the weight of high
concrete gravity dams and are suitable for earthen and rock-fill dams, Low concrete
gravity dams up to a height of 15 m may also be suggested on such foundations. These
foundations have high permeability and, therefore, subjected to water percolation at high
rates. Suitable cut-offs must be provided to avoid danger of undermining
o Silt and Fine sand Foundations. They suggest the adoption of earth dams or very low
gravity dams (up to a height of 8 m). A rock fill dam on such foundation is not suitable;
Seepage through such a foundation may be excessive. Settlement may also be a problem.
They must be properly designed to avoid such dangers.
o Clay Foundations: Unconsolidated and high moisture clays are likely to cause enormous
settlement of the dam. They are not fit for concrete gravity dams or for rock-fill dams.
They may be accepted for earthen dams, but that too, after special treatment.
o Non-uniform Foundations: At certain places, a uniform foundation of the types
described above may not be available. In such a case, a non-uniform foundation of rock
and soft material may have to be used if the dam is to be built. Such unsatisfactory
conditions have to be dealt with by special designs. However, every problem is an
individual problem and a solution has to be found by experienced engineers.

Selection from engineering aspect

- Suitability to wide valley and relatively steep-sided gorges alike

- Proportional catchment area selection (usually catchment area to reservoir area ratio
between 8:1 to 4:1 for wet area and 20:1 to 10: 1 for dry areas.
52
 - Location of the outlet and the command area.
- less sediment generating watershed or minimum contact with cultivation
- Spillway natural restrictions and suitability in its location will affect the selection of
the type of dam.

Figure 9 : river gully sections and their suitability for dam construction
8.4 Embankment dam Criteria and requirements
The following criteria must be met to ensure satisfactory earth structures:
 The embankment, foundation, abutments, and reservoir edges/rims must be stable and
must not develop unacceptable deformation under all loading conditions brought about by
construction of the embankment, reservoir operation, and earthquake.
 The reservoir rim must be stable under the most severe operating conditions to eliminate
the possibility of an unstable thin rim or the possibility that large existing landslides, when
inundated by the reservoir or during rapid drawdown, would be triggered and cause a large
volume of slide material to fill the reservoir and create a large wave that would overtop the
dam.
 Seepage through the embankment, foundation, abutments, and reservoir rim must be
controlled to prevent excessive uplift pressures, internal erosion and piping, instability,
sloughing, removal of material by solutioning, or erosion of material by loss into cracks,
joints, and cavities
 Filters must be required for any high or moderate hazard embankment dam.
 Freeboard must be sufficient to prevent overtopping by waves.

53
  Camber should be sufficient for allowance for settlement of the foundation and
embankment. It is not included as part of the freeboard except in rare cases.
 Spillway and outlet capacity must be sufficient to prevent overtopping of the embankment
and encroachment on freeboard.

8.5 Construction Material available

If the construction materials to be used in large quantity for the construction of the dam are available in
sufficient quantity within a reasonable distance from the site, the cost of the dam will be considerably
reduced due to saving on transportation. If suitable soils for the construction of an earth-fill dam are
locally available in nearby borrow pits, choice of an earth fill dam would be the most economical. The
availability of sand and gravel (for concrete) near the dam site would reduce the cost of a concrete
dam(Singh, 1996).

8.5.1 Core Material

The burrow area that can be characterized by dark brown silty clay soil (Core material) shall be well
discovered and hence the core material must be proposed within the reservoir and its quantity of the
soil shall be well estimated. Index properties, grain size distribution curve, compaction test result,
shear test result and permeability test result of impervious material must be checked by soil
laboratory service..
Important laboratory test analysis of core material can be Maximum dry density (MDD), gm/cc,
Optimum moisture content (OMC), %, , Specific gravity (GS),D15, D85, D10, cohesion forces,
ultimate bearing strength, angle of repose, residual moisture, permeability and other parameters .

8.5.2 Shell Material

The burrow/quarry area that can be characterized by Shell Material shall be well discovered and
hence the shell material must locate and its quantity of the soil shall be well estimated. Index
properties, grain size distribution curve, compaction test result, shear test result and permeability test
result of impervious material must be checked by soil laboratory service.
Important laboratory test analysis of shell material can be Maximum dry density (MDD), gm/cc,
Optimum moisture content (OMC), %, Specific gravity (GS),D15, D85, D10, cohesion forces,
ultimate bearing strength, angle of repose, residual moisture, permeability at proctor and other
parameters.

8.4.3 Rock Source Area.

During the study, All possible rock source areas shall be well identified and located for rock used
for different purposes . The extent and the size of each rock type, the quality and the distance to
transport and other investigations must be done very carefully.

54
The fact that who is the owner of the source area shall also be well explained and the way and the
right to mine must also be described and quantified. The method of production must be also
explained well.

8.4.4 Filter or Drain Material

The filter material must be assessed in the nearby sand source and should be tested in the laboratory
for its gradation curve. All other characteristics such as its uniformity and grade, its permeability, the
specific gravity and bulk density of the deposit should be determined.

8.6 seepage analysis and design requirements

8.6.1 Determination of phreatic line (seepage line)

The phreatic line (Seepage line) is determined using the principle of parabola equation with
certain modification at the upstream. As shown on the figure, the distance of any point p (x,
y) on the parabola from its focus, F is the same as the distance of that point P (x, y) from a
line called directrix. Taking the focus (F) as the origin and located at d/s toe of the core. The
equation of the parabola can be written as

x 2  y 2 = X +FD

Where FD= the distance of the focus from the directrix called focal distance and is generally
represented by S

 x  y = X+S
2 2

If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A (AB= 0.3HB) and the focus (F) is
taken as b, then (b, H) represents the coordinate of the point A on the parabola. for example if dam
height =16.0m; dam bottom width=100.825m and length of full reservoir level on dam u/s side to the
upstream bottom of the dam section, L=40.67m

 b  H = b+S  S = b 2  H 2 - b,
2 2
b= bottom width – Filter length – HA where
filter length =60% of B/2 ;B=dam bottom width=100.825m

=100.825m – 30.45m – (0.7 x 40.67m)

= 41.90m

 S = (41.902 + 142)1/2 – 41.90 = 2.28m

55
Hence, the equation of phreatic line

 Y= (x  S)2  x2

= ( x  2.28) 2  x 2

The value of the curve are developed and included in the drawing to find the seepage line in the body
of the dam as shown below.

Table 15 Phreatic line profile

x 0.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00 24.00 27.00 30.00
y 2.27 4.33 5.69 6.78 7.72 8.56 9.32 10.02 10.68 11.30 11.89

Figure 10 Phreatic line with horizontal filter

Determining Seepage discharge per unit width of the dam (q)

After determining the value of the maximum seepage discharge face (S) , it is possible to computed
or estimate mathematically the amount of seepage rate through the dam body using the following
derived equation.

q = K*S Where K= Permeability of core material

if for example Permeability of core material K= 1.7 X 10-9 m/s and S as calculated above

Therefore, q = 1.70 X 10-9 m/s X 2.28m =3.87 X 10-9m3/s/1m width of dam. you can get the total
seepage flow passing through the dam by simply multiplying this parameter by the length of the
dam.

56
Estimated seepage through the foundation will be obtained from the undisturbed sample in the
laboratory and therefore using such preliminary results it is possible to check the adequacy filter
thicknesses.

Example: the minimum required filter thickness can be checked by dividing the rate of seepage
through the embankment plus through the foundation by the capacity of filtering sand.

Let the design filter thickness=t

Seepage through the embankment er meter width = qb=3.87X10^ -8 m/s

Seepage through the foundation per meter width =qf=3.0x10^-8 m/s

Filter sand capcity =fc=1.5 x 10-7m/s

Minimum required filter thickness = 3.87 X 10-9m/s + 3 x 10-8m/s

1.5 x 10-7m/s

= 0.226m this thickness is not workable and we can

increase to 0.3 to 0.5m for practicality.

8.7 earth embankment dam design and sizing

8.7.1 Dam type selection

For optimum cost, the dam must be designed for utilization of the available materials in the
area. When the amount of core material available within the reservoir area is excess, we can
increase the core and limit or reject the shell but when the quantity of the core material is
limited in the area or is at far distance, we can limit core and increase shell. Dams are
designed zone when there is not excess core material or to reduce the area taken by the dam
body. We can also use a synthetic material such as geo-membrane or concrete center core
when there is no or less core material source in the area.

57
8.7.2 Preliminary section of the dam
The preliminary design of an earth dam is done on the basis of existing construction
material properties and the design is finalized by checking the adequacy of the selected
section for worst loading conditions.
8.7.3 Dam height (H) determination
The effective Dam height (H) = Normal pool level (NPL) above river bed + water head over
the spillway crest + free Board + settlement allowance.
Example if Normal pool level (NPL) =1824.00m a.s.l and Lowest riverbed
level=1810.00m a.s.l THEN Height of normal pool above the lowest riverbed = NPL-
Lowest riverbed level
Implying that Height of normal pool = 1824.00m a.s.l – 1810.00m a.s.l = 14.00m
And, As shown in the flood routing process, the maximum water head over the spillway
crest corresponding to the design flood is found to be 2.25m. Therefore the total spillway
level including the depth of flow will be =1824+2.25=1826.25masl or total
height=14.00+2.25=16.25m. On this level the freeboard and settlement allowance shall be
added. Compression settlements allowance is also necessary to be added specially near the
center of the dam.

8.7.4 Free board Determination

In order to prevent overtopping of the dam due to wave action, freeboard is required. Freeboard also
protects the embankment from overtopping due to wind and wave action.

Freeboard may be defined as the height of the dam crest above the maximum operating
level of the reservoir. This level may be above the normal operating pool level, as usually
there is some allowance for reservoir surcharge to accommodate flood storage. Since the
design flood normally will be associated with severe storm conditions over the drainage
area, there is some probability that the design wind will occur at the same time as the design
flood. Accordingly, it may be necessary to consider setup in arriving at the maximum
reservoir elevation. The freeboard allowance must include the setup S, wave run-up R, and
Wind set up . Free board is the margin above the estimated reservoir level at high flood, to
be provided against wave splash, spray, seiches and wind set up etc. and to give margin of

58
safety over and above these factors. And the free board is calculated as shown below by
using Stevenson formula(Şentürk, 1994, Bhowmik, 1976).

Where Fb = Free board (m)

V = wind velocity (km/hr)

F = Fetch length at maximum reservoir level (km)

R = wave Run up = 50-60 % HW

The Zuider Zee formula, which was originally developed from studies in Holland in the 1930's, is
commonly used to calculate wind setup and is given by the equation.

Wind set up

FOR φ = Angle between the wind direction and the fetch =00 , for the worst condition of the wind
direction, and angle for the worst case for the reservoir where the wave height will be maximum,
and Where F is expressed in km, V in km/hr, S and D in metres.

Example: calculate the freeboard when V = wind velocity (km/hr) = 3.52km/hr ; F = Fetch
length at maximum reservoir level (km) = 0.960 km ; R = wave Run up = 50 % HW; D = Average
Reservoir depth in meters over the fetch distance = 9.75m ; φ = Angle between the wind direction
and the fetch =00 , for the worst condition of the wind direction, and angle the worst case for the
reservoir where the wave height will be maximum, and Where F is expressed in km, V in km/hr, S
and D in metres.

Wave run up, R = 50% x 0.510m = 0.257m

Therefore freeboard, Fb = 0.510m + 0.257m + 0.0002m=0.77m

And hence, Dam height excluding settlement allowance = 14.00m + 2.25m + 0.77m=17.02
59
Recommended free board depending on the fetch length of the reservoir(Hilf, 1991)

To include the Embankment compression and foundation settlement from the above result, the two
parameters can be calculated separately as shown below.

 Embankment compression is estimated using the following formula StE = 0.001 (Dam
height,H) 3/22 (source: Earth and Rock fill dams)
 The critical point for foundation settlement due to the embankment weight is at the center of
the dam. Considering the compression strength of the foundation material , for small earth
dam it can be considered or assumed as ,stF=0.1*dam height

Example: compute the embankment and non rock foundation settlement if dam height, H=17.02m

Answer: stE = 0.001 (17.02) 3/2 = 0.07m and

stF =0.01*17.02=0.17m

Total settlement=0.07+0.17=0.24m

Hence, total dam height at the valley or the center of dam

= 17.02m + 0.25m=17.27 say 17.30m

Dam top level at the valley = River bed level + 17.02+0.25

= 1810.00m a.s.l + 17.30m

= 1827.30m a.s.l

Dam top level at the end of the dam (i.e at abutments)

60
 = Spillway crest level + 17.02 + stE

= 1810m a.s.l 17.02m +0.07m

=1827.10m a.s.l

8.7.5 Determination of Crest length of the dam

It should be clear that the crest length of the dam is found after all the above computation of the dam
height. Therefore the dam crest length at 1827.30m a.s.l dam top level can then be found from
contour map or AutoCAD or direct survey of this elevation. For example for above elevation the
dam length of the project was found to be 590.00m from the AUTOCAD drawing (adapted from
Mugechit dam).

8.7.6 Determination of Dam Top width

the general top width of a small dam can generally be governed by services of the top dam for free
mobility of the construction equipment or using the following equation the minimum of which
cannot be less than 3m.

Example: For h=14m,

8.2 Design of dam core zone

8.2.1 Impervious Core Thickness
There is no definite rule for determining the safe thickness of the core. It is governed by different
factors such as: Tolerable seepage loss, minimum width for proper construction, type of material
available, design of the proposed filter layer (Sherard and Dunnigan, 1986) suggested the following
criteria:
 Cores with a width of 30% to 50% of the water head have proved satisfactory for any soil
type and dam height
 Cores with a width of 15% to 20% of the water head are considered thin but with adequately
designed and constructed filter layers, they are satisfactory under most circumstances
 Cores with widths of much less than 10% of the water head have not been used widely.

Thomas (1976) suggested that a common value for the core thickness is about one-half of the dam
height at that particular section – with a minimum above reservoir flood level

61
8.2.2 Side Slopes of the Core zone
The core provides impervious barrier within the body of the dam and the criterion that the thickness
of the core material at any elevation cannot be less than the height of the embankment remaining
above that elevation was adopted, so that the average hydraulic gradient through the core will be less
than unity. Usually the top width of the core zone can be fixed to be 3m for small dams with side
slopes of 1.5:1 to 1:1 upstream and downstream slope. The crest level is 0.5m-1m above maximum
water level. The slopes of the trench are also made in a 1:1 slope. The bottom width of the core
trench depends on the machine to be used for excavation and for deeper depths up to 6m; the bottom
width shall be with a minimum of 4m. The core of a dam is built within the embankment to form the
impermeable barrier, the shell and other part of the dam being provided to ensure stability. The core
is usually designed by use of natural materials such as clay, sandy clay, clayey sand, clayey gravel,
silty sand, etc.

Table 16 : Material property for core (Wanger 1957)

**GC= Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixture; SC= Clayey sands, sand-silt mixture;CL= Inorganic clays
of very low to medium plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, lean clays;CH= Inorganic clays or
high plasticity, fat clays.

8.3 Design of dam shell/casing zone

8.3.1 Thickness of shell
Shell thickness depends on the availability of shell material and the stability of the dam as
well as on the thickness of core material to be used in the embankment.
8.3.2 determining the shell slope
The side slopes depend upon various factors such as the type and nature of the dam,
foundation materials and height of dam etc. So based on those considerations the following
slopes are adapted.

62
Table 17 : The nature of materials for construction of the type of the dam

**GW= Well-graded gravels, gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines; GP= Poorly graded gravels, gravel
sand; GM= Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixture; ML= Inorganic silts and very fine sands, rock flour, silty or
clayey fine sands, or clayey silts with slight plasticity mixtures, little or no fines; MH= Inorganic silts,
micaceous or diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts; SW= Well-graded sands, gravelly sands, little
or no fines; SP= Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines; SM= Silty sands, sand-silt mixture

8.3.3 Design of Slope protection

Upstream slope protection

The upstream face of the earth fill dams must be protected against destructive wave
action. In some instances, provision must be made against burrowing animals. The usual
types of surface protection for upstream slopes are rock riprap, either dry-dumped or
hand-placed, and concrete pavement. The thickness of riprap depends on the wave
height computed above and for wave height which is > 1.5m, the riprap thickness of
0.3m is provided. Stone for hand – placed rock riprap must be of excellent quality and
the stone should be roughly square in shape and placed in a more or less definite pattern
with minimum amount of voids and with the top surface relatively smooth. In addition to
at u/s of the dam, riprap is provided at the top of the dam.

Downstream slope

if The classification of the shell material is GW which is well graded gravel , the effect of winds
and rain wash on GW material is very minimal and hence no special surface treatment will be
necessary on d/s slope or simply planting of vetiver and other grass species will be enough.
63
8.4 Design of drainage filter zones
To control the seepage through embankments and piping’s due to the flow through the foundation,
chimney drain combined with horizontal drainage filters, the rock toes and drainage trench
arrangements are provided.

8.4.2 Chimney drain design

Chimney drains intercept all layers of the dam section in the seepage zone and thus prevent the
emergence of seepage on the downstream slope of the dam body, even with inadvertently
incorporated layers of higher permeability in the dam section. Therefore, for this purpose the
chimney drain is provided between the core and the shell materials of the dam body. The flow from
the chimney drain has to be led out through the horizontal drainage filter mechanisms.

A/ Thickness and top level design of the chimney drain

Considering safety on one hand and economy on the other side a thickness of 0.25-1.0m chimney
drain can be adopted the chimney drain can extend from the horizontal drainage filter to 75% of the
head difference between full reservoir levels (FRL) and the maximum drawdawn level (MDDL)

Therefore, Top level of chimney drain = 0.75(FRL – MDDL) + MDDL. However for small height
dams, vertical or chimney darain is not important and economical.

Example: for example if the FRL = 1824.00 m a.s.l and MDDL = 1812.50 m a.s.l

Top level of chimney drain = 0.75 (1824-1812.5) + 1812.50 m a.s.l

= 1821.50 m a.s.l

8.4.3 Design of Horizontal drainage filter

The horizontal drainage filter is provided between the foundation and the dam body so as to safely
remove the seepage from chimney drain and from the embankment to the drainage trench.

A/ Thickness of horizontal drainage filter

Considering the head of reservoir water and the depth of pervious foundation nominal thickness of
0.5-1.0m filter thickness may be provided and can be checked for its adequacy.

B/ Size of D15 of filter material for horizontal drainage filter can be made similar to chimney
drain and therefore use the filter material of D15 in the range of 0.075mm to 0.3mm.

Check the filter for the following criteria

Protective Filters: These are filters whose purpose is to protect base material from eroding
into other embankment zones and to provide some drainage function in order to control pore
64
pressure in the dam. These filters are typically uniformly graded and in several stages but
they can also be broadly graded in the interest of reducing the number of zones to make the
transition to the base material. This class includes chimneys, blankets, and transition zones
on the downstream side of the dam.
D15 of filter material is greater than 5xD15 of core material
D15 (f) > 5xD15(C) ; where f = Filter material, C = Core material

2) D15 (f) < 5 D85(C)

Combining both criteria (1) and (2)
D15 (f)< 5 <D15 (f)
From both gradation of (core material) and sample (sand source)

Case 1: D15(f) > 5 D15(C) ……………….. OK

Case 2: D15(f) < 5 D85(C) …………… .. OK

If D15 (f) < 5 D85(C) is not OK, This indicates that the filter material has mach larger grain size
than the core material. Therefore, internal erosion can be progressed without any intervention of
filter material. In other words, this sandy material can’t prevent the movement of soil particles. To
protect this, large grains should be screen out by sieving so that the passage of soil can be protected
or any other filter martial can be assessed very well. Generally the D15 of filter material should be
between 0.075 and 0.3mm.
 0.075mm< D15 filter <0.30mm

8.4.4 Design of Rock toe

Drainage Filters: A filter whose purpose is to intercept and carry away the main seepage
within a dam and its foundation. These filters may have to remove large amounts of seepage
for dams on pervious foundations or dams of poor construction. The filters consist of
uniformly graded materials, typically in two stages. The filter must meet the requirements
for both particle movement and drainage. Toe drains typically are included in this class.

Determination of Rock toe height

In order to improve the drainage in the dam body and to minimize the effect of tail water on d/s side
of the dam, rock toe height of 25-30% of reservoir head (h) is provided.

Example, Rock toe height if the maximum dam height h = 14 will be

= 25% x h=0.25 x 14.00m== 3.50m

b/ Determination of rock toe slope

65
The recommended internal rock toe slope of 1:1 and external slope of 2.5:1 (similar to the d/s slope)
shall be enough.

Figure 11 : Rock toe and filter

8.4.5 Design of Drainage trench
To collect seepage through horizontal filter, foundation and runoffs from d/s side of the dam body
and discharge it away from the dam, a minimum of 0.3m thickness dry stone-pitching with gravel
bedding of thickness 20 cm shall be used. The minimum drainage trench depth of 0.5-1.0m with
bottom width of 0.5m and side slope of 1:1 shall be provided at d/s toe of the low height dams. Both
side of the drain must join to the stream and its bed slope varies with the original ground level
(OGL).

Figure 12 : Toe Drains and Drainage Trenches

8.5 Seepage control through foundation

8.5.1 Cutoff
A partial cut off trench is effective in stratified foundation by intersecting more impervious
layer in the foundation and by increasing the vertical path of seepage. In uniform pervious
strata the role of partial cut off in reducing percolation is very limited. A cut off going to

66
80% of the total depth of pervious strata reduces the seepage discharge by only 50%. Thus
with a partial cut off the reliance is primarily on the length of the seepage path. Therefore
for treatment of deep pervious foundation where it is not economically possible to provide a
positive cut-off, partial cut-off along with upstream blanket is provided to reduce the
discharge and seepage pressures.

Figure 13 : zoneed embankment dams

8.5.2 Blanket Design

An impervious clay blanket placed upstream of a dam and connected to the impervious section is a
convenient way of effecting moderate reduction in the amount of seepage. The quantity of seepage is
somewhat less than inversely proportional to the total length of impervious material. The
effectiveness of a blanket depends upon the proportionate increase in number of equipotential drop
that results from its addition to the dam. A blanket is advantageous only when an appreciable length
of the path of flow can be affected by a blanket of reasonable length.

Figure 14 : upstream blanket

a/ Thickness of blanketing
The recommended thickness of blanketing is 10% of the depth of the reservoir water (h) on the
respective blanketing point.
Or
The thickness of the blanket is a function of the relative permeability of the blanket, permeability of
the foundation material and its depth. Theoretically it should vary in thickness from zero at its upper
edge to the maximum where it joins the impervious section of the dam.

67
 8.5.3 spillway design

A spillway system provides the means by which excess water is conducted past the dam
embankment from watershed runoff after the reservoir behind the dam has reached the full supply
level (FSL). If a spillway system was not included in the project, water levels may rise and overtop
the dam, causing varying degrees of damage to the embankment including complete wash out or
failure of the dam.

Therefore, the spillway system is a protection device. The level of protection is dependent on the
capacity of the spillway system. The larger the spill- way, the higher the flood flows (the lower the
frequency of occurrence) which can be passed before overtopping and the higher the level of
protection. The spillway system capacity and associated flood surcharge (the water depth above FSL
for operation of the spillway) is considered in determining the top of embankment elevation.

The design of a spillway system is based on a set of standards or criteria developed from hydraulic
and structural theory and practice, and tempered with the experience from the performance of
previous spillway designs. An appropriate set of criteria ensure uniform, safe, cost-effective,
successfully performing spillway structures.

8.6 Spill way Type

The type of structure generally selected is based on hydraulic capabilities, economics, structural
limitations, and project owner preferences. A chute spillway is selected since such spillway reduces
maintenance costs and extends the life of the auxiliary earth spillway over the life of the project even
though may significantly increase project cost. Considering the above factors, chute spillway is
suitable for this site as the topographic nature is steeper, and chute spill way is simple for
construction(Chanson, 2002).

8.7 Design of spill way components

Spillway is a device which comprises various components depending on the type of the spillway
selected. The major components of a spillway are Entrance channel (Approach channel), Control
structure, Chute channel, Energy dissipation work (Terminal structure) and e) Discharge channel.

68
 8.7.1 Entrance channel (Approach channel)
The approach channel which leads water from the reservoir water to the control structure is 43.3m in
length at the center line and designed as shown below.

Example: if the input data for the approach channel design is made by selecting a trapezoidal channel
having side slope of 1:2. (V: H) and the design flood from routing section, and if ;

- Design discharge (Routed flood) = 12.81m3/sec.

- Channel bottom width =8.0m
- Channel bed slope = 0 (i.e zero bed slope )
1. The approach velocity (Va)

Va = 2 gHa , or Va = Q/A , Ha =He – Hd

Where g = Acceleration = 9.81m/s2, Ha = Velocity head , Q = Routed flood = 12.81m3/s, A =

wetted area of the channel, Hd = water depth + velocity head over the spill way crest

 2 x9.81( He  Hd ) = Q/(B*Hd + S*Hd2) ,

He = (12.81/(1.7 x 8))2/3; implies He =0.961m

19.628(0.961  Hd ) =12.81/(6Hd + 2Hd2)

By trial and error Hd = 0.39m

Ha = 0.96m – 0.39m = 0.577m, Va = 2 x9.81x0.071 = 3.365 m/s . This velocity is not

accepted for non rock and coarser material bed and bank material implying that the bed near the
control section shall be concrete. to check, Critical flow depth at control structure (dc) = (q2/g)1/3

Where q =Q/L = 12.81/8 = 1.60m3/s.m, dc= (1.602/9.81)1/3 = 0.639m > 0.40m

This indicates that the flow in the approach channel is super- critical flow type and it is not
acceptable for earth bed. Hence, a nominal length of the trapezoidal channel section bed should be
lined..

8.7.2 Control structure

in sizing the spillway control section, the depth (d) and the width (W) of the spillway control has
been determined from the flood routing and the addition of the freeboards already computed in dam
body sizing. All the wall dimensions are to be designed using stability analysis. The foundation
cutoff depth of the control section must be keyed and connected to the foundation cutoff level of the
embankment dam body.

69
 Figure 15 : typical spillway control section

The right side wall thickness is fixed using construction condition (i.e suitability for dam material
compaction), as the soil type stands by its own weight. However, in practical condition the soil is not
fully in tension zone. The section is checked by stability considering the active soil lateral pressure.

8.7.3 Chute channel

The water spilling over the control structure, then flows through the rectangular chute
channels of a homogeneous or varying slope. The minimum slope of the chute is governed
by the condition that the super-critical flow must be maintained. The slope of the chute is
kept sufficient to meet the flow requirement. The design bed slope of the chutes is fixed so
as to fit the spill way ground profile. All the calculation requirements of a chute in this
section is the same as shown in the canal chute section.
Example show critical flow hydraulics requirements for the example shown in section 9.7.1

Discharge (Q) = 12.81m3/s ; Crest length, L = bc = 8.0m

Q 12.8
q   1.60m 3 / sec/ m
B 8
13
 q2  1.60 2 
d e        0.639m
 g   9.81 
Vc 
q

1.60  2.5m / sec
d c 0.639

hvc 
vc
2


2.5
2
 0.32m
2 g 2 x9.81
70
Wetted perimeter, pc =bc + 2dc = 8+ (2x 0.890m) = 9.30m
Water area, Ac = bc*dc = 8.0m x 0.890m = 5.11m2
Manning’s roughness =0.018 ; selected for masonry section
Water surface slope
Ac 5.11
Hydraulic radius, Rc    0.55m Water surface slope,
Pc 9.89
2
 0.018 * 2.5 
I c   2
  0.0045

 0.55 3


Energy at critical point (Ec) = dc + hvc + Zc , Zc = 1824.0m –1809m = 15.00m

=0.0.639m + 0.32m + 15.0m

= 15.959m

Using the Bernoulli’s theorem as shown in the figure below

Figure 16 : Spillway chute section typical

Energy at section (c) = Energy at section (1) + head loss b/n section (c) and (1)

By trail and error y1 is calculated at (1)

Therefore, y1 at (1) = 0.281m

As shown in the above the calculated depths on section- 1 less than the calculated critical depth, dc =
0.639m. Hence the flow in the chute section is super critical flow and satisfies the chute spill way
requirement.

71
 8.7.4 design of Side wall
The side wall of the chute should be of such a height that the water does not spill over the wall due to
high disturbance of flow. A sufficient free board must therefore be provided above the top water
nape.

Fb (Free board) is generally given by the equation, Fb = 0.61 +0.04 vm*(dm) 1/3 in SI unit

Where Vm = mean velocity of water in the chute reach found from chute profile for example as 6.13
m/s and Dm = mean depth of water in the chute reach =0.28m; hence

Therefore Fb = 0.61 +0.04 *0.281*6.13 1/3 m=0.77m

Wall height =0.281+0.77m=1.03m take 1.1m depth of wall

8.7.5 Energy Dissipation work (Terminal structure)

A chute spillway generally discharges water at a point far away from the dam. Hence, the
protection is required only for the spillway, as the danger to the main dam is not there. Due
to this reason, a hydraulic stilling basin is generally sufficient and is provided at the end of
chute section and at the starting point of the discharge channel. Stilling basin is one such
structure to be designed. the stilling basin requires all parametric values of the end situations
of the chute.

Example: from surface water profile in the chute, the incoming flow has an average fraude
number of Fr = 4.14, V1 =6.13 m/sec and y1 = 0.281m. compute the minimum basin wall
height and length of basin?
(√ )

(√ )

V2=q/y2=1.60/1.5=1.12m/s adopted for masonry basin

Considering the incoming froude number (i.e 4.14< Fr < 9, the jump performance is at its
best and the jump is then called a steady jump), USBR stilling basin type II is adapted. From
the graph for Fr1 = 4.14, L/y2 = 5.8 (i.e from USBR Type II stilling basin
characteristics)
Stilling basin length ( L) = 5.8y2 = 5.8 x 1.5m = 8.78 m ≈ 9.00m
Therefore adopt stilling basin length of 9.0m

Required minimum tail water depth (y3) = 7y1 = 7x 0.281=1.966m, ≈ 2.00m

72
 Figure 17 : typical dissipation basin drawing/USBR
Table 18: summary of dimensions of USBR type II basin
Computed Adopted value,
Symbol formula value m

h1 H1=d1 0.281 0.300

w1 W1=d1 0.281 0.300
s1 S1=d1 0.281 0.3
h2 H2=0.2d2 0.30279 0.300
w2 W2=0.15d2 0.227092 0.250
s2 S2=0.15d2 0.227092 0.250

8.7.6 Discharge/exit channel

This spillway component is a structure which returns the flow in to the original river
channel and should be given a minimum scouring slope. So as to agree the water depth in
the discharge channel (i.e tail water depth) to the post jump depth, the water depth in the
channel should be 1.7m (i.e the required minimum tail water depth) and the channel section
is determined considering 1.70m flow depth in the channel. The discharge channel is
designed using the Manning’s formula as shown below.
 Channel section- Trapezoidal ( dry stone pitching) of side slope of 1:2
 bed slope (s) – 1:1000
 Manning’s roughness coefficient(n)= 0.020
 Design discharge (Q) = 12.81m3/sec
73
  Required minimum tail water depth = 2.00m
Check the velocity

Using spread sheet trials, the bottom width of 3.6m is adequate and velocity is checked as follows.

A= Bd3 +2d32 = (3.6m x 2.00m)+2.0(2.0m)2 = 11.865m2

 V= Q/A = 12.810m3/sec/ 11.865m2 =1.09 m/sec . This value is adopted for dry stone pitch
channel bed.

At the exit of the discharge channel to the river 1m thickness with 2m depth masonry cutoff at the
channel bed and a gabion of 0.5m thickness on both side of the channel wall is provided so as to
minimize the possibility of scouring. For detail see working drawing.

8.8 Staff gauge

Staff gage is used to measure reservoir water level and spill way discharge level. To measure the
level of the outflows in the spillway 2.25m height aluminum /concrete graduated staff gauge ( 10cm
interval) is installed on the wall of the spillway control section.

Similarly to measure the reservoir water level, staff gauges can be placed on the intake tower
reinforced wall between full reservoir level and minimum draw down level (1812.5m a.s.l) is
installed on the u/s slope of the dam. In addition to this a one meter length of concrete staff gages
will be installed at spacing near the intake wall position on can be installed in combination.

8.8.1 design of outlet works

An outlet system generally consists of entrance device (Intake structure), a conveyance structure, a
control device and terminal device. Arrangement of the different components would vary with the
layout selected. In small scale dams steel pipes with control values at the outlet and an intake
chamber fitted with trash rack at the intake would normally adapted.

8.8.2 Intake sill level

The sill level is seen from two considerations by consideration of Sedimentation analyses
and Existing topographic condition of the command area. The initial intake sill level is fixed based
on your outlet level shown in hydrology. for example for Mugechit it is fixed at 1812.50m a.s.l for
30 years sediment distribution. And considering the experience on the economic life of the dam, to
increase the service life of the dam the sill level raises to the level of 50 years sediment distribution
(i.e 1814.50m a.s.l). Hence, to use the reservoir water effectively 2.00m heights submerged front
entrance intake structure is to be provided.

8.8.3 Determination of Intake shaft/duct size

Considering the maximum required flows in the outlet pipe and the capacity of stored water to
discharge the required flows, 1.0m x 1.0m shaft size is provided.

74
 8.8.4 Intake wall thickness

The wall thickness is designed for the most critical loading (i.e the sediment deposited to the top
level of the intake structure while inside is empty) using limit state design method. from experience
for this loading condition and 2.0m height intake structure, the calculated rein forced wall thickness
at the bottom of the wall is 40mm and therefore for practical condition adopt 40cm wall thickness
and reinforced with φ 14 mm bars at 150mm c/c spacing.

8.8.5 Stop log/gates

So as to barrier the entrance of sediment in to the opening of the intake structure 0.1mx 0.25mx 1.0m
(i.e about 68kg) size reinforced concrete stop log is provided. And to operate the stop logs 12cm
width grooves are provided on the wall of the intake

8.8.6 Trash rack

To control the entrance of debris throughout the height of the intake structure can be movable trash
rack is provided. Reinforcement bar is used as the trash rack at enough the spacing and to reinforce
the trash rock from bending due to the water load iron tubo is welded to the edge of the trash rack at
all four sides. And to operate the trash rock 24mm width grooves are provided on the intake tower
wall.

8.9 Conveyance structure

8.9.1 Pipe outlet level
The outlet capacity can be designed using the maximum duty and command area as shown below for
a duty of 1.84 l/s/ha and a command area of 150ha

Therefore; Outlet capacity = 1.84ℓ/s/ha x 150ha= 0.276ℓ/s = 0.280m3/s

8.9.2 Pipe diameter and wall fixation

in fixing the diameter of the pipe the full reservoir level ,conduit outlet level , Pipe length, steel
pipe Manning's coefficient (n) = 0.012 (maximum value ) and Assumed pipe diameter (D) are
required as an input

The diameter of the pipe can be calculated easily using the following equation

4Q
D
2 gHT D 2 2 gHT
 Q *
KL 4 KL

75
Where D = pipe diameter in (m)

Q = Discharge m3/s

HT = Total head between FRL and top level of the pipe (since the outlet is not free
discharging)

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2

KL = Constant which is obtained after considering all the losses in the system

K = all head loss excluding friction loss taken

L = pipe length ,m

f = steel pipe friction loss

f= , D= assumed diameter in feet

K = kt + ke + kb + kV + kex

Where kt = trash rack loss coefficient =

Where ag = the gross area of the trash racks

an = the net area through the trash racks

ke = entrance loss = 0.70 (maximum value from the table)

kb = bending loss = 0.20 (from the graph)

kv = valve loss = 0.15 (for butter fly values)

kex = exit loss coefficient = 1.0

Example: compute the design pipe outlet diameter and the final discharge for the following where

 the full reservoir level = 1824.00m a.s.l

 conduit outlet level = 1811.36a.s.l
 Pipe length = 91.45m
 Steel pipe Manning's coefficient (n) = 0.012 (maximum value )
 Assumed pipe diameter = 0.60m
 Q = Discharge = 0.280 m3/s
 HT = Total head between FRL and top level of the pipe (since the outlet is not free
discharging)
76
 = 1824m a.s.l - (1811.36m + 0.6m) = 12.08m

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2

L = pipe length = 91.45m

f = steel pipe friction loss

f= , D= assumed diameter in feet = 1.969ft

f=

f=0.0213

=3.4

K = kt + ke + kb + kV + kex

Where kt = trash rack loss coefficient =

Where ag = the gross area of the trash racks = (2.0m x 1.0m) + (1.0m x 1.0m)

= 3.0m2

an = the net area through the trash racks

= ag - (10 x 0.016 x2.0) + (50 x 0.016 x 1.0) + (2(1*10 x 0.016))

= ag - 1.0064

= 3.0 - 1.0064 = 2.28

kt = 1.45 - 0.45 2.28 / 3 - 2.28 / 3 2

=0.52

ke = entrance loss = 0.70 (maximum value from the table)

kb = bending loss = 0.20 (from the graph)

kv = valve loss = 0.15 (for butter fly values)

kex = exit loss coefficient = 1.0

k = 0.52 + 0.70 + 0.20 + 0.15 + 1.00 = 2.57

77
 kL = 3.4 + 2.57 = 5.96

For minimum head of 1.14m (i.e the elevation difference b/n the inlet and the outlet)

The diameter of the pipe can be calculated easily using the following equation

4 * 0.281
D
2 * 9.81*12.06

5.96

= 0.44m < the assumed pipe diameter 0.60 hence adopted

Therefore, To be able to utilize the minimum driving head by reducing friction loss through
the pipe, a steel pipe of 0.6m diameters can be adapted.

 Discharging capacity of the pipe at full reservoir

 * 0.60 2 2 * 9.81 *12.06

Q *
4 5.96

Q= 1.78 m3/s

Its velocity is checked by dividing the Q/A of the pipe and was found to be 6.29 m/s which
is acceptable for pipes.
 Pipe wall thickness
Since the location of the control valve is at the d/s of the dam, the pipe throughout its length is
pressurized. Hence, at downstream portions of the pressure conduit, there may be an excess of
internal pressure, which could cause leakage through joints or cracks in to the material surrounding
the conduit barrel. To avoid this problem the conduit wall thickness should be greater than or equal
to 4mm. And inside and outside of the pipe should be coated by bituminous or by some other rust -
resisting treatment, so as to protect from corrosion

To reinforce and to protect the pipe from any damage during compaction of the fill by the compactor
and also to make suitable for compaction the pipe is covered by reinforced concrete as shown in the
figure below.

78
 Figure 18: typical intake pipe in c-25 concrete

8.9.3 Gate Controls

Considering its easiness to operate against unbalanced water pressure because of the partially
balanced pressure against the disc, the advantages of being low cost and minimum head loss, a butter
fly values are recommended. The values are provided at the downstream of the dam near to the outlet
at two points. The first serve as a stand by and the other regulates the flow.

8.9.4 Outlet Energy dissipating device

An impact type of stilling basin that doesn't depend up on tail water is adapted. Impact basin consists
of a rectangular box like structure with the long dimension parallel to the axis of the pipe. The
discharge from the pipe is intercepted by a solid hanging baffle which extends over the full width of
the structure.

The basin width (w) recommended for the impact basin is a function of the discharge and calculated
from

W = 1.9Q0.4

Where Q = 1.5*outlet discharge and w= width of the dissipater

Example computes the size of the USBR type dissipater for the following

Q=1.5 x discharge at maximum reservoir level

= 1.5 x 1.78m3/sec

79
 = 2.654m3/sec

All other dimensions are expressed in terms of w as indicated in the figure 5.2 shown in the
next page.

W = 1.9 x 2.654 0.4 = 2.80m

c = 0.982 = 0.08 x 2.80m = 0.224m ≈ 0.20m

f = 0.37w = 0.37 x 2.80m =1.036m ≈ 1.0m

i = 0.17w = 0.17 x 2.80m = 0.476m ≈ 0.50m

j = 0.75w = 0.75 x 2.80 = 2.10m ≈ 2.30m

p = 1.33w = 1.33 x 2.80m = 3.724m ≈ 3.70m

y = 0.34w = 0.34 x 2.80m = 0.952m ≈ 1.00m

t = (wall thickness) = 0.20m (R.c.c)

80
 Figure 19 : USBR type basin plan

Figure 20 : USBR type basin section

9. METHODS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SLOPES OF FINITE HEIGHT

The various causes leading to the failure of earth dams can be grouped in to the following three
classes.

1/ Hydraulic failure due to over topping of dams have been protected by designing a safe spillway
devices and this will be carefully design and the problem will not occure. 2/ seepage failure caused
by water migration through the embankment and the foundation have been protected by arranging a
mechanisms of chimney and horizontal filters and rock toe drains . 3/ the third classes of failures (i.e
structural failures) is the basic topic which must be carefully designed considering the following
conditions.

 End of construction (both slopes critical);

 Steady state, reservoir full (downstream slope critical);
 Rapid drawdown (upstream slope critical);
 Seismic loading ( both slopes critical)

A more common problem of The stability of slopes is the one in which the failure occurs
on curved surfaces. The most widely used method of analysis of homogeneous,
isotropic, finite slopes is the Swedish method based on circular failure surfaces. Petterson
(1955) first applied the circle method to the analysis of a soil failure in connection with
the failure of a quarry wall in Goeteberg, Sweden. A Swedish National Commission,
after studying a large number of failures, published a report in 1922 showing that the
lines of failure of most such slides roughly approached the circumference of a circle. The
failure circle might pass above the toe, through the toe or below it. By investigating the
81
strength along the arc of a large number of such circles, it was possible to locate the
circle which gave the lowest resistance to shear. This general method has been quite
widely accepted as offering an approximately correct solution for the determination of
the factor of safety of a slope of an embankment and of its foundation. Developments in
the method of analysis have been made by Fellenius (1947), Terzaghi (1943), Gilboy
(1934), Taylor (1937), Bishop (1955), and others, with the result that a satisfactory
analysis of the stability of slopes, embankments and foundations by means of the circle
method is no longer an unduly tedious procedure.
The majority of the methods of analysis may be categorized as limit equilibrium
methods. The basic assumption of the limit equilibrium approach is that Coulomb's
failure criterion is satisfied along the assumed failure surface. A free body is taken from
the slope and starting from known or assumed values of the forces acting upon the free
body, the shear resistance of the soil necessary for equilibrium is calculated. This
calculated shear resistance is then compared to the estimated or available shear strength
of the soil to give an indication of the factor of safety.
Methods that divide the free body into many vertical slices and consider the equilibrium
of each slice are the Swedish circle method (Fellenius, 1927), Bishop Method (1955),
Bishop and Morgenstern method (1960) and Spencer method (1967). The majority of
these methods is in chart form and covers a wide variety of conditions.

a/ Total normal and tangential components b/Pore-pressure diagram

82
The shear strength of a soil (C-ɸ) due to cohesion and internal friction varies from point to
point along the slip circle. The equation for shear strength of this soil is, S = c + p n tanɸ,
kg/m2 where, c is constant along the slip circle but pn which is the pressure normal to the
slip circle due to weight of soil varies from point to point along the slip circle.

83
 10. GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES OF CONSTRUCTION OF
RESERVOIRS/PONDS AND EMBANKMENT DAMS
The pond is constructed by excavating the reservoir and then using the excavated soil
material for construction of the embankments. Foundation of embankment induce
differential settlement and therefore it is recommended that

- Strip the top 0.3m of the pond reservoir and do not use it for foundation but
for agriculture or garden.
- Compact the core on the wetter side of Optimum Moisture Content so that
cracks will be absorbed
- Extend the cutoff up to its sound foundation
- Provide extra pond height in the form of longitudinal camber over the
designed pond top level varying from zero at the abutments to a maximum
value of 0.75m at the valley where the settlement of the pond will be the most.

3. Use the selected materials from the excavated weathered rock on approach channel and
chute channel of the spill way for shell material in addition to the proposed shell material
borrow area.

4. Due to the shallow water table in the reservoir area, the quantity of soil suitable for core
material is limited. And the design considers the limited core material availability but still
the required core material quantity is not available in the reservoir area. Hence, use the
additional borrows area selected around for core material source.

84
10.1 Compaction
To attain sufficient compaction, specific geotechnical recommendations, based on soil
geotechnical results, may be provided. If not, the following criteria will help to attain
sufficient compaction:

 Where a bulldozer or excavator is used for construction, the floors and

embankments must be appropriately compacted with a roller.

 Scrapers or sheep‟s foot rollers give greater compaction rates.

 Compact soil with moisture content within ±2% of optimum (Skerman et al.
2004).

 Where material is too dry to achieve satisfactory compaction, soil will have
to be wetted. Each lift (a layer of fill generally not exceeding 200 mm) must
be compacted to at least 95% of maximum dry density. This is typically
achieved through eight passes of a sheep‟s foot roller (Skerman et al. 2004).
Tamping foot and vibrating rollers can also be used.

 The lift thickness must not exceed 150 mm after compaction (Skerman et al.
2004).

 Construct liners with a minimum of two compacted lifts for optimum

performance (Reinsch 2001).
 Permeability must be ≤1.0 × 10–9 m·s–1.

 The clay material used should be classified as CL, CI, CH, SC or GC under
the USCS (Skerman et al. 2004).
 Clay-dominant material should have a Liquid Limit between 30% and 60%
and a Plasticity Index of >10% (Skerman et al. 2004).

85
 Figure 21 : pond bank and reservoir at the end of construction

Figure 22 : Pond lining and liners

10.2 Construction machines required

Excavator, loader, compacter, shower track, survey machine, welding machine, grader,
tractor damp track and others can be used for better performance and quality of work.

10.3 Pond monitoring

The water level in storage ponds should be monitored regularly, along with groundwater
heights and sludge depths. To monitor groundwater, a shallow (0–3 m) slotted PVC pipe in
which depth is measured is all that is required. Water table heights must not come within 1
m of the compacted lining of the storage, or the compacted clay layer can become damaged,
and effluent from the pond can enter groundwater. Monitoring of effluent levels allows any
seepage losses to be readily detected and corrected. If water tables become close to levels
within storage ponds, synthetic linings must not become damaged, and groundwater must
not overtop the pond. Monitor these levels monthly during wet periods, when water tables
are likely to rise.
Monitoring sludge depths is critical to ensuring sufficient room in the pond for heavy rain.
As sludge accumulates, the capacity for effluent diminishes, so ponds must be regularly
desludged.
86
Procedures of dam construction
Clearing
 The area to be covered by the embankment* should be pegged out prior to
commencement of any works.
 The embankment and the area to be excavated should be cleared and grubbed.
 Topsoil should be heaped in areas outside of the area to be covered by the
embankment and all trees, scrub and roots removed.
 Topsoil should be placed inlayers not exceeding 200 mm and planted with grass
if it is to be left for considerable time (more than 6 months). This will conserve
the integrity of the topsoil.
 All saturated material in the embankment area must be pushed well clear of the
site and must not be used in the embankment.
Foundation*
 The base of the embankment should be stripped of all topsoil, silt, loose material,
vegetable matter, and then scarified over its whole area.
 Dams lose water through evaporation and seepage. Little can be done for
evaporation losses, but with good construction methods seepage losses can be
reduced. One critical aspect is the construction of the cut-off trench. A cut-off
trench or keyway should be 1½ times the height of the dam at the bottom of the
trench. This keyway will minimize seepage under the embankment and increase
the stability of the dam. It should be taken down to a minimum of 600 mm into
impervious soil and rock and backfilled with the appropriate quality clay that is
thoroughly compacted. It should extend for the length of the embankment
including the hillside flanks, but does not need to be extended under the spillway
where the spillway is cut into rock.
When to use filters
 Filters in embankment dams and their foundations are required to perform two
basicfunctions:1. Prevent erosion of soil particles from the soil they are protecting.2.
Allow drainage of seepage water (Fell et. al., 2005).
 Concentrated leaks commonly develop in well-designed and constructed dams, and
an important element to deal with such leaks is the filter zone. By providing a
conservative downstream filter, risks associated with possible concentrated leaks
through the core should be reduced.
Rock
 If rock is encountered under the embankment, appropriate measures should
betaken to cut off seepage along the rock/soil contact and to prevent seepage in
the rock joints coming into contact with the embankment soil.
 Such measures might involve the use of bentonite and a mortar or concrete
blanket over the rock.
Outlet pipe
 An outlet pipe will need to be installed in the base of the dam. The outlet pipe is
required to enable the permit holder to pass inflows during summer and winter,

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 as required by water licence conditions. It is also required to allow water in the
stream, upstream of the construction work to be bypassed during construction.
 The minimum size outlet pipe is specified on the permit, however if the permit
holder wishes to install larger diameter pipe then this is allowable. Should the
permit holder wish to have a specific size pipe to suit the pump/irrigation plant it
is recommended that dedicated pipe work also be installed for that purpose?
 As for the Outlet pipe materials and installation, High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE) is a suitable material for pipe work in earth-filled dams. However no
less than Class 9 rating (90 kPa should be considered, based on Australian
Standard: AS/NZS 4130:2003: Polyethylene (PE) pipes for pressure
applications. The Class number should be marked on the pipe as per the above
Australian Standard. Every precaution should be taken with the installation of
the pipe, given the fact that a large percentage of dam failures are associated
with poor installation of outlet pipes. The following applies to outlet pipes:
 A separate trench should be dug through the foundations of the dam and the
outlet pipe installed in the trench.
 Installation of the outlet pipe should only be undertaken after clearing and
grubbing of the foundation and installation of the cut-off trench. It must however,
be done before construction work starts on the embankment.
 Under no circumstances should the outlet pipe be placed in the embankment.
This can lead to cracking of the embankment through poor installation and
compaction and result in failure of the dam. It is generally recognized that dams
that do fail, fail on first filling and often around the outlet pipe.
 Under no circumstances is the outlet pipe to be closed before the Work-as-
Executed (WAE) Report is received by the Regional Water Management
Officer(RWMO). To do this is a breach of dam permit conditions and also a
safety issue and may result in the embankment overtopping, leading to dam
failure before the construction of the dam embankment is finished. HDPE pipe
lengths (they generally come in 12 metre lengths) are joined by either fusion
welding or if they need to be disassembled can be joined by Victaulic joints or
depending on the application, a mixture of both.
 As to the Baffle plates on outlet pipes , HDPE baffle plates 600mm x 600mm x
20mm thick should be placed over the pipe at regular intervals and sealed to
prevent seepage along the pipe.
 Clay should be hand-tamped with an appropriate hand held tamping machine
such as a „Wacker Packer‟ up to slightly above the top of the pipe so as not to
damage or crush the pipe before compacting successive layers with an
appropriate machine such as a CAT 815 sheep‟s foot roller.
 Pipes of other materials such as concrete or steel, if proposed, may require more
careful installation and testing. Steel pipe will need to be treated to resist
corrosion and may have a shorter life than the preferred HDPE pipes. The
upstream end of every outlet pipe should be fitted with a screen and the
downstream end with a stop tap and marker. The screen and pipe inlet should
also be encased in a concrete anchor block.
Borrow pits

88
 The full excavation for embankment material, wherever possible should be kept
as much as possible below the full supply level (FSL)* of the storage area.
Excavating suitable materials within the wetted perimeter of the storage will
maximise the total storage potential. Otherwise suitable material to construct the
dam may have to be sourced outside the wetted perimeter.
 Great care should be taken when obtaining borrow materials from steep bank
areas that may be prone to instability.
 A person should never enter an excavation that is deeper than chest level unless
the excavation has been made safe from collapse.
 If the excavation collapsed it can bury a person leading to a possible fatality or
permanent injury. In order to avoid permanent injury or fatal incidents,
excavations deeper than chest level where it is intended that a person will enter:•
should either be shored up by using an appropriate method such as steel shoring;
or• all sides of the excavation should be battered back and should not be steeper
than 2:1 horizontal to vertical slope.
 When rock is exposed in the excavation area, no attempt should be made to
excavate into the rock. All exposed areas of gravel, jointed rock or other porous
material in the storage area and under the embankment shall be covered
with300mm of compacted clay to ensure water tightness.
 Construction material workmanship and compaction Leaks in earth-filled dams
that lead to dam failures are often the result of inadequate compaction levels.
 Therefore it is important that effective compaction is achieved. This can be
undertaken by applying the required compaction effort to high clay content
materials.
 Compaction should be undertaken by using a tamper foot roller, commonly
referred to as a sheep foot roller. As a rule of thumb to obtain the required
compaction effort, the following should be undertaken as a minimum for all dams
greater than approximately 3 metres in height and 3 Mega litres in capacity:
o All fill material for the embankment should be placed in layers (or lifts)
no greater than 150mm thick.
o The largest size particle should not be greater than 1/3rd the height of the
lift, that is, 50mm.
o Each layer should be thoroughly compacted before the next layer is
placed. Aminimum of 6 passes to achieve the required compaction effort
is generally required by a suitable machine (see below).
o The compaction effort achieved should be on average 98% Standard
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (non-structural fill) as in context to
Modified MDD (structural fill) as per Australian Standard: AS1289.0-
2000 Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes.
o The minimum compaction effort should be 95% Standard MDD. If the
range of compaction effort varies throughout the dam, then it can lead to
the dam embankment settling to different degrees (differential settlement)
causing the embankment of the dam to crack. This may ultimately lead to
leakage anddam failure.
o The material forming the embankment should be placed with sufficient
moisture to ensure proper compaction. The moisture content should be in
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 the range of –1% to + 3% of optimum moisture content (OMC). If the
material is too dry, water should be added. If the material is too wet it
should be spread and mixed.
o Before each additional 150mm lift is added to the embankment, the
preceding lift should be scarified to ensure that the two lifts are properly
joined so that no natural paths for seepage are present that may result in
dam failure.
o A wheeled scraper or truck should be used for placing the clay on the
dam site. The clay should then be spread by the use of the blade on a
tamper foot roller or from a bulldozer towing a tamper foot roller (sheep
foot roller).Vehicles with crawler tracks are not suitable, as high
compaction levels are not achieved. Likewise, compaction using a
scraper tyre should not be used as the required compaction effort will not
be achieved. In general, a sheep foot roller kneads the clay in the core.
When compacting a loose lift of clay, its feet will sink deeply into the soil
during the first pass. Upon successive passes, the roller will sink less
deeply if proper compaction is being achieved. The roller is said to “walk
out” compacting from the bottom up. Loaded scraper or dozer tracks do
not undertake this function and should not be used for compaction of the
dam‟s core.
Compaction testing requirements
o Dams that require engineering input during the construction stage require
specific geotechnical testing to be undertaken, for example, density tests to
ensure that the compaction specifications are met. This includes:
o all dams with Low hazard category greater than 5 metres; and
o all dams that are greater than 10 metres in height regardless of the hazard
category; and
o all dams with a Significant hazard category or greater as defined by the Water
Management (Safety of Dams) Regulations..
o It is critical that the supervising engineer selects a qualified technician with
relevant local accreditation for the type of test being undertaken. As a minimum
6 visits should be carried by the technician. This includes undertaking 3 density
test per visit on the embankment, around the outlet pipe, with the filter etc. The
technician should also accompany the engineer in their routine inspections. The
test certificates need to be included in the Appendix of the Work-as-Executed
Report to be submitted to the Department.
Batter slope*
o Special care shall be taken to ensure that the upstream and downstream batters
are well compacted and trimmed to a slope batter of 3:1 horizontal to vertical
slope or designed by an appropriate qualified person (eg a professional
geotechnical engineer). Failure to comply with this requirement may greatly
affect the stability ofthe embankment.
Settlement of the embankment
o Settlement of soil banks is common and an allowance must be made for
settlement of the dam embankment. The embankment may settle to a level where
it is overtopped by water and failure will result.

90
 o Or overtime settlement may result in theheight of the embankment becoming
lower than the spillway.
o Clay soil can settle in excess of 10% of the dam‟s height, but well constructed
and compacted clay dam embankments are not likely to settle more than about
5%.
o An allowance of 5% of the height of the embankment (along its length) to cater
for settlement is necessary. For example, if the design height of the dam is 5
metres, the embankment should be built to 5.25 metres (+5%) to allow for
settlement.
Vegetation
o Topsoil should be spread over the exposed surfaces of the embankment to a depth
of at least 150mm and sown with pasture grass to establish a good cover as soon
as possible.
o Never allow any vegetation larger than pasture grass to become established on
or near the embankment.
o Tree roots, especially eucalyptus tree roots can cause the core to crack resulting
in the failure of the dam.
o As a rule of thumb, trees and shrubs should be kept to a minimum distance of 1½
times the height of the tree away from the embankment of the dam. This
especially applies to eucalypts.
testing and quality inspection
o Depending on the scale and size of the dam, specialized engineering supervision
may be required at critical stages of construction.
o The level of specialized engineering supervision required is generally
proportional to the hazard category of the dam.
o In any case, an appropriately qualified and experienced engineer should be
consulted to help the future owner with the requirements for the construction of
the dam.
o Engineering expertise can be used during the planning, and construction of the
dam, as well as throughout the life of the dam.

91
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