ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter I- THE HUMAN ORGANISM

Human anatomy and physiology
- The study of structure and function of the body.
- Basis for understanding disease.
- Important for the student who plan a career in the health and sciences because health
professionals need a sound of knowledge of structure and function in order to perform
their duties.
- Prepares all of us to evaluate recommended treatments, critically review advertisements
and reports in the popular literature.
Anatomy
- Is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body.
- Anatomy – means to dissect, or to cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study.
- Examines the relationship between the structure of a body and its function
Two Basic Approaches
a. Systematic anatomy
o Study of the body by systems, such as the cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal and
muscular systems.
b. Regional anatomy
o Is the study of the organization of the body by areas.
Two General Ways to Examine the Internal Structures of a Living Person
a. Surface anatomy
o Is the study of external features, such as bony projections, which serve as
landmarks for locating deeper structures.
b. Anatomical imaging
o Involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
other technologies to create pictures of internal structures.

Physiology
- The scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things.
- To recognized structures as dynamic rather than fixed and unchanging.
- Major goals: 1. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli
2. to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range
of values in the presence of continually changing internal and external
environment.
Human Physiology
- The study of specific organism
- Cellular physiology and systemic physiology are subdivisions that emphasize specific
organization levels.
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
1. Chemical level- atoms combine to form molecules.
2. Cell level
o Cells- are the basic structural and functional units of organism, such as plants and
animals.
o Molecules form organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, which make up
cells.
3. Tissue level- similar cells and surrounding materials make up tissues.
4. Organ level- different tissues combine to form organs, such as the urinary bladder.
Organs- is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or
more functions.
5. Organ system level
o organs such as the urinary bladder and kidneys, make up an organ system.
6. Organism level
o Make up an organism
o Organism- is any living things consider as whole, whether composed of on cell,
such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as human.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Organization
o Refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how
those parts interact to perform functions.
2. Metabolism
o Is the ability to use energy and to perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement and reproduction.
3. Responsiveness
o Is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the
adjustments that help maintain its life.
4. Growth
o Refers to an increase in size of all parts of the organism.
5. Development
o Includes the changes of an organism undergoes through time; it begins with
fertilization and end at death.
o Differentiation- is change in cell structure and function from generalize to
specialized.
6. Reproduction
o The formation of new cells or new organisms.

ORGAN SYSTEMS

1. Integumentary system
o Provides protection, regulates body temperature, prevents water loss, and helps
produce vitamin D.
 o Consists of skin, hair nails and sweat glands.
2. Skeletal system
o Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells
and stores minerals and adipose tissue.
o Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments and joints.
3. Muscular system
o Produces body movements, maintains posture and produces body heat.
o Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.
4. Nervous system
o A major regulatory system that detects sensation and controls movements,
psychological processes and intellectual functions.
o Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory receptors.
5. Endocrine system
o A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction and
many other functions.
o Consists of glands, such as the pituitary that secretes hormones.
6. Cardiovascular system
o Transports nutrients, waste products, gases and hormones though out the body
o Plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature.
o Consists of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
7. Lymphatic system
o Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease,
maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract.
o Consists of the lymphatic vessels lymph nodes and other lymph organs.
8. Respiratory system
o Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates
blood pH.
o Consists of the lungs and repiratory passages.
9. Digestive system
o Performs the chemical and mechanical processes of digestion, absorption and
nutrients, and elimination of wastes.
o Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach intestines and accessory glands.
10. Urinary system
o Removes wastes products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance,
and water balance.
o Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder and ducts that carry urine.
11. Reproductive system
a. Female reproductive system
 Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development
 Produces milk for the newborn.
 Produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviour.
 Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands,
and associated structures.
b. Male reproductive system
  Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones
that influence sexual functions and behaviours.
 Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts and penis.
Homeostasis
- Is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
despite fluctuation in either external environment of the internal environment.
- Is the maintenance of a variable, such as body temperature near an ideal normal value, or
set point.
- Variable- normal or average value of a variable
1. Negative feedback mechanism
o Maintains homeostasis
o Ex. Maintenance of body temp.
a. Receptor- monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature.
b. Control center- such as brain, establishes set point around which the variable is
maintain
c. Effector- sweat glands, can change the value of the variable.
2. Positive feedback mechanism
o Occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the response.
o System response causes progresses deviation away from set point, outside of
normal range.
o Example: childbirth

ANATOMICAL POSITIONS
- Refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging
to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.
Directional terms
- Describe parts of the body relative to each other.

 Supine- lying face upward.

 Prone- lying face downward.
 Superior- up
 Inferior – down
 Ventral- belly
 Dorsal- back
 Proximal (proximus)- nearest/ close to the point of attachment
 Distal- far/ far from point attachment
 Superficial (superficialis)- structure close to the surface of the body.
 Deep (deop)- structure toward the interior of the body
 Anterior- front- that goes before (ventral surface)
 Posterior- back- that which follows (dorsal surface)
 Medial (medialis)- toward midline
 Laterial (latus)- away from the midline

BODY PARTS AND THE REGION

Head Frontal (forehead) Otic (ear)
 Orbital (eye) Buccal (cheek)
Nasal (Nose) Mental (chin)
Oral (Mouth)
Neck Cervical
Clavicular (collar bone)

Trunk thoracic (thorax) pectoral (Chest)

Sternal (breast bone)
Mammary (breast)
Abdominal (abdomen)
Umbilical (navel)
Pelvic (pelvis)
Inguinal (groin)
Pubic (genital)

Upper Limb axillary (armpit) Parmal (palm) manual (hand)

(arm, forearm brachial (arm) Digital (fingers)
Wrist, hand) antecubital (front of elbow)
Antebrachial (forearm)
Carpal (wrist)

Lower limb Coxal (hip) Dorsum (top of foot) pedal (foot)

Femoral (thigh) digital (toes)
Patellar (kneecap)
Crural (leg)
Talus (ankle)

POSTERIOR
Occipital (base of the skull)
Nuchal (back of the neck)
Cranial (skull)
Trunk Dorsal scapular (shoulder blade)
Vertebral (spinal column)
Lumbar (loin)
Sacral (between hips)
Gluteal (buttocks)
Perineal (perineum)

Upper Limb acromial (point of shoulder)

Olecranon (point of elbow)
Dorsum (back of hand)

Lower limb Popliteal (hollow behind knee)

Sural (calf)
Plantar (sole)
 Calcaneal (heel)

REGIONS
Epigastric – right and left hypochondriac
Umbilical- right and left lumbar
Hypogastric- right and left iliac

PLANES
1. Sagittal plane
o Runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left parts.
2. Median plane
o Is a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into
equal right and left halves.
3. Transverse plane
o Runs parallel to the surface of the ground, diving the body into superior and
inferior parts.
4. Frontal plane
o runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior
parts.
BODY CAVITIES
1. Thoracic cavity
o Surrounded by the rib cage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the
muscular diaphragm.
o Mediatinum- is a partition containing the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus and
other structures.
2. Abdominal cavity
o Is bounded primarily by the abdominal muscles and contains the stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys.
3. Pelvic cavity
o Is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis contains the urinary bladder,
part of the large intestine, and internal reproductive organs
SEROUS MEMBRANE
- line the trunk cavities and cover organs of these cavities.
a. Visceral- inner
b. Parietal- outer
c. Cavity- covers
THREE SETS:
1. Pericardium
o Surrounds the heart
Parietal- thick, fibrous
2. Pleura
o Surrounds each lung which is covered by visceral pleura
Parietal pleura- lines inner wall of thorax
 3. Peritoneum
o Cover anchor organs
o Double layers
Peritoneal cavity- reduces friction
CHAPTER 3: CELL STRUCTURE
Cells
- basic living unit of all organisms
- determine the form and functions of the human body
Human body - composed of trillions of cells and acts as a host to countless other organisms
Organelles - specialized structures within the cell that perform specific functions
Nucleus - organelle containing the cell's genetic material
Cytoplasm
- living material that surrounds the nucleus which contains many organelles
- enclosed by the cell membrane or plasma membrane

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

Cells are the smallest units that have all the characteristics of life.
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance

CELL MEMBRANE
- plasma membrane
- outermost component of the cell
- encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between material inside the cell and material
outside it
- supports the cell contents, acts as a selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of
the cell, and plays a role in communication between cells
 extracellular - substances outside the cell
 intracellular - substances inside the cell

 phospholipids and proteins - major molecules that made up the cell membrane (also with
cholesterol and carbohydrates)
 phospholipids - form a double layer of molecules

2 types of phospholipid:
1. polar
- phosphate-containing ends of the phosphate lipids and are hydrophilic (water-loving)
- face the extracellular and intracellular fluids of the cell
2. nonpolar
- fatty acid ends of phospholipids and are hydrophobic (water-fearing)
- face away from the fluid on either side of the membrane, toward the center of the double layer
of phospholipids

 membrane channels and carrier molecules

 - involved with the movement of substances through the cell membrane
 receptor molecules
o - part of an intercellular communication system that enebles cell recognition and
coordination of the activities if the cells
MOVEMENT THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE
 selectively permeable
- characteristic of a cell membrane that means they allow some substances, but
not others, to pass into or out of the cells
 intracellular material
- has a different composition than extracellular materials

 enzymes, glycogen, potassium ions - found on higher concentrations intracellularly

 Na+, Ca^2+, Cl- - found in greater concentration extracellularly

 nutrients - must enter the cells continually, and waste products must exit

2 Movements in the Cell Membrane:

1. passive membrane transport
- does not require the cell to expend energy
- include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion
2. active membrane transport - does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of
ATP
- active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis

Ways Molecules Pass Through Cell Membrane:

1. Directly through (diffusion)
- higher to lower concentration
- does not require energy
2. Membrane channels - protein that extend from one side of cell membrane to other
3. Carrier molecules - bind to molecules, transport them, and drop them off
4. Vesicles - transport a variety of materials (even outside the cell)

Diffusion
- from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
- results from the natural, constant random motion of all solutes in a solution
- important means of transporting substances through the extracellular and intracellular
fluids
Ex: distribution of smoke throughout the room in which there are no air currents
• solution - generally composed of one or more substances called solutes
• solutes - dissolved in the predominant liquid or gas
- tend to move from an area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower of the
same solute in the solution (such as ions or molecules)
- more particles occur in an area of higher concentration than in an area of lower
concentration
• solvent - predominant liquid of gas
Concentration gradient
- difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent between two points divided by the
distance between two points
- steeper when the concentration difference is large and/or the distance is small
- when a substance moves down (or with) the concentration gradient, solutes are diffusing from a
higher toward a lower concentration of solutes
- when solute moves up (or against) its concentration gradient, substance moves from an area of
lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration (this requires energy in order
to occur)
• filtration - movement of fluid through a partition of holes
• channels (cell membrane channels) - where other water-soluble substances that can diffuse
across the cell membrane by passing through
- consist of large protein molecules that extend from one surface of cell membranes to the other
- size, shape, and charge of a molecule all determine whether it can pass through each kind of
channel
- differ in the degree to which ions pass through

2 Kinds of Channels
• leak channels - channels that constantly allow ions to pass through
• gated channels - limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing

Osmosis
- diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane, from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration
- important to cells because large volume changes caused by water movement can disrupt normal
cell functions
- occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable, selectively permeable, or not permeable to
solutes and the concentration gradient for water exists across the cell membrane
- water diffuses from a solution with a higher water concentration across the cell membrane into
a solution with a lower water concentration
Osmotic pressure
- force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
- measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane
- it is equal to the hydrostatic pressure that prevents net movement
Hydrostatic pressure - moves water out of the tube into the distilled water surrounding the tube

Tonicity of Osmotic Pressure: (Types of Osmotic Pressure)

• hypotonic (under) - has lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell (solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell)
- water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell (rupture or called as lysis)
• isotonic (equal) - concentrations of various solutes and water are the same on both sides of
the cell membrane (cell therefore neither shrinks nor swells)
• hypertonic (above) - higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell
- water removes by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation

Carrier -Mediated Transport Mechanisms

- exhibit specificity (only specific molecules are transported)
Carrier molecules
- proteins within the cell membrane are involved in this mechanisms (move large, water-soluble
molecules or electrically charged ions across the cell membrane)

3 Kinds if Carrier-Mediated Transport:

1. Facilitated diffusion
- moves substances across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration of that substance
2. Active Transport
- moves substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those higher
concentration against a concentration gradient
- requires energy in the form of ATP
• cystic fibrosis - genetic disorder that affects the active transport of Cl- into cells
• sodium - potassium pump - moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells
3. Secondary Active Transport
- active transport of one substance across the cell membrane establishing a concentration
gradient
• cotransport - diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the transported substance
• countertransport - diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the
transported substance

Bulk Transport
- move materials into and out of cells, respectively, via vesicles
2 Types of Bulk Transport: Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis
- uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of vesicle
- cell membrane invaginates (folds inward) to form a vesicle containing the material to be taken
into the cell then the vesicle moves into the cytoplasm
- exhibits specificity
• receptor-mediated endocytosis
- process when a specific substance binds to the receptor molecule, the endocytosis is triggered
and the substance is transported into the cell
2 Types of Endocytosis:
phagocytosis (cell-eating)
- used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested
- important means by which WBC take up and destroy harmful substances that have entered the
body
• pinocytosis (cell-drinking)
- distinguished from phagocytosis in that much smaller vesicles are formed, and they contain
liquid rather than particle
Exocytosis
- secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane, where the membrane of the vesicle fuses with
the cell membrane, and the material in the vesicle is eliminated from the cell
Secretory vesicles - membrane-bound sacs that accumulate materials for release from the cell

ORGANELLES
1. Nucleus - large organelle usually located near the center of the cell
a. Nuclear envelope - bounds the nucleus which consist of outer and inner membranes with a
narrow space between them
b. Nuclear pores - through which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus
• 23 pairs of chromosome in human cells which consist of DNA and proteins
• chromatin - loosely coiled chromosomes
c. Nucleoli - diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are found within the nucleus
- usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus
• ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) - produced within the nucleus to form large and small
ribosomal subunits

2. Ribosomes
- where proteins are produced
- may be attached to other organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum
• free ribosomes - ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle

3. Endoplasmic Reticulum
- series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear membrane
into the cytoplasm
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) - ER with ribosomes attached to it
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) - ER without ribosomes
- site for lipid synthesis and participates in detoxification of chemicals within cells
- stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells

4. Golgi Apparatus - consist of closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs

- collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by ER

5. Secretory vesicles
- small, membrane-bound sac that transports or stores materials within cells
- pinch off from the golgi apparatus and move to the cell membrane

6. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

* lysosomes
- membrane-bound vesicles formed from the golgi apparatus
- contain variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems

* peroxisomes
- small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids,
and hydrogen peroxide

7. Mitochondria
- small organelles with inner and outer membranes separated by a space
- major sites of ATP production in cells
- carry out aerobic respiration (series of chemical reactions that require oxygen to break down
food molecules to produce ATP)
• cristae - numerous folds of the inner membrane which project like shelves into the interior of
mitochondria

8. Cytoskeleton - consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable
the cell to change shape
3 Protein Structures:
a. Microtubules
- hollow structures formed from protein subunits
- helps support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential
components of certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella
b. Microfilaments
- small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the cytoplasm
- some are involved with cell movement
c. Intermediate filaments
- fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in
diameter than microfilaments
- provide mechanical support to the cell

9. Centrioles - small, cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets; each triplet consist of three
parallel microtubules joined together
• centrosome - specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus, where microtubule
formation occurs
- contains two centrioles which are normally oriented perpendicular to each other

10. Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli

* Cilia
- project from the surface of cells
- cylindrical structures that extend from the cell
- composed of microtubules, organized in pattern similar to centrioles, which are enclosed by the
cell membrane
* Flagella
- have a structure similar to cilia but are much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell
* Microvilli
- specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported by microfilaments, but they do
not actively move as cilia and flagella do
- increase the cell's surface area

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

- thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic instructions used in growth, development,
functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses

Flow of Genetic Information - also called Central Dogma

- occurs in 3 stages: DNA Replication, Transcription, Translation
DNA Replication - biological process of producing two identical copies of DNA from one
original DNA molecules
• helicases - often used to separate strands of a DNA double helix using the energy from ATP
hydrolysis, a process characterized by the breaking of hydrogen bonds
• semiconservative replication - each strand of the original DNA molecule then serves as a
template for the production of its counterpart

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

1. Gene Expression - DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis
• gene - sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions for making a
specific protein
2 Steps of Gene Expression:
a. Transcription
- cell makes a copy of the gene necessary to make a particular protein
- takes place in the nucleus of the cell
- DNA determines the structure of mRNA
- double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides pair with RNA nucleotides
(DNA: thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine & RNA: adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine)
• mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) - travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm, where the information in the copy is used to construct a protein by means of
translation
• codons - information in mRNA is carried in groups of three which specify a particular amino
acid
b. Translation - synthesis of proteins based on the information in mRNA, occurs at ribosomes
2 Types of RNA in addition to mRNA:
1. tRNA (transfer RNA) - one type of tRNA for each mRNA codon
• anticodon - series of three nucleotides of tRNA, pairs with the codon of the mRNA
2. rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid)

2. Cell Life Cycle

2 Major Phase of Cell Life Cycle:
a. Interphase - nondividing phase
- DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell's nucleus) is replicated
- two strands of DNA separate from each other and each strand serves as a template for the
production of a new strand in DNA
- two new strands of DNA combine with the two template strands to form two double strands of
DNA
- at the end, a cell has two complete sets of genetic material; DNA is dispersed throughout the
nucleus as thin threads called chromatin
b. Cell division - formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell
• diploid - 46 number of chromosomes
• 23 chromosomes - 1 pair of sex cells (consist of 2 X chromosomes if female, or an X and Y
chromosomes if male); 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes

Mitosis
- division of cells in the body (except sex cells)
- a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells with the same amount and type of DNA as the
parent cell

Components of Mitosis:
• chromatid - 2 strands of chromosome that are genetically identical
• centromere - where 2 chromatids are connected
• centrioles - small organelle composed of 9 triplets

4 Stages of Mitosis:
a. Prophase
- chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes
- chromosome is made up of two genetically identical strands of chromatin, called chromatids,
which are linked at one point by a specialized region called the centromere
- microtubules called spindle fibers extend from the centrioles to the centromeres
- centrioles divide and migrate to each pole of the cell
- nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear
b. Metaphase - chromosomes align near the center of the cell
c. Anaphase
- chromatids separate (each of them is called chromosome)
- two identical sets of 46 chromosomes are present in the cell
- each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole at
one of the poles of the cell
- each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to
divide
d. Telophase
- chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to form two separate nuclei
- chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during interphase
- cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate daughter cells are produced
• cytokinesis - begins during late anaphase and completes during telophase
- a cleavage furrow forms to pinch the cells into 2 parts

3. Differentiation
- process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions
- results from the selective activation and inactivation of segments of DNA
4. Apoptosis (programmed cell death)
- normal process by which cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and controlled
- death of cells that occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth and
development
CHAPTER 4- Tissues
Tissue
- Is a group of cells with similar structure and function that have similar extracellular
substances located between them
- Four basic types
 Epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue.
Histology
- Microscopic study of tissue structure
Epithelial tissue/ epithelium
- Location
o Cover body internal and external
o Ex. Skin, kidney, trachea, gland etc.
- Characteristics
o sssCells close together (very little extracellular matrix)
o Form most glands
Basal surface
- Adjacent to a basement membrane, which attaches the epithelial cells to underlying
tissues.
Basement membrane
- Is secreted partly by epithelial cells and partly by the cells of the underlying tissues.
Function of epithelial tissue:
1. Protecting underlying structures
2. Acting as a barrier
3. Permitting the passage of a substance
4. Secreting substances
5. Absorbing substances
Classification of Epithelial
Simple epithelium
- Consists of a single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium
- Consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells, with some cells sitting on top of the
others.
Categories base on cell shape:
- Squamous (flat)
- Cuboidal (cubelike)
- Columnar (tall and thin)

Simple squamous epithelium

- Is a single layer of thin, flat cells.
- Alveoli
- Diffusion and filtration; blood vessels, lungs, heart, kidneys
Simple cuboidal
- Single layer of cubelike cells
- Carry out active transport facilitated diffusion or filtration;glands, ovaries, kidneys
Simple columnar
- A single layer of tall, thin cells
- Secrete mucus and absorption
- Stomach intestine, respiratory tract
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- A special type of simple epithelium
- 1 layer of tall narrow cells appears stratified but is not
- Function: Secrete mucus and propel debris out of respiratory tract (cilia)
- Location: Nasal cavity and trachea
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Forms a thick epithelium because it consists of several layers of cells.
- Many layers of flat, tile-like cells
- Functions: protect and acts as a barrier
- Location: skin, mouth, throat and esophagus
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
- Consists of more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells
- Function: absorption, secretion and protection
- Location: Sweat glands, ovarian follicular cells and salivary glands
Stratified columnar epithelium
- Consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells but only the surface cells are columnar
- Function: secretion, protection and absorption
- Location: mammary gland ducts, larynx and portion of male urethra
Transitional epithelium
- Special type of stratified epithelium that can be greatly stretched
- Function: hold fluids
- Location: urinary bladder
Free surface
- Not contact with other cells and faces away from underlying tissues.
- Smooth free surface- reduces friction as material moves across it.
Microvilli
- Increase the surface area.
- Involved in secretion or absorption- small intestine
Cilia
- Propel materials along the free surface of cells
- Trachea and nasal cavity
Goblet cells
- Mucus producing cells.
Cell Connections
Tight Junctions
- Bind adjacent cells together and form permeability barriers
- Can be found in ling of the intestine
Desmosome (band, body)
- Are mechanical links that bind cells together
Hemidesmosome
- Also anchor cells to the basement membrane
Gap junctions
 - Small channels that allow molecules and ions to pass from one epithelial cells to an
adjacent one; allow cells to communicate
Glands
- Is a structure that secretes substances onto a surface, into a cavity or into the blood.
Exocrine glands
- Glands with ducts
o Simple- with ducts that have no branches
o Compound- with ducts that have many branches
o Tubular- end of ducts
Acinus or Laveolus
- Sac-like structure
Mecocrine secretion
- Most common type of secretion
- Sweat and digestive enzymes
Apocrine secretion
- The secretory products are released as fragments of the gland cells
- Secretion of mammary glands
Halocrine secretion
- Involves the shedding of entire cells.
- Glands of the skin
Endocrine
- Glands have no ducts and empty their secretion into the blood.
Hormones
- Are carried by the blood to other parts of the body.
Connective tissue
- Is found throughout the body
- Characterized by large amounts of extracellular material that separates cells from one
another
- Extracellular matrix: protein fibers, ground substance and fluid
Three types of protein fibers
1. Collagen fibers
o Resembles microscopic ropes are flexible but resists stretching
2. Reticular fibers
o Are very fine, short collagen fibers that branch from a supporting network
3. Elastic fibers
o After being stretched they can recoil
-blast; germ
-cyte; cell
-clast; break

Macrophages
- Are large white blood cells that are capable of moving about and ingesting foreign
substances
Mast cells
- Are non-motile cells that release chemicals
Functions of Connective Tissues
1. Encloses and separate 5. Cushion and insulate
2. Connect tissues 6. Transport
3. Support and movement 7. Protect
4. Storage
Connected Tissue Proper
Loose Connective Tissue
- Consists of a relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy network
- Three subdivisions:
o Areolar- consisting mostly of collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers
o Adipose tissue – adipocytes or fat cells, which contain large amount of lipid for
energy storage; consist of collagen and reticular fibers
o Reticular fibers – the framework of lymphatic tissue, such as the spleen and
lymph nodes
Dense Connective Tissue
- Has a relatively large number of protein fibers that form thick bundles
- Forms many capsule that surrounds organs
Dense regular
- The collagen fibers are oriented in the same direction
Dense irregular
- The fibers are oriented in many different directions
Dense Elastic Connective Tissue
- Abundant fibers among its collagen
- Vocal cords in elastic ligaments and walls of elastic cartilage
Supporting Connective Tissue
Cartilage
- Composed of chondrocytes
- Contains collagen
- Withstands compression
- Provides support and flexibility
Three Types of Cartilage
1. Hyaline
o Is the most abundant type of cartilage and has many functions
o Location: covers ends of bones
o Structure: some collagen fibers
o Function: reduces friction (cushion)
2. Fibrocartilage
o Has more collagen than does hyaline cartilage and bundles of collagen fibers
o Location: between vertebrae
o Structure: lots of collagen fibers
o Function: can withstand compression
3. Elastic Cartilage
o Addition to collagen and proteoglycans
o Location: ear and nose tip
 o Structure: elastic fibers
o Function: can recoil
Bone
- Hard connective tissue that consist of living cells and a mineralized matrix.
- Osteocytes- located within lucanae
- Compact bones and spongy bones
Blood
- The matrix is liquid, enabling blood cells to move through the blood vessels
MUSCLE TISSUE
- Ability to contract or shorten, making movement possible
- Muscle fibers- muscle cells; they often resembles tiny threads.
Three types of Muscle Tissue
1. Skeletal tissue
o “Muscle”; describe as voluntary
o Tend to be long and cylindrical, with several nuclei per cell
o Striated- skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac Muscle
o Is the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for pumping blood
o Under involuntary control
o Are cylindrical but much shorter than skeletal muscles
o Intercalated disks- coordinating the contractions of the muscle cells
3. Smooth Muscle
o Forms a walls of hollow organ
o Found in the skin and the eyes
o Controlled involuntarily; have a single nucleus
NERVOUS TISSUE
- Form the brain, spinal cord and nerves
- Responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities
Action potential
- Means of electrical signals
Neuron
- Is responsible for conducting action potentials
- Cell body - Contains the nucleus and is the site of general cell functions
- Dendrites - Relating to a tree
- Axon - Are nerve cell processes
Neuroglia
- Support cells off nervous system
TISSUE MEMBRANES
Membrane
- Thin sheet layer of tissue that covers the structure or lines a cavity
Skin/cutaneous membrane
- External membrane
Three major categories- mucous, serous and synovial membranes

Mucous membranes
- Consist of various kinds of epithelium resting on a thick layer of loose connective tissue
 - Include protection, absorption and secretion
- “runny nose”
Serous membrane
- Consists of simple squamous epithelium resting on a delicate layer of loose connective
tissue
- Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs; secrete serous fluid
Pleural membrane (rib or the side)
- Are associated with the lungs
Pericardial membranes (around the heart)
- Are associated with the heart
Peritoneal membrane (stretched over)
- Located in the abdominopelvic cavity
Pericarditis and peritonitis
- Refer to inflammation of the pericardial membranes and peritoneal membranes
Pleurisy
- Inflammation of pleural membranes
Synovial Membranes
- Are made up of only connective tissue
- They line the inside of the joint cavities
Synovial fluid
- Makes the joint slippery, thereby reducing friction and allowing smooth movement
within the joint
Inflammation
- Occurs when tissues are damage
- Five major symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain and disturbance of function
Chemical mediators
- Are released or activated in the injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels
- Histamine and prostaglandins
Edema
- Swelling of the tissues
Neutrophil
- Type of WBC that enters the tissues
- Phagocytic WBC that fights infection by ingesting bacteria
Pus
- The mixture of dead neutrophil
Tissue Repair
- Substitution of viable cells for dead cells
- Can occur by regeneration or by fibrosis
Regeneration
- The new cells are the same type as those that were destroyed , and normal function is
usually restored.
Fibrosis
- Replacement, a new type of tissue develops that eventually causes scar production and
the loss of some tissue function
Stem cells
- Self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that continue to divide throughout life
Clot
- Contains the thread-like proteins fibrin
- Bind the edges of the wound together ad stop the bleeding
Scab
- Form in the surface of the clot
- Seals the wound and helps prevent infection
Granulation tissue
- The result of fibrosis, during which the clot is replaced
- Delicate, granular-appearing connective tissue that consist of fibroblast, collagen and
capillaries
Wound contracture
- A result of the contraction of fibroblasts in the granulation tissue
- Pulls the edges of the wound closer together
CHAPTER 5:
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- consists of the skin and accessory structures, such as hair, glands, and nails
-Integument - means covering

Components:
- skin
- hair
- nails
- glands

Functions of the Integumentary System:

1. Protection
2. Sensation
3. Vitamin D Production
4. Temperature Regulation
5. Excretion

SKIN
2 Major Tissue Layers of the Skin:
1. Epidermis - most superficial layer of the skin
- layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the dermis
- prevent water loss and resists abrasion
- stratified squamous epithelium; in its deepest layers, new cells are produced by mitosis
• keratinization - outermost cells protect the cells underneath, and the deeper, replicating cells
replace cells lost from the surface and the cells become filled with the protein keratin, which
makes them hard
- epithelial cells eventually die and produce an outer layer of dead, hard cells that resists abrasion
and forms a permeability barrier
• strata - layers of the epidermis
a. Stratum basale
- deepest stratum which consists of cuboidal or columnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions
about every 19 days
- site of keratinization
b. Stratum spinosum - stretch
c. Stratum granulosum - chiefly involved in providing waterproof function (lamellar glands)
d. Stratum lucidum - transparent, thin layer (ex: thick skin of palm, soles, etc.)
e. Stratum corneum
- most superficial stratum of the epidermis
- consists of dead squamous cells filled with keratin (gives the stratum corneum its structural
strength)
- its cells are coated and surrounded by lipids, which help prevent fluid loss through the skin
- composed of 25 or more layers of dead squamous cells joined by desmosomes
• callus - a thickened area produced by the skin subjected to friction
• corn - cone-shaped structure formed in the stratum corneum over a bony prominence

2. Dermis
- a layer of dense collagenous connective tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and
macrophages
- 10 to 20 times thicker than epidermis
- responsible for most of the skin's structural strength
• collagen and elastic fibers - responsible for the structural strength of the dermis
• collagen fibers - can resist stretch
• cleavage lines (tension lines) - the skin is most resistant to stretch along this lines
• stretch marks (Striae gravidarum) - developed when a person increases in size quite rapidly
Layers of the Dermis:
1. Papillary layer - thin connective tissue layer that contains blood vessels
dermal papillae
- projections on the upper part of the dermis which extend toward the epidermis
- contain many blood vessels that supply the overlying epidermis with nutrients, remove waste
products, and help regulate body temperature
2. Reticular layer - deepest layer of the dermis that supports other components of the skin, such
as the hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands

Skin Color
Factors that determine skin color: pigments in the skin, blood circulating through the skin, and
the thickness of stratum corneum
Melanin - group of pigments responsible for skin, hair, and eye color
- most are brown to black pigments, but some are yellowish or reddish
- provides protection against ultraviolet light from the sun
Melanocytes - irregularly shaped cells with many long processes that extend between the
epithelial cells of the deep part of the epidermis that produces melanin
Melanosomes - vesicles where the golgi apparatuses of the melanocytes package melanin and it
moves to the cell processes of the melanocytes
• albinism - recessive genetic trait that causes deficiency or an absence in melanin
- persons with albinism (albinos) have fair skin, white hair, and unpigmented irises in the eyes
• cyanosis - bluish color of the skin caused by the decrease in the blood O2
Carotene
- yellow pigment found in plants such as squash and carrots (source of vitamin A)
- it is lipid-soluble, meaning it accumulates in the lipids of the stratum corneum and in the
adipocytes of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue
Hemoglobin - give pinkish-red color that is found in red blood cells
• birthmarks - caused by overgrowth of blood vessels, melanocytes, smooth muscle, fats,
fibroblasts, or keratinocytes

Subcutaneous Tissue (hypodermis)

- layer of connective tissue where the skin rests
- not part of the skin but it connect the skin to underlying muscle or bone and supplies it with
blood vessels and nerves
- loose connective tissue, including adipose tissue that contains about half the body's stored lipids

Adipose tissue
- functions as padding and insulation
21% - 30% - percentage of body fat for females
13% - 25% - body fat for males

Accessory Skin Structures

1. Hair
a. Hair follicle - where each hair arises and becomes an extension of the epidermis that
originates deep in the dermis
b. Hair shaft - protrudes above the surface of the skin
c. Hair root - below the skin surface
d. Hair bulb
- below the surface of the skin
- produces hair
e. Cortex - surrounds the medulla
f. Medulla - softer center of the hair
g. Cuticle - a single layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle and covers
the cortex
• eyelashes - grow for 30 days, rest for 105 days
• scalp hairs - grow for 3 years and rest for 1-2 years
Arrector Pili
- smooth muscle cells associated with each hair follicle
- produces goose bump
2. Glands
Major glands of the skin:
a. Sebaceous glands
- simple, branched acinar glands
- produce sebum
• sebum - oily, white substance rich in lipids
- released by holocrine secretion and lubricates the hair and the surface of the skin, which
prevents drying and protects against some bacteria
b. Sweat glands
1. Eccrine sweat glands
- simple, coiled, tubular glands and release sweat by merocrine secretion
- located every part of the body but most numerous in the palms and soles
- produce secretion that is mostly water with a few salts
2. Apocrine sweat glands - simple, coiled, tubular glands that produce thick secretion rich in
organic substances
- open into hair follicles, but only in the armpits and genetalia
- become active in puberty because of the influence of sex hormones

3. Nails
- thin plate, consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type of
keratin
a. Nail body - visible part of the nail
b. Nail root - part of the nail that is covered by the skin
c. Cuticle (eponychium) - stratum corneum that extends onto the nail body
d. Nail matrix
- where the nail root extends distally
- epithelial tissue with stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that forms the nail
• lunula - can be seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base of the
nail
e. Nail bed
- located distal to the nail matrix
- epithelial tissue with stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that forms the nail

Physiology of the Integumentary System:

1. Protection
2. Sensation - receptors in the epidermis and dermis can detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure
Sensory receptor - around the hair that can detect the movement of the hair
Tanning and sunburns - exposure to UV lights stimulates melanocytes to increase production of
melanin
3. Vitamin D production
Vitamin D - stimulates small intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate (substances that are
necessary for normal bone growth and normal muscle function)
4. Temperature Regulation
37°C or 98.6°F - normal body temperature
To cool body: blood vessels in dermis dilate and heat is transferred from deep in tissues to skin
and sweat is produced
To heat body: blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow to skin and heat is retained
5. Excretion - removal of waste products from the body

Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid

• cyanosis - bluish color to skin caused by decreased blood O2 content, an indication of
impaired circulatory or respiratory function
• jaundice - yellowish skin color that occur when the liver is damaged by disease, such as viral
hepatitis
• rashes and lesions
• redness - fever, hypertension, information, allergies
• pallor - anemia or low blood pressure
• bronzing - Addison's disease (kidney disease)
• bruising - broken blood vessels

Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System

• age spots - different from freckles
• freckles - increased melanin production
• gray or white hair - decrease in or lack of melanin production
• Blood flow decreases and skin becomes thinner due to decreased amounts of collagen.
• Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat glands make temperature regulation more difficult.
• Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and wrinkle.
Chapter 6
SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES AND JOINTS

6.1 Functions of the skeletal system

Skeleton
- Derived from the greek word meaning dried.
- Far from dry and nonliving; framework of the body
Joint or articulation
- Is a place where two bones come together.
- Movable; some of them allow only limited movement; others allow no apparent
movement

SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Consists of dynamic, living tissues that are able to grow, detect pain stimuli, adapt to
stress, and undergo repair after injury.
- Functions: Support, Protect, Movement, Storage and blood cell production

6.2 Extracellular Matrix

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- Bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments
o Determined by extracellular matrix
 Collagen, ground substance and other organic molecule, as well as the water
and minerals.

Collagen
- Is a tough rope like protein.
- Makes cartilage tough, whereas the water-filled proteoglycans make it smooth and
resilient.
Proteoglycans
- Are large molecules consisting of polysaccharide attached to core proteins.
- Form large aggregates
- Can attract and retain large amounts of water between polysaccharide.
Tendons and ligaments
- Contains large amounts of collagen fibers, making these structures very tough, like ropes
or cables.
Cartilage
- Contains collagen and proteoglycans.
- Excellent shock absorber

Extracellular Matrix of Bone- collagen, minerals, calcium and phosphate.

Hydroxyapatite
- The mineral in bone is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals.
 6.3 General Features of Bone
Categories of Bone, Based on Their Shape
a. Long bone
o Are longer than they are wide
o Upper and lower limbs
b. Short bones
o Approximately wide as they are long
o Wrists and ankle
c. Flat bones
o Relatively thin and flattened shape.
o Skull, ribs, scapulae (shoulder blades), and the sternum.
d. Irregular bones
o Have shapes that don’t fit readily into other three categories
o Vertebrae and facial bones.

STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE

Diaphysis- Long bone consist of a central shaft.
Epiphysis - Two ends.
Articular Cartilage
- Ends of thee epiphyses where the bone articulates (joins) with other bones.
Epiphyseal plate
- Site of growth
- Long bone that is still growing
- Composed of cartilage, between each epiphysis and diaphysis.
- Bone grows in length
Epiphyseal line
- Bone growth stops
- The cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is replace by bone.
Medullary Cavity- contains spaces
- Center of diaphysis
- In the diaphysis, as well as the smaller cavities in the epiphysis of long bones in the
interior of other bones.
Marrow- spaces are filled with soft tissue
Yellow marrow- Consist mostly of adipose tissue
Red marrow
- consists of blood-forming cells and is the only site of blood formation in adults
- Childrens’s bones have proportionately more red marrow than do adult bones
- Red marrow is replace by yellow marrow.
Periosteum
- The outer surface of bone is covered by dense connective tissue
- Consist of two layers and contains blood vessels and nerves.
Endosteum
- Surface of the medullary cavity is lined with a thinner connective tissue membrane.
HISTOLOGY OF BONE
Osteology – (bone-forming cells)
- Function in the formation of bone
- Repair and remodelling of bone
Osteocytes- (bone cells)
- Surrounded by matrix
Osteoclasts- (bone- eating cells)
- Also represent and contribute to bone repair and remodelling by removing existing bone.
Lamellae
- Rings of bone matrix
- Formed in thin sheets of extracellular matrix
Lacunae
- Spaces between lamella
- Osteocytes located between the lamellae within spaces.

Canaliculi
- Tiny canals
- Transport nutrients and removes waste

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF BONE

a. Compact bone
o Is mostly solid matrix and cells.
o Forms most of the diaphysis of a long bone and the thinner surfaces of all other
bone.
o Predictable pattern of repeating units.

Osteon
 Structural unit of compact bone
 Consist of concentric rings of lamellae.
 Lamellae lacunae, calnicullus, central canal osteocytes.
Central canal
 Center of osteon
 Contains blood vessels

b. Spongy bone – epiphysis of long bones and center of other bones

o Consists of lacy network of bone with many small, marrow- filled spaces.
o Forms the interior of all other bones.

Trabeculae
 Interconnecting rods or plates of bone
 Scaffolding of a building

BONE OSSIFICATION
Ossification
- Formation of bone by osteoblasts
- Process of bone formation
Intramembranous ossification
- Bone formation that occurs within the connective tissue membrane
- Bones of the skull.
Endochondral ossification
- bone formation that occurs inside the cartilage
Ossification center
- Where bone formation begins
- Flat bones – skull, ribs, scapulae and sternum
Chondrocytes
- During endochondral ossification, cartilage cells
- Increase in number, enlarge and die
Primary ossification center
- The center part of the diaphysis, where bone first begins to appear
Secondary ossification
- Form in the epiphysis
Bone Growth
- Occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective
tissue.
Bone Remodeling
- Involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the deposition of new bone by
osteoblasts.
- Occurs in all bone
- Is responsible for changes in bone shape, the adjustment of bone to stress, bone repair
and calcium ion regulation in the body fluids.
- Also involve in bone growth when newly formed spongy bone in the epiphyseal plate
forms compact bone.
- Is important to maintain blood calcium levels within normal limits.

Bone Repair
1. Broken bone
o Causes bleeding and blood clot forms
2. Callus
o Form fibrous nework between 2 fragments
3. Cartilage model
o Forms firt then, osteoblast enter the callus and form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after the injury
4. Cancellous bone
o Is slowly remodel to form compact bone and cancellous bone.

6.4 Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

Bone
 - Is the major site for calcium in the body and movement of calcium into and out of bone
helps determine blood calcium levels which is critical for normal muscle and nervous
system function.

Calcium Homeostasis
- Is maintained by three hormones
a. Parathyroid hormone
o From the parathyroid glands
o Secreted when blood calcium are too low
o PTH works three simultaneous mechanisms to increase blood calcium level
 Stimulate osteoclast to break down bone, which releases stored calcium into
the blood
 Stimulates the kidney to take up calcium from the urine and return it to the
blood
 Stimulates the active formation of active vitamin D, which in turn promotes
increase calcium absorption from the small intestine.
b. Vitamin D
o from the skin or diet.
o Secreted when blood calcium are too low
c. Calcitonin
o From the thyroid gland
o Secreted when blood calcium are too high

6.5 General Considerations of Bone Anatomy

206 bones -Average adult skeleton.

Foramen- hole in a bone;

- ex. Foramen magnum- hole where the spinal cord joins brainsteam
Fossa- depression;
- ex. Glenoid fossa- where humerus meet scapula
- Mandibular fossa- depression where the lower jaw and skull meet
Process- projection
- ex. Mastoid process- attached to neck muscles
- Stoid process- attachment site for tongue
Condyle- smooth, rounded end;
- ex. Occipital condyle
Meatus- canal-like passageway;
- ex. External auditory meatus- ear canal
Tubercle
- lump of bone; ex. Greater tubercle
- Site of muscle attachment on the bone
Hard Palate – roof of mouth

6.6 Axial Skeleton

Axial skeleton
 - Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.

SKULL
- 22 bones
Braincase
- Encloses the cranial cavity, consists of 8 bones that immediately surround and protect the
brain
Facial bones
- 14 bones; form the structure of the face
- 13 facial bones are solidly connected to the bulk of the face ‘
- Mandible- forms a freely movable joint with the rest of the skull.
Auditory ossicle
- 3 auditory ossicles in each middle ear (total of six)

4 Views of Skull
a. Lateral view
b. Interior of the Cranial Cavity
c. Views of the skull viewed from below
d. Hyoid bone

Lateral View

Parietal bones and temporal bones

- Form a large portion of the side of the head
Temporal bone
- Refers to a time
- So named because of the hairs of the temples turn white indicating the passage of time.
Parietal bone
- Anteriorly- joined the frontal bone by the coronal suture
- Posteriorly- joines to the occipital by the lambdoid suture
Squamous suture
- Two bones joins each other on the side of the head
- Joint uniting the skull
External Auditory Canal
- A canal that enables sound waves to reach the ear drum
Mastoid process
- The temporal bone can be seen and felt as a prominent lump just posterior to the ear.
Sphenoid bone
- Can be seen immediately anterior to the temporal bone
- A single bone that extends completely across the skull.
- Anterior- zygomatic bone- cheek bone

Zygomatic arch
- Consists of joined process of the temporal and zygomatic bones
 - Forms a bridge across the side of the face and provides a major attachment site for a
muscle moving the mandible
Maxilla
- Upper jaw
- Articulates by sutures to the temporal bones
- Contains the superior of teeth
Mandible
- Forms the lower jaw
- Contains the inferior set of the teeth

Frontal View
- The major structures are the frontal bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla and mandible.
- May bones of the face can easily felt through the skin
Orbits and nasal cavity
- The most prominent openings into the skull
Orbits
- Are cone-shape fossae, because eye rotates within them
- Provides protection for the eyes and attachment points for the muscle that move the eyes.
- Seven bones come together to form the orbit
Superior and inferior orbital fissures
- Provide openings through which nerves and blood vessels communicate with the orbit or
pass to the face.
Nasolacrimal canal
- Passes from the orbit into the nasal cavity.
Lacrimal bone
- Can be seen in the orbit just above the opening of this canal.
Nasal septum
- Divided the cavity into right and left halves.
- Vomer – and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone superiorly.
Inferior nasal concha
- Lateral walls of the nasal cavity
- Is a separate bone and the middle and superior conchae are projections from the ethmoid
bone
Paranasal sinuses (para- alongside)
- Open to the skull cavity resonating chambers during voice production
Mastoid air cells
- Are located inside the mastoid processes of the temporal bone.
Interior of the Cranial Cavity
3 Cranial fossae
- Anterior, middle and posterior
Anterior to posterior
- Frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, and occipital bones.
Foramina
- Can be seen in the floor of the middle fossa.
Foramen magnum
- The spinal cord joins the brain,
Sella turcica
- Contains the pituitary glands.

Based of Skull Viewed from Below

Occipital Condyle
- Smooth points of articulation between the skull and the vertebral column
- Are located beside the foramen magnum
Styloid process- pen-shaped
- Project from the inferior surface of the temporal bone.
- Tongue, hyoid and pharynx
Mandibular fossa
- Mandible articulates with the temporal bone
- Anterior to the mastoid process
Hard palate
- Forms the floor of the nasal cavity and the roof of the mouth
- ‘2/3 – maxillae, 1/3 palatine bones
Hyoid Bone
- Is an unpaired U-shaped bone
- Not part of the skull and has no direct bone attachment to the skull

VERTEBRAL COLUMN/ back bone

- Is the central axis of the skeleton, extending from the base of the skull to slightly pass the
end of the pelvis.
- 26 bones and 5 regions
- 7 cervical; C1-C7
- 12 thoracic; T1-T12
- 5 lumbar; L1-L5
- 1 sacral and 1 coccyx; S and CO
- Functions:
o Supports the weight of the head and trunk
o Protects the spinal cord
o Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord ‘
o Provides a site for muscle attachment
o Permits movement of the head and trunk
Kyphosis
- An abnormal posterior curvature of the spine
- Mostly in the upper thoracic region, resulting in a hunchback condition
Lordosis
- Abnormal anterior curvature of the spine
- Mainly in a lumbar region, resulting in a swayback condition
Scoliosis
- An abnormal lateral curvature of the spine

General Plan of the Vertebrae

Body - Weight-bearing portion of each vertebra.
Intervertebral disks - Separates vertebral bodies; Formed by fibrocartillage.
Vertebral arch- sorrounds a large opening called vertebral foramen.
Vertebral canal- formed by vertebral foramina; where the spinal cord is located.
Pedicles- extend from the body to the transverse process of each vertebra
Laminae (plates) - extend from the transverse process to the spinous process.
Transverse process
- extends laterally from each side of the arch
- Between pedicle and lamina
Spinous process
- Projects dorsally from where the two laminae meet
- Can be seen and felt as a series of lumps down thee midline of the back.
Intervertebral foramina
- Form by notchers in the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae.
Articular process
- The vertebrae articulate with each other.
Articular facet – “little face”

Regional Differences in Vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae
- Have very small bodies except for the atlas, which has no body.
Atlas
- First cervical vertebra; hold up the head; “yes”
Axis
- second cervical vertebra; rotation occurs at this vertebra
Dens
- protrudes superiorly from the axis
Thoracic Vertebrae
- possess long, thin spinous process that are directed inferiorly
Lumbar vertebrae
- have large, thick bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous processes
- Have massive bodies and carry a large amount of weight
Sacrum
- The five sacral vertebrae are fused into a single bone
Median sacral crest
- Are formed by the first four sacral vertebrae.
Sacral hiatus
- At the inferior end of the sacrum
- Often site of “caudal” anesthetic injections given just before child birth
Sacral promontory
- Can be felt during vaginal examination

RIB CAGE
- Protects the vital organs within the thorax and prevents the collapse of the thorax during
respiration
- Consists of vertebrae, the ribs with their associated cartilages, and the sternum.
Ribs and Costal Cartilages
12 pairs of ribs
1-7 – true ribs
- Attach directly to the sternum by means of cartilage.
8-12 – false ribs
- Do not attach directly to the sternum
8-10- attach to the sternum by costal cartilage
11-12/ floating ribs – do not attach at all to the sternum.

Sternum
- Breastbone; resembles a sword
- Three parts
o Manubrium- forming a handle
o Body- forming a blade
o Xiphoid process- forming a tip
Jugular notch
- Is located between the ends of the clavicles where they articulate with sternum
Sternal angle – slight elevation
- Can be felt at the junction of the manubrium and the body of the sternum

APPPENDICULAR SKELETON
- Consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs, as well as the girdles, which attach
the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Pectoral girdle / shoulder girdle
- Consists of two scapulae and two clavicles
- Attach to the upper limb of the body
Scapula
- Is a flat triangular bone with three large fossae where muscles extending to the arm
Glenoid cavity
- Where the head of the humerus connects to the scapula
Spine/ridge
- Runs across the posterior surface of the scapula
Acromion process/ depression
- Extends from the scapular spine to form the point of the shoulder
Clavicle
- Articulates with the scapula at the acromion process.
Coracoids process
- Curves below the clavicle and provides for the attachment of arm and chest muscle.

Upper Limb
- Arm, forearm, wrist and hand
ARM
 - Is the region between the shoulder and the elbow
Head – proximal end of humerus
- Attaches the humerus to the scapula at the gleniod cavity
Deltoid tuberosity- where the deltoid muscle attaches
- Size ccan increase as the result of frequent and powerfull pulls from the deltoid muscle.
Epicondyles
- On the distal end of the humerus, just lateral to the condyles, provide attachment site for
forearm muscles.

FOREARM
- Has two bone:
o ulna- on the medial, side of the forearm
o radius- on the lateral sides
Trochlear notch
- form by the proximal end of ulna
- fits tightly over the end of the humerus, forming of the most elbow joint.
Olecranon process- extension of the ulna
- can be felt as the point of the elbow
coronoid process- distal to the trochlear notch
- helps complete the “grip” of the ulna on the distal end of the humerus
styloid process- is located on its medial side
Radial Tuberosity – distal to the radial head
- where one of the arm muscles, the biceps brachii attaches.
WRIST
- is a relatively short region between the forearm and the hand.
- Consist of 8 carpal bones.
So- scaphoid Here- hamate
Long- Lunate Comes- capitate
Top- triquetrum The - trapezoid
Part- Pisiform Thumb- Trapezium

HAND
Metacarpal Bones
- Are attach to the carpal bones and form the bony framework of the hand
- Five digits- thumb and fingers
Phalanges
- Finger consist of small phalanges
- Greek- phalanx – wedge of soldiers holding their spears, tips outward, infront of them.

PELVIC GIRDLE
- Is the place where the lower limbs attach to the body
Coxal bones- join each other anteriorly
Sacrum- posteriorly to form a ring of bone
Pelvis- includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx
Coxal bones- anteriorly- pubic symphysis; posteriorly- sacroiliac joints
- formed three bone fused
  Ilium – is the most superior
 Ischium- inferior and posterior
 Pubis – inferior and anterior
Iliac crest- can be seen along the superior margin of each ilium
Anterior superior iliac spine
- an important hip landmark, Is located at the anterior end of the iliac crest
Acetabulum- is the socket of the hip joint
Obturator foramen
- large hole in each coxal bone that is closed off by muscles and other structures.
Pelvic inlet- formed by the pelvic brim and sacral promontory
Pelvic outlet – is bounded by the ischial spines, pubic symphysis and the coccyx

Lower Limb
- consist of thigh, leg ankle and foot
THIGH
- is the region between the hip and the knee
Femur- single bone
- head – articulates with the acetabalum of the coxal bone
- distal end- Condyles- articulate with the tibia
epicondyle
- Located medial and lateral to the condyles, are point of ligament attachment.
Patella
- Located within the major tendon of the anterior thigh muscles and enables the tendon to
bend over the knee.
LEG
- Is the region between the knee and the ankle
- Tibia- is larger than fibula; is the major weight-bearing bone of the leg.
- Femur- rest on the flat condyles on the proximal end of the tibia
Tibial tuberosity
- Where the muscles of the anterior thigh attach.
ANKLE
- Consists of seven tarsal
- Distal row MILC
 Medial
 Intermediate
 Lateral cuneiforms
 Cuboid
- Proximal three bones No Thanks Cows
 Navicular
 Talus
 Calcaneus

Joint
- Is a place where to bones come together
- Is considered as movable but that is not always the case.
 - Synarthosis- non-movable joint
- Amphiarthrosis- slightly movable joint
- Diarthrosis- freely movable joint
- Three major structures: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial

Fibrous joints
- Consists of two joints that are united by fibrous tissue and that exhibit little or no
movement.
- Basis of structure
o Sutures
 Are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull

o Syndesmoses
 Fibrous joint in which the bones are separated by some distance and held
together by ligaments.
o Gomphoses
 Consists of pegs fitted into sockets and held in place by ligaments.
Cartilaginous joints
- Unite two bones by means of cartilage.
Fibrocartilage
- Forms joints such as the intervertebral disks.
Synovial joints
- Are freely movable joints that contain fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of
articulating bones
Articular cartilage
- Provides a smooth surface where the bones meet
Joint cavity
- Filled with fluid
Joint capsule – where the cavity enclosed
- Helps hold the bone together and allows for movement
Synovial membrane
- Lines the joint cavity everywhere except over the articular cartilage
Synovial fluid- produced by the membrane
- Is a complex mixture of polysaccharide, proteins, lipids and cell
Bursa
- The synovial membrane may extend as a pocket or sac..
- Bursitis- inflammation of a bursa; resulting from abrasion

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Plane joints/ gliding joints
- Consists of two flat surfaces that glide over each other.
- Articular facets between vertebrae.
Saddle joints
- Consists of two saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right angles to each other.
- Metacarpal bone and the carpal bone (Trapezium)
Hinge joints
- permits movement in one plane only
- elbow and knee joints
Pivot joint
- Restrict movement to rotation around a single axis.
- Axis and atlas
Bone –and-socket joints
- Consists of bone head at the end of one bone and a socket in an adjacent bone into which
a portion of the ball fits.
- Shoulder and hip joints

Ellipsoid joints
- Are elongated ball-and-socket joints
- Atlas of a vertebral column and joints between the metacarpal bones and phalanges..
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
Flexion and extension
- Are common opposing movements.
- Bend (flex) and straighten (extend)
Flexion
- Bones of a particular joint are moved closer together.
- “make a muscle”
Plantar flexion
- Movement of the foot toward the plantar surface (sole of thee foot) as when standing on
the toes.
Dorsiflexion
- Movement of the foot toward the shin, as when walking on the heels.
Abduction (to take away)
- Is movement away from the median or midsagittal plane; jumping jacks
Adduction (to bring together)
- Is movement toward the median plane; legs back together
Pronation and supination
- Are best demonstrated with the elbow flexed at a 90 degree angle
Eversion
- Is turning the foot so that the plantar surface (bottom of the foot) faces laterally
Inversion
- Is turning the foot so that the plantar surface faces medially
Rotation
- Is the turning of a structure around its long axis, as in shaking the head no.
Circumduction
- Occurs at freely movable joint, such as the shoulder.

OTHER TYPES OF MOVEMENT

Protraction
- Is a movement in which a structure, such as mandible, glides anteriorly
Retraction
- The structure glides posteriorly
Elevation
- Is the movement of a structure in a superior direction
- Closing the mouth involves elevation of the mandible
Depression
- Is the movement of a structure in an inferior direction
- Opening the mouth involves elevation of the mandible
Excursion
- Is the movement of a structure to one side, as in moving the mandible from side to side
Opposition
- Is a movement unique to the thumb and the little finger
- It occurs when the tips of the thumb and little finger are brought toward each other across
the palm of the hand.
- The thumb can also oppose the other digits

Reposition
- Returns the digit to the anatomical position
Sprain
- When the bones of a joint are forcefully pulled apart and the ligaments around the joint
are pulled
Separation
- When the bones remain apart after injury to a joint
Dislocation
- When the end of the bone is pulled out of the socket in the ball-and-socket, ellipsoid or a
pivot joint.
Hyperextension
- Is an abnormal force extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion.