Guiding light via slippery liquid-infused

porous surfaces
Cite as: Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0038910
Submitted: 27 November 2020 . Accepted: 12 February 2021 . Published Online: 01 March 2021

Kaustubh Asawa, Santosh Kumar, Yuping Huang, and Chang-Hwan Choi

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Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0038910 118, 091602

© 2021 Author(s).
 Applied Physics Letters ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/apl

Guiding light via slippery liquid-infused porous

surfaces
Cite as: Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0038910
Submitted: 27 November 2020 . Accepted: 12 February 2021 .
Published Online: 1 March 2021

Kaustubh Asawa,1 Santosh Kumar,2 Yuping Huang,2 and Chang-Hwan Choi1,a)

AFFILIATIONS
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, USA
2
Department of Physics, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, USA

a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: cchoi@stevens.edu

ABSTRACT
Slippery liquid-infused porous surfaces (SLIPSs) have been explored for many applications, taking advantage of their highly non-wetting
property. In this work, we explore the SLIPS as a cladding material for waveguiding. SLIPSs are prepared by infusing perfluoropolyether oil
to hydrophobized nanoporous surfaces of silicon. Power loss and transmission efficiency of an HeNe laser (1.82 mW and 632.8 nm) with
varying incident angles were measured through microchannels consisting of the SLIPSs as cladding layers (noil ¼ 1.30) and water
(nwater ¼ 1.33) as a core, compared to other cladding types including a planar silicon surface and the nanoporous surfaces in hydrophilic
(Wenzel state) and hydrophobic (Cassie–Baxter state) conditions with no oil infused. Agreeing with Snell’s law, a total internal reflection
occurs at the incident angle as high as 14 for the SLIPSs. The waveguide loss at 14 is only 1.8 dB/cm for the SLIPSs, while those for planar
silicon, hydrophilic nanoporous, and hydrophobic nanoporous surfaces are 5.9, 7.4, and 4.9 dB/cm, respectively. The power transmission effi-
ciency of the SLIPSs is independent of the porosity because the surfaces are fully covered with the oil layer, whereas those of hydrophilic and
hydrophobic nanoporous surfaces, whose pores are filled with water and air, respectively, depend on the porosity. The significantly lower
power loss and the insensitivity to the surface porosity are advantages of the SLIPSs over the other surfaces and can benefit in waveguiding
applications such as optofluidics.
Published under license by AIP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0038910

Waveguiding is to confine light in a targeted region and guide it,
which is the backbone of modern photonics and optical communica-
tion. Fundamentally, a waveguide consists of a core region, where light
is propagated by the total internal reflection, surrounded by a cladding
layer with a lower refractive index (n) than that of the core. Integrating
fluidics with optics has emerged, namely, optofluidics, with applica-
tions in imaging,1 sensing,2 thermal energy transport,3 waveguides,4–6
and energy harvesting.7 Traditionally, a liquid-core platform has been
developed for biomedical sensing1 and diagnosing.8 In the liquid-core
waveguide platform, it is challenging to find out effective cladding
material whose refractive index is significantly lower than that of the
core liquid such as water (nwater ¼ 1.33). Various methods and materi-
als for the cladding layer were used to satisfy the condition for the total
internal reflection in using water as a core. For instance, Cho et al.9
demonstrated a liquid-core waveguide platform using a 5 lm-thick
film of Teflon (nTeflon ¼ 1.31) as a cladding layer to cover a microchan-
nel. However, the efficacy of waveguiding (i.e., the total internal reflec-
tion) is limited to a small incident angle (<10 ) because of the
refractive index close to that of water. To overcome such an issue, Du
et al.4 have recently introduced the concept of using air (nair ¼ 1) as a
cladding layer, employing a superhydrophobic surface as a channel
wall. Hydrophobized micro- or nanostructures of the superhydropho-
bic surface can trap air between the liquid core of water and the solid
channel walls so that the effective refractive index of the cladding layer
is close to that of air. Using air as a cladding layer has many advan-
tages, including the increase in the available range of incident angles of
a guided light,4 the decrease in the hydrodynamic friction at the chan-
nel walls,10 and the prevention of biofouling.11 However, the approach
using a superhydrophobic surface as an effective air-cladding layer
also has several concerns, including the loss of the interfacial air over
time or by external forces, the dependency of the waveguiding effec-
tiveness on the air fraction on the surface, and the degradation or fail-
ure of the effectiveness due to surface damage and wetting
transition.12–15
Recently, slippery liquid-infused porous surfaces (SLIPSs) have
been explored as an alternative strategy to the superhydrophobic surfaces
for various applications including self-cleaning, anti-biofouling, hydrody-
namic drag reduction, heat transfer, anti-icing, and anti-corrosion.16–22

Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0038910 118, 091602-1
Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Applied Physics Letters ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/apl

Compared to superhydrophobic surfaces where the gas-phase air

trapped at the interface is employed as a water-repelling lubrication
layer, the SLIPSs use a liquid-phase lubricant such as water-immiscible
oil, which can provide better longevity and retentivity of the interfacial
fluid as well as self-healing capability for such applications. However,
the efficacy of the SLIPS for waveguiding applications has not yet been
investigated or demonstrated. In this study, we investigate and demon-
strate the efficacy of the SLIPS for waveguiding experimentally, com-
pared to the superhydrophobic (i.e., Cassie–Baxter state) and
superhydrophilic (i.e., Wenzel state) surfaces, which have the same pat-
terns of the SLIPSs except for the substances and phases of the lubricant
fluid occupied in the pore structures (i.e., oil vs air vs water). The power
loss and transmission efficiency of a laser beam through a core water at
varying incident angles are measured through both the closed and
open microchannels consisting of the SLIPSs as cladding layers, com-
pared to those consisting of the other surfaces. The experimental work
presented here provides the proof of concept of the optofluidic wave-
guiding platform based on the SLIPS.
Figure 1 shows the schematics of the microchannels with the four
different surface types tested for the waveguiding efficacy, including a
planar silicon, a nanoporous silicon surface in hydrophilic conditions
(Wenzel state), a nanoporous silicon surface in hydrophobic (Teflon-
coated) conditions (Cassie–Baxter state), and a nanoporous silicon
surface with oil impregnation (SLIPS). While the top and bottom walls
consist of the different types of surfaces, the side walls are made of a
transparent polymer of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). In the case of a
microchannel with a planar silicon [Fig. 1(a)], the incident light will
mostly be reflected from the mirror-like (polished) surface of a planar
silicon. In the case of a nanoporous silicon surface in hydrophilic con-
ditions [Wenzel state, Fig. 1(b)], water wets the surface to fill the nano-
pores,23 and the incident light will be reflected with dispersion and
absorption by the top silicon surface or trapped by the nanopore struc-
tures. While the light can propagate via the reflections, the power of
the light will decrease significantly because of the scattering, absorp- FIG. 1. Schematics of light transmission through microchannels with different surfa-
tion, and trapping. In the case of a nanoporous silicon surface in a ces. (a) Planar silicon surface. (b) Nanoporous silicon (hydrophilic) surface. (c)
hydrophobic condition with Teflon coating [Cassie–Baxter state, Nanoporous silicon surface with Teflon coating (hydrophobic). (d) Nanoporous sili-
Fig. 1(c)], air is trapped within the nanopore structures,23 and the inci- con surface with oil impregnation (SLIPS).
dent light can be reflected by the air and Teflon layers by the total
internal reflection.4 A nanoporous surface with a higher air fraction by blowing nitrogen gas. The piranha solution creates a thin native
(i.e., porosity) will allow the effective refractive index of the cladding oxide on silicon, which is hydrophilic, and the surface is used for the
layer to be closer to that of air with less loss of the power of a transmit- planar silicon microchannel [Fig. 1(a)]. For the lithographic patterning
ted light. In the case of a nanoporous silicon surface with oil impregna- of nanopore structures, negative photoresist (NR-250P, Futurrex, Inc.,
tion [SLIPS, Fig. 1(d)], a thin oil layer is retained on the surface, which Franklin, NJ) was spin-coated on the silicon wafers, to get a film of
is also hydrophobized (e.g., perfluorinated coating such as Teflon) to 250 nm thick. They were soft-baked on a hotplate at 150 for 1 min
have higher chemical affinity to the oil (e.g., fluorinated oil such as and cut into pieces of a size of 3 cm by 3 cm. Then, interference lithog-
Krytox GPL of nkrytox ¼ 1.30) than water. Then, the incident light will raphy was conducted by using Lloyd’s mirror setup with an HeCd
be mostly reflected by the thin oil layer retained by the SLIPS, following laser with a wavelength of 325 nm and 25 mW (IK3501R-G, Kimmon
the principle of total internal reflection. It is expected that the porosity Koha Co., LTD, Tokyo, Japan).24 After the double exposure with the
of the SLIPS will not affect the power transmission efficiency as long as rotation of the substrate by 90 to form a square array of periodic pore
the top surface is homogenously covered with the thin oil layer. patterns, the specimens were post-baked on a hotplate at 100 for
For the experimental verification, periodic nanopore patterns 1 min. They were then developed by using developer (RD6, Futurrex,
were fabricated on polished silicon wafers (p-type, dopant B, h100i Inc., Franklin, NJ) followed by rinsing with de-ionized water and
orientation, and 0–100 ohm-cm resistance) by using laser interference blow-dried in nitrogen gas. For the DRIE of silicon, the cryogenic pro-
lithography followed by deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). As-received cess (Plasma lab 100, Oxford Instruments, Bristol, UK) was employed
silicon wafers were first cleaned in piranha solution [mixture of sulfu- by using O2 and SF6 as the etching gases.25 The photoresist layer was
ric acid (H2SO4), water, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)] for 10 min, removed in piranha solution for 10 min, which made the etched silicon
followed by rinsing with de-ionized water for 5 min twice, and dried surface hydrophilic.

Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0038910 118, 091602-2
Published under license by AIP Publishing
 Applied Physics Letters
Figure 2 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images
of the well-ordered nanopore structures of disconnected and high-
aspect ratio dead-end pore morphology, which were employed for
waveguiding experiments. One [Fig. 2(a)] has the periodicity of
290 nm, the pore diameters of 250 nm, and, hence, the porosity (p) of
0.58. The other [Fig. 2(b)] has the periodicity of 370 nm, the pore
diameters of 350 nm, and, hence, the porosity (p) of 0.70. While the
periodicity was set by the angle of interfering light in lithography, the
pore diameter was controlled by regulating the exposure time.26
The pore depth was the same as 1 lm for both patterns, determined
by the etching time in DRIE. The as-prepared surfaces were inherently
hydrophilic and used for the nanoporous silicon surfaces in hydro-
philic conditions [Fig. 1(b)]. For the nanoporous silicon surfaces in the
hydrophobic condition [Fig. 1(c)], the thin (10 nm) layer of polyte-
trafluoroethylene (Teflon, DuPont, Wilmington, DE) was coated con-
formally on the as-prepared surfaces via spin-coating.4,18 For the
SLIPS [Fig. 1(d)], the hydrophobized surfaces were further coated by
the solvent exchange method18 with the fluorinated oil of Krytox GPL
103 (The Chemours Company, Wilmington, DE). Previous works
FIG. 2. SEM images of nanoporous surfaces with different porosities. (a) Porosity
p ¼ 0.58. (b) Porosity p ¼ 0.70. The scale bar in each image is 1 lm. The inset in
each image shows the cross-sectional view to show the internal structure of the
pore.
Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0038910
Published under license by AIP Publishing
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/apl
show that the oil layer formed on the nanoscale pattern with the dis-
connected high-aspect-ratio dead-end pore morphology is well
retained even against external forces such as shear flow, measuring to
be 10 lm in thickness.18,19 Although the pore size and the oil viscos-
ity should affect the thickness of oil, the order of the magnitude of the
oil layer thickness is much greater than the scale of the nanopores.
Thus, the flatness of the water-oil interface is not significantly affected
by the porosity of the nanopores. The scale of the oil layer thickness is
also much greater than that of an evanescent field so that the effect of
the evanescent wave on the waveguide performance in the SLIPS
channel will be negligible. The Krytox 103 has a relatively high molar
mass and viscosity with relatively low vapor pressure (molar mass of
2275 g/mol, viscosity of 82 cSt, and vapor pressure of 1.60  106 at
20  C) so that the loss of oil over time (e.g., evaporation to ambient air
or diffusion to the core water) or by the external force (e.g., shear flow)
will not be significant for real applications (see the supplementary
material for details).
Optofluidic microchannels were prepared by sandwiching the
prepared surfaces to a PDMS slab (nPDMS ¼ 1.40) whose middle part
was precut to form a “Z”-shaped channel. The PDMS slab was pre-
pared by cast-molding of silicone elastomer (Sylgard 184, Dow,
Midland, MI) to the pre-defined (by laser cut) “Z”-shaped channel of
acrylic sheet. The surfaces of the acrylic sheet channel were smooth-
ened by using a polisher (Model 900, South Bay Technology, Inc., San
Clemente, CA) at 500 rpm, sequentially using the sandpapers of 12, 6,
3, 1, and 0.5 lm roughness to minimize the surface roughness. The
middle part (2.5 cm  1 cm  0.18 cm in length  width  thickness)
of the “Z”-shaped channel formed in the PDMS slab was used for the
main channel for the waveguiding experiments, while the side parts at
each end were used as the inlet/outlet for the introduction of de-
ionized water to the channel via a syringe. The inlet and outlet were
closed during the waveguiding experiments.
An HeNe laser (1.82 mW, 632.8 nm) was used to examine the
waveguide coupling efficiencies of the microchannels with different
surfaces (see the supplementary material for details). The incident
angle of the laser beam was controlled by a mirror placed on a rotating
stage, as high as 14 (the total solid angle of 28 ), which is close to the
critical angle for the total internal reflection for the SLIPS (see the
supplementary material for details). The beam size was reduced from
0.5 mm to 40 lm using a lens before the beam was introduced to
microchannels. The power of the transmitted light was measured
using the power detector at the end of each channel. The experi-
ments were performed 5 times for each channel at the given inci-
dent angle to evaluate the average and standard deviation of the
power loss in dB/cm.
Figure 3 shows the power losses measured through the micro-
channels with the different cladding layers at varying incident angles.
The number of reflections at the channel walls depends on the inci-
dent angle. According to theoretical estimations, only one reflection
occurs along the microchannel at the incident angle of 7 , while
two reflections take place at 11 for the given channel dimension.
Agreeing with that, a sharp increase in the power loss was measured at
these angles. Below 7 , the light follows a relatively straight optical
path without contacting with the top or bottom channel walls. The
minute power loss shown in the angles below 7 should be because
of minor losses such as scattering losses associated with the roughness
of the PDMS sidewalls. Figure 3 shows that the increase in the power
118, 091602-3
 Applied Physics Letters
FIG. 3. Power losses of the transmitted light through the microchannels with differ-
ent surfaces with respect to the incident angle.
loss was the highest in the nanoporous hydrophilic channels, followed
by the planar hydrophilic channel. While both the nanoporous hydro-
phobic and SLIPS channels show a less increase in the power loss than
the planar hydrophilic channel, the SLIPS channels show the lowest
increase in the power loss. At the incident angle of 14 , the waveguide
loss was only 1.8 dB/cm for the SLIPS, while those for planar silicon,
hydrophilic nanoporous, and hydrophobic nanoporous surfaces were as
high as 5.9, 7.4 (at p ¼ 0.70), and 4.9 (at p ¼ 0.58) dB/cm, respectively.
Within the planar hydrophilic channel, the light is transmitted
mainly by mirror reflection, where the major power loss occurs.
Within the nanoporous hydrophilic channels, the channel with the
higher porosity (p ¼ 0.70) shows a higher loss than that with the lower
porosity (p ¼ 0.58). This indicates that the higher porosity causes
greater entrapment and dispersion of the incident light at the nano-
pores. The entrapment and dispersion of the light at the nanopores are
also the reasons for the greater power loss in the nanoporous hydro-
philic channels than the planar hydrophilic channel.
Within the nanoporous hydrophobic channels, the channel with
the higher porosity (p ¼ 0.70) shows a less loss than that with the
lower porosity (p ¼ 0.58). As already reported elsewhere,4 the air layer
retained on the nanostructured hydrophobic surfaces can work as a
cladding layer to support the total internal reflection due to the lower
refractive index of air than that of water. Then, the surface with a
higher air fraction can work more effectively as a cladding layer since
the effective refractive index (neff) of the cladding layer increases with
an increase in the air fraction on the surface (i.e., porosity) according
to the volume averaging theory.27 Thus, the nanoporous hydrophobic
channel with the higher porosity provides the total internal reflection
with less loss than that with the lower porosity.
In the case of SLIPS channels, the power loss was minimal, show-
ing no dependency on the porosity. This indicates that the channel
surfaces are fully covered by the oil layer so that the nanopore struc-
tures underneath the oil layer do not significantly affect the reflection
of the light. In other words, the oil layer is mainly responsible for the
total internal reflection, insensitive to the porosity of the
Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0038910
Published under license by AIP Publishing
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/apl
nanostructures. The nanopore structures serve for the reservoir of oil,
helping the retention of oil because of the advantage of the high-aspect
ratio dead-end pore geometry.18,19
To ensure that the minimal power loss measured in the SLIPS
channels is due to the total internal reflection by the oil layer as a clad-
ding, compared to the mirror reflection with a significant loss on a pla-
nar silicon channel, the photographs of the beam paths of the
transmitted light were taken along with the measurement of the power
loss at varying incident angles with an open microchannel configura-
tion, as shown in Fig. 4, where the top surfaces were open to air. Since
the top surface is open to air, the number of reflection at the channel
wall is only once (at the bottom) even at the highest incident angle of
14 [Figs. 4(a)–4(c)]. To compare with the closed microchannels with
the maximum number of two reflections at the channel walls (one at
the bottom and the other at the top), the open microchannels with
half-filled water were also tested [Figs. 4(d)–4(f)]. In Figs. 4(a) and
4(b) and 4(d) and 4(e), the photographs and schematics are shown for
the case at the incident angle of 14 . Although the photographs show
similar reflection patterns of the transmitted light through the open
channels between the planar silicon and SLIPS channels, significant
dispersion to the surrounding PDMS channel (represented by the red
color in the images) was observed in the planar silicon channel, indi-
cating scattering loss. In contrast, such dispersion was little in the
SLIPS channel, suggesting the total internal reflection. Moreover, the
power loss is significantly less in the SLIPS channel than the planar sil-
icon channel, as shown in Figs. 4(c) and 4(f). Specifically, Fig. 4(c)
shows that the power loss with the two reflections (one at the bottom
channel wall and the other at the top free-surface) in the fully filled
open microchannel (incident angle of 8–14 ) is around the same as
that in the closed microchannel with only one reflection at the channel
wall (incident angle of 8–10 in Fig. 3). Similarly, Fig. 4(f) shows that
the power loss in the half-filled open microchannel, which can allow
the maximum three reflections (two at the bottom channel wall and
one at the top free surface), is around the same as that in the closed
microchannel, providing the maximum two reflections (once at each
top and bottom channel wall, Fig. 3). The results collaborate that the
significantly lower power loss in the SLIPS channels is because of the
total internal reflection supported by the oil layer with the lower
refractive index than water.
We reexamined the waveguiding efficacy of the SLIPS channels
after we purged the core water out of the microchannels and put out
in an open atmosphere in a lab for six months. We also checked the
performance of the SLIPS channels with the core water filled for six
months. No significant changes in the performance were measured,
suggesting the negligible loss of the oil over time, as discussed in the
supplementary material. The potential issue of the loss of oil over time
can further be prevented by using the oil with a higher viscosity. For
example, Krytox 106 (molar mass of 5940 g/mol) has a viscosity of 822
cSt and a vapor pressure of 1.00  108 at 20  C, while having the
same refractive index of Krytox 103. The estimated evaporation rate of
Krytox 106 is on the order of 1010 g/hcm2, which is around two
orders of magnitude lower than that of Krytox 103 (i.e., on the order
of 108 g/hcm2; see the supplementary material). If such a high-
viscosity oil is used for the SLIPS, the issue of oil loss in practical
application can be avoided. In this study, we employed PDMS as the
channel walls for the convenience of the fabrication process based on
soft lithography and the optical transparency to ensure the filling of
118, 091602-4
 Applied Physics Letters
FIG. 4. Experimental results of open microchannels for the comparison between the planar silicon and SLIPS (p ¼ 0.58). (a)–(c) Open microchannels with fully filled water.
(d)–(f) Open microchannels with half-filled water. In (a) and (b) and (d) and (e), the optical images and schematics show the case at the incident angle of 14 .
water into the channels. However, due to the porous nature of PDMS,
oil can be lost by the imbibition to the PDMS material over time. In
real applications, such an issue can also be avoided by employing other
materials than PDMS such as fused silica (nfused-slica ¼ 1.45).
In conclusion, the results show that the SLIPS can effectively
serve as a cladding layer for optofluidic waveguiding based on the
principle of total internal reflection, taking advantage of the lower
refractive index of the lubricant liquid such as oil than that of the core
liquid such as water. Compared to other water-repelling surfaces such
as superhydrophobic surfaces, the use of the SLIPS as a cladding layer
limits the range of incident or total solid angles because the refractive
index of the infused liquid such as oil is usually greater than that of gas
(i.e., air) employed in superhydrophobic surfaces. However, the power
transmission efficiency of SLIPSs is much greater than that of superhy-
drophobic surfaces, being insensitive to the porosity of the solid sur-
face due to the full coverage of the infused liquid layer over the solid
Appl. Phys. Lett. 118, 091602 (2021); doi: 10.1063/5.0038910
Published under license by AIP Publishing
ARTICLE scitation.org/journal/apl
surface. An additional advantage of the SLIPS is the longevity and
durability of the liquid-phase cladding layer compared to the gas-
phase one for superhydrophobic surfaces. Besides its fundamental
interest, the proposed approach can be technically relevant for future
integrated optics systems, including surface-enhanced Raman spec-
troscopy (SERS),28 optofluidic energy harvesting,7 and other optoflui-
dic applications,29 in which higher waveguiding efficiency is vital.
See the supplementary material for the estimation of the evapora-
tion rate of Krytox 103 oil, the experimental setup, and the estimation
of the critical incident angle.
This work was supported by the National Science Foundation,
Division of Civil, Mechanical and Manufacturing Innovation,
Award No. 1462499. Research carried out in part at the Center for
Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, was
118, 091602-5
 Applied Physics Letters
supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy
Sciences, under Contract No. DE-AC02-98CH10886. The authors
gratefully acknowledge Dr. Ming Lu at the Center for Functional
Nanomaterials for his help with microfabrication at CFN.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data that support the findings of this study are available
within this article.
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