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 75^11,884
POELLEIN, John Alfred, 1933-
NEW CHORAL TECHNIQUES; AN HISTORICAL-
ANALYTICAL STUDY.
University of I l l i n o i s at Urbana-Champaign,
D.M.A., 1974
Fine Arts

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48ioe

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.

 NEW CHORAL TECHNIQUES:
AN HISTORICAL-ANALYTICAL STUDY

BY
JOHN ALFRED POELLEIN
B.M., Rollins College, 1956
S.M.M., Union Theological Seminary, 1958

THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
in the Graduate College of the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1974

Urbana, Illinois
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

THE GRADUATE COLLEGE

September, 1974

I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY

J0HN
SUPERVISION RV ALFRED POELLEIN
s
NEW CHORAL TECHNIQUES:
ENTITLED.
AN HISTORICAL—ANALYTICAL STUDY

BE ACCEPTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

THE DEGREE OF_

\j*—^C. r -t-^-^-C
In Charge of Thesis

Head of Department

Recommendation concurre^Tn))-

« Committee

on
Final Examination!

t Required for doctor's degree but not for master's

DS17
 •• •
111

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to express his gratitude for the

assistance given by many individuals in the preparation of
this study. I am indebted to my adviser, Ben Johnston, who
faithfully guided me through the work with wisdom and patience.
My appreciation is further extended to my teachers and friends
of the School of Music faculty, especially Harold A. Decker,
Edwin London and Charles Hamm, each of whom helped to quicken
my interest in contemporary music during my years at The
University of Illinois.
I wish to acknowledge all of the respective pub-
lishers who have graciously granted permission to reproduce
the copyrighted music appearing in this study. My special \
i

thanks JLs given to the Theodore Presser Company (Bryn Mawr,

Pennsylvania) who, as agent for Universal Edition in this
country, provided the writer with several scores by Karlheinz
Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel for study purposes. Where manu-
script copies have been used, permission has been kindly granted
by the composer.
It should be mentioned that this study has been
assisted by the generous support of The University of Connec-
ticut Foundation.
Finally, the author wishes to recognize that this
study could not have been completed without the understanding
and devotion of his wife and children.
 IV

PREFACE

Today's music is a reflection of today's life. The

twentieth century has been a time of turmoil and an exciting

period of musical development and innovation. The breakdown

of tonality at the beginning of the century followed by tech-

nical advances in electronics after World War II have resulted

in virtually unlimited possibilities of musical expression by

composers.

This study will attempt to trace some of the histori-

cal developments which have influenced the art of choral music.

Regardless of how revolutionary a musical period may seem at

the height of its activity, there are usually threads of the

past woven into the new material. It appears to this writer

that we are well enough along in this century to make some

general observations about style characteristics of the_period

and to discuss this evolution in the context of specific compo-

sitions.

To begin with we will deal with the history of the

speaking voice and its function in the hands of today's com-

posers. A valuable perspective on recent choral techniques

can be gained by studying the way in which language has been

treated during this century.

 V

In previous centuries choral music functioned in a

traditional vein. Coherent texts were simply set to music

and language was simply wed to melodic phrases. Melodrama

was the only medium in which the speaking voice was joined to

music. Out of this eventually emerged a closer wedding of

speech and music, a new use of the half-speaking voice which

Schonberg termed "Sprechstimme" or "Sprechmelodie." At the

same time there was a growing use of choric speech, music

strictly spoken both chordally and" polyphonically in a com-

prehensible style. Composers like Darius Milhaud and Vladimir

Vogel embraced this technique. Ultimately, every nuance of the

speaking voice becomes a part of the choral spectrum in the hands

of composers like Witold Lutoslawski and Krzysztof Penderecki.

, With Dieter Schnebel and Mauricio Kagel, language becomes com-

pletely atomized, and speech particles are used as vocal "Klang-

farben."

Karlheinz Stockhausen is a composer who dares to be

different. His works are the antithesis of tradition. In a

work like Momente he deals with a "moment-form" concept which

virtually goes beyond what most composers consider musical.

He juxtaposes a barrage of sound events against each other in

 vi

a seemingly non-predetermined way. Without embracing aleatoric

techniques in Momente Stockhausen does allow some flexibility

with given durations and he allows for many possibilities of

ordering the "moments."

Stockhausen's work in the Electronic Studio of the

West German Radio in Cologne in the mid-1950*s resulted in

some pioneering work in the electronic manipulation of voices.

Mikrophonie II is one of these compositions which is discussed

in Chapter Three- Although this composer has not produced

"accessible" choral works, his experiments have been important,

and we must acknowledge his contribution, in this.chapter .re-

al so discuss some works by American composers including an

early choral-electronic piece by Vladimir Ussachevsky.

Chapter Four deals with the histoiy and mathematical

theories -related to microtonal music. We find that our familiar

12-tone temperament is a comparatively young species. With the

proliferation of keyboard instruments in the seventeeth century

for filling out continuo parts, an eventual standard temperament

for the 12-tone scale was inevitable. Nevertheless, today there

is a renewed interest in enlarged temperaments. Several European

and American composers are now writing compositions employing

just intonation and Pythagorean tuning. New instruments have

 VI1

been built which make performances of this "new" (we should

also say "old") scalar systems possible. New choral music

is appearing which brings a fresh approach to the concept of

"correct" intonation.

The last chapter is a continuation in a practical

way of Chapter Four. Having discussed the theories of micro-

tonal music in Chapter Four, we look at a recent composition

by Ben Johnston. His Mass (1972) is a setting of the Latin

Ordinary in which he combines archaic elements with contemporary

idioms. The work uses just intonation and seventh partial

tunings. We encounter some new notational symbols.associated

with this intonation, and the problems presented to performers

of the "new" tuning is discussed.

This writer is aware of the potential scope of investi-

gation suggested by the topics covered in this study. It is

difficult if not dangerous to isolate specific compositional

techniques without relating them to other influences. Further-

more, analysis of a work, although enlightening, is never a sub-

stitute for experiencing the work itself. Even when the composer

speaks, the explanation of his work is not the music. Henri

Pousseur makes this observation which the author endorsesi

 Vlll

Consequently, perception (the actual perception which

can vary from one performance to another and is dependent
to a certain extent on the listener) must be recognised
as the final criterion of any analysis or criticism.
This perception (which is perhaps only predictable with-
in certain limits) is a global phenomenon extending over
every dimension, plane and capability at the same time,
and the critic should never forget - - or let the reader
forget - - that he is only picking out various considera-
tions and planes in the interests of methodical study for
the time being, without ever losing sight of the indivi-
sible reality which it is the one aim of his investiga-1
tion to "illuminate."1

iHenri Pousseur, "Music, Form and Practice," die

Reihe, VI (Bryn Mawr: Theodore Presser Co., 1964, in asso-
ciation with Universal Edition, 1960), p. 85.

\«"yvw
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
I. SPEECH AND MUSIC 1
Influence of Melodrama 2
Sprechstimme and Schonberg 9
Schonberg*s Notation of Sprechstimme 15
Developments after Schonberg 21
Milhaud's Les Choe'phores 22
Vogel's Contribution . . . . . . . . 26
Pointillism and the Triumph of Timbre . . . . 31
Elements of Speech as Musical Language . . . . 37
Current Developments 53
II. STOCKHAUSEN'S USE OF CHORUS IN MOMENTE 62
Perspective on Momente 63
Score and Structure 66
Function of the Chorus 69
Notation Guide for Momente • . . 70
Excerpts from the Score 71
Conclusion 99
III. ELECTRONICS AND THE CHORAL ART . . „ , * * - ? . . , , 104
Background on Electronic Music 104
Stockhausen's Contribution . . . . . 109
Stockhausen*s Mikrophonie II 112
Works by American Composers 123
Conclusion 134
IV. MICROTONAL MUSIC—HISTORY AND THEORY 137
Ratios and Cents 138
Pythagoreanism versus Temperament 140
Just Intonation 147
Beyond 12-Tone Temperament 154
3l-Tone Temperament . 154
53-Tone Temperament 158
Closer to Utopia 160
Notation 166
Conclusion 168
 X

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED

Page
V. MASS BY BEN JOHNSTON .' . 173
The Work in Perspective 173
Style Characteristics 175
Types of Intonation Used in Mass 177
Seventh Partial Tuning 179
Kyrie 180
Gloria ' 186
Credo 188
Sanctus 192
Agnus Dei 194
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 197
APPENDIX
A. REPRESENTATIVE CHORAL MUSIC WITH
SPRECHSTIMME 202
B. THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET 207
C. REPRESENTATIVE CHORAL MUSIC WITH
ELECTRONIC TAPE , . 214
D. MIKROPHONIE II BY STOCKHAUSEN 220
E. MICROTONAL MUSIC GLOSSARY OF TERMS 238
F. MASS BY BEN JOHNSTON 247
VITA 301
 CHAPTER I

SPEECH AND MUSIC

Today the use of the speaking voice in choral compo-

sitions is no longer a phenomenon. In fact since the 1960's
it is not unusual to find choral works which combine elec-
tronic sounds with Sprechstimme, normal singing, percussion
and other multi-media techniques. Singers have become another
source of timbre, a new vocal "Klangfarben." A chorus may be
called upon to shout, whisper, hiss, scream, click tongues
or whistle. Some composers require body percussion from the
chorus, asking singers to stamp their feet, snap fingers, clap
hands, rattle paper and slap their knees. All of these non-
traditional uses of the chorus increase the sound spectrum and
heighten the dramatic impact of a work. In the hands of a sen-
sitive composer these techniques communicate very effectively.

One of the most significant developments in the art

of new choral techniques has been the emancipation of the
human voice. It is now an historical fact that while com-
posers were experimenting with new instrumental techniques
in this century, so were they also using the speaking and
singing voice in new ways. This writer poses the questiont
How recent is the use of the speaking voice? Is it solely

1
 I

2
a development of the twentieth century? How did the use of
Sprechstimme come about?

Influence of Melodrama

Some writers have pointed out the parallel between

the advent of speaking choruses and the dramatic development of
opera, specifically the use of recitative. At the turn of
the seventeenth century the Florentine Camerata were concerned
with setting texts which would express the emotional meanings
of the words as well as convey a continuity of events. "Secco"
recitatives were often declamatory as well as melodic. Arias
were given added embellishments to heighten the dramatic
impact of the word (and often to display the vocal ability
of the singer). Yet, this differs from the dramatic use of
the speaking voice. Whereas recitative was an outright
singing narration with a continuo accompaniment, the use of
speech followed a somewhat different route. The musicologist
Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt suggests (as well as other authorities)
that speech and music must be traced back to melodramat
In opera it had long been common practice to use
speech ("Sprechstimme") in addition to singing.
The special form known as the melodrama—the
reciting of a spoken text to instrumental accom-
paniment—had also been used by classical and
romantic composers. But in both "Singspiel" and
melodrama the spoken word merely followed the
requirements of the text, whether verse or prose.
In the melodramas of Rousseau (Pygmalion, 1762)
or Benda (Ariadne, 1775), in the spoken scenes
in Mozart's Zaide, in Fidelio or Per Freischutz
(incantation scene), text and music are only very
loosely co-ordinated. , The spoken word gets free
range within a generous allocation of bars.
 3
Towards the end of the nineteenth century
attempts were made in Germany to tie down the
"Sprechstimme" more precisely and to connect it
with notated music, both rhythmically and in terms
of so-called "speech-melody." This was the origin
of the "Sprechstimme" notation in Humperdinck's
melodrama Koniqskinder (1897), which Schoenberg
later amplified.1
A proper definition for melodrama is* A stage presen-
tation intermediate between play and opera, consisting of
spoken text and background music.2 We know, of course, that
melodrama, as well as the use of the speaking chorus, played
an important role in Greek drama. The first full melodrama
was J. J. Rousseau's Pygmalion (1762). Usually, the actor
recites his part while the orchestra plays a more or less
elaborate commentary on the situation of the moment. The
same procedure can be seen in conjunction with piano as the
accompanying instrument to the recitation, sometimes called
declamation. Examples of this type of declamation can be
found in Schubert's Abschied von der Erde and in Schumann's
Schon Hedwig (Hebbel), opus 106. A more important work with
regard to setting well-known poems, was the musical accompani-
ment to Tennyson's Enoch Arden by Richard Strauss (1902).
Mozart too was very fond of the idea of combining
speech with music. In a letter to his father written from
Mannheim and dated November 12, 1778, he writes*

H. H. Stuckenschmidt, Twentieth Century Music, trans.

by Richard Deveson, World University Library (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969), p. 63.
2 . . .
"Melodrama," Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed.,
p. 517,
3
Ibid.
 4
. . . The Seyler company are here, whom you no
doubt already know by reputation; Herr von
Dalberg is their manager. He refuses to let me
go until I have composed a duodrama for him; and
indeed it did not take me long to make up my
mind, for I have always wanted to write a drama
of this kind. I cannot remember whether I told
you anything about this type of drama the first
time I was here? On that occasion I saw a piece
of this kind performed twice and was absolutely
delighted. . . . You know, of course, that there
is no singing in it, only recitation, to which
the music is like a sort of obbligato accompani-
ment to a recitative. Now and then words are
spoken while the music goes on, and this produces
the finest effect. The piece I saw was Benda's
Medea. He has composed another one, Ariadne auf
Naxos, and both are really excellent. You know
that of all the Lutheran Kapellmeisters Benda
has always been my favourite, and I like those
two works of his so much that I carry them about
with me. Well, imagine my joy at having to com-
pose just the kind of work I have so much desired!
Do you know what I think? I think that most
operatic recitatives should be treated in this
way—and only sung occasionally, when the words
"can be perfectly expressed by the music. " 4
*

Example 1* Excerpt from Ariadne auf Naxos

(17.75) by Benda.

Yifr/iirt JlruZie. tutbr *vu*v silrj.-Am. 6e&M JjrJ/mi*pre.)

Emily Anderson, ed., The Letters of Mozart and His Family

trans, by Emily Anderson and C. B. Oldman (London*
Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1938), II, 339.
 5

Example 1 apparently is a French edition of Benda's

Ariadne auf Naxos although the publisher and date does not
appear in the printed score. The cover page reads*
"Clavierauszug von Ariadne auf Naxos, Einem Duodrama von Hrn.
Brandes, In Musik gesetzt von Georg Benda." This is followed
by the same title in French. The importance of Benda's
melodramas cannot be underestimated. In the words of Paul
Henry Lang:
It is no exaggeration to say that Benda's
Ariadne was the first musico-dramatic work to
secede completely from the old opera, for Gluck's
reform operas were still purely vocal works
retaining the great traditions of the opera.
Spoken words and music were used by Eenda simul-
taneously, not consecutively as in the French
melodrama; he should therefore be considered the
"inventor" of the melodrama as practiced in the
nineteenth century. . . . Benda had made the
first momentous step toward the German music
drama, and all that was now needed was to
superimpose singing voices over the symphonic-
dramatic orchestral fabric for the Wagnerian
music drama to become a reality.

This kind of melodrama (simultaneously spoken words with the

music) produced by Benda soon became common practice. The
works previously cited by Schubert and Schumann provide con-
tinuous background for the delivery of text. Liszt's Per
trauriqe Monch should be included among these compositions.
Still the question can be asked* How is this practice of
nineteenth century melodrama related to the "Sprechstimme" as
developed by Arnold Schonberg? For this critical link we must

4
Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (New
York* W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1941), pp. 583-84.
 6
look to Engelbert Humperdinck. In the 1890*s, when reviewing
Hans Pfitzner's music to Ibsen's Das Fest auf Solhang (1889-
90), Humperdinck wrote:
Dass das Melodram hinsichtlich der engeren Verbindung
von Wort und Ton noch einer ferneren Entwicklung fahig
sei, daran ist wohl nicht zu zweifeln . . . , und
vielleicht ist die Zett nicht mehr fern, wo die Deklama-
tion auch ausserlich in die innigste Verbindung mit der
begleitenden Musik gebracht wird, eine Methode, die
zwar der Freiheit des rezitierenden Schauspielers
einige unbequeme Fesseln anlegen, auf der andern
Seite aber auch die gemeinsame Wirkung von Rede und
Melodie . . . auf ein hochgesteigertes Mass erheben
durfte.5
There is no doubt that the melodrama can still be
further developed with regard to a closer connection
between word and tone. . . . , and maybe it will not
be long until recitation will be brought formally
into the most intimate relation with the accompanying
music, a method which lays some uncomfortable restric-
tions on the liberty of the reciting actor, but on
the other hand increases the common effect of speech
and melody . . . to its highest state of complexity.
In his original version of the music to Ernst Rosmer's^
Konigskinder (1897) Humperdinck first experimented with what
he called the "bound melodrama" ("das gebundene Melodram").
The larger portion of the first version of Konigskinder ("The
King's Children") was spoken without orchestral accompaniment.
Only about 500 of the 2320 lines of the poem were set to back-
ground music. When singing is asked for in the drama, "geht
o
der Sprechgesang i n gewohnlichen Gesang uber" ("the

Otto Besch, Engelbert Humperdinck (Leipzig*

Breitkopt & H a r t e l , 1914), p . 171.
Ernst Rosmer i s a pseudonym for E l s a Bernstein-Porges.
n
Rudolf Stephan, "Zur j'ungsten Geschichte des Melodrams,"
Archiv fur Musikwissenschaft, XVII, Heft 2/3 (1960), 185.
8
Ibid.
 7
sprechgesang turns into regular singing"). Hence, a review
(Im Foyer, Leipzig, 1901) of a performance of Konigskinder
in 1901 mentions that the actors "manchmal sprechen, manchmal
singen, manchmal mit diesem neuen Humperdinck-Stil hantieren
sollen" (sometimes speak, sometimes sing and sometimes operate
with this new Humperdinck-style).
The first Humperdinck biographer, Otto Besch, has
this to say about the "bound melodrama" as found in Konigs-
kinder*
Ihren besonders charakteristischen Stempel erhielt
sie (die Partitur der K5nigskinder) durch die
Einfuhrung der melodramatischen Sprechnoten.
Humperdinck legte die Deklamation uberall da, wo
das Orchester gleichzeitig die Situation musikalisch
illustrierte, in Tonh&he und Rhythmus fest. Er
folgte bei dieser Fixierung einer verstandnisvoll
vorgetragenen Deklamation, so dass der gewohnliche
Vortrag bis zu einer Art Halbgesang gesteigert<
wurde.
Das neue daran waren die von ihm (Humperdinck)
eingefuhrten Sprechnoten, die Zeitdauer und
Hohenlage der zu rezitierenden Worte genau
vorschrieben.*°
The score of the Konigskinder got its particular
characteristics by the introduction of the melo-
dramatic Sprechnoten (speaking notes). Humperdinck
indicated in the recitation pitch and rhythm wher-
ever the orchestra musically reflected the situation.
By means of this pitch and rhythm indication he pre-
sented an intelligently rendered recitation to the
extent that the usual type of performance was raised
to a kind of semi-singing.
Hereby Humperdinck introduced the Sprechnoten,
which prescribed exactly the duration and pitch of
the words to be recited.
Here is a phrase out of the first version of Konigskinder
which reveals for the first time the kind of notation for

9
Ibid.
Otto Besch, Engelbert Humperdinck, p. 64 and p. 171.
sprechstimme which is now very familiar to us*

Example 2* Humperdinck's Die Konigskinder.

Page 3 of the first version,
piano-vocal score, published by
Max Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1897.

*£ » yei-ne
^ei-ne veisseh Bl\j-mSn tra-gen Tau in den Glotc-Ken

Mochf e i - n e tau-weis-se Blu- me s e m , d i e Schonste von

al-len Im Brun-nen-spie-gel sah ich Hab Tnir ge-f a l i e n .

These carefully placed noteheads indicating the relative ^^^,

pitch of the voice must have been puzzling to those singers
first performing it. Humperdinck was obviously attempting to
develop a "closer connection between word and tone," something
that could be easily lifted into a regular singing line or
lowered to speaking. The German musicologist Rudolph
Stephan in discussing Humperdinck's work points to the
dramatic expression achieved through inflected speech-singing,
difficult as it may bo:
Keineswegs aber war damit die den Vers in gleich-
formiger Scansion singende Sprechweise der
Schauspieler aus der Altweimarer Schule beabsichtigt,
sondern eine aus dem Sinn der Worte zu reicher
Rhythmik gleich dem Wagnerschen Sprechgesang belebte,
die er dem Schauspieler gleich durch sogenannte
Sprechnoten vorschrieb. Ja, nicht nur das Tempo der
Rede wollte er, wie es Weber und Schumann zuweilen
versucht hatter:, bestimmen, sondern auch den Tonfall
der Rede, den ganzen Ausdruck des Vortragenden,
fixieren. Wer den "Sprechpart" der Konigskinder-
musik daraufhin aufmerksam durchgeht, wird darin
eine ganz ausserordentliche declamatorische Kunstle-
istung wahrnehmen. Der Einwand, dass diese
Vorschriften fur die Schauspieler eine die freie
Ausserung ihrer Individualitat behindernde, eine
 9
Gezwungenheit der Rede nothwendig nach sich ziehende
Massregel bedeuten, ja streng genommen unwahr seien,
ist durch vereinzelte, fleissig und verstandnisvoll
vorbereitete Aufftihrungen widerlegt. Dagegen sei
ohne Weiteres die Schwierigkeit der Aufgabe einge-
raumt, welche gegen das "gebundene Melodrama" den
Ausfiihrenden stellt. Es fordert uberdies zur
vollen Wirkung Organe, die schon im Sprechen das
Ohr wie Gesang beruhren, und wohl nicht in jedem
Schauspielensemble vorhanden sind.11
But he did not intend to create the kind of speech
(Sprechweise) of the actors of the Altweimarer
School which sang the verse in a uniform Scansion.
He intended to create one that was animated by the
meaning of the words to rich rhythm"like the
Sprechgesang of Wagner and which he specified to
the actor by so-called Sprechnoten. Furthermore,
not^c^r-ir-^id he want to determine the tempo of the
Speech, like Weber and Schumann had tried it, but
also he wanted to determine the intonation of the
speech and thus the whole expression of the per-
former. Those who study carefully this Sprechpart
of the music to the Konigskinder will notice an
extremely good declamatory piece of art. The
objection or argument that these instructions to
the actor prevent the free expression of their
individuality and thus result in a necessarily
unnatural and stiff speech has been proven wrong
by a few carefully and industriously prepared
performances. However, one has to concede the
difficulty of the task which the performer had to
fulfill in the "bound melodrama." Bound melo-
drama demands for the full effect a type of skill
which already in speaking touches the ear like
singing and which is probably not existing in
every theater ensemble.

Sprech^cimme and Schonberg

Within a few weeks after the first performance in

Munich on May 10, 1897, Humperdinck's melodrama Die Konigs-
kinder was produced in Vienna (in the Theater an der Wien).
Although we have no accurate information that Arnold

Stephan, "Zur jiingsten Geschichte des Melodrams,"

p. 186.
 10
Schonberg was in the audience, it seems reasonable to assume
that he was introduced to the work at this time and perhaps
got his inspiration to write a melodrama in the third part
of the Gurre-Lieder *

Example 3* Schonberg, Gurre-Lieder (1900-1901),

bars 192-196. Piano-vocal score,
Universal Edition (1912).

Schonberg uses follow notes ( $ ) at the beginning of the melo-

drama (III/8) and at the end of the Bauern-Lied (III/2), but
in the main body of the melodrama he uses the kind of nota-
tion found in Die Konigskinder ( % ). In one of his letters
(written ten years after he composed Gurre-Lieder) Schonberg
discusses this new techniquei
 Hier ist die Tonh6hennotation keinesfalls so
ernst zu nehmen wie in den Pierrot-Melodra.en.
Keinesfalls soil hier eine gesangartige Sprech-
melodie entstehen wie dort. Gewahrt bleiben muss
durchaus der Rhythmus und die Tonstarke (ent-
sprechend der Begleitung). Bei einigen Stellen,
in denen es sich fast melodisch ausnimmt, konnte
etwas (!!) musikalischer gesprochen werden. Die
Tonhohen sind nur als "Lagenunterschiede" anzusehen;
das heisst, die betreffende Stelle (!!i nicht die
einzelne Note ist hoher, respektive tiefer zu
sprechen. Nicht ciber Intervallproportioneni12
Here the pitch notation is not at all to be
taken so seriously as in the Pierrot-Melodramas.
In no way is a song-like speech-melody to be
created, but the rhythm has to be adhered to and
the volume of tone regulated with the accompani-
ment. In several places in which it is almost
melodic one could speak a little more musically.
The pitches are more to be regarded as differences
of level; that is to say, the respective passages
(not the separate notes) are to be spoken higher
or lower.

It is up to the reader whether Schonberg*s comments, written

years after the work was conceived, are to be taken literally.
The "Sprechmelodie" is confined to a part entitled "Speaker."
Nowhere does the chorus (three mixed choirs plus one eight-
part choir) use this technique.
Schonberg composed Pierrot lunaire in 1912 (opus
21), "Three-times seven poems from Albert Giraud's Pierrot
lunaire" (translated into German by Otto Erich Hartleben).
It is scored for speaking voice (Sprechstimme), piano, flute
(also piccolo), clarinet (also bass clarinet), violin (also
viola) and cello. In the preface to this work Schonberg

12
Stephan, "Zur jungsten Geschichte des Melodrams,"
p. 187. Stephan cites this after Alban Berg, Arnold
Schonberg, Gurrelieder, Fiihrer (Leipzig-Wient Universal
Edition, 1913), p. 93.
describes the kind of interpretation required for performing
the Sprechstimme role*
The melody given for the speaking voice in notes
is (apart from a few specially indicated exceptions)
not meant to be sung. The reciter has the task of
transforming it, with a thorough speech-melody. He
accomplishes that by (I) keeping the rhythm abso-
lutely strict, as if he were singing; i.e. with no
more freedom than he would allow himself for a song
melody; (II) fully realizing the difference between
singing-tone and speaking-tone * the singing-tone
holds fast to the pitch from beginning to end of a
note, whereas the speaking-tone does give it at
first, but then at once departs from it by either
rising or falling. The performer must, however,
watch carefully not to fall into a "singing" way
of speaking. That is not at all what is meant.
In no way, it is true, must a realistic-natural
speech be striven for. On the contrary, the
difference between ordinary speech and a speech
that co-operates in a musical form is to be dis-
tinct. But it must never remind one of singing.13

In Pierrot lunaire the Sprechstimme part is notated with a

cross on the stem ( Jf ) and a normal notehead. At the close
of the third section Schonberg calls for whispering and
uses a notation which he was to employ extensively in his
setting of Psalm 130 (De Profundis), opus 50b. (See
Example 4 on the next page.) Before leaving this work it
should be mentioned that controversy still exists over the
manner in which Pierrot lunaire should be performed. An
engaging article by Pierre Boulez discusses this problem at
some length. Boulez feels that Schb'nberg was not satisfied
with the notation of the Sprechstimme in Pierrot and ulti-
mately rejected it in favor of the one-line staff as used in

Preface to Schonberg's Pierrot lunaire, op. 21

(Wien* Universal Edition, 1914, 1941), Translation by
Ralph W. Wood.
 13

Ode to Napoleon and Moses and Aaronf with relative pitches

notated on the line, above it and below it.

Example 4* Schonberg, Pierrot lunaire, Part I,

No. 3, bars 27-31.

occcl
Mr fc=I-J

Kl
(A)

gTTTCTrffecfand^
9
r=
fr>tt-T-Zr~n:i*
1*

Rot
•

Middrsu?
0 . N.eiiU Grim
*•
w
und Henialtsein Oesulit ill er . ha . be.nemSlil
[• f f l non^ega n r H. "| tonloi maderdrucken (Flair)

fcr^ i efgSg==#j*Bs
S£
r r.Il
5E

ohiis Pedal
ppg^s immer ohns Pedal
raseh nimmlgr t\

mSglichit kurze Piusr.folgl

Eine b U n a Wascherin
Flutr. KlutniUoAt
Ctiise mil Dunpfcr;
nut t m u n pli»iiu.»ti;>ihen Mond.straM
nibi'li

Finally, we have in Schonberg's composition Die Gluck-

liche Hand (1910-13) the first application of Sprechstimme
to choral writing. For this work he wrote his own scenario.
A chorus in twelve parts (six women and six men) alternate

The reader is referred to the article by Boulezi

"Sprechen, Singen, Spielen," Melos, XXXVIII (November, 1971),
between singing and sprechstimme. The score indicates in
detail the changing colors of stage lights which are to be
synchronized with the music. The following describes some-
thing of the work.
At the beginning of Die Gluckliche Hand the faces of
the chorus appear (with weird green illumination) through
small holes in a curtain of violet velvet. They whisper (to
the protagonist of the work)* "Be silent, restless being.
You knew how it would be. Will you never be at rest? • . .
And you cannot win out! You poor fool!" At the end of the
drama, when he has been cast down in defeat, the small chorus
returns (their faces now lit by a gray-blue light) to intone*
"Did you have to experience again what you have so often
experienced? . . . And still you seek, and torment yourself,
and are restless, you peer fool!" Slowly, the stage lights
darken and the curtain falls. This author has not yet had
the privilege of seeing a production of Die Gluckliche Hand,
those who have report tnat the effect of these passages for
the voices is extremely beautiful, especially the transitions
from speaking to singing. (See Example 5 on the next page.)
The work has not been widely performed. William Austin in
his book on twentieth century music comments*

The performance of Die gluckliche Hand in 1924 had

no successor for many years. Yet in 1961 the young
composer Luigi Nono cited Die gluckliche Hand and _
Berg's Lulu as the two greatest works of the century.

William W. Austin, Music in the 20th Century (New

York* W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1966), p. 220.
 15
Example 5: Schonberg, Die Gluckliche Hand.

Schonberg's Notation of Sprechstimme

It is interesting to study the change in the notation

as it evolved in Schonberg's works through the years. We
have already seen the use of hollow noteheads and crosses for
noteheads in his early work, Gurre-Lieder. In Pierrot lunaire
he places a cross on the stems of otherwise normal notes.
Also in Pierrot we see the first use of notation for whis-
pering: no noteheads at all ^see Example 4). In Moses umd
Aron (1932) he again employs crosses for noteheads. A signifi-
cant change occurs, however, in his next work using sprech-
stimme. In Ode to Napoleon, for recitation, piano and string
 16

orchestra (1943), Schonberg uses only a single line with

relative pitches indicated on, above and below the line. In
subsequent works involving Sprechstimme Schonberg abandons
any suggestion of precise pitches. At the end of his life
when he was working on Modern Psalms (1951) which were never
completed, Schonberg retains the one line, yet also the
accidentals*

Example 6* Schonberg's Der Erste Psalm (Mainz:

B. Schott Sonne, 1956), bars 5-8.

Hans Keller makes an interesting observation about this evolu-

tion of notation*
. . . And after Moses, there is no notated pitch any
longer* speech-notes are written on, above, and
below a single line. The official explanation of
this change of notation, chiefly supplied by myself,
has always been that Schoenberg, having realized
that people tended to sing, or at any rate to keep
to the absolute pitches where these were notated,
changed his notational approach in order not to
lead into temptation. . . . The Pierrot notation
is a self-imposed smoke-screens without those
pitches to hang on to, the revolution would have
been too violent, for Schoenberg and for us. We
can still see the revolution clearly enough through
the screen. In the single-line notation, the
 visible products of combustion are minimal* all
that remains of them are those rather mystical
accidentals in front of pitchless notes—mystical
but not unfunctionals the performer is invited
to relax behind the light smoke-screen of his
associations with intuitively remembered inter-
vals. It helped the composer to relax in this
way in the first place.!°
The significance to this writer with respect to Schonberg's
retaining those "mystical" accidentals is that obviously,
the composer wishes the performer to use interpretive voice
inflections. A convincing performance can only exist if a
speaker, or speaking chorus, strives to modulate the voice
(even when whispering) in order to communicate the emotion of
the text.
SchcJnberg's abandonment of precisely notated pitches for
sprechstimme is well illustrated in his last work to be
finished, De Profundis, a setting of Psalm 130 for six-part
mixed voices. Opus 50b was completed on July 2, 1950, to
fulfill a request from Chemjo Vinaver who had asked Schon-
berg to compose a setting of a Hebrew Psalm for the Anthology
of Jewish Music of which he was editor. The work is
dodecaphonic and effectively combines whispering and dra-
matic speaking with normal singing. Realizing the potential
difficulty a choir might have in performing the work, Schon-
berg wrote to Vinaver regarding the use of instruments with
De Profundis*
, . . There is no objection of mine against using
with every voice a woodwind instrument to keep

Hans Keller, "Whose Fault Is the Speaking Voice?,"

Tempo, No. 75 (Winter, 1965-66), p. 17.
 18

intonation and rhythm in order* because this is

always my main demand and I deem it more important
than the so-called "pure sound of voices"!1'

The reader will recall Schonberg's similar suggestion for

performing Friede auf Erden. In cases of difficulty with
intonation in that work (opus 13, 1907), the composer pro-
vides for the legitimate use of double woodwinds, two horns
and string quintet. In the opinion of this writer both these
works are more effectively performed without supporting
instruments. Singers today are generally more proficient
in tuning chromatically altered music than they were twenty
years ago. Nevertheless, if a choice must be made between
an a cappella performance with poor intonation and one which
tunes better with the assistance of instruments (excepting
4

the piano), then the conducter should choose the latter.

The following excerpt (see Example 7 on next page) shows
some of the wide intervals found in De Profundis,18 also how
sensitively Schonberg uses murmured text along with normal
singing.

l7
Dika Newlin, "Arnold Schoenberg as Choral Com- #
poser," American Choral Review, VI, No. 4 (1964), 10.
Note* After moving to America in 1933, Schonberg legally
changed the spelling of his name to Schoenberg. In the text
of this study the writer retains the spelling of Schonberg
with the umlaut.
18For a more detailed discussion of this work see
 Example 7: Schonberg's De Profundis, bars 35-36,

EL A-DO-NAI Kt IH A - BO - NAI HA CUE SED VB - HAB.-BM

imCcd,tkt Iml /orpltm-ttnt u /fit rt-Jtnp4ion Mi^wiUk Bim

EL A-DO-NAI XI IM A - bO - NA! HA C l « SED_ VE-HAR

mCci,lkl Ltri /orpU*i*n$ u Hit niltnp tion~ milk Him

~i . f . y ? • •' ~ " «? J
Ef. A-DO NAI XI IM A - D O - M I HA CUE - BED IE-HAR. BEU I-
kept M Gri.tkt Urtl /orfUiHnuu Hit rrdtmp • lint mi milk Hi* if

m
-EL
m ssEg 4-fHH-i
ELA-BOVAI Kl IM A - BO • NAI
I' VI I IV I
HA CHL - SED VE-BAB-BEH I •
kept im Coi.tkt Urd /orpUiHiuu it Hit rc-dtmp • net amimlk Him u

-HI ELA-B0-NA1 KI IM A - D O - N U HA OIU - SID VE-IIAB-B8H I-

kepi itOod.tkt lord:far pteiUnuu Hit rtdtmp-lm ttdmitk IIin u

Throughout the work there are varied dynamic levels in both

the spoken and sung phrases. The choir is asked to whisper
pianissimo, then slightly louder with an occasional crescendo
breaking into sung phrases. Tempo changes, ritardandos,
crescendos and diminuendos contribute to the kind of expres-
sionism identified with Schonberg's late works. Although
many of the melodic lines contain intervals of sixths,
sevenths and ninths, the writing is essentially vocal and
linear. The last four measures of De Profundis seem to
reveal Schonberg's unequivocal affinity for dramatic com-
munication of text. Building to the final climax, what
VE-HU YIF-Dtn ET YIS.-RA-EL MI-KOL A - VO - NO - TAV
He ahull re-dum His Is - ra- el /rum alt i»- ig - «» - tits.

VE-HU YIF-DEH ET M 8 - R A - E L MI - KOL A - VO - NO - TAV

He shell re - deem His Is • ra - el from all i* - I J - KI - ties,

V t - H U YIF-DEH ET MS-HA-fel MI - KOL A-VO NO TAV

He stall re-deem Hu Is • ra- il /rum all IX- iq ties.

VE-HU YIF-DEH ET Y I S - I ( A - £ r MI-KOL A-VO - NO - TAV

He shall re- deem Hi* A - ra - el /ron all a-if • «> - /<«,

/Ti
JL^-j-v-h^j—y-u-v-f—^
VE-HU YIF-DEH ET Y I S - R A - E L MI - KOL A-VO - NO - TAV
VE-HU RA-iL
He skill re- deem His Is - ra- el /ram ell in- iq - m - lilt,
He tiatl ra-et.

Example 8* Schonberg, De Profundis. bars 52-55. to

o
 21
better way could he emphasize the phrase "He shall redeem
His Israel from all iniquities" than to have it first shouted,
then sung at full volume (see Example 8 ) .

Developments after Schonberg

As we know, Alban Berg adopted Schonberg*s style of

melodrama in his two operas Wozzeck (1914-23) and Lulu (1927-
34). The reason for mentioning these works is to acknowledge
the refinement of Sprechstimme achieved by Berg. After
quoting Schonberg*s preface to Pierrot lunaire verbatim in
the foreword to his Lulu, Berg proceeds to encorporate addi-
tional stages between speaking and singing. He uses*
1) ordinary speech, 2) rhythmic declamation such as that
seen in Pierrot with similar notation ( Jr $* ) , 3) half
singing (or half speaking) which introduces a new notation
( T T ) , and 4) parlando singing, which is indicated by the
absence of noteheads ( | \\ |""| ). The importance of Berg's
contribution lies in the way in which he skillfully controls
the change from one stage to another. Example 9 is an
excerpt from Lulu, second act, scene two, in which Rodrigo,
"ein Athlet," answers Grafin Geschwitz in a rage that moves
from normal singing to half singing to "rhythmic declama-
tion" (Berg's term) to parlando singing. Then, reversing
the procedure, Rodrigo makes a transition back to normal
singing.
 22

Example 9; Berg, Lulu, Act I I , Scene I I .

Athl.

Per \or-teU-haf-te Eln-drutkwlrdnur duithmeUien fdrch - t>r-U-chen Bouch ge-sti)rt,_ den Ich meaner

m«hr In Wut (und Ins SprKhtn) Rwaltnd

Alb!

Mit - wir-kung In dle-ser groK-ar-U-genVer-actaw-ruag zu don-ken ha-be Bel ge-sun-d*n Glis-dern drti

jUmilhllch wl«der . . . fc^

Slngm.
MM >*lf f * *

ilo-na-ie lang ta Kran-Un^auslie-gen, das muii den h e r - u n - t e r . ge-kom-mend-stai Land, sirej-cher zura

geratenil

Vh!
Mast-sdiweln ma-chen

This kind of notation was soon to be adopted by other

composers in works for choral and solo voices. For instance,
Pierre Boulez in his cantata Le soleil des eaux (1958) joins
together half-spoken texts along with sung phrases and employs
some of the symbols seen in Berg's Lulu and Wozzeck (see
Example 10, next page).

Milhaud's Les Choephores

We should not fail to acknowledge the historical con-

tribution made to Sprechstimme (a better term here is choric
speech) by Darius Milhaud (1892-1974). This composer, who
spent most of his teaching career at Mills College in Califor-
nia, was born in Aix-en-Provence and studied in Paris under
 23

Example 10: Boulez, Le s o l e i l des eaux, P a r t I I .

lormei lnoix iioi
p . [nine irtlcule _hr«|0Mmt »»ile ^^ p,„f

Gedalge and Widor. In 1915-16 he composed Les Choephores, the

first attempt to combine speech choruses with orchestral
accompaniment.19 The text of this extended work (it consists
of seven sections) for chorus, soloists and orchestra, is Paul
Claudel's translation of the Oresteia trilogy of Aeschylus.
In the fourth, fifth and seventh sections of the work Milhaud
employs speaking chorus (also soloists) accompanied by

19
For some reason Austin does not list this work in
his Index to Music of the ,20th Century.
 24
percussion. In preparing program notes for the recording
(CMS label number 6396) the composer shares his thinking about
the fifth movement (entitled "Exhortation"):
This section is so violent, savage, and canni-
bal that it created special problems. The lyrical
element of the scene does not lend itself to music.
How was I to transmute, create order out of this
tornado? Then, I thought of having the text
spoken in a rhythmic measure and conducted as if
it were sung. I wrote spoken choruses with an
accompaniment of percussion instruments exclu-
sively.

The composition is scored for four soloists, mixed chorus and

orchestra. In the fifth movement we see the use of single
vowel sounds treated homophonically with no indication of
pitch. One wonders how much voice inflection, if any, Milhaud
intends for sections like the following:

Example 11: Milhaud, Les Choephores, Fifth

Movement ("Exhortation").

.lul qulfrinchit c. leull Car el tu le magnl.tlei, 6 tol

k O a O a Q a 0 a 0 a 0 a

im
* O a O a O a 0 a

O a O a O a 0 a O a O a

O a O a O a 0 a O a 0 a

vol.cl pour uo, deux et troln

' tl
•^y^ypjg^^
O a O a O a 0 Un deux ettroia.
r
4 -^^ ^NN^^^=N^F<^^^-y>^=^^i
• • O n O a O n O a Un deux et troia

O a O a O a 0 a O Un deux tltrots

9: J JJ^y^|£^k,_#^^=S|yEET£k^ki=J^
O a O a O a 0 Un drua rl
The fourth section (Presages) becomes more polyphonic. The
texture thins out and we do see some dynamic markings which
may suggest that the composer indeed wants the chorus to
exert some emotion in its spoken declamations:

Example 12: Milhaud, Les Choephores, Fourth

Movement ("Pre*sages").

m rou.jce qu'elle mit aufeu, iquol te.nalt UvledeaonfllJU

Pro.po.ae 1'aulre a ta hat . ne la fu „ ne . bra Scyl . la qui

Scjl.la

Fragments of Les Choephores were performed on June 15, 1919,

by the Society "Pour la Musique" in Paris under M. Felix
Delgrange. A full performance of the work had to wait until
March 8, 1927, when the composer conducted the Choeurs de
l'Art Choral and the Orchestre de 1'Association des Concerts-
Pasdeloup at the Theatre National de l*Opera.
Milhaud was not a part of the mainstream of post
World War II avant-garde composers. Although he set out to
 26

explore new harmonic structures and contrapuntal techniques,

he ultimately rejected serialism and atonality. In his
article on "Polytonality and Atonality" Milhaud concluded
that these procedures (serial techniques), for all their
fascination, were superficial in contrast to melody "that
comes from the heart." 20

Vogel's Contribution

In discussing the development of choric speech a

significant figure is Vladimir Vogel (b. 1896). This Russo-
German composer was a pupil of Ferruccio Busoni in Berlin in
the nineteen twenties. He left Germany in 1933 and after a
period of migration settled in Switzerland in 1940. His early
experiments with Sprechstimme resulted in three songs for low
solo speaking voice and piano based on expressionistic poems
by August Stramm. 21
In 1926 while in Berlin he composed his first large-
scale vocal work, Wagadus Unterqang durch die Eitelkeit
(Wagadu's Decline through Vanity), an oratorio for narrators,
singers and five saxophones. The work was premiered in 1935
in Brussels under Hermann Scherchen. Arpiade (1943) for
soprano, Sprechchor and five instruments (flute, clarinet,

Cited by Austin in Music of the 20th Century, p. 481.

21
Stuckenschmidt feels that these songs are the germ
cells of Vogel's later works. See Twentieth Century Composers.
Vol. II (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), pp.
117-23.
 27
violin, cello and piano—the same ensemble as in Pierrot
lunaire was first performed at the Festival of the Inter-
22
national Society for New Music in Baden-Baden in 1955.
In Vogel's Dramma Oratorio (text by Robert Walser) he writes
a preface concerning his compositional theories and aesthetics.
Vogel says that beginning with Wagadu he evolved a type of
oratorio and vocal style where the speaking chorus plays an
important role*
The speaking voices are made to fulfill
various functions. A freely speaking voice is, for
example, the choricler, whose job is to mediate
information and the course of events. In contrast
a chorus of speaking voices is used for choral
utterances and mass reactions. In polyphonic
style it fulfills all descriptive, illustrate
functions, whether pertaining to the outside
world or the world of collective emotions. The
chorus of speaking voices is also often called
upon to produce shock effects or continue and ex-
tend particular impressions made upon the audience.
Consequently, dramatic, emotional elements and back-
ground are reproduced by the chorus of speaking
voices, just as its function is to narrate and
demonstrate.^3
The greatest work produced by Vogel between 1938 and
1945 was the monumental and very personal Tyl Klaas. The work
is an oratorio in two parts with a text by Charles de Costa.
It calls for a soprano soloist, two Sprechstimmen, speech
choir and orchestra. The work requires over four hours to
perform and reflects Vogel's strong feelings against tyranny
and religious persecution. A score was not available to
this writer, but Vogel has given us a few comments about it:

22 23
Ibid., p. 121. Ibid., pp. 121-122.
 28
In this work, the spoken word was assigned a
predominating role. What determined my doing this
was primarily, the text itself—the persecution of
the Reformers by the Spanish Inquisition under
Charles V in Flanders—secondarily, the source of
the commission—the Renaudin's choral-speaking
group in Brussels, which had already performed
works with speaking chorus by Milhaud. The
relative proportion of text and music in this
part of the work—compared with traditional ora-
torios—has been consciously reversed: more
spoken text, less music.24

Part I of Tyl Klaas was first performed in Geneva in 1943

under Ernest Amsermet. Part II was performed for Geneva
Radio under the same conductor. The date of performance of
Part II is unknown, however, Stuckenschmidt says:
The virtuoso requirements of Vogel's
peculiar "Sprechchor" technique (in Tyl Klaas)
were so demanding that ideally a new choir had
to be established to perform the work. One was
founded in Zurich in 1950 under Ellen Widmann
and this chamber choir for choral speech soon
became famous throughout Europe. Vogel's works
form the main part of their repertoire.25
Vogel's late works continue to reflect his preference
for the speaking choir. These compositions include a trilogy
of epic oratorios* Jonah (in Martin Buber's version), Moby
Dick (Melville), and The Old Man and the Sea (Hemingway). In
1960 Vogel claimed that, "I have elevated the speech-choir to
the level of a complete, autonomous, and irreplaceable genre
of art." His last work, Flucht (Flight), is an oratorio for

24
Robert Stephan H m e s , ed. , The Orchestral Composer's
Point of View: Essays on Twentieth-Century Orchestral Compo-
sitions by Those Who Wrote It (Norman: University of Oklahoma
Press, 1970), p. 51.
25
120-21. Stuckenschmidt, Twentieth Century Composers, pp.
26
Austin, Music in the 20th Century, p. 516.
 29
four solo speakers, four vocal soloists, speech choir and
orchestra (text by Robert Walser). The speaking parts are
shown on a three-line staff suggesting high, medium and low
registers of the voice. Dynamics are also carefully notated
which indicates that Vogel intended for the performers to
express emotion in their speaking parts. He adds rhythmic
interest by changing meter frequently, and further develops
the dramatic impact by juxtaposing high and low voices in a
polyphonic web of speech:
Example 13* Vogel, Flucht, bars 384-389.
336 / Shnvnct
E£
tVfrft 7 VL« - A .
\Lsn~.c\cr schLcbm Uch 7 -y—r 2
ft , • < * > ' - ; I EE
6.-J.C
4
Itul-dl* f E=
*C<dl
J=i=_
£
T«St 2
i
/ i—3—i
4
f)lLddn.t*v
£?
fSPp? *=£$=$=£

1
i
TV
c-1 - i
rVeUidln, r\atstWJ

Wrhr r*7=1= i IfoM&n,

3
.
EE

V/ >
2

_ -je— : — 1 , *f?.y=s=
1
Tttfe Mtntdnuv,
I W^^fF ^-5-—>-
McrviV, MoMnu;
4,
33* 3Sd yjifau./HJitm Jan/
3 — <—J—I
.&&.
H.-rr.St
JH gcu"it"ifv Tr«M/-e*v
/
M-rrm - — .'„*k

o Trastnm — — - - ocJnl
•5 SP

T.fiift. f / «?
«=p=*=f=p 3^^ ^=

^-f=*=f=!r

i
?
•S r
Ootl - Qipro.'sf-h-'irAfVini-palinen^
l/i

IT MA f JL
T 1 ?—7~
a—„—,- ^ V
(
0|r» - ivt - tuA-ls,
 30
Vogel did not follow the path of serial technique
which is the main style characteristic of works composed in
the 1950's. Vogel's speech choruses are set in a context
which communicates in an intelligible way. Just as sung
recitatives and arias convey narration and commentary, speech
choruses at this time were being used in a traditional manner.
However, in the 1950's with a new emphasis on timbre resulting
from the rapid development of serialism and electronic tech-
niques we see language being used in a totally new way. The
extension of the serialization process to all parameters
(rhythm, timbre, dynamics, duration) resulted in a heightening
of interest and investigation into the qualities and components
of sound. Whereas early composers employing serial tech-
niques (e.g. Schonberg and Berg) were concerned primarily
with pitch distribution as the expressive unit, now other
parameters assumed equal or greater importance. George Perle
states:
. . . The single most impressive musical develop-
ment since World War II has been the astonishingly
rapid and widespread dissemination of the practice
of twelve-tone composition. . . . It is only in
the most backward circles that the mere use of a
tone row will secure a composer's position as a
member of the avant-garde, as it was sure to do
only a few years ago.27
Dodecaphonic music created a new inner logic which not only
redefined consonance and dissonance but elevated the role of
timbre to a high level of compositional technique.

George Perle, Serial Composition and Atonality

(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1962), p. vii.
 31

During this period of highly complex music, we see

fewer compositions for chorus than for instrumental ensembles.
Composers such as Messiaen, Pousseur, Boulez, Nono, Berio and
others wrote mostly for instruments. This was partly because of
the larger sound spectrum available from instruments and partly
because the wide intervals, difficult rhythms and heavily chang-
ing dynamics created by serial techniques could not be easily
performed by a choir. For instance, anyone who studies Mes-
siaen* s Cinq rechants (1950) for twelve mixed voices can
quickly see that this is a virtuoso choral work beyond the abil-
ity of most choirs. Le visage nuptial, five poems by Rene Char
set to music by Boulez for two soloists, women's choir and
orchestra, is extremely demanding. There are quarter-tone
passages and interval combinations which are terribly difficult
to negotiate.

Pointillism and the Triumph of Timbre

The development of any new style period in music history

is an accretive process wherein many techniques are integrated.
" Some compositional devices are taken over "intact" while other
ideas, acting as a catalyst, become modified and changed into
new procedures. Anton Webern (1883-1945) is a significant
contributor along this evolutionary route. The way in which
he used serialism and his careful concern for expression and
color played an important part in developments after World War
II. In Webern's works sounds and silence are linked in precise
organization. Rests are as important as the notes and dynamics.
 32

Webern*s propensity for using "points of sound" as well as

his practice of setting up chromatic relationships resulting
in intervals like major sevenths and minor ninths greatly
influenced the younger generation of composers. Furthermore,
Webern treats the voice as another instrument in the total
ensemble, creating rhythmic cells in which both instrumental
and vocal lines become entwined. This pointillistic technique,
combined with a myriad of dynamic markings, generates a new
kind of timbre. Webern succeeds in integrating the vocal
and instrumental parts in a way never achieved before. He
often chooses winds and strings to combine with voices in
order to blend the parts together. For example, his Zwei
Lieder, opus 19 (a serial work dating from 1926) is scored
for mixed voices, celesta, guitar, violin, clarinet and bass
clarinet. Although the instruments are rhythmically indepen-
dent from the voices, he integrates the ensemble by duplicat-
ing some of the vocal pitches in the instrumental parts. See
Example 14 on the next page.
 33
Example 14: Webern, Zwei Lieder, bars 12-14.

•Topj"

mi

Ten

Baa

leueh • lai aus dem Nil - tel tier - zsit rot gt-tumt ate

Cel <

Ct

US

Kl

RH

UJ.UM

Webern's first cantata, opus 29 (1938-39), is another serial

work in which we see even more clearly this characteristic
use of punctual phrases, chromatic relationships and expressive
dynamics:
 34
Example 15: Webern, Kantate I, bars 23-26.

BJ*-»,

It is indeed a small step from the setting of short

phrases with intelligible texts spread over wide intervals
to the greater distortion of language accomplished by
breaking up words into their component phonemes. Luigi Nono
(b. 1924) is a serial composer identified with this tech-
nique. Only in La Victoire de Guernica (1954) for mixed
voices and orchestra did Nono embrace the use of choric speech.
After 1955 all of his works involving chorus apply the use
of single syllables (sung) passed from one voice part to
another. In II canto sospeso (1955-56), a setting of letters
by condemned anti-Fascist resistance partisans, Nono for
the first time introduces this technique of punctual pho-
nemes. It appears in the final movement of the work with the
opening phrase " . . . non ho paura della morte . . . " (I am
not afraid of death) followed by " . . . saro calmo e tran-
quillo di fronte al plotone di esecuzione" (I shall be calm
and peaceful at the command of execution). See Example 16
on the next page.
The work is scored for three soloists, chorus and
orchestra. The final movement (the work consists of nine
sections) uses percussion alone with the choir. Other choral
compositions by Nono which illustrate this characteristic of
breaking up words into phonemes include La terra e la com-
pagna (text by Cesare Pavese) and Cori di Didone (from "La
terra promessa" by Giuseppe Ungaretti), both for choir,
soloists and orchestra. Also his two a cappella works pub-
lished in 1960 (Mainz: Ars Viva Verlag), Ha Venido for
soprano solo and chorus of six sopranos, and Sara dolce tacere
for two sopranos, two altos, two tenors and two basses are
dodecaphonic and continue bo bend the words up and down
through the voices as they sing separated syllables. All of
Nono's works are difficult to perform. The rhythms are com-

See Stockhausen's analysis of this serial work in

"Music and Speech," die Reihe, Vl (Bryn Mawr: Theodore Presser
Co., 1964, in association with Universal Edition A. G. Wien,
1960), 40-64.
 36
plex and the intervals often create vocal gymnastics. In most
cases they require a relatively small chorus of accomplished
singers who possess a keen sense of pitch.

Example 16: Nono, II canto sospeso, bars 545-559.

« Jco»
15

C on

Timp, I

.£22.
 37

Elements of Speech as Musical Language

The flourishing of serialism in the 1950's along with

experiments in electronic analysis and the electronic genera-
tion of new sounds led to a nev use of speech in choral
compositions. Texts had already become unintelligible when
words were separated into syllables. Now with a new interest
in timbre, language becomes completely fractured into its
smallest elements of consonants and vowels. Words are
atomized into particles of speech sounds which are either
sung or spoken. A "language pointillism" emerges as a new
compositional technique by the end of the decade.
Two composers who perhaps best represent this new use
of language are Dieter Schnebel and Mauricio Kagel. Both have
been active in contemporary music performances at Darmstadt
and both are knowledgeable in the field of electronic music.
In 1970 this writer corresponded with Schnebel in regard to
his composition fur stimmen ( . . . missa est) which was
originally titled fur stimmen fur (1956-1968). It is a kind
29
of "Deutsche Messe" according to Hemz-Klaus Metzger, but
the term bears no relation to the traditional concept of the
mass. The work is in three sections* Dt 3l & (1956-58), AMN
("Amen") (1958-67), and Madrasha II (1964-68). The author was
sent manuscript copies of all three sections by Schnebel with
permission to use excerpts in this study. For our purposes

29
Metzger is the author of the notes appearing with
the Deutsche Grammophon recording (137010) under their "avant
garde" series.
 38
here we will only look at a portion of Dt_3lg. All three
sections use phonemes as musical material. In the preface
to each work Schnebel includes directions for performance and
a list of phonetic symbols and sounds used in the music.

Dt 31 £ (Deuteronomy 31*6) is scored for twelve groups

of singers. The composition is precisely notated with tradi-
tional symbols on a five-line staff. Meters appear at the
beginning of each measure, however, there are seldom two con-
secutive measures of the same meter. This creates a
non-metrical feeling, especially since there are many changes
of tempo throughout the piece. Seven languages form the
acoustical material out of which the work evolves* Hebrew,
German, French, English, Russian, Latin and Greek.
The twelve singers must be placed spatially as dia-
grammed in the composer's preface so as to form a triangle.
These are like stations, and Schnebel says that more singers
can be added (and taken away) from these stations at the
discretion of the conductor. He wants the performance to be
elastic and variable. For this reason he includes three
"variable" soloists whose parts are notated in the score and
who float around the stage joining other groups as indicated
in the music. These are not the only singers who "float around"
during the performance. At certain times Schnebel asks for
one singer to move over by another singer for his next
entrance. Example 17 is an unusual page of the score where
almost every singer is given an instruction for moving "to"
another place or "back" to his original position. The composer
says that more singers can be added or subtracted within each
 39

Example 17: Schnebel, Dt 3 1 c > b a r s 29-35.

Permission t o reproduce t h i s - e x c e r p t granted by
t h e composer.
39

o
t
S

1
1 CO

n
o ti E
n
1

1
1
1
I
1

1
1
1
1
o «:

z
tu

r
s
Hi o
<

Tt**t<j J:
 40
part so that the whole system becomes very flexible. Like an
amoeba, it can grow and shrink throughout the performance.
The texts appear below the fifteen voice parts in the
score and are synchronized with the measures containing the
phonetic material of each text phrase. Of course, there is
no comprehension of the meaning of the texts during the per-
formance. It is as if the words act as rays of light which
are refracted through a choral prism. Consonants and vowels
are shattered into the vocal parts. These particles become
"points of sound" and function empirically in their own world
of timbre.
Apparently, Schnebel did have some kind of purpose or
logic in selecting specific texts. For instance, in the first
five measures (see Example 18, next page) he has chosen words
which pertain to a state of rest or relaxation: "seid getrost
und" (German), "e'tes tranquilles et" (French), "Be quiet and"
(English) and "Tisku" (Hebrew). If one listens carefully, in
the second measure (5/4) it is possible to hear spoken connec-
tions: "s" joins itself with "ai" for "sei" and the vowel
"eh" combines with "t" to form the French "e*tes." Then we
might hear "b" and "i" for the English "be." The following
measure brings a combination of explosive "g," "k" and "t"
which combine with vowels to form: "go" and "kwa," "tro" and
"tra," "kij" and "ku," "ost" and "ait." These phonemes are
derived from the German "getrost," the French "tranquille,"
and the English "quiet."
Therefore, we see in Dt 3l £ several languages acting
as sound material for composition. At times the phonemes are
 CQ < in 0)
LO CO •>. Ct>
CO o> >
Example 1 8 : Schnebel, Dt_316, b a r s 1-5.
Permission to reproduce this excerpt granted
by the composer.
 42
spoken punctually and at times they are sung in a point illis-
tic style. At other times we hear them joined in quasi-
melodies. In measure 47 the German word "wandeln" is
actually spelled out by two voices singing in canon one
sixteenth note apart. At measure 66 there is a spattering of
vowels sung by five voices while a few spoken syllables are
interjected*
Example 19* Schnebel, Dt_3l£, bars 63-68.
b

F 'm
JL
=W =31
lJ. "^ 'lf;J i V I ),'tl t"!H3E
^ i
=L
9s
a*rucj< zutx Plate
1H2E2[H
e-r IT
u
r
r £1 a
7 ae.-

11A I S^T I lit

i3
-*-f
d-
>•
**
'e-
sr£
af oi-
ss
a-
«» '"rf i
D—i

12B Bill P0C3 XM -*»

• * - ! •
3 B
!fS «jv

.kL® _W£ r
ys I du7ni.&
J. MlJtt. Ifh-
t
*
m cU.iR-
! ^ -,t I

uM r _M£
VA
:
m r
**-

u<fii
V B
TRtr w TV*1-'
r^

¥
—i—

Ira,. 16 1
^
 43
Mauricio Kagel (b. 1931) has been the Director of the
Institute for New Music at the Rheinische Musikschule in
Cologne and of the Cologne "New Music Courses" since 1969.
From 1960-66 he was lecturer at the International Summer
Courses for New Music at Darmstadt. He is also active as a
conductor and often directs his own works many of which are
for film and stage. Dieter Schnebel has authored a book on
Kagel and his works, a German publication30 which hopefully
will be brought out in an English translation.
Kagel's Anagrama (1957-58) is similar to Dt 31 G in
that it uses elements of words as compositional material. It
is scored for four singing soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and
bass), a speaking choir and instrumental ensemble of winds,
two pianos, two harps, one celesta and three groups of per-
cussion instruments (divided into skin instruments, wood and
metal instruments). The work not only represents a new use
of language but also achieves in some sections a total inte-
gration of vocal and instrumental elements. Moreover, it
illustrates well that type of composition which is extremely
difficult for choral forces because of the very tightly con-
trolled parameters of rhythm, tempo and dynamics. It is
typical of those highly pre-determined compositions which
in performance sound improvised.
The text of Anagrama is based on an anonymous
>
(medieval) palindrome: IN GIRUM IMUS NOCTE ET CONSUMIMUR IGNI
<
30 . ..
Dieter Schnebel, Mauricio Kagel—Music, Theater,
Film (Koln* Verlag M. DuMont Schauberg, 1970).
 44
(we circle in the night and are consumed by fire). From this
palindrome Kagel extracts the basic vowels (E, I, 0, U) and
consonants (C, G, M, N, R, S and T ) . Through various combi-
nations, other syllables are formed. In the score there are
blank places which are to- be filled in by the performers. They
must use the vowels and consonants of the palindrome but may
combine them with any of the phonetic sounds contained in
Appendix I of his score. These added syllables (within given
durations) can be performed in various combinations* one
phoneme (held), several phonemes, phoneme combinations, one
word (held), several words, words in context, one sentence,
several sentences. The performers can also, in these blank
places, speak in one or several languages (aside from German,
French, Italian or Spanish which already appear in the score)
and in any dialect desired. Kagel instructs the singers, in
performing these added texts, to employ stuttering, molto
vibrato, with shaking voice, with a foreign accent, with almost
closed mouth guasi senza voce speaking while inhaling, etc.
These are the only "free" phrases contained in Anagrama and
even these are somewhat prescribed. The two appendixes along
with the two-page foreword seem to be as much a part of the
composition as the music. Appendix II of Anagrama contains a list
of many German, French, Italian and Spanish words which can be
drawn upon by the singers to fill in the blank places in the score.

Anagrama is divided into five sections. The following

paragraphs are brief descriptive passages of each section with
an accompanying example from the score.
 45

Section I

Vocal Ensemble* Instrumental Ensemble*

Choir uses phonemes of the
palindrome. Speaking is very
exaggerated with many dynamic
changes, glissandi, shrieks,
screams, use of falsetto, use
of much vibrato and no vibrato.
Text disintegrates quickly into
points of sound. Voices some-
times divided.
Instruments not related to
the choir. Instruments
share the accompaniment
with equal emphasis. Short
phrases encompass wide
intervals. Virtuoso playing.

Example 20* Anagrama I, bars 1-4 (percussion, harp

and celesta deleted in this example).

in girum imus nocte et consumimur igni

Permission granted by Theodore Presser Co., Uryn

i^awr, Pa. , for Universal Edition, London. Copy-
right 1965. All rights reserved.
 Section I (ctd.)

Example 21* Anagrama I. bars 7-9.

-•'-,

3Boiigos

Tom-Tom
Tom-Tora2
Tom-Tom 3 tr-
Grout-Trommel \ f-g. .f .f

•.full \
_>d
Haifcl s
t> 'N \

KlawerH

pocomeno A[ pocopi-

8 8
• f — • •—•• _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Soprano

~' COM.

f
Alro
r^r f^f-_j '
 47

Section II
Vocal Ensemble* Instrumental Ensemble*
Single syllables form somewhat Instruments are more inte-
coherent l i n e s because of l e s s grated with the vocal ensem-
dense vocal texture. Sprechsoli ble. Instruments form
have important r o l e . Speaking counterpoint to the choir,
p a r t s for choir and soli are on a interjecting phrases with and
single l i n e . in answer to t h e spoken
Vocal sounds in t h i s section begin statements.
to approach the instrumental sounds, Dramatic silences are syn-
especially the falsetto men with chronous with the choir.
the c l a r i n e t s .

Example 22* Anagrama I I , bars 15-20.

Cruulc**<ilock*iij|>icl
Mctallfolic 2 i_
2 Mmllfblim || -J £ Tam-Tam
~ X .T.*"*"*I *"" Tri uriifc I H
i

T
0*0
1 "—\"l I I . J L530
_ « _ » • > _ II

*
i r.i tf\ i—r 'i if i i—^
' —••—'/0

t
—«-/o CIO
ao ' —«•-» * ' * __-ff '
////'
•E H=K H4*-—I
ffff °* mo/i i*u If '

////,
m> r
m
wujiprvH x
ft • t f

mo oscu -
firr /W
s
IMVKI
to=_
VJ M
o CO

" ffff ffl-

r>
 48

Section III
Vocal Ensemble* Instrumental Ensemble*
Soloists have normal singing with Only percussion sounds in
traditional notation. Choir and section. Instruments are
instruments appear to accompany integrated with the sprech-
the soloists but have pointillistic chor. Vocal outbursts are
sounds which contrast with the more akin to instrumental sounds.
sustained solo singing.
Example 23* Anagrama III, bars 34-37.
mmttmieUflm
a*Hai-«rtM

y$m-*
Becktnl II r^jr* -i" 1 Chln«liehe»_«dHM |j
• tjmi Urn fttka •kCOrROMi—It
mmM*\nn*l
2Me_Ufollen fc-£= __, Glockenspiel K
ff— »

Tam-Tam 2
* * •
3 Tom-Tom
(
Cfcsie-TrommeJ •"CI f"

Soprano

Bantono

Bioo
NO os _ eu.no

®
^ rallentando.

rerr /:
r
* CHORl luhiprUM-l
•ppp
r ( U HJKTTT
!1
Soprano
_tsS!_________•__$ 2 3fjfe('il I *. i v/Jr^1"
/ e r R __
PPP

Alto
^ P ^ >L_:I
X X'
u tlW hea
•_c* _*.. 1 1 S « DV_

Tenote
i »oii« iMtfWuNi*

3 J t trtmobnJs
m
»'
PPP
!_$•___
? Jffr
«»

0 ari_
•ifi !.._J.J..-=:) H
Dauo -H_4
ui eAI a, V % t H f 5.
 49
Section IV
Vocal Ensemble* Instrumental Ensemble*

Soloists are more integrated Melodic instruments in the

with the choir. Whistling and foreground; they continue
use of falsetto brings vocal the melodic contours sung in
sounds closer to instrumental the previous section by the
sounds. soloists.
Rhythms continue to be complex, Instrumental parts sometimes
tightly controlled. flow into soloist's parts as
Constant change of meter and tempo. well as into the spffken parts
of the choir.

Example 24* Anagrama IV, bars 36-42.

Celesta

Harfe

Harfc II

Klavier

Klavicr

J-w
AAso ijraUentando . /§*
'4 8 "8
4
Soprano IBS
pldta P» r\

IdtummitUla
> frfd/n. <"t
Aiw |[foi- ' , • rrr"TT.' •:••• . .'.—H

SPRECHCHOR (JL mrjdb—4-

^ u •
i LA CfTf"
(_*

Section V
Vocal Ensemble*
Soloists only in this section.
Vocal gymnastics are framed in
intricate rhythms, polymeters,
difficult dynamic shadings. Laugh
ing, whistling, high falsetto,
speaking, singing, shouting—all
tend to integrate the voices with
the instruments.
Rolled "r" of soprano and alto
soloist merges with flutter
tonguing of flute and trilling
of clarinet.
Example 25* Anagrama V, bars 43-46.
50
Instrumental Ensemble*
All instruments are heard
with equal importance.
Instruments completely fuse
with the voices.
In bars 11-12 trilling by the
soprano and baritone is syn-
chronized with the trilling
flute, clarinet, celesta and
harp I.
 51

Kagel's Anagrama has not had many performances. Its

premiere took place in 1960 at the I.S.C.M. Festival at
Cologne (International Society for Contemporary Music). The
Musical Times published this review*
The most interesting work this year—and the most
challenging—was Anagrama by the Argentinian, Maur-
icio Kagel. Here the composer is primarily concerned
with procuring verbal material for his speaking,
screaming, hissing and whispering chorus. He takes
a medieval Latin palindrome, "In girum imus nocte et
consummimur igni"—a sentence that remains the same
if read backwards—and he subjects the words to a
variety of phonetic and semantic transformations.
The first four syllables, for instance, reappear in
the form of a German misinterpretation of the Latin
sounds* "In Gier urn inn," while certain words are
used to set off free association; thus "girum"
yields (in the Spanish!)* "immovable circle—in
vastly extending night—tranquil presence." Fur-
thermore, all sorts of conditions are imposed*
some words have to be pronounced with an e-shaped,
others with an o-shaped mouth. This feature is
used to devise a kind of counterpoint* in a given
passage, increasing "denaturization" of language is
set against the opposite trend in the instrumental
ensemble; embarrassed-looking harpists, having had
to start off by slapping their instruments, gradu-
ally revert to more conventional methods.
On the other hand, the pitch of the notes which
carry this incredibly contorted linguistic debris
is derived from the original palindrome by a
deliberately mechanistic system* The continuum of
the chromatic scale is set against the letters of
the alphabet; the notes that happen to coincide
with such letters as also occur in the text from
the basic series. (Duplicates such as the second
B^f , in the second line of the illustration, are
simply omitted,) It is a sign of the times and a
token of Mr. Kagel's post-serial attitude that just
because he regards pitch as of minor importance he
should have singled it out for serialization.31

Anagrama has not been recorded commercially. In 1971 it was

Peter Stadlen, "The I.S.C.M. Festival at Cologne,"

The Musical Times (August, 1960), p. 485.
 52
performed at the Contemporary Music Festival at The Univer-
sity of Illinois under the direction of composer-conductor
Edwin London. In Dieter Schnebel's book about Kagel the author
makes some comments which are ironic considering the style of
his own compositions. Concerning Anagrama he writes*
In solchem kompositorischen Verfahren feiert
der Unsinn Triumphe. . . . an die Verwendung nicht
nur der Phoneme sondern auch der Buchstaben des
Palindrommaterials—was aber soil die Koraposition
von solchen?—; an dash, was Kagel Ubersetzung
nennt, an das Filtern von Texten etc. Die Methoden
werden konsequent angewandt; ihre Voraussetzungen
aber stimmen fast alle nicht, so dass Metzger in
Anlehnung an eine Kagelsche Formulierung das
kompositorische Prinzip des >Anagrama< als "streng
logische Schlusse aus falschen Pramissen" charak-
terisieren konnte. . . . Wenn schon der Wust der
Reihen von Tonhohen, Zeitwerten, Einsatzabstclnden,
Intensitaten, Ereignisgruppen, Verstandlichkeiten,
Hervorbringungsarten, Verhaltensweisen und von
was sonst noch Sinn herstellen mochte, warum das
dann nicht gleich so, durch zwar auskonstruierten,
doch offenkundigen Unsinn gewinnen?
It is nonsense which triumphs in this manner
of composing. . . . Or if one thinks of the use
of not only phonemes but also of the letters of
the palindrom material—what use do those combi-
nations serve? Or if one remembers what Kagel
calls translation or the filtering of texts,
etc. These methods are consistently employed, but
the requirements are hardly ever met, so that
Metzger—basing himself on a Kagelian formulation—
was able to characterize the principle of compo-
sition of the "Anagrama" as "strict logical
conclusions drawn from false premises." . . .
If already the chaos of tone rows, duration,
lengths of pauses, intensities, action groups,
meaning, way of emphasizing and relationships was
to make sense, then why not arrive at this point
directly through openly admitted nonsense.32

'Schnebel, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 25-26.

 53

Current Developments

Since the early 1960's composers have produced an

increasing body of liteiacure which not only explores new
sounds but these works are put together in a more practical
way for performers. Whereas serialism inhibits and places
great demands on human performers, aleatoric techniques open
up new possibilities. We should mention here an important
composition by witold Lutoslawski (b. 1913)* Trois Poemes
(Three Poems by Henri Michaux).33 This composition dates
from 1963, and its significance is twofold in the opinion of
the author* (1) its rhythmic structure is flexible yet not
completely free, and (2) he uses the chorus both in an
impressionistic manner (in the first and third movements) and
expressionistically in the second movement which is entirely
spoken. Example 26 shows the opening of "Le grand combat"
(The Great Combat). The notation is easy to follow for the
singers as they modulate their voices in a high, medium and
low register. The sopranos and altos sing ad libitum on the
downbeat (*•") for a given duration. The tenors and basses
speak together a bat tut a (on the beat • ) *

Lutoslawski received the Koussevitzky International

Recording Award in 1964 for this work.
 54
Example 26: Lutoslawski, Trois Poemes, Second
Movement.

*,)(l!__ cal
f J/
A £ A A A A rMA
Jl UmporouiW*»f r«irfsiou* conln It—«,

_C2_ , ft rt rt ,0 rt rt rt S -
tumparouillt el Itndosqut contri Urn;

S. ni
J/
_£__
limpa rou-ille
•c-x- A A A A A
it itndosqui contri ttnr,
_t_"
• •» / ' — o — ^ y /
IV A~a- f T r-fr
« limpareuitlt t( lindosifui
_E -»Hi
A A A A A A A r r < A
Jf Vimpanuilliitl'indoaqui contri tern;

______ _A_3_ A A A A ~r
5/ I'imparoulUi et 1'endosqui contrt ttrrt:

A A A A A.T~A jnr
Jl I'tmparoutltt it Vcndosqut contri tir-ri.

A."' A A A A A A
J/ UmparoulUettlendosqm contn
A A A A - T
tint,
IV -h
____________ ___E
Jl limpanuiUtet Itndosqui contri um
A A A A A A A A A A _-
J7 Imparaulllt tt 1'endosqui contri

Trap • ^
ttm.

f i r. » _
T.B : _n >n' >A'
J/ 1'cm pa rouilli et I'tn-dosqut contri ttr •71,

Trois Poemes is an extended work involving a twenty-part chorus,

an orchestra of winds, harp, two pianos and percussion. Two
conductors are required, one for the orchestra and one for the
chorus. With respect to making his work accessible to per-
formers, Lutoslawski says:
. . . I would like to draw attention to the free-
dom with which the time-connect ions between sounds
have been treated (in Trois Poemes) and which
often appear transformed into "aleatory technique."
This means that in many places the performers can
treat their parts with considerable freedom, as
regards rhythmical values. This is to enable a
very complicated rhythmical texture to be some-
times achieved while involving the minimum
technical difficulties for the singers and
 55

musicians. . . . I have therefore tried to bring

the individual capabilities and the particular
talent of each performer into play, and have
often demanded that they play or sing in a
large ensemble with the same ease as when
singing or playing themselves.35
Another composer who has made effective use of the
speaking voice in his works for choir and orchestra is
Krzysztof Penderecki. His first published work, Psalms of
David (1958), won three first prizes in 1959 in Poland at a
competition for young composers. The work is for mixed
voices and percussion. He uses Sprechstimme here in a narra-
tive style. The texts are comprehensible. This is not true
of Dimensionen der Zeit und der Stille (1959-61) written for
a forty-part chorus which only intones vowels and voiced as
well as unpitched consonants. In Cantata in honorem Almae
Matris Universitatis Iaqellonicae (1964) approximately one-
third of the choral sections are to be whispered or spoken.
In his St. Luke Passion (Passio et mors Domini nostri Jesu
Christi secundum Lucam) composed in 1965, the most dramatic
passages are those in which the chorus reacts in a non-singing
manner. The chorus speaks for the crowd (Example 27) and for
Christ (Example 28) as well as providing sound effects at
appropriate times (Example 29). We should not overlook the
fact that in the St. Luke Passion Penderecki also uses a
speaking voice for the part of the Evangelist. In the per-
formances experienced by the author the emotional impact of

Ove Nordwall, ed., Lutoslawski (Stockholm: Edition

Wilhelm Hansen, 1968), pp. 78-79.
 hearing a solo n a r r a t o r emerging out of an enormous
spectrum of vocal and instrumental timbres cannot be
verbalized.

Example 27* Penderecki, S t . Luke Passion,

Part I .

i
s
»
(Comprehendenlet oulem eum Quem cum vldluel ancillo di-xit-

duxerunl ad domum prlnclpit lacerdolum quoedam ledenlemad lumen dl M

Til _p f-H-T^r-r-r-r,-----! ___H mi
Pel-fit* ve-fo ic-que-bo-lur a lon-ge el e-um fu-lnel tn-fu-l - l a , dl-*H
HI; futtt t-rmm ^ i - r '• r r r r i i Ml
mf
I
s
ii if
Comprehendenles oulem eum Quem cum vldluel oncllla

II dl-xll
duxerunl od domum prlnelpls so'eerdolum quoedom xedcntcm ad lumen,
THi di-alt
Pel-rua VC' ro se-que-bo-lur a fon-ge el e-um fu-is-sel ln-lu-1 -la, dl-xll

Comprehendenles oulem eum Quem cum vldlisel ancillo dl-xit

* -f r r r r i< r ^m -r-f-r-MHH 1 -! 3___

duxerunl od domum prlnclpli aocerdoluro quoedam jcdcolcm ad lumen dl xit-
III THi
Pelrus ve-ro se-que-bo-lur o lon-ge el e-um fu-U-sel I n - l u - l - l g ,
III
>.p-
 57

Example 28* P e n d e r e c k i , S t . Luke P a s s i o n ,

Part I I .

gridato
-de re»- respond,
_)rr
s fcfcf-
-de -de responds

A
T — r fcfcf-
-de responds

T fc£=r-
respond*

B fcfcf-
«» Sff
respond*
S fcfcP-
-de R respond*
A
fcfcf-
» II respond*
T fcfcf-
-de -pon- respond*
B t±_r-
-«» Sff
-de -de
S

-pon-
tr -de
respond*

•fcfcf-
respond*
A
fcfcf-
III -de respond*
T

-pon- respond*
B
fcfcf-
-w» u F
 58

Example 29* Penderecki, S t . Luke Passion,

Part I .
•*-' agitato
CORI PPP stm. r?>
_,
Si
flKbla

Ai

___.
iiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiii iimiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiil

in

By the late 1960's we see a veritable flood of new

choral works involving many variations of speech-choir tech-
36
niques. The human voice becomes emancipated from its
traditional role. In 1965 Stravinsky embraced the use of the
speaking voice in his Introitus and again the following year
in his setting of Reguiem Canticles (Example 30). It is not
surprising that his use of Sprechstimme is m a "traditional"
style, the text clearly comprehensible. Today much of the
choral music being composed in the Scandinavian countries

Appendix A contains a comprehensive list of choral

music with sprechstimme.
 59
makes use of choral speaking. Examples 31 and 32 are typical
works which are not difficult to perform yet are effective
for concert use. Two excerpts from composers in the United
States are included as representative of the never-ending
world of ideas available to the creative musician (see
Examples 33 and 34).

Example 30: Stravinsky, Reguiem Canticles,

bars 88-90 (Dies irae) and bars
266-267 (Libera me).

fl«r

II

n«r

III

Xjlo

LIBERA ME
J.noc.
C0R0 L l l l l t m , 0OX1MH, DE I KORTK AKTtHKA. 100HIHP II Dm ILL* TXtXk'OA
lull! parlando tnp j LIBMA Xf, , LUkXA »> MUlw
mf timprt
 60
Example 3ls Barne Slogedal, Antiphona de
Morte. b a r s 1 6 - 2 1 .

tfi
a ttmfo
£-cu Me-di-
J
vi
J= U-J-
U. in
J-JL X
mor - ts a-
a temfo

* *
a Umfo
w/Veror aolo (Lamcnto)

Me . d i - a
ppaUmfo

Me - di .
J-*-*-
a.,
) Me-di-a_
DH J J *-a-J. J - l
vi - U in mor - te,

Example 32* E s k i l Hemberg, Messa d ' o g g i . K y r i e .

2. Kyrie
(FuQ Choir) Muse by
ESKIL HEMBERG
mourning
Soprano
Mezzo

+ sighing
anna;
Alto
? = S2=3 F , \ „ — \
=^ ^
r l e , Ky - r l e , Ky - r l e , Ky - ria, Ky - r l e , Ky - rie
singing

Tenor J J J J
Ky rl - e le t - soa .
whisppHng
3 times (repeat as necessary)
Baas T £ 4 I — Kvrle - elelaon Chrlsta elelaon- -Kyrte <>Tt»l3nn
*\
shouting
Soprano
Mezzo
Chri - sto Chri - 1 - iste Chri - ste Chri - 1 - lata Chri - sta
Chrl-1-lste Chri - ste C h r i - 1 - l a t a Chri - ste Chri-I-lata
scanning
Alto fe a - le - 1 - son a - le - i - Bon o - le - 1 - son a - le - 1 - soa e - le - i - soa

Tenor m Chri - Bta e -

£=3
le 1 - son
3 times (Repeat •» necessary)
Bass -Kvrle elelaon - £hrlate___ elelaon: :Kyrie____ elelaon"
 61
Example 33: Leslie Bassett, Hoon Canticle,
Part III.

HrVri'ft* _5„'':lh*~ fc |w] Sssss.

iW P
l twelve days

Example 34* Edwin London, Day o f Desolation,

p a g e 18,
Ca 2 8 - 3 6 seconds
JI
_§__> VkUit..SL,„^r~rrT

-0-
-la-

i de$-
dQutss. atoaif.yj_

IP \4do ^ das o ~ :
>~; JT TO ife" tcH*
des vis

i tfB *• j ^ : . des * -= fed ^f vis ? _=:. ^ fa~

des

p frft
*F
i_t -Vt- bp bp _E_
____
-SL. do bp, fc= - &
£= ite Vrt- ^Sif-
vir -

-W»- >P i>p :

___
111 0 •7T5 ^ zte
Bay- Vp-
Vrt- tfer- -tr •ytr :__fi

fe*3
_=_M -#-P #(la-
-*--,———— ir, tes JS
* C
3E&
-vw- 35= tka-'

_S______HE ird—r sa&-

•'•Vl* *
4:J__
3 la,.
=Sxhr- _S _fau
!d0 £.£ -lies"
43^-
 CHAPTER I I

STOCKHAUSEN*S USE OF CHORUS IN MOMENTE

Today i t i s n o t uncommon t o hear c h o r a l works i n

which members of t h e c h o r u s a r e c a l l e d upon t o a c t a s p e r -
c u s s i o n i s t s a s well a s s i n g e r s . However, o n l y t e n y e a r s ago
a c h o r a l c o m p o s i t i o n by K a r l h e i n z S t o c k h a u s e n was g i v e n its
American p r e m i e r e i n B u f f a l o (March 1 and 3 , 1964) w h i c h
provoked t h i s reaction*
Angry l e t t e r s t o t h e p r e s s , t h r e a t s t o c a n c e l
s u b s c r i p t i o n s and i g n o r e t h e P h i l h a r m o n i c fund d r i v e ,
and some e q u a l l y l i v e l y d e f e n d i n g a c t i o n s f o l l o w e d
the N o r t h American premiere o f K a r l h e i n z S t o c k -
hausen* s choral Momente, w i t h t h e German composer
c o n d u c t i n g . . . . Mr. Stockhausen showed s i g n s o f
wearing o u t h i s w e l k i n / s i c / w i t h t h e f i r s t r i n g
of h i s s i x - f o o t tam-tam and t h e e e r i e thump of h i s
v a r i a b l e - p i t c h D e r i drum. B u f f a l o l i s t e n e r s had
never h e a r d a n y t h i n g l i k e i t , and by t h e time t h e
guest m a e s t r o ' s f o o t s h u f f l i n g , l a p t h w a c k i n g c h o r u s
got t o t h e p a r t f o r cardboard t u b e s , c l i c k e d mon-
key w r e n c h e s and b o x e s f i l l e d with BB s h o t , he was
"persona non g r a t a " with a l e g i o n of S c h u b e r t
l o v e r s . . . . The f i r s t boos anyone remembers i n
t h i s h a l l were u n l e a s h e d i n h o n o r of t h e e v e n t ,
with some v a l i a n t r e b u t t a l from young c o l l e g i a n s
and more m a l l e a b l e l i s t e n e r s , who c o u n t e r e d w i t h
bravos and a p p l a u s e . 1

Stockhausen i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a " c h o r a l c o m p o s e r . "

Few of h i s c o m p o s i t i o n s involve t h e use o f c h o r u s . However,

J o h n P. Swyer, "New York/Wringing Out t h e W e l k i n , "

Musical A m e r i c a , LXXXIV (July, 1 9 6 4 ) , 24.
62
 63

because of the innovative ways in which he uses the singers

in works like Momente, Mikrophonie II and Stimmunq, we must
view him as a significant historical figure in any study of
contemporary choral techniques. Some of the techniques
employed in Momente at the beginning of the decade (1961-62)
are considered as traditional uses of the chorus by today's
composers.

Perspective on Momente

When experiments with electronic music began to emerge

in the early 1950*s, Stockhausen became increasingly interested
in the development of new kinds of sounds. According to Jaap
Spek, an acoustical engineer associated with Stockhausen in
the Cologne Electronic Studio from 1963-67*
Stockhausen is particularly interested in the
analysis of sounds produced from non-conventional
instruments. Such analysis provides him with a
useful basis for composing combinations of sounds,
facilitates modification by electronic means as
well as providing an insight for the graphic
notation in his scores. He is deeply concerned
with the "genetics of living forms," a phrase
which Stockhausen admits he takes directly from
Raymond Ruyer's book, La qenese des formes
vivantes.2
In a conversation with Derek Patmore, Stockhausen remarks*
"I measure every sound that I use in my music in mathematical
terms, and this is noted in any of my musical scores. I also
feel it's important to measure sound in conjunction with live

John Poellein, private interviews held May 31,

June 7, 13, and 18, 1973, at the University of Illinois,
Urbana, Illinois.
 64

music—that's why I use percussion such a lot." This con-

cern with sound analysis and transformations was the catalyst
for his Kontakte (i960). Jaap Spek feels that this work
successfully creates a continuum of change between electronic
sounds (including synthesized percussion sounds) and live
sounds of percussion and piano.
Momente was composed in 1961-62 on commission from the
West German Radio, Cologne, where Stockhausen has been asso-
ciated since 1953. He was made artistic director of its
Electronic Studio in 1963. In the notes which appear with the
recording of the 1965 version of Momente (Nonesuch H-71157)
Joshua Rifkin translates Stockhausen's words as follows*
On the 21st of May that portion of 'Momente,'
for soprano, 4 choral groups, and 13 instrumen-
talists, which had been composed thus far had its
world premiere at the Cologne Radio Station. Each
of the choral groups has at least 3 sopranos, 3
altos, 3 tenors, and 3 basses. The instruments
employed ares 2 electronic keyboard instruments
with registers for timbral modulation as contin-
uously variable as possible (a Hammond organ and
a Lowrey organ were at our disposal in Cologne
Radio studio); 4 trumpets; 2 tenor trombones, and
2 bass trombones. Three percussionists make use
of a large tamtam ca. 63" in diameter; 3 tomtoms;
5 assorted large symbals between ca. 15 7/8" and
ca. 32" in diameter; 5 small cymbals with approxi-
mately determinable chromatic pitches; a special
kidney-shaped drum, from which one can obtain all
pitches within a range of Ik octaves; and 3 tam-
bourines with small bells. In addition, the
chorus members employ the following easily play-
able instruments* the first chorus has 12 hard-
cardboard tubes with sized covers, which are hit
with rubber sticks and yield a scale of 12 pitches
with approximately equal intervals between a half-

Derek Patmore, "Atomic Age Composer," Music and

Musicians, September, 1965, p. 34.
 65
and whole-step; the second chorus has 12 pairs of
claves (hardwood sticks which are struck against
one another) of various pitches; the third chorus,
12 shot boxes (small plastic containers filled
with loose lead shot); and the fourth chorus has
12 pairs of pieces of steel tubing of various 4
pitches, which are struck together like claves.
With such a catalogue of materials it is not surprising
that we encounter in Momente a veritable barrage of sound
events. It should be pointed out that Stockhausen has
selected these materials carefully and considers them of
singular importance to the work*
Die Instrumente fuhre ich deshalb so
detailliert auf, weil ihre Auswahl und Zusammen-
stellung zur Komposition der 'Momente' gehbrt wie
das, was ich mit den Instrumenten spielen lasse.
Die einmalige und unverwechselbare Komposition
des Klangmaterials ist meines Erachtens heute
genau so wichtig wie etwa in friihenren Kompo-
sitionen die Auswahl von Themen, Motiven,
Formschemata, denn die Komposition der Klang-
farben ist ja nich langer Kolorierung einer
musikalischen Struktur (man nannte und nennt es
auch heute noch oft>Instrumentation einer Musik<),
sondern ist von Anfang an alien anderer Prozeduren
gleichberechtigt, die man zur Herstellung einer
musikalischen Komposition anwendet. Ich finde
deshalb auch, dass die spezifische Auswahl und
Zusammenstellung eines Instrumentariums fur ein
bestimmtes Werk sowohl fur mich als auch fur
andere Komponisten unwiederholbar, unkopierbar
bleiben sollte.5
I have given so detailed a listing of the instru-
ments because their selection and combination belongs
as much to the composition of Momente as what I have
them play. The unique and non-transferable compo-
sition of one's sound material is to my mind just
as important today as for example the selection
of themes, motives, and formal schemes was in
earlier compositions, for the composition of timbre

4Karlheinz Stockhausen, Texte zur elektronischen und

instrumentalen Musik, Vol. II (Kolns M. DuMont Schauberg,
1963), 131.
5
Ibid.
 66
is indeed no longer the coloration of a musical struc-
ture (people used to and often still do speak of
"scoring a piece of music") but is from the very
beginning fully equal to all other procedures that
one employs in the production of a musical compo-
sition. I also feel, therefore, that the specific
selection and combination of an instrumental force
for a particular work should remain unrepeatable
and uncopyable, both for myself and for other com-
posers.

Score and Structure

A facsimile edition of the manuscript copy of Momente

is available on rental from Theodore Presser Company, sole
agent in this country for Universal Edition, Vienna, which
publishes Stockhausen's music. At the present time performance
rights are rigidly controlled by the composer.
The notation used in Momente is puzzling at first
glance. To begin with, each page is quite large (17 inches
by 25 inches) and contains only one system of music. The
four choirs are scored across the upper third of the page.
The soprano solo and incidental solo parts (that is, three
male voices which are amplified) appear in the center of the
score while the brass ensemble, two organ parts ^nd percus-
sion appear on the lower third of the score. Duration is
measured in seconds along a horizontal plane along the
bottom of each page. Metric numerals are indicated at the
top of the page. Although Stockhausen seldom dictates that
there be exact simultaneity of the sound events, he exer-
cises precise control over the duration of these events.

Momente does not have a fixed structure in the sense

 67
of having a beginning and development section. Rather, it
is a kaleidoscope of independent moments which can be turned
to various positions. The "moments" can be heard in a
variety of sequences. The composer tells us that the unity
and coherence result less from external similarities of forms
than from the internal concentration on the process of forma-
tion.
Basic to the understanding of Momente is Stockhausen*s
conception of three groups of primary moments symbolized by
the letters M, K, and D. M moments relate to melody-oriented
events (monody or heterophony); K moments concentrate on
sound (Klang)-oriented composition (homophony); and D
moments on duration (Dauer)-oriented events (polyphony).
In addition, there are i moments which Stockhausen calls
"non-formal" (informelle) or "indeterminate" which
neutralize three groups.7 Other moments are derived through
the cross pollination of M, K and D moments. Small letters
indicate moments which influence the larger moments. Stock-
hausen says*
Two (or three) capital letters together indicate
moments in which characteristics of different
groups combine in almost equal balance. h(m) is a
"self-reflecting" moment, as is D(d m ) , although
here we have a transition from self-reflection to
reflection of m; in DK(d) and DK(k), the "feedback"
in each case affects one component of the complex.8

Stockhausen, Texte, II, 134.

7
Ibid.
Q
Ibid. Translation by Joshua Rifkin.
 68
Here i s a sketch of t h e formal scheme of Momente.
The n o t e s following i t a r e taken from Stockhausen*s Texte,
volume I I , as t r a n s l a t e d by Joshua R i f k i n . These notes a l s o
appear with t h e recording made of t h e 1965 v e r s i o n (Nonesuch
H-71157).

MKOO MK MDOO MO Mm") KD DkM £X4-»mr._ DK.W) t?Kfl<)

/ \ / \ ' \ / K \ / \ / \ / \
KM DfcCn,) OK &MIK} Df\

i
Y4 - >"*
\trn-) w

The broken lines indicate the order of the 1965

version. The fact that the formal scheme appears in
this form in the published score of Momente does not
mean that this version is to be preferred to any other.
All moments grouped around a common axis are inter-
changeable; K remains always in the center, i (d)
always stands between the M and K groups, i always
between the K and D groups; if one reverses the
position of i and _______., the D and M groups exchange
places. (M (m) remains attached to MK (d).) Like-
wise, the groups of three moments centering on K (d)
and KM are similarly interchangeable; one can proceed
accordingly in D and M. The order of moments corres-
ponds to their horizontal sequence in the formal
scheme (reading from left to right), regardless of
vertical position; thus, in the above examples i (m) -
M(m) - MK(d) - M(k) - MK - M - MD(k) - M(d) - MP -
i(d) - KD(m), etc.
Once an ordering of the moments for a specific
performance has been decided upon by the conductor
and the performance material set up accordingly,
 69

interpolations are made from certain moments pre-

ceding or following moments. For example, moment
K(m) has at the upper right side of its score page
the sign , which means that the following
moment is to be played with an interpolation from
K(m) (as a "reminiscence"), then immediately
repeated without the interpolation.9 /See Examples
1, 2 and 3±/

Function of the Chorus

Obviously, the four choirs in this composition are

employed as an integral part of the whole sound structure.
Stockhausen adroitly complements the brass and percussion
instruments of the orchestra with percussive effects from
the chorus members. They sometimes sing in a traditional
manner, but more often they are clapping their hands, snapping
their fingers, laughing, whispering, hissing, coughing,
shouting, stamping or shuffling their feet, clicking their
tongues and slapping their knees. In addition, some of the
members have hard cardboard tubes, wooden claves and steel
tubes which are struck with rubber sticks. Others have tam-
bourines while still others hold plastic boxes filled with
lead shot which are shaken.
It cannot be attempted here to analyze all the compo-
sitional techniques in Momente or how Stockhausen went about
organizing the work. Frankly, it is beyond the ability of
this writer, and I suspect it is also beyond the ability of
most theorists. It is a complex work. Serialization prin-
ciples seem to be related to (Text continued on p. 77 )

Ibid.
 70
Notation Guide for Momente

H = Clap hands
sf = Snap fingers
C = use any s y l l a b l e a t
any p i t c h except when
a glissandi> i s approximated
by a broken l i n e "'•••'"'"'V..
F - Stamp foot
P . — = Shuffle feet
\^ = Laugh (use h a - h a or h i - h i )
$p = Speak
rtu, = Cough
K = Slap knee
% = S t r i k e or p l a y assigned
percussion instrument
• - Staccato note
= Extend the l e n g t h of t h e note
by v i s u a l proportions i n the s c o r e
«\
= Glissandi
^/^ ~ Very quickly connected groups
of p i t c h e s

. • • v w V t = Continuous f a s t g l i s s a n d i ,
^ivOC&SO'" canonic entrances

Metric beats a r e indicated by v e r t i c a l broken l i n e s w i t h i n

4* , . j * £* : : : *. \
the measure: I : i j I ! : ; : I
In a d d i t i o n , symbols of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Phonetic
Alphabet are used extensively.
Example 1* Stockhausen, Momente, moment K(m)
The sign-^ + -» at the upper right indicates
that the moment immediately following K(m) is
to be performed first with the insert
(Einschub) K(m), shown in Example 2, and
then to be performed without the insert
K(m). See also Example 3 showing moment
KM which follows moment K(m) in this
arrangement.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Co.,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition,
Vienna. International Copyright Secured.
All rights reserved.
 72

1 3 Jtttccl. I
Kw 9,
LI* 10 3-t 3* W 1 3j
F
nxontr-g
fitncfcraw ymfp

WMhttU-

TcMre <

SchUji .
3ril> Jaccel. 5 t-
Example 2* Stockhausen, Momente, insert K(m).
This is a "reminiscence" of the preceding
moment K(m) which can be inserted as an
interpolation in the following moment which
in this version is moment KM (see Example 3 ) .
Permission granted by Theodore Presser
Company, Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal
Edition, Vienna. International Copyright
Secured. All rights reserved.
 74

htiw rif«»
r4-f V V-i
<H»lr -fiiiih

K (m)
T*n. <
CW.r HJ*f)?* KK$.±r KM
EH r r

J,=3f

A* w,
PW
&_

IF—is-

Alt
_ £

fttw ,

fl*lttOtfU\ir 9
18^

m Urn*
^.InKMmknj.s^Ue
o
f £D

I I.

-- It—*

ZUcWbcs Jfcc
75

Example 3* Stockhausen, Momente, moment KM.

The black vertical lines indicate that an
insert, a "remembrance" from a preceding
moment may be made.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser
Company, Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal
Edition, Vienna. International Copyright
Secured. All rights reserved.
ioto-V

3 ManAtrl-l*
— - T a w Mr «*t MMto.f*Mti M illr>*Ub»K| —fmmm turn mUfn (kMrtJnrUt
V
V. M « f M M « W - J - . I W - t . - J M Hxm-t « • • _ » * . <T_?ii .
;! mmhm* Main.., M , - < - « . »«•»«>-> If)«_«, flat I ( » I I | « « H
n i U u n " ^ N * 1 ! " * * ' * * * * * a s»tof'i_,_^ * * * - * ' '*"» (*•"' " • *
1 Mb ft) t«_ t« J* imjlmm.

MWM rwnft sWsi7r1sawatwiMla_atNs.i*»jv\,

|f _ M t s w U i a M . Jfi^_t(At4rss«. r U . * 9
m l «*MMtif«a4 -11 trsfcrt m t KLjrt!nfmmi.

D > W UUss k . ' t ^ - U U j * n > M < k U~«J~*

ril . .

s.t-ijttrajr.nitki
Stockhausen's personal aesthetic with respect to sound com-
binations and how these events pass through time. In parts
of Kontakte, Carre and Momente the composer's thinking about
the construction of "moment-forms" becomes quite philosophi-
cal*
In der Genese von Moment-Formen versuchte ich,
Zustande und Prozesse zu komponieren, in denen
jeder Moment ein Personliches, Zentriertes ist,
das fur sich bestehen kann und das als Einzelnes
auch immer auf seine Umbegung und das Ganze
beziehbar ist; in denen nicht von einem bestimm-
ten Anfang bis zu einem unausweichlichen Ende
alles Geschehen seinen determinierten Lauf
nimmt—ein Moment nich blosse Folge des Vorauf-
gegangenen und Ursache des Kommenden, also
Partikel einer abgemessenen Dauer sein muss—,
sondern indenen die Konzentration auf das Jetzt—
auf jedes Jetzt—gleichsam vertikale Schnitte
macht, die eine horizontale Zeitvorstellung quer
durchdringen bis in die Zeitlosigkeit, die ich
Ewigkeit nennes eine Ewigkeit, die nicht am
Ende der Zeit beginnt, sondern die in jedem
Moment erreichbar ist.10

In the genesis of "Moment-Forms" I tried to

compose- conditions and processes in which each
moment is something personal and central, some-
thing which can exist by itself and also be
related to its environment and to the work as a
whole. Moments which are not geared to a
beginning and inescapable end, which are not
just results of that which came before and a
cause for that which follows, not particles of
a certain measured time,—but conditions in
which the concentration cuts vertically into
the "here and now,"—in every "here and now"—
and thus transgresses a horizontal view of time
into a "timelessness," which I call eternity;
an eternity which does not start at the end of
time, but which is reachable in every moment.
Stockhausen goes on to say that in this genesis of
"Moment-Forms" there is the invention of special forms for
particular works. Within any one work there may be a

Stockhausen, Texte, II, 250.

 78
combination of several formation-types which either simul-
taneously or in succession. He suggests the following three
categories of formation types*

I II III
Punctual Forms Determined Forms Development forms
Group Forms Variable Forms Row Forms
Collective Forms Multi-faceted Forms Moment Forms

A combination of forms can exist within one of these

three categories or the combination may occur among all three
groups. There may be several layers of sound with certain
combinations of forms existing within each layer. The layers
may occur simultaneously or successively as mentioned before.
Further clarification is seen when the composer out-
lines three hypothetical cases. For example, there may exist
a layer of sound where the element of "Collective Form" (such
as the statistical distribution of 96 tones over 6 seconds)
in "Rowformation" (that is, the level may change in the
succession of very high, deep, extremely deep, middle, high,
very deep—tones per second) combines with "Determined Form"
(where all parameters are prescribed according to measure
and number in "classical" metrical notations metronome time,
"chromatic" frequency scale, perhaps "chromatic" intensity
scale and "chromatic" colorscale). A second layer may con-
tain "Punctual" elements (for example, separated through
pauses and each tone having a different timbre) in "Develop-
ment" (such as the tendency of a continuous accelerando to
a fast tempo) which are "Multi-faceted" (for example* the
 79
succession of a given number of elements which are inter-
changeable at your own choice). A third layer might consist
of "Group Forms" (for example, elements characterized
through intensity* 3 mf, 5 p, 1 ff, 2 f, 8 pp) in "Moment-
Formation" (for example, independent elements such as tone
color and spatial position on a certain level which do not
occur in all other layers) which are "Variable" (such as
the determination of duration of each group as to prescribed
intensity, level and tonecolor).

Example 4 is taken from the moment i(m). Here we

observe "Punctual" elements (the chorus entrances and those
of the trumpets and trombones are separated by pauses; the
three male soloists are speaking syllables which are some-
what spaced apart) which are "Variable" (the intensity of
sound from the trumpets and trombones is varied from p_p_ to
]_ t o _ _ _ » and tne
Players execute their notes in a free
rhythm) and "Determined" (for example, the durations are
tightly controlled; exact pitches are given for the brass
and two electronic organs; the dynamics and changing texture
of the hand clapping is precisely notated).
We could also point out in Example 4 the serial
ordering of the dynamics of the hand clapping, brief though
it is. Five levels are employeds p_p_, p_, mf, f, and ff.
These combine or proceed in such a way that no one dynamic
level is succeeded by itself. Even within this micro-event

11
Ibid.
12
One exception occurs at the end of the 5-beat measure
into the beginning of the 2-beat measure where the dynamic
marking pjo appears twice. See Example 4.
 80

3 1 S 2 6
I I

T It
it
B fc_

T
b L_

T
ft. & t_

ail,' sJiiell
t
Bl
TtWfli WWi 7SOT S5 H" IWr
J'2S
Nicht" in tavun

_«3*,H-K,'tH(f

(3 male
soloists) amplified)
S*MHU->-«W WiV vel-tfn dir gut- cU-w« tctt<U«»»
HiH-^aH Quf flaws Fti-d* , J«(i .'nr w « . - m
,d dt.'-nc Gc-iUlt 5*t l.'.fc-UcU. 5f«-V,«

©
1
(Soprano soloist)
Uir frev-tn uxi vnd >''id frob-llA Zi-vtrA>r fw'ir gi-dtifVim an dli-nt b'e-t« weir d«»-» an <<«n UCSN.

Example 4* From moment i(m). The following page

occurs simultaneously with this choral excerpt.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights reserved.
I
m
a *-«>• "•*
'

I I
I
I | HiM. in faun
it<H vamtreni
i
alU D|>fcb

i
i
i

I* I*
(Trumpets)

9?=fc i i
i • i
i I
i Nicht in Pavjtn' atleDpf.ab
i i / i
tr>H yarixren
^s
•
0-* o«-o

_=—*
I i
(Trombones)
f
^r^nI
• I
• *•

• Nicht in fWnj

(Two o r g a n s )
aivn4l»
»—iTysUsJ—lIj
t<h*tli
StiM i

Nicht in Paustn
bi
Stot (a

(Percussion)
3 a.
0 ~ MwKltl'il Mkrrll »vf flia.»4 I
I'm IMSI W fiiWx^ak*) AWt*M
|k»ti-rUa*t tfmtir*ry\

\ '
-6i-.i3 n\ 6 _:

<—-39-
Example 4 c o n t i n u e d .
 82
Stockhausen reveals his mathematical mind. Six reversible
successions (plus one) are used*

1. ff to ££ ——

2. ff to E
3. ff to mf —i

4. f to £ -l
5. mf to E -
6. mf to EE-j
7. EE to mf J
8. E to mf -

9. E to f -J
10. mf to ff __

11. E to ff

12. EE to ff —

13. EE to f

ment s" of the work MomenLte

cogently Stockhausen's thoughts on the genesis of "Moment-

Form. " Although it is not always possible to discern the
combinatorial processes in the moments within Momente, we
can assume that the composer has put together these events
in a highly organized way. Eric Salzman makes this observa-
tions
. . . a work like his "Momente" (1958) is con-
ceived as a complete set of possible realizations
for what he designates as the "Moment" form—the
scheme, so to speak, for an infinite number of
possible actual realizations. In effect, the
basis of these new forms—one to a piece, with
Stockhausen—is an extension of the concept of
serialization into every dimension of the musical
 83

conception; even, for example, the amount and

quality of specific compositional control over
the performers is arranged on a serial scale of
values ranging from total notated control to
extreme variability. . . . He serialized density
and complexity themselves; he serialized periodic-
ity (that is, cyclical and repeated structures)
and a-periodicity (or asymmetrical and non-
repetitive structures); he serialized the concept
of transformation and change, the disposition of
sounds in physical space, and the perception of
clarity and complexity, comprehensibility and
confusion; he serialized ways of perceiving; and
he serialized the construction of time and the
ways of acting—of "performing"—in time.12
The reader is reminded that Stockhausen even assigned the
quantity of percussion instruments to the chorus in amounts
of twelve.
Now we will look at some specific places in the score
which illustrate Stockhausen's use of the rnorus. Since the
pages of the score are rather large (17" x 25") and contain
a considerable amount of notation, only those sections
dealing with the chorus will be extracted. The reader should
remember that he is seeing only half a page of the score in
the examples. In most cases the half page omission contains
the brass, percussion and organ parts.
In the 1965 version of Momente (Nonesuch Recording
H-71157) the moment i(m) opens the work. Example 5 shows
the notation of shattering applause made by the chorus
clapping their hands at the beginning (applauding themselves?).
Events become more complex immediately (Example 6). Three
male singers are whispering non-sensical phrases over microphones.

Eric Salzman, Twentieth-Century Musics An Introduc-

tion (Englewood Cliffs* Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 178.
 84

• ni«Wij»»Hriron
(«Vi* Wfrnsirnsirs
fMbmttuit***)
I
6 %«/ V y.r fWtOaVj

•
Chorl i t . ilJ.IJJ.J-
dicht
<.B«P _t 6nxUr

CWff
a^ht
lb
l M— M U
v
»•?_;

f dwmir

Ctal H
d'M

IIIrM

i-i : tbtz
CrSorJV
fa^r
i^
o.d*U
t-f I
/
t , i
B;.I« fcf
rw{«n

Iw O L _!•!. 6i'L _ 2ia. l-l yM- M-".

Example 5* From moment i(m). The four choirs applaud
while individual basses shout fragments of the phrases
0, dass du mir gleich einem bruder warest (0, that if
only you were like a brother to me).
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company, Bryn
Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna. International
Copyright Secured. All rights reserved.
Example 6* From the moment i(m), a continuation
of the previous page. The soprano soloist joins
the hand clapping and finger snapping of the
chorus while she is speaking (the circled sylla-
bles are to be stressed).
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights
reserved.
 85

7 5 5 5 5 T » ?.
I h-
fr,«—J:i{
•*
1?
1 __?: >: _ _ =
fc:

P :K- -*

B .{___=: i ___

tut 3k__
B 1=;

Ossa.
3
/I C
I D
P'f ^ ' " H K 4 $!<b« lv ft[*H*tm Z a . t a w r t Un«rkas> rf.'c i f r
6«J_«.t*tit (aucss I'H. f«w<n]T r u f f n tkAtithcriiKuUcitn i 2S
atleS+A1, Soprani
Sar>r huh

1 X P* 0 rf-v«»ia

.
I«
w«p( , do «• ,aiikt,)alv
1 i.
**^**j*' ««t- 'Jj^-^', »» | a»ka iri«\- »aw
g+
ayf
| a.
Ate
1
\ ft*/*- jstsffw! <*W it
StfTmM
Naa, I f f •>», -Jar V..- t.r lit wa>«i», itr fit- . yi •. , tat ' w»j ' i—ct c U - ' . I w , • _!>. Elt
Altft.
TiH9r» QJ4 • Tur- tit- ,U„r« l.'St ».<)« , ha Via, i it. fjstra. tsn- dW • P«. '>«•• ' « • » • > • » • * )._1 Hat
fahat.va.1 ' 4 * fvffclf,a« fofiMB, i fa • !<JiM •'.a «/s«- Wrii rrnlasnT [Mil - N 4 - « » M«*'|UCu> WW .at
-- ' • •«->'» __ | , L_____S—_J T ' v " , -_.—_ '

j'3S
J<k glfithi
Zntakltaaiit awiKW. «tf« Jblam

dftk,
"H j' 2 5
1«t - Hf
3 fliwwrjcli' r i—'
(Mi'Knialsastf)
iic - he frium- din.
Hits'- m Ttw>« in dan.

_^r<>5*p rtL\\

CiiiaU'lr-fii
tin HM M M 1T *
, tertrli (A-itl
(fcji)-it
r
(mnilj) mil ( j a y
__EL
4™1-—~___•

_*W v***4ra* •><<U4i> n»«u»w,

»«[*••. .rktMl *k*r~*r tmwUt f.ltw
tUi-KMOafUsWn f O
 87

Sixteen singers form a speaking choir using texts which if

read successively one line at a time, would make sense.
However, all four lines are spoken at the same time resulting
in a montage of incomprehensible syllables. The soprano
soloists join the hand clapping of the tenors and basses
while the brass (trumpets and trombones not visible in
Example 6) are attacking prescribed notes but in free rhythm.
The following are lines translated by the author which
appear in moment i(m). See Example 6.

3 Male soloists I resemble you

(Microphones)
Whispering Look my
my dove

(Line one) Don't you know it, you most beautiful

Soprano
among women, then go out tracing the
steps of the sheep and lead your
little goats to the pastures by
the houses of the shepherds.

(Line two) For look winter has gone by and the

Alto
rain is over; flowers have started
to bloom, spring has come.

(Line three) The sound of the turtle-dove can be

Tenor
heard in our land; the figtree has
started to bloom, the vines are
full of blossoms and distribute
their scent.
 88

(Line four) Catch the foxes, the little foxes;

Bass
the vineyards not spoil. Our vine-
yards have blossoms; who is the one
who rises from the desert like
smoke, like myrrh, incense and the
many other spices which you can find
in the grocer's shop?
Soprano
Soloist* He kisses me with the kiss of his
lips, for your love is sweeter than
mine.

Of course, none of these thought sequences can be com-

prehended in performance which is the obvious intention of
the composer. Yet, Stockhausen does not permit the speaking
voices to improvise their own words. Examples 7 through 11
are included here to illustrate the variety of ways in which
the four choirs perform. One can hardly imagine additional
kinds of sounds that Stockhausen could require of the singers.
Example 7* From moment K(d). Basses are
singing through closed teeth. The rhythms
appear to be serialized.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights
reserved.
 90

+-
jiHqtn mit <)»ichl(us*M» lanmtxj Offfrt

2 (!•<•) 1
1 ,ui.

r ^ ^ r ££
<i»_»
ft/ mat r
ff—, - - * • — . r - * — i T {~fn

Ba5$< <

Ia

jf...
r—*—»—-**——M > • fit.

J9iJ H- ]j/l_jjp
to
to Ka
K*rlh* J_' .
tryi^i
ChorlV

P05. I-j_ f I tuti

3
1
Example 8* From moment KD(m). Those singers
in Choir I who are percussionists begin to
scrape cardboard tubes and strike tambourines.
Sopranos (I-IV) make "crude shrieking" and
later basses (I-IV) "bawl" a low A-sharp with
the trombones.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights
reserved.
 92

T-C : ".—*
•,' I »"'
.\*A*
4-
a> >
12 3 f- 5 6 ?•

^•150(Pi'Nj«t)
•*-« MliNrU |«{

Seprati
r*< ^ T -tec

,at.
" c JS__=2_ZZZL
-US..:
I

Alt • . >
191ll'tf. - •-**£.
f^z >• jp» p* * » ftf u » "^ «**
^ «
( f a s t stiimilos im
Sjflr****
Ten** •.i^^»^^a^n

1-32.
i
Bostel-B,
(,»w<M I'H d»r
, s/'talcs-k-)
(Kratzen au:' Pa,ppe und
Taiijbourins)
d><* x
'0P I

Jot*.
-fn **(•)-
ai •
* * ^ ^ #
__*___-.

px pJ« tul Uo U. r s w tae

* I lu V «-> w

I £ UcL

boco 1.DH Flat.,

Kta.
/5i SIS
*• as. l a . 1 . | I ,,1 j?
£4% - I - zi-1 35T- - <r-
Example 9* From moment K(m).
Tenors (I-IV) are employing sprechstimme;
ChoirsII and III (except tenors) stamp
feet and slap knees on the beats. In the
4+3 measure seven tenors shout in optional
succession* ja, nae, pD , bra, vo pfui,
doch, with varied pitches.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights
reserved.
12"
Example 10* From moment K. The composer
indicates that the tenors and basses should let
their spoken pitches fall very slowly with a
diminuendo and that the durations must be
absolutely observed.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights
reserved.
 96

r I
KHft),Kr1

I
Jthorc ^

HI

12

I
Basse <^

u
a.
(gwutfWi«ta"»tm3)qIrl j t 3 r _»_y

M
loo ran
Alt I-J2 F
12" 12" -13"
Example 11J From moment i(d).
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All rights
reserved.
 98

* 1 1
rnJcn
w
Cbor st\\r [list or mmtr KoD Hl'l

n ttitm Cher nur M^A, IT,

I 0>
*SH :
^ - N ^ ; - ~ - . ~ \ . \ . > - \

p^tsy ^sy pae t> la p/ ri f Kmiv_e Ko ri 'txttiiu (ab.biViJvta

B > . « « . . ) l«ff«<aSd«r
ir !Mtf«a likl.t^s- f t » - t - 'a- —»«.>-tf.»"««

! Alt :• )>H 3 9
it.-a<iipf—iJ r a^ j
*a.j« «.»i • ussft . 0-3 »•) cl**
——•—.—
burr ——typJiujuoi/aWo«tt artma»..a ofweri < a W ' » VfiMtraj

Sjtocc. P
»T««. /--.'vWv, 'V'-s \JAOAOJ I
*_--+?
i

tlioinall far} Ifita^tiMMxnaJpal of»jfo» Wpj*t^ na» (oe

* - E
^ Banc '/lyK^nV:
8 fl i

wit Altjjj ijiytirr- -<vd vi etc. '..ouriejituoe cfc>

hwr i « o jjojto Kont.H
p
• - i«rtr Kvrx
o—jedehntJonliflrSe j h w

t A - tnaflchstuhn&e&vjf*
Soloupr.
P
 99
Conclusion

Momente is a demanding composition of virtuoso propor-

tions. Obviously, it is beyond the reach of the average
choral ensemble even at the college level. However, an
outstanding group of college singers, versed in performing
contemporary music and given adequate rehearsal time, could
certainly prepare an adequate presentation. This writer
recalls the television broadcast by the A.B.C. network in
the fall of 1964 of the American premiere of Momente.13 The
Crane Collegiate Chorus performed it under Stockhausen's
baton with instrumentalists from the Buffalo Philharmonic.
During the intermission, when being interviewed by Lucas
Foss, the composer said that he particularly enjoyed working
with college singers. He felt they were more immediately
responsive to his music than the older singers of the West
German Radio Chorus.
The examples on the preceding pages from the score of
Momente shows
1. The multiplicity of sounds and percussive activities
required of the chorus.
2. The extent to which Stockhausen uses innovative
diagrammatic notation.
3. The extent to which the composer exercises tight
control over seemingly indeterminate events.
The vocal and percussive sounds themselves are not so diffi-
cult to produce. It is when the composer arranges groups

This was a video tape made during the two per-

formances in Buffalo on March 1 and 3, 1964.
 100
of untraditional events in fast sequence that performance
of them accurately demands many hours of rehearsal (see
Example 4 where the dynamics change on every beat while
handclapping).
Momente is probably not destined for many public per-
formances beyond those planned by the composer (remember,
Stockhausen controls the performance rights). Even today,
a full decade after its premiere, it simply is not the kind
of music the average audience wants to hear. What, then, is
its significance? Does it offer anything meaningful to the
listener? Is the composition symbolic of something very
personal to Stockhausen which somehow escapes the listener?
These are rhetorical questions. After studying the score
and listening to the 1965 version (Nonesuch H-71157), this
writer can say that for him Momente is a moving experience.
At the same time there are events which seem to last too
long. Concentration is not easy to maintain throughout the
work (over an hour in length). Yet, what becomes static for
this listener may not for another. Abraham Moles in his
cogent book Information Theory and Esthetic Perception dis-
cusses the problem quite clearly*
. . . Any study of the value or quality of a
message must be based on the capacity of the
"ultimate" receptor, which, in the problems
which interest us here, is always the human
individual. . . .
When we listen to a concert, the sounds of
the tuning up before the concert certainly are
musical sounds, however the latter may be
defined. Nevertheless, by a "consensus omium"
and at least in French, German, and American
radio broadcasting, this succession of sounds
 is considered annoying and is not transmitted.
On the other hand, the applause which follows
the concert consists of perfectly aperiodic
elementary clicks, totally deprived of har-
moicity in the sense in which one generally
thinks of a musical sound. At first sight
these clicks would seem to be noises, whatever
this category's morphological definition may
be. Nevertheless, these impacts are considered
meaningful and to a large extent part of the
concert's brilliance of execution. Applause
is transmitted and a special microphone—
called an "ambience mike"—is available to
capture it. There even exist recordings of
applause to use at the end of concerts of
recorded music. Can it be that, though form-
less, these sounds are meaningful?
In short, there is no absolute structural
difference between noise and signal. They are
of the same nature. The only difference which
can be logically established between them is
based exclusively on the concept of "intent"
on the part of the transmitter* "A noise is a
signal that the sender does not want to trans-
mit." . . . We generalize our definition* "A
noise is a sound we do not want to hear." It is
a signal we do not want to receive, one we try
to eliminate.*4

In this work we cannot expect to hear familiar sounds in a

"development" kind of structure. Each "moment" and each
micro-event exists for itself. There is no exposition of
themes. There is no recapitulation except those "remem-
brances" which result from the interpolations (inserts from
previous moments).
In Momente Stockhausen is an expressionist. The
work is symbolic of the composer's inner desire to search
out new means of expressing creative feelings. And while

Abraham Moles, Information Theory and Esthetic

Perception, trans, by Joel E. Cohen (Urbana* University
of Illinois Press, 1966), pp. 18-19 and 78-9.
 102

he seems oblivious to public reactions, he admits that,

"All men desire the state of happiness which results out of
the feeling to have participated in an eternal creation
through their own work and through the participation in the
works of others."15 It seems proper to end the discussion
with these philosophical words from the composer:
Einzelne Menschen sind dazu berufen, ihr Leben
lang Neues zu entdecken und zu erfinden. Andere
Menschen setzen sich dafur ein, das Vorhandene zu
bewahren und zu besch'utzen. Beide gehoren zusammen
und>machen erst das Ganze aus. Es scheint mir
unmBglich zu sein, dass ein Mensch das Schopferische
und das Bewahrende ausgewogen in sich vereinigt—so
unmoglich, wie gleichzeitig Mann und Frau zu sein.
Es gibt Zeiten, in denen die schopferischen
Krafte die bewahrenden uberflugeln; wir stehen in
einer solchen Zeit universeller Erneuerung. Und
es gibt Zeiten, in denen das Bewahrende das
Schopferische lahmend zuruckhalt.
Die "revolutionaren und die konservativen Krafte
des Geistes ins Gleichgewicht bringen" wird immer
die notwendige Aufgabe bleiben. Wahre Utopie ist
die Balance.-°

Some people are meant to discover and invent new

things throughout their life. Other people find
their fulfillment in maintaining the already exist-
ing and protecting it. Both types of people are
necessary and complement the whole. It seems
impossible to me that a person can unify harmoni-
ously within himself the creative and the protective
aspects—as impossible as it is to be both man and
woman.
There are times when the creative powers are
predominant over the protective powers; we are now
in the time of such universal rebirth. And there
are times when the protective powers paralyze the
creative powers.

Karlheinz Stockhausen, Texte, II, 257.

Ibid., pp. 257-258.
 103
The necessary task will always be to establish
a balance between the "revolutionary and conser-
vative" powers of the human spirit. True Utopia
is the balance.
 CHAPTER III

ELECTRONICS AND THE CHORAL ART

A significant development in music of the twentieth

century has been that of electronic music. In addition to
compositions written entirely for synthesizers and works
produced from electronic and recorded non-electronic sounds,
within the last decade we have seen numerous compositions
which combine electronic sounds with instrumental or vocal
sounds. To a much lesser degree we have witnessed those works
in which vocal or choral singing is manipulated or distorted
electronically.

Background on Electronic Music

It is important to have some perspective on the evo-

lution of electronic music although a thorough review is not
within this study. Few realize that music composed from or
altered by electronic apparatus has a long and involved
history reaching back into the eighteenth century with the
"Clavecin Electrique" (1761) and later with the "Electric

For a more detailed history, see Otto Luening, "Some

Random Remarks on Electronic Music," Journal of Music Theory,
VIII, No. 1 (Spring, 1964), pp. 89-98.

104
 105
Harpsichord" of Delaborde in Paris and Elisha Gray's
"Electroharmonic Piano" in Chicago in the year 1876. In 1936
Edgard Varese said* "I am sure that the time will come when
the composer, after he has graphically realized his score,
will see this score automatically put on a machine that will
2
faithfully transmit the musical content to the listener."
The following year John Cage remarked*
I believe that the use of noise to make music
will continue and increase until we reach a music
produced through the aid of electrical instruments
which will make available for musical purposes any
and all sounds that can be heard. Photoelectric,
film, and mechanical mediums for the synthetic
production of music will be explored. Whereas, in
the past, the point of disagreement has been
between dissonance and consonance, it will be,
in the immediate future, between noise and so-
called musical sounds.3
About the year 1920, experiments with electronic
instruments to create infinite sound resources took place
with Otto Luening, Norman McLaren, Pierre Schaeffer, Leon
Theremin (who in 1923 invented the Theremin), Friedrich
4
Trautwein, Paul Hindemith, Ernst Toch, and many others.
Pierre Schaeffer presented a "Concert of Noises" over French
radio. This "musique concrete" involved manipulation of both
natural and instrumental sound sources. Thereafter, and par-
ticularly in 1951-1952 (with Vladimir Ussachevsky, John Cage,
Otto Luening, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Bruno Maderna, Herbert

Cited by David Cope, New Directions in Music

(Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Company, 1971), p. 35.
q
John Cage, Silence (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press,
1961), pp. 3-4.
4
David Cope, New Directions in Music, pp. 35-36.
 106
Eimert), music involving electronic sound sources, both with
and without live performers became increasingly popular.
Example 1 is a simple diagram illustrating how sound
materials can be altered electronically. Basically, there
are two possible sound sources* electronic (produced by
oscillators, modulators or taped electronic sounds) and non-
electronic or "musique concrete" (sounds of everyday life,
traffic, nature, etc.). In the early development of electronic
music composers seemed to make a choice between sounds produced
electronically or non-electronic sounds. In Example 1 the
original sounds, whether electronic or non-electronic, are
manipulated by combining sounds from a mixer and ring modu-
lator, or eliminating certain sounds (using filters* high
pass, low pass, band pass or band reject), or distorting sounds
(by reverberation, modulation of frequency or amplitude, ring
modulation, speed change, etc.).
John Cage (b. 1912) was the first to use entirely live
electronic techniques in his Imaginary Landscape No. 4 (copy-
righted in 1949 and first performed in 1951) in which twenty-four
v
people manipulate twelve radios. His Imaginary Landscape No. 1
(1939), which involved two turntables with varying speeds, was
the first real example of electronic music. He discovered that
this could be altered by varying the speed. Cage has not
involved himself much with choral composition.
One of the earliest centers of experimentation with
electronic music was the SvUdio in Cologne (associated with
the West German Radio Station), where Karlheinz Stockhausen
has worked since 1953. Since the inauguration of the Cologne
 iDaiutci iSeurcc rla^ipula'tion Record SwehronlzS&otx
A.. Non- Electronic
Atn or Ftl

a"m3
Modu. k t o r s

Fil-ter5
B. £ lec4rvon\c_. SP\". c e r

Oscilla-toY-
OOOO OOOO
Gcer\e.v_A:ov
RecordiY\QS li i x e r
or °
Taipes o?
E l e c t Y-on.ic
Oocnr\cJ-S Reverb.

Example 1* Schema showing how sounds can be e l e c t r o n i c a l l y manipulated.

 108
Studio, many centers for electronic music have been set up*
the Studio di Fonologia of the Italian Radio in Milan, founded
by Luciano Berio with the assistance of Bruno Maderna; a
studio at Tokyo Radio, where the Japanese composers Mayuzumi
and Morio work; the Philips Works at Eindhoven, where Henk
Badings and Edgar Varese have worked; at APELAC, a company in
Brussels, which manufactures electronic apparatus and where
Henry Pousseur works; at Warsaw Radio, where the composers
Kotonsky, Krenz and Serocki work; at Sudwestfunk, Baden-Baden,
where Boulez worked in the late 1950's; at the French Radio,
which began as a studio for musique concrete. Other radio
stations include Radio Stockholm, Radio Helsinki, Radio Copen-
hagen and the BBC in London where electronic studios have been
equipped. During the last two decades electronic studios have
been set up on college and university campuses in both North
America and Europe. The University of Illinois studio was
established about 1956, the first in the United States. The
Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center was established in
1959 with the assistance of the Rockefeller Foundation. One
of its three studios houses the RCA Electronic Sound Synthe-
sizer. The Center is jointly administered by Otto Luening
and Vladimir Ussachevsky of Columbia University and Milton
Babbitt and Roger Sessions of Princeton University.

Otto Luening, "An Unfinished History of Electronic

Music," music educators journal, LV (November, 1968), p. 138.
 1C9
Stockhausen*s Contribution

The Studio at Cologne has been an important center

for electronic music composition since the early fifties. In
studying the historical path of electronic music involving
vocal sounds we must begin with Stockhausen's Gesang der
Junqlinge (1955-56). This work is the first composition to
combine sung sounds with those produced electronically. The
composer tells us*
In my "Gesang der Jiinglinge," I attempted to form
the direction and movement of sound in space, and
to make them accessible as a new dimension for
musical experience. The work was composed for 5
groups of loudspeakers, which should be placed
around the listeners in the hall. From which
side, by how many loudspeakers at once, whether
with rotation to left or right, whether motion-
less or moving—"how" the sounds and sound-groups
should be projected into space* all this is
decisive for the comprehension of this work.6

The text for Gesang der Junglinge is based on the Ger-

man version of the Apocrypha to the Book of Daniel. It is a
sequence of acclamations to God. In this work a twelve year
old boy's voice is heard singing brief phrases which are com-
bined with electronically-produced tones. Stockhausen has
given us an explanation of the work:
In order to employ the most complex phonetic
structure of speech in terms of serial composi-
tion, many different steps are necessary between
the individual examples of a given phonetic sys-
tem (in this case, German) so that regular timbre-
scales can be chosen from a continuum (for
instance, steps from one vowel to another, from

Karlheinz Stockhausen, "Two Lectures: 1. Electronic

and Instrumental Music, II. Music in Space," die Reihe, V
(Bryn Mawr* Theodore Presser Co., 1961, in association with
Universal Edition A. G. Wien, 1959), pp. 68-69.
 110
vowel to half-consonants, to consonants, etc.);
this is only, if at all, possible with electroni-
cally-produced sounds. This can be equally well
formulated the other way round* in a selected
scale of electronically-produced sounds, single
steps are replaced by sung speech-sounds. We
only have homogeneous sound-family if sung sounds
sound at certain places like electronic sounds,
electronic sounds like sung ones. In order to
achieve the greatest possible homogeneity (as
far as individual articulation and 'personality-
formants' are concerned), a twelve-year old boy
sang all the necessary sounds, syllables, words
and at times groups of words, too, which we
recorded on tape and transformed, employing
various methods of orientation as to pitch,
duration, intensity and articulation of timbre.
The extremes, then, of the scale we were seeking
to make are: sound-vowel <,-—> consonant-noise;
in the sound-range between O O and CiJ , the
darkest and brightest tones; in the sound-noise
opposition between purely harmonic spectra and
aleatoric noise-bands* in the noise-range
between ch and s (unvoiced) darkest and
brightest tones.7

A score for Gesang der Junqlinge is not available from Uni-

versal Edition which publishes Stockhausen's works. There is

a diagrammatic sketch included in one of the articles by Stock-

ed
hausen, but it is not practical for reproduction here.
9 .
The impression made on the listener is analogous to viewing
a surrealistic painting. Some of the words come through
intelligibly while others are meaningless. Stockhausen
recorded the boy's voice on tape, then cut snippets out and

rejoined them. To this he superimposes electronic sounds and

distorted vocal sounds. The ear tends to latch onto any

7
Karlheinz Stockhausen, "Music and Speech," die Reihe,
VI (Bryn Mawr: Theodore Presser Co., 1964, in association
with Universal Edition A. G. Wien, 1960), pp. 57-58.
g
K a r l h e i n z Stockhausen, " E l e k t r o n i s c h e Musik und Auto-
m a t i c " K e l o s , X (October, 1965), p . 344.
9
The work i s recorded on Deutsche Gramaphone l a b e l 138-
811.
 Ill
fragment which makes sense, however brief it is. At times a
group of words becomes comprehensible speech symbols, at other
times they serve only as sound particles. Between these
extremes there are various degrees of comprehensibility of the
word. The composer says*
These are brought about either by the degree of per-
mutation of the words in the sentence, syllables in
the word, phonemes in the syllable, or by blending
one form of speech with speech- or sound-elements
foreign to the contest (jubilt; Son- synthetic sound -
ne). Of course, this leads to new word-connections
not contained in the text* Schneewind, Eisglut,
Feuerreif, etc. (snowwind, iceheat, firefrost). The
context of the sounds therefore also influences to a
particular degree the comprehensibility of the speech
(for example, degrees of spatial effects by means of
artificial echo, degrees of intensity, of the density
of simultaneous or successive events, etc.).l°
Again we see the process of language atomization in Gesang
der Junqlinqe. The vowels are single elements in the series
of spectra of harmonic formants. The voiceless consonant is
a single element in the series of "noises." Words are
broken into isolated syllables and syllables are fractured
into their most elementary sound characteristics.
In the summer of 1964 Stockhausen composed two works
involving live performers and electronic equipment. The first
was Mixture for orchestra and ring-modulators. The second was
Mikrophonie I for tamtam and six players. In both compositions
the sounds from the instruments are picked up by microphones,
passed through ring-modulators in the first work and electronic

Stockhausen, "Music and Speech," pp. 58-59,

Karlheinz Stockhausen, "Actualia," die Reihe, I
(Bryn Mawr: Theodore Presser Co., 1958, in association with
Universal Edition A. G. Wien, c 1955), p. 46.
 112
filters in the second. The author remembers well hearing
Stockhausen discuss his most recent compositions in 1965 at
the University of Connecticut, especially the work Mikrophohie
I. He acquired a gigantic oriental gong which was too large to
bring into h?'s home. He stationed it in his garden patio and
began several experiments. He used many objects made of glass,
cardboard, metal, wood, rubber, plastic, etc., and during these
experiments he used a highly sensitive microphone connected to
an electrical filter and subsequently to a volume regulator.
Stockhausen said that the results of this first experiment
meant for him a discovery of the greatest importance.

Stockhausen's Mikrophonie II

These two experimental pieces led quite naturally to

Stockhausen's next composition involving singers: Mikrophonie
II. This is a work which we will discuss in some detail. The
composer says that in Mikrophonie II he attempts to "create a
synthesis between singing and electronic music."12
Mikrophonie II is a chamber work for choir, Hammond
organ and four ring-modulators.13 The score calls for the
following:

Karlheinz Stockhausen, "Mikrophonie I und Mikrophonie

II," Melos, XXXIII (November, 1966), p. 357.
13
Appendix C contains a reduced facsimile of the score.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser Company for Universal
Edition, Vienna. All rights reserved.
 113

3 Sopranos I
3 Sopranos II
3 Basses I
3 Basses II
Hammond organ
Four microphones
Four ring-modulators
One tape recorder for replaying
tape recordings (cued in the
score)
The main text of the composition comes from "Einfache gramma-
tische Meditationen" (Simple grammatical meditations) by Helmut
Heissenbuttel. In the score the words taken from these medi-
tations are always notated in heavy black script while added
commentaries appear in a contrasting print.
Mikrophonie II creates a theatrical atmosphere. The
four choir groups sit in a semicircle with their backs to the
audience. In front of the singers are four microphones (one
for every three members). The conductor sits in the middle
facing the singers while the Hammond organ player is placed
behind him on a slightly higher level also facing the
audience. The following sketch describes the arrangement used
at the first performance on June 11, 1965, in Cologne:
Figure 1.
PI a.-Vform
, . 4.— For prerecorded.
ta e
S. , \ P
3vd 1 evel
(BIT) (HI)
H
Organ'ts-fc
H n jE__ = Loudspeaker
X = Chair
— fAas'ic s4ar\cl
-TV" == M i c r o p h o n e
2hd level U 3
D'rree/fcor y vTiwiegi ver
Si

1st level
Bin
Br'
J*.x x
*4 S3L
 114

Each of the four microphones i s connected t o one of the four

ring-modulators, and the e l e c t r i c a l output of the Hammond
organ i s connected to the second input of t h e s e ring-modulators.
At the same time t h e d i r e c t sound of the organ i s heard over
i t s own loudspeaker. F i n a l l y , the ring-modulators lead to
four loudspeakers.
At the f i r s t performance t h e loudspeakers were placed
behind t h e singers on a higher l e v e l , angled s l i g h t l y upwards
(see Figure 1) so t h a t the modulated sound of each group mixed
as well as possible with t h e d i r e c t sound. The modulator
outputs and the taped i n t e r p o l a t i o n s were c o n t r o l l e d from the
balcony of the h a l l . Figure 2 shows a diagram of t h e e l e c -
trical circuits:
Figure 2.

j^icrophcnes

Wc\mrnor>a Oman
J I I /\w\pu:rier.£

f\m« - mod LA.\a*tors

Lcu^peaKer
ro-kevvtioirne'te rs
Aw\pl'i£ie>rs

f\ Lou-ci 6 p ea k.ers

In the preface to the score (available only on rental;

Stockhausen explains the notation for Mikrophonie II. He uses

numbers for durations of each section which are clearly indi-

cated at the top of each of the sections. These numerals refer

 115

to a standard time unit which can be chosen between 1=1/50

minute and 1=1/72 minute. Directions for the chorus are given

within each section. When specific pitches are required,

normal notation is used. The following is an explanation of

the notational symbols used in Mikrophonie I I *

• '= choose pitches freely around a central

" note in the range indicated.

|l "texT; ;j s the text can be repeated as required

' and broken off at any syllable.

Abbreviations:

contin. = continuous
syll. = syllabic
melism. =? melismatic

Notations for the Hammond organ (to be freely interpreted)*

<^__l____p> ss expand the notated p i t c h chromatically

to a cluster, and then contract again
several times ad libitum.

= sustain the notated pitch and ornament

^ f e it polyphonically.
p. 4 >• = sustain the notated pitch; add single
-^ notes above and below it within the
I indicated range; each one initially
accentuated, with different durations,
i and partially overlapping.

4t - sustain the notated pitch; very rapid

pitch movements around the central note
(not exclusively chromatic, and irregu-
lar) with increasing and then
decreasing range, and within the indi-
cated interval; several times ad libitum.

v
i = note-qroups (with individual grace-
i notes) around the notated pitch; vary
1
the number of notes per group, the
durations of the individual notes in
each group and the number of individual
grace notes per group.
 116

p. 6
Tfirl/= expanding
intervals around the notated
' pitch with chromatic groups of grace
notes.

-™^lJTJ\I\I\p-n « hold the notated pitch, begin a trill,

expand the trill to a tremolo with
increasingly wider intervals, return
to the trill and the initial pitch;
several times ad libitum.
..AmJf-J^ = rapidly repeat the notated pitch,
expand it upwards chromatically to a
cluster, and then contract again
(staccato repetitions); several times
ad libitum; vary the maximum cluster
width.
= hold the notated pitch, then very
rapid downward pitch movements (not
exclusively chromatic, and irregular),
with increasing then decreasing range
and back to the initial pitch;
= at various places hold briefly and
trill; several times ad libitum.

0' = symbol for potentiometer settings of

the ring-modulator output of each
group.

normal; the potentiometer is suf-

ficiently open for the modulated loud-
speaker sound to be slightly louder
than the original sound (at dynamic
peaks on the edge of feedback). Indi-
cations such as -5, -10, etc. are
potentiometer levels in decibels below
this normal level. "Full on" or +5
means that the direct vocal sound is
so quiet or so high-pitched at these
places that one can exceed the normal
setting.

Example 2 is the opening eight seconds of Mikrophonie

II. The three compositions used on the pre-recorded tapes are
Cesanq der J'unqlinqe, Carre and Momente. In a way these inter-
polations are like the inserts found in Momente which appear
Example 2* The first page of the score to
Mikrophonie II. The top system designates
the Hammond organ part. Each group of
singers has a leader for directing the
synchronized sections.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser
Company, Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal
Edition, Vienna. International Copyright
Secured. All rights reserved.
 SI dmgieren '
MIKROPHONIE II Ein»»t flu.uaolpcn
Karlheinz Stockhausen

m
H"«-
konllm I rlbr. I catscm hocti II )
^
it.*!!*. UinGt»Kn\tcctKU immca cttundton
rlu.lrr 2 OUt
konir.
it . >• lonst

©
SYNCHROS / sdincll A L L E SYNCI.RON / (lustiim

SI i _z^_' fn.rl.dKr Ccv.tmtoti ira norfflslen Sprechrhylhtnus

O ) Par &J<A - tt«M «UM iffc war - f» 1st 4*r iifc* - <t«M alu. Ut saar • l*

CUt w Mft - U der Hilf - U

SII ©

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kuntc Si'bcn

BMI arrrl • — -.-.-» — ._.._. — -,•--.—.._..._..

<B> Par- «{•

0
' Tonband Cttang dtr JuagUnf 1
• diese Angaben st&mmen aus der UraufFuhrung B<|iaa 1 no*
wo nichts engegeben d.r.gierte bel SYNCHROS | ab I ' U ' <-_=__D|sa_) bis I'113" <•- sduull) I—*ea 4"S—
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in Jeder Gruppe 1 Sangerdi] 1 tangtr
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1 H
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CO
 119
as "resminiscences" or "windows" through which other pieces
pass in and out of the work. According to Stockhausen's
directions, the singers must be able to improvise melodies
in a variation of rhythmic and dynamic articulations. During
the first performance the composer was controlling the ring-
modulators and volume levels*
Dabei hatte ich, der Partitur gemass, die vier
Lautsprechereingange zu offnen Oder zu schliessen,
und^ ich konnte das Mischverhaltnis zwischen .4
naturlichem und transformiertem Klang beeinflussen.
Accordingly, I had to open or close the four loud-
speaker entrances and I could influence the mixture
proportion between the natural and the transformed
sound.
Historically, Mikrophonie II represents the first
composition in which vocal sounds produced by an ensemble of
15
singers are modulated and transformed electronically.
Apparently, Stockhausen was transferring his ideas of building
a sound-continuum between real vocal material and distorted
vocal sounds. Although he had made a similar effort in his
Kontakte (for electronic sounds, piano and percussion,
1959-60), Mikrophonie II does not require electronic sounds
to be mixed with the voices. The composer made these comments
about the work*
Es ist mir wichtig, dass in der "Mikrophonie
II" die Transformation des Chorklanges in

14Ibid.
T ,,,

15 . . . .
Mikrophonie II had its premiere in the concert hall
of the Cologne Radio Station on June 11, 1965. Stockhausen
as well as other composers had experimented with altering
instrumental sounds in the early sixties. Luciano Berio's
Visage dates from 1961; however this is a "radio-program
work" (Berio's description) involving only one singer.
 120

verschiedenen Graden stattfindet und dass, oft

gleichzeitig, untransformierte Schichten mit mehr
Oder weniger transformierten gemischt sind; oder
es gibt Ubergange von natiirlichem zu moduliertem
Klang, und umgekehrt. Im Gegensatz zu rein elek-
tronischer Musik gibt eine Musik wie die "Mikro-
phonie II" mehr Moglichkeiten, in einer Skala von
naturlichem zu klinstlichem Klahg, von bekannten
(benennbaren) zu unbekannten (unbenennbaren)
Beziehungen zu komponieren.16
It is important to me, that in "Mikrophonie
II" the transformation of the choir sound occurs
in different degrees and that, often at the same
time, untransformed layers are mixed with more or
less transformed ones; or there are transitions
of natural towards modulated sound and vice versa.
Contrary to purely electronic music, a music like
the "Mikrophonie II" gives more possibilities to
compose in a range of natural to artificial sound,
of familiar (determinable) to unknown (indeter-
minable) relations.

Mikrophonie II consists of thirty-three musical sec-

tions of varying time spans. Stockhausen says that he has
composed the work in a polyphonic way, and the score clearly
suggests that there are five layers or fields of sound (i.e.
organ, SI, SII, BI, BII). Although the ear differentiates
between the women's and men's voices, there is a basic fusion
resulting in a homogenous sound continuum. Yet, the five
areas present independent musical material except in those
places where all the singers are synchronized as directed in
the score.
Example 3 is one full page of the score which repre-
sents one section lasting 144 seconds. This time span is
divided into shorter durations involving different combinations
of performers. Below is a description (how inadequate language
a1

is in a case such as this) of the events which occur simul-

taneously among the five layers:
Example 3* A section of Mikrophonie II
lasting 144 seconds.
Permission granted by Theodore Presser
Company, Bryn Mawr, Pa., for Universal
Edition, Vienna. International Copyright
Secured. All rights reserved.
 Chor in 7 Abtchnlllcn dirtnteren
SI - SI - SI- SI SI -
sr - S II — SlI
BI BI -
B Il-

® ea » 65 72 100 109

—m> •*-

rle. ltnpim / nundimal rJbr.

mischen
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I'rd gj" -•• Emzeltone / auBcni lanKiam period , nunchmsl unlerbrochen
(p\ ttarrato mit Ungcin ruchllinc uno lull

SI a
SYNCHROS / «hr lanjura / D.chte 3 2 1 vwechsein ad lib I von ca 105 ab MCHT MEHR SYNCHROS
f.icrt.d.cr Cei itrxlo.. bet ca 105 allmahlidi ubcrgehend in \tm vrrft.bnr.kfi mit Itleinen Cttttandl um Ca
etnas
ubcr
fotgerden
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Iinpiim / aril bei ca 4S schncll nsrltain Gruppcn (manchmil ai 1/ ) bei ca 109 langsam aW/ [mandhmil nirfiam.)

SII I ,~-"~E
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N im Takt
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 123

Organ: Has the directions to play larger and

narrower tone clusters slowly around the
notes of f#2. sometimes use vibrato; he
should play quiet polyphonic melody groups
around d#2; then, with increasing dynamic
changes, he changes the sound color through
pulling the register bars, periodically,
and slowly goes from dark to light color
and back to dark again; at the same time
he shall play the pedal very slowly and
periodically, sometimes in an interrupted
manner, single staccato notes with a
gradual fading out between g# and the note
D.

Soprano I» The three high sopranos sing pianissimo

the pitch C#2 in a very slow manner with
irregular durations but synchronized
(voices can come in and fade out at will);
they begin with a solemn, pleading tone
and gradually change to a "sexy, seducing
tone" with a small glissandi above and
below the tone; they have the text (trans-
lated by the author). "The situation into
which I come is the situation in which I
have come."
Soprano II: The second sopranos sing mezzoforte with
syllabic melody groups (non-synchronized)
around the three pitches of b, d#l and aft1;
they begin in a slow measure of three and
sing, as the composer suggests, "like a
baby"; then, after an accelerando, they will
sing melismatically and syllabically mixed
melody groups in a fast measure of four in
the style of a baroque invention; then, a
gradual slowing down with a somewhat breathy
"a la Jazz" flowing tone becoming synchron-
ized towards the end (at the lapse of 128
seconds); the text: "speech crosses speech,
and it does, it does not exist."

Bass I: They sing mezzoforte or forte in single

chords, alternating between the pitches of
D and E with each syllable (one member con-
ducts the group); they are to sing "like
drunken persons, sometimes bawling"; they
have the text: "Jumped afternoons and
jumped afternoons."
Bass II; They sing with crescendi and descrescendi,
synchronized, fast groups of syllables with
varying pauses between them; the syllables
of the phrase "oder und oder oder" are to be
 124
sung in a prescribed number sequence
(7, 3, 2, etc.); there are fermatas at
the end of certain groups; the sung pitches
are to be varied per syllable around the
deep G# and between E and d; they begin
"a la Jazz, cool, almost like string basses"
and then go into an articulation "like an
affected snob"; their text: "Or and or or."
The only thread of continuity that this writer can
perceive between Mikrophonie II and a work like Momente is the
use of "Moment-Form" and sound transformations (in Momente you
will recall the use of three microphones for the male solo
voices). The work is throughout composed with no traditional
sense of development. An article appearing in the Musical
Times addresses the empirical nature of the work:
In this situation—no motivic development, no
repetition—the musical material must continually
renew itself. . . . It must be borne in mind that
the density of information which the listener
receives from these works is not a deliberate
attempt on the part of the composer to frustrate
the perception of traditional processes of musical
continuity, because these processes are no longer
functioning. Rather, the inbuilt aural responses of
the listener are sabotaged, and this means that
sooner or later he must either abandon his attempt
to grasp the music or learn to respond to it on its
own terms.17
Mikrophonie II is not a work readily accessible in the
average performance situation. Even where one finds skilled
singers there must also be sophisticated electronic equipment
available. There must also be sufficient rehearsal time and
a total commitment on the part of all participants to make the
piece work. Its performance in London on January 19, 1969,
brought this response:

Roger Smalley, "Stockhausen and Development,"

Musical Times, III (April, 1970), p. 379.
 125
A curious mixture of old and new music figured
in the Macnaghten •Star Night' concert at the
Victoria and Albert Museum on January 19. The main
work was Stockhausen's Mikrophonie II, receiving its
British premiere. . . . Had this concert been
entirely devoted to Stockhausen, no doubt it would
have sold out in advance, but the large audience
was clearly there for Mikrophonie in the first
place, and included the usual gathering of 'names'
and hippies. Some of the latter had brought their
young offspring . . . Anyway, Mikrophonie II was
worth any amount of inconvenience or distraction.
. . . At the V & A, however, it was found acousti-
cally more desirable to have the singers facing
the audience. This added another dimension to the
work: the visual expression and histrionics of the
singers—who appeared to be enjoying themselves.
. . . Such music was, to me, more impressive live
than on the record, where the electronic element is
too powerful. Here, its spatial impact was more
widely distributed. I especially liked the most
distant sequences, which suggested that a wild
party might be going on in an adjacent room.
Under the watchful eyes of timer Tim Souster and
conducter John Alldis, with Roger Smalley at the
Hammond organ, and Hugh Davies and Richard Orton
as electronics assistants, the work sounded
structurally lucid and colourful.18

Works by American Composers

Developments in electronic music in America lagged

behind European countries by a few years. This delay was not
because there was no interest on the part of composers to
experiment with new electronic techniques but rather, because
the equipment necessary to set up a studio was either too
expensive or not available. Whereas European electronic cen-
ters were often associated with radio stations with government
support, this was not the case in America.

Meirion Bowen, "Mikrophonie 11," Music and Musicians.

XVII (March, 1969), p. 58.
 126
We have mentioned the establishment of the Columbia-
Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1959. Long before its
inception Vladimir Ussachevsky had been doing pioneer work
with taped sounds. Together with Otto Luening he furnished
taped music for the New York productions of King Lear, Back
to Methuselah and works for tape recorder and orchestra.
In 1960-61 Ussachevsky composed Creation-Prologue, a
work for four full choruses (divisi parts in each) and elec-
tronic tape. This work can be performed in one of four ways:
1. With four live choruses. This would require
large choral forces, careful preparation, and
plenty of rehearsal time, especially for
choruses II and IV.
2. With choruses I, II, and III live, and chorus
IV pre-recorded. A practical solution if
large choral forces are available to be
split into three groups.

3. In any other combination of live and pre-

recorded choruses; namely, two live and two
pre-recorded, or one live and three pre-
recorded.
4. With choral parts all pre-recorded.

A diagram in the preface of the score suggests that

the choruses and loudspeakers be placed around the concert
hall as shown here:
 127

Figure 3.

£H0RU5 I

A A
o

V V i (
CHORUS TZ

The principal conductor directs chorus II. Assistant conduc-

tors lead the other groups. The person cueing in the
electronic accompaniment should be located so as to be able to
receive cues from the principal conductor.
The text of Creation-Prologue consists of two excerpts
from ancient creation stories: The Akkadian "Enuma Elish,"
the most ancient of all, and Ovid's "1 let amor phoses." "Enuma
Elish" is the great epic found inscribed on tablets in Meso-
potamian excavations. The entire poem, of which "enuma elish"
are the first two words, relates the struggle and the final
victory of order against chaos, and the subsequent creation of
an orderly universe.
Ussachevsky had intended to write an extensive choral
composition of which the Prologue would be the opening section.
He completed only the first movement. The Prologue, starting
in Akkadian, the language of Babylon, speaks of the very
beginnings of the Universe, when nothing yet has been created
 128
or given a name. It implies the unordered chaotic state but
gives no description of it. Ussachevsky says:
. . . I felt a need of interpolating some such des-
cription from another ancient source, and thus the
opening lines of Ovid's Metamorphoses, rendered in
Latin, are inserted, or, musically speaking, super-
imposed on Enuma Elish. 1 sought to exploit the
contrast between the archaic quality of Akkadian and
the sound of classical Latin. The two texts are
given a different musical characterization; the
antiphonal manner of the performance assists in
sharpening this contrast.
I decided to record the choral part because I
wished to move the sound about the auditorium and
to make certain modifications of the vocal quality.
I also wanted to experiment with occasionally dense
dissonant textures under precisely controlled con-
ditions, and to achieve rapid asymmetrical entrances
by full choruses.19
The work itself is about twelve minutes duration.
The notation is traditional, and by today's performance abili-
ties the work is not terribly difficult. There are large
blocks of multi-choral dissonant chords. The choirs are fre-
quently treated antiphonally (making use of the spatial
arrangement of the choruses). The choral lines are almost
all in homophonic style (frequent change of meter) with a
few unison lines emerging out of or leading into dense tex-
tures.
The electronic accompaniment of Creation-Prologue is
represented in normal note values (with the exception of the
white noise), and the sounds are rather elementary by com-
parison with more recent electronic compositions. Example 4
is the opening of Prologue with the sea represented by a white

The composer includes this in the score published

by Composers Facsimile Edition.

»
 129

noise which is a background sound for the first sixteen

measures:

Example 4: Ussachevsky, Creation-Prologue,

bars 1-5.

The work is mostly a cappella, and the extensive use of chro-

matic alterations successfully obscures any sense of tonal
center. The words are intelligible even when treated
antiphonally. At measure 77 the composer separates "librata
suis" into phonemes (see Example 5 on the next page), the only
instance of this treatment of the text.
Mario Davidovsky is an active American composer (from
Argentina) who has several electronic compositions to his
credit. He studied composition with Maestro Guillermo Graet-
zer in Argentina and Aaron Copland in the United States. He
has written ballet, chamber, theatre and film music. He was
awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to study at the Columbia-
Princeton Electronic Music Center where he remained as a staff
member. In 1967 he composed Synchronisms No. 4—Psalm 70 for
chorus and electronic sounds. The work (commissioned by the
 13L
Example 5: Ussachevsky, Creation-Prologue,
bars 74-78.

Ct\o. i

Cho.jD

lW.Cu-_cj^f_So-j_a'<^XnttHa_e-TB Til.luS fCH.Ae.TL.bui U If 1 . (jLa,1 _ "Jfcc

r
_, r'.'f'L -ft-'. ifxHn-H+v. I

CU.UL

CrlO I E

Sw, _ f s -
b :2?_^i*j> J^£_S5__§I_=i?
^^^-5r^l^f^N_Mg ____^>6__=__:.
> ifta.nieL a.r.cm'fu-So yiu i / i M m a e . r c TeLttti+ouA.vt.fcuv S—•—«j

_l"fc__=__=====:
acc. ^-^-___-
( it* i__c^_=__J^S£__=?=_:-- a___
1
*#*

Horace Mann School) can be sung by either boys (TTBB) or

mixed voices. There are four soloists, a "Tutti Chorus" and
a smaller chorus.
 131
20 . . . . .
Synchronisms No. 4 is a classical composition m the
sense that it is precisely notated (traditional symbols), con-
tains a good balance of lyricism and pointillism, the elec-
tronic sounds are well placed and euphonious to the ear and
there is effective contrast of vocal techniques (singing,
whispering, speaking and half singing). Tempo markings must
be exactly adhered to in order to be synchronized correctly
with the tape. The tape notation is simply represented by a
double black line above the vocal parts.
The piece is well composed in the opinion of this
writer. It is highly expressive of the text which is the
Hebrew version of Psalm 70. The electronic sounds are
extremely "musical" and sensitively put together. One can
only speculate at the many hours required in the electronic
studio to create such an expressive tape. Example 6 (on the
next page) is a section of the final phrase, "But I am poor
and needy; hasten to me, 0 God!" The text is telescoped
in the solo voices while the basses are softly whispering
"Ezri umefali ata:"

The score is available on rental from Belwin

Mills Publishing Corp., New York.
 132
Example 6: Davidovsky, Synchronisms No. 4 ,
bars 65-69.

*r. m Tvffi __ j

Before concluding this chapter we should acknowledge

the fact that a number of Canadian composers have been involved
in electronic techniques. Some of them have written composi-
tions for chorus and electronic tape: Istvan Anhalt, Norma
Beecroft, Peter J. Clements, Harry Freedman and Murray R.
Schafer. The Canadian Music Centre in Toronto houses a
library of scores which are available for rental. Also a
catalogue, "The Canadian Collection," is a listing of record-
ings produced by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which
can be ordered from CBC Publications, Box 500, Station A,
Toronto, Canada. The CBC has issued a special series of
recordings, "Music and Musicians of Canada," to mark the
Centennial of Canada's Confederation.

One of the most interesting works appearing in the

CBC series is a twenty-minute composition entitled From Dreams
 133
of Brass (1963-64) by Norma Beecroft (b. 1934). It is a can-
tata for Narrator, Mixed Chorus (with soprano solo), full
orchestra and Electronic Music. The text is by Sister M.
Ignatia Beecroft, I.B.V.M. The composer made these remarks
about the work:
The cantata was originally conceived for per-
formance in a large hall with the orchestra divided
into sections, the chorus and three loudspeakers
all strategically placed to work either in groups,
or opposite one another. As the central figure,
the narrator ties all the elements together. The
electronic music, composed in the summer of 1964
at the Electronic Music Studio of Columbia-
Princeton University New York, is used primarily
as an extension of existing orchestral and vocal
sounds, although certain passages have their own
independent existe'nce. 21

From Dreams of Brass is in three sections. The text is

carried for the most part by the narrator. The choral writing
is not difficult for an average college choir. The electronic
tape runs almost the entire length of the work. The sounds of
the tape complement the voices and orchestra, and at times
there is a total fusion of electronic sounds and live per-
formers. Often the electronic sounds provide background for
the narrator, successfully reacting and enhancing the
feelings expressed by the words. Beecroft has devised an
interesting drawing in her score to represent the sounds of
the three-channel tape:

21
Beecroft prepared these notes for the series "Music
and Musicians of Canada " Volume II, produced by RCA Victor
Co., Ltd., and the International Service of the Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation.
 134

Example 7: Beecroft, From Dreams of Brass,

bar 1 4 , First Tape C u e .

rpu*aLo«.) ? — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — >IS
v

M^/H"""- •A*T"*•*- 5f^J-

• • ^ S•'•"-'••'/iu.au/u
SKT^I jpfci/s.niii

1-
W«<,//,
•^-/'V4i^_

ISo
'•____? SSo

eve i

IU- 4W. m lis

In this example the shaded area represents voice sounds, or

sounds derived from voice material (which have been subjected
to various filtering, reverberation and ring-modulation pro-
cesses. The numerals indicate approximate frequencies of
sinusoidal tones. The dotted lines indicate the presence of
reverberated sounds.

Conclusion

Although we have seen an increasing number of works

11

for choir and electronic tape during the past decade, there
are not as many of these compositions published as one would
expect. One reason is the amount of time necessary to produce

Appendix C contains a comprehensive list of choral

music with electronic tape.
 135

a good electronic tape. Daniel Pinkham has published a number

of works through E. C. Schirmer in Boston, and most of these
are accessible to the average choir. The same is true of
Richard Felciano's works as well as those of Gregory Woolf,
both of whom have produced compositions through the World
Library of Sacred Music. Leslie'Bassett's Collect (1969) has
had numerous performances. Perhaps this is because Bassett
judiciously cues most of the choir entrances with a pitch from
the tape:

Example 8: Bassett, Collect, bars 9-10 and

bars 20-21.

mp
3=£ I
we have
ter - nal,.
mp

^
JSL
f-£a if n^c a i *
\ we have
ter - nal,.

If 38=
I b^-«<_ ^r
T uM tf

Antiphony II and Antiphony III by Kenneth Gaburo com-

bine singers (arranged in four groups) and electronic tape.
These are difficult works, precisely notated in terms of pitch
and rhythm. Words are atomized and phonemes are given long

23
Robert M. Newell discusses Antiphony 11 in his dis-
sertation, "Writing for Singers in the Sixties" /with
original composition/, The Graduate Manual. Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1970.
 136

durations. Although during the performance the singers'

voices are not electronically distorted (as they are in
Mikrophonie II), the tape sounds often imitate the vocal pro-
duction.
Alvin Lucier's North American Time Capsule 1967
employs the use of a vocoder, a device designed by Sylvania
to encode speech sounds into digital information bits for
transmission over narrow band widths via telephone lines or
radio channels. The performers are asked to prepare material
using any sounds they wish which would describe to beings
far from our environment, either in space or in time, the
physical, spiritual, social, scientific or any other situa-
tion in which we currently find ourselves. The performers'
sounds are fed into the vocoder and are modified during the
performance both by the sounds acting as control signals and
by the manual alteration of the vocoder components. Obviously
there is no score for this work.
Notation of electronic sounds differs with each com-
poser. Standardization will come about only when a
considerable number of composers can agree on meaningful
graphics for the oscilliscope. As more composers involve
themselves with the creative possibilities of electronic
sounds, we can expect and hope for a greater number of com-
positions not only for choir and tape but for other multi-
media combinations as well.
 CHAPTER IV

MICROTONAL MUSIC—HISTORY AND THEORY

In the summer of 1973 this writer had the experience

of hearing some choral works composed in scale temperaments
outside the 12-tone system. Contrasten (1952) by Henk Badings
are five pieces for a cappella mixed voices set in enlarged
temperament. Badings is a Dutch composer whose interests in
unfamiliar scales and harmonies crystallized after 1951 when
he wrote several compositions for the newly-built 31-tone
organ in the Teylers Museum at Haarlem, The Netherlands.
Since then he has embarked on several commissions for instru-
mental works using the 31-tone refinements. Ben Johnston,
Professor of Composition and Theory at The University of
Illinois, has subscribed to 31-tone temperament and the use
of just intonation since 1962. In 1966 he wrote Ci-Git-Satie

These pieces are available from Donemus publishers in

Amsterdam. Over every song in the score you find a reference
to the intonation in frequency relations.
2 .
The instrument was designed by Professor Adriaan Fokker,
Curator of the Physics Department of Teylers Foundation at Haar-
lem. The theoretical basis for the 3l-note system (set forth
in 1732 by another Dutch mathematician, Christian Huygens) is
presented in a monograph by Fokker, Neue Musik mit 31 Tonen,
which is volume 5 of the Orpheus Schriftenreihe zu Grundfraqen
der Musik, published by the Gesellschaft zur Forderunq der
systematischen Musikwissenschaft e. V., Dusseldorf, 1956.
137
 138
on commission from the Swingle Singers employing 31 pitches to
the octave. Rose is a short piece for mixed voices requiring
just intonation as is his setting of Mass (1972). The latter
composition will be analyzed in the following chapter. The
exposure to these works stimulated a desire on the part of the
author to know more about the theory and practice of multiple
divisions of the octave. The scope of this material is vast
and can only be touched upon in this chapter. The history of
ultra-diatonic scales, a term suggested by Joseph Yasser for
scales of more than twelve tones to the octave, is fascinating.
Every practicing musician should become acquainted with the
elementary concepts of these scales and their respective
problems of temperament. Especially is this relevant to the
practice of choral music where "correct" intonation is not
achieved easily because of the singer's ability to alter the
pitch of his voice ever so slightly.

Ratios and Cents

In dealing with scales, ratios and intonation, we

encounter many technical terms which are unfamiliar to one
not working with the properties of acoustics on a regular
basis. A Glossary of Terms is included in Appendix E which
the reader can refer to for definitions and clarification.
The musical interval is often expressed as the

This description comes directly from the title of an

exhaustive study by M. J. Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of
the Octave" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of
Indiana, 1961).
 139
ratio of the frequencies of the two tones involved, usually
in the lowest possible terms. Current musical practice is
to conceive intervals upward from a constant except when
indicated otherwise. The numerator of the ratio is used to
designate the tone as referenced to an implicit starting tone,
the denominator. For example, the ratio 3/2 represents the
Sol-Do interval, irrespective of the frequency of the starting
tone.
The musical interval also can be represented in terms
of cents. The system of cents was devised by a Britisher,
Alexander J. Ellis (1814-1890), a philologist, mathematician,
musician, and translator of H. L. F. von Helmholtz's book On
the Sensations of Tone. One cent is defined as a frequency
ratio (between two tones) of 2 1 2 0 ° = 1.0005777. The equal-
1
tempered semitone is defined as a frequency ratio of 2~12~ a=
1.05946. Each semitone in the 12-tone Equal Temperament thus
contains 100 cents, and an octave contains 1200 cents. One
cent is thus the hundredth part of one of the twelve equal
intervals within a 2/1 (octave) ratio. It follows that in
this temperament a quarter-tone would equal 50 cents, an
eighth-tone 25 cents, and so forth. By using cents as a means
of measuring intervals, the reader can relate most easily,
especially when working in scales of more than twelve degrees.
Therefore, we have two ways of representing an intervali by
a ratio and by cents. Frequency will identify the pitch of
any given note.
 140
Pythaqoreanism versus Temperament

The history of the development of the equal-tempered

12-tone scale is interesting indeed. Its theories date back
to about the eighth century B.C. in China. Some Chinese
sources suggest even farther back, 2800 years B.C., with the
experiments of Ling Lun.4 In the West, Pythagoras of Samos
is credited with discovering the twelve "cycle" or the "circle
of fifths" in the sixth century B.C.
Beginning with the whole string of the monochord, or
1, Pythagoras divided the string into two parts and produced
the interval 2/1 (the octave), then into three parts (3/2)
achieving a pure fifth, and then into four parts (4/3) pro-
ducing a pure fourth. If we arbitrarily call 1/1 the note
"C," and we step off a series of consecutive 3/2's above this
note, the twelfth 3/2 upward would be "B#." If we then step
off octaves (pure 2/1•s) above "C," the closest note to "B#"
would be the seventh octave "C" which is actually lower than
"B#." The ratio is 531441/524288, which is 23.5 cents or
approximately one eighth of a "tone" or one-quarter of a
semitone. If this discrepancy, known as the "Pythagorean
comma" and sometimes the "syntonic comma," is distributed over
twelve 3/2's of 702 cents each (the width of a pure fifth), it
gives "fifths" of 700 cents (two cents flat) and consequently,
semitones of twelve equal degrees. This results in our

Harry Partch, Genesis of a Music, 275. Also see

Joseph Yasser, A Theory of Evolving Tonality (New York: Ameri-
can Library of Musicology, 1932), pp. 25-39.
 141
familiar 12-tone Equal Temperament.
This "Circle of Fifths" is the basis upon which many
additional kinds of tempered scales have been proposed. Partch
tells us that during the past two millenniums the nine "cycles"
listed below have been the most .seriously analyzed or suggested
as a basis of temperament. They are given here in order of
tonal multiplicity, along with the amount of the critical
difference or discrepancy between the beginning and end of each
5
"cycle," in cents:
1. Five "cycle"—90.2 cents below the third 2/1.
2. Seven "cycle"—113.7 cents above the fourth 2/1.
3. Twelve "cycle"—23.5 cents above the seventh 2/1.
4. Nineteen "cycle"—137.1 cents above the eleventh 2/1.
5. Thirty-one "cycle-'—160.6 cents above the eighteenth 2/1,
6. Forty-one "cycle"—19.8 cents below the twenty-fourth
2/1.
7. Fifty-three "cycle"—3.6 cents above the thirty-first
2/1.
8. 306 "cycle"—1.8 cents below the 179th 2/1.
9. 347 "cycle"—21.6 cents below the 203rd 2/1.
Partch goes on to say that the 347 "cycle" (No. 9) has been
recommended by both Paul von Janko and E. M. von Hornbostel
as the step that music must take to improve the fifty-three
"cycle."6
It follows, therefore, that a veritable endless

5
Ibid., pp. 272-273.
Partch, Genesis of a Music, p. 275, citing Horn-
bostel, "Musikalikalishche Tonsysteme," in Handbuch der
Physik, 8:446; Barbour, "Equal Temperament," p. 250, Partch
adds in this footnote: "Should anyone be tempted to take
that step, he perhaps ought to be warned as to what tradi-
tion will expect of him—a • sui generis' work involving a
prelude and fugue in each of 347 'major' and 347 'minor'
tonalities, and atonality for the modernists, or the use
of a grand total of 120,309 senses!"
 142
succession of pure fifths (or any other pure interval desired
for "cycling") will never fall exactly within a given number
of 2/1•s (octaves). This is the nemesis which theorists and
composers have had to deal with through the centuries. It
flies in the face of true harmonic equivalents and the art
of modulation.
The principle of Equal Temperament in regard to the
12-tone scale is simply a levelling of the twelve natural
fifths to seven octaves through flattening of each of these
fifths one-twelfth of the Pythagorean comma (23.5 cents or
7
12 centitones in round numbers ). Therefore, each natural
fifth is tempered by one centitone resulting in an acoustic
identity of the seventh octave and the twelfth fifth, that
is, F and E# respectively.
In order to create a diatonic scale of twelve notes
within the compass of an octave we must subtract 600 centi-
tones (the interval of an octave) from the numbers obtained
as the fifths are added together. Yasser suggests an alter-
nate way of arriving at these same figures when bringing the
notes into the same octave:
But to add the interval of a Fifth to a certain num-
ber, already obtained, and then to subtract the
interval of an Octave from the total is the same
thing as to subtract immediately the interval of
a Fourth from that original number before the
addition is effected. Thus, instead of adding
one natural Fifth to another (351 + 351) and then
subtracting the interval of an Octave (600 ctn.)

A centitone is equal to two cents. Yasser uses

centitones consistently when diagraming circles of fifths
and measuring intervals in A Theory of Evolving Tonality.
 143
from the total (702 ctn.), which will give us the
interval of a Pythagorean major Second (102 ctn.), it
is sufficient simply to subtract the interval of a
natural Fourth (249 ctn.) from the original natural
Fifth (351 ctn.), which will give the very same
result (102 ctn.). One must deal in similar fashion,
of course, with tempered Fifths and Fourths, which
are equal to 350 ctn. and 250 ctn. respectively.

Examples 1 and 2 illustrate the compromises necessary

for closing the circle of fifths (to allow enharmonic equiva-
lents) in the 12-tone scale and the 19-tone scale. The
diagrams used in the examples are taken from Yasser's text,
A Theory of Evolving Tonality, pages 120, 136 and 137.

Example 1: Tempering a 12-tone scale from

Pythagorean intonation.

A J5_L
9 -352—f--i3io_c

8Yasser, A Theory of Evolving T o n a l i t y , p . 119.

 144
Example 2: Tempering a 19-tone scale from
Pythagorean intonation.

Yasser is an exponent of temperament, believing that

the 19-tone temperament is an improvement over our 12-tone
system. He believes that new scales are formed through an
evolutionary plan. The Javese scale is explained as con-
sisting of two regular and three auxiliary degrees ("sub-
infra-diatonic," or 2+3). The Siamese scale combines the
Javese total of five as its five regular degrees and adds
two auxiliary degrees (5 + 2 or the "infra-diatonic" scale).
The total of any one scale thus becomes the number of regular
degrees in the next scale, and the number of auxiliary degrees
in the next following scale; for example, the total of five
degrees for the "sub-infra-diatonic" becomes the number of
regular degrees of the "infra-diatonic," and in turn the
number of auxiliary degrees associated with the "diatonic."
Yasser labels the 19-tone scale (12 + 7) the "supra-diatonic."
In the distant future he feels we may embrace 19 + 12 = 31,
 145

and 31 + 19 = 50, the "ultra-diatonics."

Example 3 represents the three closed circles of equal
temperament calculated for the 7-tone scale (Yasser's "infra-
diatonic"), the 12-tone "diatonic" scale and the 19-tone
"supra-diatonic" scale. Example 4 illustrates the unending
Pythagorean spiral of natural fifths. In speaking of the
Pythagorean cycle of fifths Yasser makes this summary:
Hence it follows that the formation of these as
well as of all subsequent "organic" scales in the
Pythagorean intonation only calls for a continua-
tion, in each case, of their uniting spiral with
the preservation, of course, of their common prin-
ciple of division of all scale-tones into regular
and auxiliary degrees. This spiral, although
gradually more complex, nevertheless leaves the
acoustic relations within its component spiral-like
segments totally undisturbed.
Thus, if Equal Temperament brings dissimilar
acoustic results when applied to different scales,
and if, consequently, a formation of every scale
in this artificial form predetermines a break with
the preceding scale, then it is evident that by
attempting to remain on the acoustic plane of one
of the "circles" of Fifths and Fourths while
intending to build up a new and more complex
scale (i.e. attempting to avoid the necessary
break), one can never succeed in producing a true
"organic" formation of the latter. Any efforts
to increase, under this limiting condition, the
tonal material of the circles in question, i.e.
practically the scales they represent, would
inevitably result in a purely mechanical insertion
therein of some number of new tones having no
organic connection with the initial series and,
on the strength of this, producing no more than
an impression of the old tones of this series,
but as if repeated "out of tune."10

Ibid., p. 7, p. 114, p. 136, p. 153.

Ibid., pp. 136-137.
Example 3: Closed circle of fifths for 7-tone,
12-tone and 19-tone temperaments.

it
riUzs&£tMz<C

E+
D r" G*

Example 4: Unending spiral of natural fifths.

 147
Just Intonation

During the Middle Ages troubadours and other secular

musicians made use of the old Greek Lydian11 mode which had
the same arrangement of whole and half steps that our present
major scale has: whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole,
half. However, it was based upon Pythagorean intonation and
did not have exactly the same sizes of whole and half steps
(hemitones) as our modern scale. Rather, its intervals had
these ratios:
Lydian Mode (Pythagorean Intonation)
Interval Ratio
1st (whole tone) 8:9
2nd (whole tone) 8:9
3rd (hemitone) 243:256 (almost 18:19)
4th (whole tone) 8:9
5th (whole tone) 8:9
6th (whole tone) 8:9
7th (hemitone) 243:256
Interval from the 1st tone to:
2nd 8:9
3rd 64:81
4th 3:4
5th 2:3
6th 16:27
7th 128:243
8th 1:2

According to Bartholomew,12 in the development of

polyphonic music it was found that the Pythagorean third

This is not to be confused with Glareanus' "Lydian."

The names he applied to the Church modes are different
scales. His "Ionian" corresponds to the "Lydian" of Aris-
toxenus which is implied here.
12 . .
Wilmer T. Bartholomew, Acoustics of Music, p. 171.
 148
(64:81), although quite satisfactory as a melodic interval,
was somewhat inharmonious when sounded by two simultaneous
tones, as when two polyphonic melodies sang a third or pro-
gressed in thirds. It was soon discovered that if this ratio
were shortened to 64:80, the simpler and more harmonious
interval of the true or just major third (4:5) of the
harmonic series resulted. Pythagorean intonation (based on
natural fifths) results in "harmonically" imperfect (too
sharp) major thirds from the first, fourth, and fifth degrees
of the scale. By reducing these thirds to true major thirds,
a considerably simpler series of ratios, known by the names
of the "true diatonic scale," "true intonation," or "just
intonation," result:

True Diatonic Scale (True or Just Intonation)

Interval " Letter names in key of C Ratio
1st (major whole tone) C to D 8:9
2nd (minor whole tone) D to E 9:10
3rd (semitone) E to F 15:16
4th (major whole tone) F to G 8:9
5th (minor whole tone) G to A 9:10
6th (major whole tone) A to B 8:9
7th (semitone) B to C 15:16
Interval from first
tone to:
2nd (major whole tone) cC to
to D 8:9
3rd (major third) C
c to
to E 4:5
4th (perfect fourth) C
c to
to F 3:4
5th (perfect fifth) C
c to
to G 2:3
6th (major sixth) C
cC tto
o A 3:5
7th (major seventh) c to
to B 8:15
8th (perfect octave) C
c to
to C 1:2

What is of special interest here is the fact that there

are two sizes of whole tone in this scale, one with the ratio
 149
8:9 (major whole tone) and one 9:10 (minor whole tone).
Although the old Lydian mode contained the same order of tones
and half tones, it did not distinguish between major and minor
whole tones. Its half tones were smaller than the diatonic
true half tones, and its "Pythagorean third" was made up of
two intervals of ratio 8:9 (243:256). This change, which
resulted in true major thirds (made up of 8:9 plus 9:10), pro-
ducing a ratio of 4:5) altered three tones slightly from their
positions in the Lydian mode. Bartholomew tells us that this
change of ratios was observed even by the later Greeks them-
selves; Didymus and Ptolemy suggested the same alteration

urged by Zarlmo and others many centuries later.13 It would

be fascinating to know if these early Greeks heard a true
major third as a consonance.
We do not know exactly to what extent just intonation
was employed during the Renaissance. Bartholomew quotes J. M.
Barbour as stating that it was very unlikely that it was in
use during the sixteenth century.14 However, Bartholomew
feels that it was used in choral singing in final tonic chords
and perhaps in otherwise fairly static chords, where there
was time for a mutual tuning adjustment to take place between
singers of various parts. Carl Eitz, a theorist writing in
favor of just intonation and especially the superiority of
the natural third, states:

Ibid., pp. 173-174.

Ibid., p. 173.
 150
Ein guter A cappella-Chor s i n g t , soweit es d i e
Komposition z u l a s s t , i n n a t i i r l i c h - r e i n e r Stimmung,
denn jeder normal v e r a n l a g t e Sanger hat ein f e i n e s
Empfinden f u r reine Oktaven, Quinten, Quarten,
Terzen and Sexten.
A good a c a p p e l l a chorus s i n g s , as far as a com-
p o s i t i o n p e r m i t s , in j u s t i n t o n a t i o n , since
every normally gifted s i n g e r has an e x c e l l e n t
s e n s i t i v i t y for pure o c t a v e s , f i f t h s , fourths,
t h i r d s , and s i x t h s . 1 5
At t h i s point t h e question i s how frequently were instruments
employed along with the v o i c e s and t o what extent was the
tuning a l t e r e d by t h i s performance p r a c t i c e . Another question
o u t s i d e the scope of t h i s study i s whether or not keyboard
instruments were ever tuned t o make j u s t intonation p o s s i b l e
in a performance s i t u a t i o n . Thomas P. Frost, w r i t i n g in 1955,
gives t h i s r e a c t i o n to t a p e s of Eivind Groven's 36-tone organ
(Norwegian t h e o r i s t and composer) in enlarged j u s t i n t o n a t i o n ;
A musician accustomed t o equal temperament w i l l
find many of t h e scale t o n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the 3rd
and 6th, so f a r removed from t h e i r accustomed p i t c h
as t o seem " s o u r . " When a scale or solo melody i s
played, i t may appear d i s c o n c e r t i n g l y out of
t u n e . . . . When these same notes are combined i n t o
chords, the sounds are magically consonant. The
complete and unaccustomed absence of beats between
t h e notes (makes them) a l l but blend into one t o n e .
The pure r i c h n e s s of t h e untempered chords i s a
novel experience which we 6 wish i t were p o s s i b l e t o
share with every r e a d e r . I
We must remember t h a t here Mr. Frost i s speaking of a s c a l e
containing t h i r t y - s i x degrees within the octave. The l a r g e r
the number of degrees the more accurate w i l l be t h e v e r t i c a l

Carl E i t z , "Von den n a t u r l i c h r e i n e Stimmungs-

v e r h a l t n i s s e n , " Melos, I , 1920, 293.
Thomas P . Frost, "A Matter of Records," Organ
I n s t i t u t e Quarterly, V, No. 3 (1955), p . 4 1 .
 151
tunings according to acoustical laws.
Let us return to the 12-tone scale built upon just
intonation. Some people believe that this diatonic scale
is completely true and perfect according to the laws of
nature. It is a fact that six of its tones are secured by
using the 8th, 9th, 10th, 12th, 15th, and 16th partials from
a tonic fundamental, and the other two tones by using two
partials from a subdominant fundamental. Example 5 shows
the first sixteen partials of the true harmonic series con-
structed on C two octaves below Middle C:

Example 5 : Two Octave Harmonic S e r i e s of C.

. f t ^ <-> c^\ (k-0 ^ ***

ni •JDC

i
-43-
»
3&c) <> =©=•?

—i—
t 3 8 9 10 IX 12 13 14 15 16

When we reduce to lowest the ratios of the various triads in

the just diatonic scale we get the following;
Triad on the Triad Ratio Tuning
first degree C E G 4:5:6 true major triad
second degree D F A 27:32:40 untrue
third degree E G B 10:12:15 true minor triad
fourth degree F A C 4:5:6 true major triad
fifth degree G B D 5:5:6 true major triad
sixth degree A C E 10:12:15 true minor triad
seventh degree B D F 45:54:64 untrue
The triads on the tonic, subdominant, and dominant, having
the ratio 4:5:6, are all true major triads, such as would be
formed by the fourth, fifth, and sixth partials in a harmonic
series (see Example 5). The triads on the third and sixth
 152

degrees of the just scale are true minor triads, such as

would be formed by the tenth, twelfth, and fifteenth par-
tials in a harmonic series. However, we find imperfection
on the triads built on the second and seventh degrees. The
fifth is too flat in the triad on the second degree. If the
fifth were raised, we would throw it out of tune for the
subdominant triad. If the second degree itself were
lowered, we would throw it out of tune for the dominant
triad of the major tonality. Furthermore, the interval from
the second to the fourth degree is not a true minor third,
being too flat. The triad on the seventh degree of the just
scale is even more out of tune. Therefore, the 12-tone
"just diatonic scale" is not perfect. However, we must
respect the fact that it has no less than sixteen perfectly
consonant intervals within the compass of one octave. 17
The pure minor modes present additional problem of tuning
which will not be discussed here.
As the sense of tonality developed, the desire for
modulation was inevitable. Yet, this was not possible in
the true diatonic scale without corresponding adjustments in
tuning. Whereas pitch alterations were possible with instru-
ments such as the violin, trombone or human voice, serious
problems arose on keyboard instruments. If a C-major scale
is devised on a keyboard tuned initially in just intonation,
a series of modulations three or four keys distant would

Bartholomew, Acoustics of Music, p. 177.

 153
result in triads very badly out of tune. Part of the prob-
lem lies in the fact that there are two kinds of whole tones
in the just scale (8:9 and 9:10). Also the half tones
obtained by dividing either of these whole tones are
different from each other; moreover, many of these are
different from the semitones between the third and fourth
and the seventh and eighth degrees of the just scale.
Alexander J. Ellis believes that the octave must be divided
into seventy-two degrees in order to modulate to remote keys
18
without seriously jeopardizing true intonation. Several
theorists would openly challenge Ellis, preferring scales
with fewer degrees or even more divisions of the octave.
For example, Harry Partch has proposed that 113-tone tempera-
ment is the simplest temperament in which all of the partials
through 11 are adequately represented. However, he does
admit to the impracticality of such a temperament: "If we
were to combine the predilection of fifty-three-tone tem-
perament for the 3's, 5's, and 9's with the predilection of
thirty-six-tone temperament for the 7's and the predilection
of twenty-four-tone temperament for the 11's, we would have
a tonal system capable of all identities within this limit,
numbering 113 tones to the 2/1! Many of these degrees would
of course be acoustically meaningless, except in modulations
seven to fifty 3/2's removed, and if we tossed out the
degrees required by distant modulations we would have left
about forty-three just ratios, the number of degrees in the

Ibid., p. 181.
 154
19
Monophonic fabric."

Beyond 12-Tone Temperament

Example 6 presents a comparison of a few systems

suggested by various theorists. No one of them is perfect
which is inherent in the fact that no multiple of an uneven
number (3, 5, 7 etc.) can ever equal a multiple of an even
number (2, 4, 6 etc.). Each system will have certain inter-
vals which are acoustically perfect. In general, the more
divisions the more acoustically perfect intervals will be
available. In this example we see the ratios (total of 53)
in the left column with the adjacent column containing their
exact true value in monophonic cents.

3l-Tone Temperament

Since the scope of this chapter does not provide for

a complete study of all systems of multiple division of the
octave, we will examine only two at this point; 31- and
53-tone temperament. Within our century the theorist who
has most avidly endorsed 31-tone temperament is Adriaan
Fokker, a Dutch scientist and retired professor and curator
of the Teyler Institute in Haarlem. Fokker built a pipe
organ, housed in the Teyler Institute, tuned to 31-tone
temperament.

Partch, Genesis of a Music, 307.

 155
Example 6» Number of Cents in Degrees of Various Scales
Mono- Mono- 12- 12-Tone 19- 24- 31- 53-
phonic phonic Tone Pythag- Tone Tone Tone Tone
Ratio Cents Equal orean Equal Equal Equal Equal
1/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
81/80 21.5 22.6
33/32 53.2 63.2 50 38.7 45.3 & 67.9
21/20 84.5 90.2 77.4 90.6
16/15, 111.7 100 126.3 100 116.1 113.2
12/11 150*6 150 154.8 135.8
11/10 165.0 158.5
10/9 182.4 189;5 181.1
9/8 203.9 200 200 193.6 203.8
8/7 231.2 232.3 226.4
7/6 266.9 252.6 250 271.0 249.1 & 271.7
32/27 294.1 300 294.1 300 294.3
6/5 315.6 315.8 309.7 317.0
11/9 347.4 350 348.4 339.6 & 362.3
5/4 386.3 400 378.9 400 387.1 384.9
14/11 417.5 407.8 _ "/ - 425.8 407.5
9/7 435.1 442.1 450 430.2 & 452.8
21/16 470.8 464.5 475.5
4/3 498.0 500 498.0 505.3 500 503.2 498.1
27/20 519.5 520.8
11/8 551.3 550 541.9 543.4 & 566.0
7/5 582.5 600 588.3 568.4 600 580.6 588.7
10/7 617.5 611.7 631.6 619.4 611.3
16/11 648.7 650 658.1 634.0 & 656.6
40/27 680.5 679.2
3/2 702.0 700 702.0 694.7 700 696.8 701.9
32/21 729.2 735.5 724.5 & 747.2
14/9 764.9 757.9 750 774.2 769.8
11/7 782.5 792.2 792.5
8/5 813.7 800 821.1 800 812.9 815.1
18/11 852.6 850 851.6 837.7 & 860.4
5/3 884.4 884.2 890.3 883.0
27/16 905.9 900 905.9 900 905.7
12/7 933.1 947.4 950 929.0 928.3 & 950.9
7/4 968.8 967.7 973.6
16/9 996.1 1000 996.1 1000 1006.5 996.2
9/5 1017.6 1010.5 1018.9
20/11 1035.0 1041.5
11/6 1049.4 1050 1045.2 1064.2
15/8 1088.3 1100 1073.7 1100 1083.9 1086.8
40/21 1115.5 1109.8 1122.6 1109.4
64/33 1146.8 1136.8 1150 1161.3 1132.1 &
1154.7
160/81 1178.5 1177.4
2/1 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200
+ Adapted from Harry Partch, Genesis of a Music, p. 303.
 156
As opposed to 12-Tone Pythagorean Temperament where
the fifths are perfect (702 cents), 31-tone temperament
preserves a near perfect major and natural seventh. This is
at the expense of the fifth which is nearly 5.2 cents too
small. The table representing the 31 tones in this system
appears as follows:

CX GX DX AX
A# E# B# FX
F# C# G# D#
F C G D A E B
D A E B
B F C G
G D A E

Beginning with D as an arbitrary center tone, three fifths are

laid out horizontally to the left and right. We call this the
3 axis since the interval ratio for the fifth is 3/2. The
vertical 5 axis contains the major thirds (5/4) above and
below these fifths. It was Christiaan Huygens, another
Dutch mathematician, who discovered in 1732 that if one
extends this table any further, one gets back to notes
already on the chart. For example, a fifth from A x is E x
which Huygens determined was very much the same note as G
E x is the note arrived at by cycling three fifths plus
seven thirds from G . A fifth being 702 cents and a third
386 cents we get; 2,106 + 2,702 = 4,808 cents. This is
only 8 cents more than 4 octaves. Huygens refined his
temperament to the point of differentiating between major
and minor semitones. His octave has five whole tones and
two major semitones divided as follows: the whole tones
 157

have five elementary steps while the major semitone has

three and the minor semitone two elementary steps. The
octave has three perfect thirds (ten steps each) plus one
more elementary step. These elementary steps Huygens named
"dieses" which are fifths of a tone. This dieses is 1/31
20
of an octave or 1200/31 = 38.7 cents. Fokker points out
that the second discovery of Christiaan Huygens was that in
this "tricesimoprimal" temperament the interval of the per-
fect seventh, related to harmonic numbers 4 and 7 (see
Example 5, pagel5l), is very accurately reproducible. From
C to A# in this temperament requires 25 elementary steps
which is 967.5 cents. The exact true value is 969 cents.
31-tone temperament has been criticized for its
excessively small fifths (5.2 cents short). At the same time
we must agree with Mandelbaum when he says, "Against this
defect must be balanced a major third and a natural seventh
of exceptional quality. The thirds are 0.5 sharp while the
sevenths are 1.05 cents too small. Theorists have generally
written favorably about this temperament, but often with
reservations about its fifths."21 The greatest error is in
the minor third (major sixth) which is short of true value by
6 cents.

A. D. Fokker, "Equal Temperament with Thirty-One

Notes," Organ I n s t i t u t e Quarterly, V, No. 4 (1955), 42. In
t h i s a r t i c l e Fokker also discusses t h e design of the manual
and pedal keyboards of h i s 31-tone organ.
21
Mayer Joel Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of the
Octave and the Tonal Resources of 19-Tone Temperament" (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1961), p. 204.
 158
Adriaan Fokker and another theorist, Jose" Wurschmidt,
have devised 31-tone just systems which greatly improve the
fifth (701.95 cents) while retaining the integrity of the
major third (386.31). Example 7 reveals that both Fokker
and Wurschmidt have determined the same value for the fifth
and major third. However, it is Fokker's just system which
keeps the perfect seventh (968.8 cents). Again, Mandelbaum
points out, "The sevenths which distinguish Fokker*s system
from Wurschmidt's offer a new dimension and direction for
consonance in the 31-tone system at almost no cost in
22
intonational accuracy." He goes on to say that in prac-
tice Fokker uses the tempered system. Then why bother to
propose a just system, a variation on a theme which cannot
be played? In a footnote Mandelbaum addresses this diaboli-
cal problem: "Practical questions involving intonation are
involved, since it can be assumed that singers and players
of variable-pitch instruments such as violin and trombone
would attempt to come as close as possible to the just
intonation. Also, in judging the tempered system it is
necessary to know for what purposes it is supposed to be
23
suitable."
53-Tone Temperament

A 53-tone Pythagorean system is almost identical

with 53-tone equal temperament since 53 fifths (37203.35

Ibid., pp. 215-216. * Ibid., p. 216.

 Example 7: Chart of Intervals in 31-Tone Just Systems• * 159
•

Unit of Equal Fokker Wurschmidt Alternate Septimal

System Temper- Tunings of
ament Fokker

0 00.00 00.00 00.00

1 38.71 27.3 41.06 48.7 35.65
2 77.42 92.17 70.68 70.68 84.44
3 116.13 119.5 111.74
4 154.84 155.1 162.85
5 193.55 203.91 203.91
6 232.26 231.2 244.97
7 270.97 266.85 274.58
8 309.68 323.4 315.64 301.9 315.64
9 348.39 359.0 345.25
10 387.10 386.31 386.31
11 425.81 435.1 427.37
12 464.52 470.75 456.99
13 503.23 498.05 498.05
14 541.94 •See below 539.11
15 580.65 590.22 568.72
16 619.35 617.5 **609.78 **or 631.28
17 658.06 653.2 660.89
18 696.77 701.95 701.95
19 735.48 729.25 743.01
20 774.19 664.9 772.63 786.4 772.63
21 812.90 821.4 813.69
22 851.61 857.1 854.75
23 890.32 884.36 884.36
24 929.03 933.15 925.42
25 967.74 968.8 955.03
26 1006.45 996.09 996.09 1017.60 1003.8
27 1045.16 1061.0 1037.15 1039.5 1052.6
28 1083.87 1088.26 1088.26
29 1122.58 1115.6 1129.32 all others the
30 1161.29 1172.7 1158.94 same as Fokker*s
31 1200.00 1200.0 1200.00

*Fokker has s i x d i f f e r e n t p i t c h e s for t h e

14th t o n e : 525.25, 533.7, 541.4, 545.85,
554.6 and 563.95 c e n t s . For c a l c u l a t i n g
the average d e v i a t i o n , t h e b e s t , 541.4 i s
used f o r a l l t h r e e septimal systems shown.
Average d e v i a t i o n : 6.75 5.18 6.05 5.17
(in cents)
Average number of
steps 2.55 2.9 2.55 2.4

Mean deviation
scalewise 10.4 5.2 9.7 7.9

++Adapted from Mayer Joel Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of the

Octave and the Tonal Resourses of 19-Tone Temperament"' (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1961), p. 209.
 160

cents) is nearly equal to 31 octaves (37200.00 cents). A

single fifth in 53-tone temperament is only off 0.06 of a
cent. Many theorists including R. H. M. Bosanquet regard
this temperament as almost the Utopian condition of music.
Alexander J. Ellis called 53-tone temperament: " . . . among
25
the three best (together with 12- and 31-)." Fokker chose
the same three but with a preference for 31-tone temperament
which he considered most practical. Bosanquet prefers 53-
tone temperament for these reasons: "The fifths are off less
than .1 cent. The third is less than 2 cents too small> an
error smaller than that of the 5th in 12-tone temperament."

Closer to Utopia

Theoretically, there can be a scale system with any

number of degrees. Each system will have certain intervals
which are acoustically pure, that is, free of "beats." The
problem, as one might expect, is that with our present
musical instruments (excepting the potential of electroni-
cally produced compositions) these systems are not useable.
Mandelbaum labels 74-tone temperaments and those higher as
"Ideal" systems. Example 8 compares the 5th, 3rd, 7th,
11th and 13th partials of 74-, 87-, 113-, 118-, 171-, 347-

24
English author of An Elementary Treatise on Musi-
cal Intervals and Temperament (London: Macmillan and Co.,
1876).
25
Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of the Octave," p. 183,
26
Ibid., p. 183.
 Example 8: "Ideal ' Systems

Number of Tones: 74 87 113 118 171 347 612

Cents per unit: 16.22 13.79 10.62 10.17 7.02 3.46 1.96

Size of the fifth 697.30 703.45 700.88 701.69 701.75 702.01 701.96
Error of the fifth 4.64 1.50 1.07 0.26 0.20 0.06 0.005
% of possible error 57 22 20 05 06 04 00

Size of the third 389.2 386.2 382.3 386.4 386.0 387.3 386.3
Error of the third 3.1 0.1 4.0 0.1 0.3 1.0 0.0
% of possible error 38 01 75 02 08 59 00
Size of the seventh 973.0 965.5 966.4 966.1 968.4 968.3 968.6
Error of the seventh 4.2 3.3 2.4 2.7 0.4 0.5 0.2
% of possible error 52 48 45 53 11 29 20
Size of 11:8 551.35 551.7 552.2 549.2 554.4 549.8 551.0
Error of 11:8 00.0 0.4 0.9 2.1 3.1 1.3 0.3
% of possible error 00 06 17 41 88 75 31

Size of 13:8 843.2 841.4 838.9 844.1 842.1 840.3 841.2

Error of 13:8 2.7 0.9 1.6 3.6 1.6 0.2 0.7
% of possible error 33 13 30 70 46 12 71

Source of chart: Mayer Joel Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of the Octave

and the Tonal Resources of 19-Tone Temperament" (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1961), p. 209.

<y>
 162

and 612-tone systems. In discussing these highly complex

scales, Mandelbaum scrutinizes the purities and errors of
each system. For example, he points out, "118-tone tem-
perament has enjoyed the most widespread approval of all the
"ideal" temperaments among theorists. Bosanquet, Wurschmidt,
Ariel and Barbour are among the writers who have reported
favorably on this temperament. Both the fifth and the third
are obtained within small fractions of a cent, rendering the
discrepancies for these two intervals small, even for a
system involving such minute units. Far less fortunate in
118-tone temperament are the upper prime partials, each
missing its mark by more than the comparable interval in
Partch's 113-tone system. The ideal temperament is indeed
an elusive matter. . . It may be of some consolation in an
imperfect world to consider that if some kind of living
creature in a distant solar system should develop ears and
a mind of incomprehensible powers, nature has, in 612-tone
temperament, an almost perfect system for him. Almost per-
fect, that is, if he is content to forego the 11th, and
especially the 13th, partials." 27
It is possible to represent graphically an indefinite
number of scale systems. For this writer it seems essential
for the understanding of enlarged temperaments to study a few
examples of these graphs which we shall call tone lattices.
By using a vertical and horizontal axis a lattice of ratios

Ibid., pp. 222-224.

 163
can be constructed. Each ratio or fraction represents a note
in the system. No two ratios will equal each other just as
no two notes will be equal without involving temperament.
In order to construct a tone lattice we need a
cycling number and a prime number with which to compare it.
A prime number is one which can be divided only by 1 or its
own value. For example, 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 are prime numbers
while 4, 6, 8 and all other higher numbers are not. Since
most scales extend to the compass of an octave, usually 2
becomes the cycling number. It must be remembered that 2/1
is the octave ratio. If 3 were used as the cycling number,
the scale would encompass the interval of a perfect 12th
(that is, 3/1).
The next step is to select a prime number for the
vertical axis and one for the horizontal axis. The number 3
is the next lowest prime after 2 and when compared with 2
represents the ratio for the perfect 5th (3/2). Three is
considered a tonal number since the ratio 3/2 provides the
relation between tonic and dominant (or between sub-dominant
and tonic). Tradition labels progressions involving these
chords as tonal progressions. The prime number 3'in this
case is assigned to the vertical axis.
The next prime number is 5 and will be used for the
horizontal axis in building a tone lattice. It should be
pointed out that any prime number other than the cycling
number can be assigned to the axes. The prime 5 relates to
major and minor thirds and sixths and consequently, is called
 164
a modal number. The ratio 6/5 represents the minor third
(or major sixth) while 5/4 the major third (or minor sixth).
These ratios, when present in a system, effect major-minor
coloration. If any prime number is present when 3 is not,
then the smallest prime usually becomes the tonal number.
If the 7th or 11th partials of the overtone series are
introduced (that is, if we use the prime numbers of 7 or 11),
they become additional modal numbers.
Example 9 illustrates a three-step evolution of the
12-tone chromatic scale. The first graph shows the 7-tone
diatonic major scale. In ascending order the notes (we could
begin with any keynote) are C, D, E, F, G, A, B and their
corresponding ratio symbols are l/l, 9/8, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3,
and 15/8. In the graph, however, the scale is derived by
determining pure thirds on the horizontal 5 axis and perfect
fifths on the vertical 3 axis. The second tone lattice in
Example 9 is the 7-tone diatonic minor scale. By constructing
intervals out to the left of the center (l/l, unity or
starting note) we derive the notes with flats which determine
its minor mode. Finally, in the third part of Example 9 the
major and minor diatonic systems are combined to form the
familiar 12-tone chromatic scale. Each ratio can be
"octaved" to bring it within the span of l/l (starting note)
and 2/1 (the octave). For example, 9/4 becomes 9/8 because
9/4 (2k) would indicate a major ninth above the l/l.
Octaving is a common procedure in building scales.
Example 9; Tone Lattices of Diatonic Maior, Minor and
Chromatic Scales of Traditional Triadic Tonality.
In these examples the keynote of C has been arbi-
trarily assigned to the unity.

9 9 9
8 D 5 8 B" D

3 ___ G B 6 3
2 8 5 2 E^ G

1 5 C E 8 1
1 4 5 1 pt> C
4 5 F A 4 F
3 3 3

7-Tone Diatonic Major 7-Tone Diatonic Minor

36 9 9
25 5 8 G* Bb D

6 3 15
5 2 8 Ey G B

i 1 5
5 1 Ab C E
4

4 5 2_> C#
3 3 24 A

12-Tone Chromatic
 166
Further extension of the chromatic system can result
in a 65-tone hyperchromatic tone lattice as shown in
Example 10. This is arrived at by computing ratios in all
four directions. When determining intervals down from center
or to the left on the 3 axis and the 5 axis, division is
used. Consequently, in a dividing direction the resulting
numerator is the tonal number and the denominator indicates
the new prime. Ratios not on any axis are generated by mul-
tiplying the coordinate ratios on the two axes. For example,
15/8 (lying immediately adjacent to 3/2 and 5/4 is obtained
by multiplying 3/2 times 5/4,

Notation

On the 65-tone lattice the symbols + and t indicate

the raising or lowering of notes by the syntonic comma
(81/80). This amounts to 21.5 cents and keeps the interval
in just intonation. When a new prime is used in building a
tone lattice (that is, a prime higher than 3 or 5), addi-
tional pairs of notational symbols are needed. For instance,
the prime number 7 introduces the symbols *• and 7 which
raises or lowers the pitch by 36/35 or about 49 cents
28
(approximately a quarter-tone).

These symbols are used by Adriaan Fokker, Ben

Johnston and Henk Badings with some variations (for example,
Badings uses ^ instead of 7 ) in computing scales con-
taining the 7th partial.
 167

Example lOiTone Lattice of the 65-Tone Hyperchromatic Triadic System

(using prime numbers 2, 3 and 5)

243 243 - x i s 50625

200 160 32768
>b
81 _1 16875 54375
80 64 16384 32768

21 22 11 135 675 3375 16875 84375 421875

25 20 16 128 512 2048 16384 65536 262144

1152 144 36 9 ' 9 __> 225 1125 5625 28125

625 125 25 5I 8 32 128 1024 4096 16384
768 192 48 3 15 75 375
625 125 25 2 8 64 256

128 12 8 1 5 25 125 5 axis

125 25 5 1 _ 4_ - 16 . 64
~ I 125 625
2048 512 128 4 5 25
1875 375 75 1§ | 3 3 24 96 384
15
I
32768 8192 2048 256 64 I 16 10 21 125
28125 5625 1125 225 45 I 9 9 18 72
I
32768 256 32 40
16875 135 •27 27

1128 160
I 81 f 81

E K + G+ AX++
C+ E+ DX+ F#X++

Db F+ A+ c#+ E#+ GX+ BX+ D#x+ Fxx++

ebb Ebb Gb Bb D F#+ A#+ CX+ EX+ G#x+

pbb Abfc cb Eb_ G B m Fx+

Dbb- C E G# B#

Ebbb - Gbt> - Bbb- nb- F A "* C # ~ " E # ~ GX

Fbbb- Abbb- ebb- Ebb- Gb- B b- D- F# A#

Dbbb — cb- E b- G-

*>- C-

Source of cnarti Ben Johnston, "Tonality Regained," American

Society of University Composers - Proceedings.
VI (Spring, 1973), p±<ll7.
 168

Similarly, the prime number 11 introduces f and y ,

which indicates raising or lowering the pitch by 33/32,
somewhat more than a quarter-tone.
At the University of Illinois Ben Johnston and Ed
Kobrin are presently involved in a project which will
utilize a computer in constructing compositions in just
intonation. A forthcoming issue of Source, Magazine for the
Avant Garde will present their work including all scalar
systems involving prime numbers up through 11.

Conclusion

It would appear that most of the higher systems

beyond 31-tone temperament are not practical for human per-
formance. This is borne out by the fact that no literature
has been composed. However, a number of composers have
shown interest in 31-tone temperament. This has been
especially true since Fokker*s construction in the middle
30
40*s of an organ in 31-tone temperament. Mandelbaum points
out that»
Other instruments have been designed recently
for 31-tone temperament. Among them is a 31-tone

19 . . . .
Ben Johnston, "Tonality Regained," American Society
of University Composers—Proceedings. 1971, VI (Spring, 1973),
p. 115.
30
A number of instruments using 31 tones to the octave
were built during the Renaissance. Among them was Vicentino's
archicembalo, which had a companion instrument, an archiorgano.
For a detailed examination of the tuning of Vicentino's
instruments see Henry W. Kaufmann's article "Vicentino's
Arciorganoj an Annotated Translation," Journal of Music Theory
(April, 1961), p. 32.
 169

trumpet, an adaptation by Martin Vogel, the

author of the definitive work on the seventh
partial. Prof. Fokker, in reporting on this
instrument in his letter does not describe
its mechanism. Presumably a complete re-
ordering of valves is required, possibly
involving 1, 2, 4 and 8 units of the system
respectively.31
Fokker does not mention if any compositions exist for this
newly designed trumpet.
Several instrumental works and a few choral composi-
tions in 31-tone temperament have appeared. In 1947 Mart.
J. Lur sen's Modi Ant ich i Musiche Nuove was published as the
winning work in a competition held in Haarlem. Although
this work, consisting of twenty very short pieces, was com-
posed with Fokker's 31-tone organ in mind, Lursen specifies
for each piece various instrumental groups, "should they
ever develop the ability to play them."32
A few recordings exist of music composed in 31-tone
temperament. One is in the library of the University of
Basel, Switzerland, which contains tricesimoprimal (31-tone)
works by Jan van Dijk, Henk Badings and Arie de Klein.
Another recording of tricesimoprimal music has been released
commercially in Europe (Philips 40090, 45 r. p. m.). Men-
tion has been made by the author of a recording released by
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, in 1968 titled
"Tricesimoprimal Music." This is the recording which
includes five songs for a cappella mixed choir, Contrasten

Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of the Octave," pp.

216-17.
32
Ibid., p. 218.
 170
(1952), by the Dutch composer Henk Badings. There are also
compositions for strings on this recording by Hans Kox and
Alan Ridout.
In the field of choral music Ben Johnston has com-
posed a few works in enlarged temperament. His "Ci-Git-
Satie" (commissioned by the Swingle Singers) for eight
voices, bass and drums is built on a 31-tone scale. It has
been recorded on Ars Nova label (AN-1005) by the University
of Illinois New Music Ensemble under the direction of
Kenneth Gaburo (1968). In 1971 Johnston produced a short
piece for mixed voices entitled "Rose" (text by Sibyl
Johnston) employing seventh partial intervals. The same is
true of his Mass (1972) for mixed voices, trombones, bass
and rhythm section. This work is discussed in the following
chapter.
For a number of years Lou Harrison has been composing
in 12-tone just intonation. Among his choral works in this
style are Four Strict Songs for male chorus (commissioned by
the Louisville Symphony Orchestra Society) and Mass to St.
Anthony. Harrison is a California composer currently on the
faculty of San Jose State University. His Mass to St.
Anthony does not involve new notational symbols, but he
requests it be sung and played in just intonation.
It is the belief of this writer that an increasing
number of compositions in enlarged temperaments will appear
in the next decade. This conviction is based on; (1) the
inherent potential of the computer and electronic synthesizer,
(2) the capability of today's instrumentalists (and not only
performers on strings and trombones) and singers to produce
hyperchromatic scales, making more exact intonation possible,
and (3) the increased interest of theorists and composers in
this country and abroad in experimenting with multiple
divisions of the octave. Already there are electronic
devices on the commercial market capable of producing hyper-
chromatic scales. The author has learned from Dr. Leigh
Gerdine at Webster College, St. Louis, Missouri, that his
school now owns a European manufactured Archiphone which can
be adjusted to produce enlarged temperaments. Recently,
Motorola Inc. (Arlington Heights, Illinois) has manufactured
an electronic Scalatron. This instrument is so refined that
it can produce over 24,000 exact tones. This variable pitch
capability means that any scale of the past, present (or
future) can be created with absolute precision. 33
Because temperaments larger than our 12-tone scale
are generally unfamiliar to singers and instrumentalists
(and conductors), it will be some time before we hear this
kind of music performed regularly on concerts. The intona-
tion adjustments are demanding. For singers the vibrato
works against pure tuning. Yet, a work like Schonberg's
Friede auf Erden only a few years ago presented similar

A tape is available from Motorola, Inc. which

includes a performance by the University of Illinois Con-
cert Choir (Harold A. Decker, conductor) of works by Ives,
Harrison and Johnston accompanied by a Scalatron.
 172

difficulties for most college choirs. First attempts at

navigating new territory are usually painfully exciting.
This compositional technique has created (perhaps we should
say rediscovered) new timbres that in future years may be
a part of the mainstream of serious music.
 CHAPTER V

MASS BY BEN JOHNSTON

The Work in Perspective

Ben Johnston composed his Mass in 1972 and dedicated

it to the University of Illinois Concert Choir. Its first
performance took place on the campus in St. John's Chapel
as part of the Phoenix '73 Contemporary Music Series. The
score requires a mixed chorus, eight trombones, rhythm sec-
tion and bass. The accompaniment suggests the influence of
the folk-mass idiom which is prevalent today in many litur-
gical churches. The drum part is "ad libitum" for the
performer, allowing for a free improvisation of rhythmic
and percussive sound patterns. The bass part is to be played
pizzicato but not improvised. The score appears in Appendix F.
Looking at the scoring for the trombones we learn
that although eight instruments are indicated, each part
is doubled. Since the trombones sustain their tones beyond
a normal breath span, this doubling allows for staggered
breathing. Their part acts as a "drone" throughout the
Mass with the exception of the Credo where some rhythmic
and melodic variation is found. The "drone" reminds the

173
 174

listener of the sixteenth century Hurdy-Gurdy which came to

be used as a folk instrument in the next century. It had
two to four drones played by a revolving wheel (tuned either
c, g, c', or G, g, d'). The trombones of the Mass often
employ the intervals of fifth, octave and fourth. The
"drone" in this work provides an important tonal reference
for the singers as they strive for just intonation.
The use of brass instruments in the church liturgy
has a long history. Curt Sachs tells us that the trombone
originated from the trumpet in the fifteenth century. The
first pictorial evidence of a trombone is on a painting of
the Italian Matteo di Giovanni, who died in 1495, in the
2
National Gallery, London. Although trombones are not fre-
quently seen in early opera scores, they were freely used
in church orchestras. One historian tells us:
Trombone parts dating from the end of the sixteenth
century exist in the works of Giovanni Gabrieli,
organist of St. Mark's, Venice, at the time, and
instances of their use occur in certain operas by
Monteverde and Cesti. Legrenzi's orchestra at
St. Mark's in 1685 included three trombones.
Trombones stand alone amongst orchestral wind
instruments in that they were mechanically per-
fect before any sort of organized orchestras
were in existence. . . . Mersennus describes the
seven positions of the slide which gave the instru-
ments a complete chromatic scale over all but the
very lowest part of their compass.3
Another source makes reference to the use of brass instruments

•••Curt Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (New

York; W. W. Norton, 1940), p. 326.
2
Ibid.
3Adam Carse, The History of Orchestration (New York;
Dover Publications, Inc., 1964), p. 18.
 175

in church services;
At the court chapel of Maximilian of Austria,
the choristers were sometimes supported by the
organ, cornets (zinks), and trombones. . . .
Jean Gerson, in his "De canticorum originali
ratione," noticed that loud instruments (trum-
pets, bombards, and shawms) were frequently
added in church services. . . . Frequently,
shawms and a sackbut, or trombone, for the
bass part, took the place of the choir at
especially festive occasions, such as the mar-
riage of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York.4

The fact that trombones are capable of adjusting

their pitches by means of sliding valves permits them to
play harmonic intervals closer to just intonation. This is
much more difficult for singers, especially if the voices
have a significant degree of vibrato in them. In the Mass
the trombones can be heard by the choir and the singers can
make adjustments to the instruments. Often one or more parts
in the choir will be duplicating the same pitch as one of
the trombones. In this sense the trombones act as an anchor
to the harmonic structure.

Style Characteristics

An interesting feature of Mass is the way in which

the composer has combined an archaic feeling of style
through the use of open fifths, sometimes in parallel motion,
which creates a "quasi-Gregorian" flavor. A suggestion of
organum is felt immediately in the opening Kyrie as seen

Edmund A. Bowles, "Haut and Bas: The Grouping of

Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages," Musica Disciplina.
VIII (1954), p. 134.
 176
in Example 1 when the tenors and basses sing a series of
parallel fifths, octaves and fourths:

Example 1, bars 5-6, Kyrie.

Uf *
Kij _ - - n-e. E—I*. — i - JOW. K,

g ffii'f (_nU t >• f

T r o w bov»es
g=
*5_E

• _ _ -
____:

Another influence of Gregorian chant can be seen in

the way in which the word rhythms are treated. This is
especially evident in the Gloria where the rhythmic pulses
are grouped in threes and twos according to the text:
Example 2: bars 1-3 of the Gloria.

Ia \_J I I F ^
1 _______
, | | i •»
t i Bl ln*
' 3
f \ Tthi'
IfW' L^ _ I I-
-**#-
m
Qlorm in e.r-cc\-yi D e - - - o, E t in ter-rA pa* W-mi-tii-wi
•8
=rm*n £f
7**
1 ^m
(r^7^

ft
I in LM± 1 t m &?=
L^ f C __j
14=-J
T.
(•» I o-*•,-<
" » »
|«

uJ'V
er^-c«Wi>

BE
De-
T—

i—n__3
Et iri

SE
t e r - r « pan ri» - I H I - ni-buj
 177
However, the meters of the Gloria are constantly changing
and the composer has purposely caused some unaccented syl-
lables to fall on accented beats. For example, at bar six
the words "Benedicimus te" are set in a 5/8 meter which
fits the rhythm of the text very nicely (i.e. 3 + 2). Yet,
in the following bar the meter changes to 7/8 and the
singers can be easily tripped by the elongated final syl-
lable of "Adoramus" which normally would be a shorter value
because it is unaccented. Then in the next bar we see a
normal grouping of pulses for the words "Glorificamus te"
(3+2+2):

Example 3; bars 6-8 of the Gloria.

3. t. /•..-. . 5_e—t—e-

Types of Intonation Used in Mass

The composer asks that the composition be performed

in just intonation. For this reason, there are no key
signatures for any of the movements. The notes A, B, C,
D, E, F, and G, when they are used without accidental signs,
represent the notes of the just-tuned tonic triad (C-E-G),
the dominant (G-B-D) and the subdominant (F-A-C) of C major.
 178
Example 4s Seventh Partial Relat
ions.

3 axis
2

27
16
9 9
7 8
12 3 21
7 2 16
^
7 axis i 1 7 49
4 343
J 7 1 4 32 256
32 4 7
21 3 6
16 14
9 9

A+

AB7+ G37+

Septimal minor scale:

Septimal major scales
Dt, EL, F, G, AU, Bb-, c
A"*, B*. C, D, E*, F, G
 179
The symbols # and P , X and PV alter a note in the usual
way, a chromatic semitone (about 70 cents). The symbols L.
and 7 indicate intervals tuned by using the seventh partial
of the overtone series. They move the pitch almost exactly
50 cents or a quarter of a tone. For example, D, F^ repre-
sents a minor third about a quarter-tone flat. The interval
G to A is a major second about a quarter-tone sharp. The
symbols /• and 7 can be combined with traditional symbols
(# and p ) to further sharp or flat a note by a quarter-tone.
The combined forms are^k , J^- , p and ft. . The symbols
+ and - indicate the syntonic comma displacement (21.5 cents).

Seventh Partial Tuning

In several movements of Mass we find septimal tunings

which involves use of the seventh partial. The two Kyries
and the Sanctus mix septimal tuning and just triadic tuning
in a dorian mode. The Gloria also mixes septimal and triadic
tunings but uses the mixolydian mode. The Credo uses a
septimally tuned aeolian mode. The Agnus Dei involves just
intonation within a pentatonic scale. The Christe in the
first movement is built on a just tuned lydian scale.
At this point the writer believes it would be rela-
vant to include a graph of ratios obtained by using seventh
partial relations. Instead of using a 5/4 horizontal axis
(that is, third relations) we use the seventh partial or 7/4
axis. For the vertical axis we retain the 3/2 or fifth rela-
tions. Example 4 illustrates the ratios of seventh partials
 180
together with a tone lattice of corresponding notes.
In a tempered twelve-tone scale the interval of a
seventh, such as B? above C, is actually sharp by 8.4 cycles
per second. In fact, the only acoustically pure interval in
the tempered scale is the octave. The next closest interval
is the fifth which is slightly flat. The thirds in tempered
tuning are sharp by 2.6 cycles per second. Example 5 compares
the frequencies of the natural or pure tuning of given over-
tones with the frequencies as they are tempered in our
familiar twelve-tone scale.

Kyrie

In the opening Kyrie of the Mass the composer uses

the F mode of the septimal major scale (see Example 4 ) .
Beginning on F, the scale reads: F, G, AP , B P, C, D, E v .
The tone lattice of Example 4 indicates the proper spellings
of both the septimal major and minor modes. The seventh par-
tial of F is Ey , which is about 49 cents lower than the
E V of the tempered scale. Likewise, in order to retain
pure fifths and fourths, we must lower A P and B p by one
quarter-tone.
We have already seen in Example 1 how the Kyrie begins
with the men singing parallel fifths and fourths. The diffi-
culty for the singers is to move by intervals which are
altered by one quarter-tone, a feeling of singing in the
cracks of the twelve-tone tempered scale. To illustrate, on
the second beat of bar 5 the tenors are moving from F to E7 »
 181

Example 5: Comparison of Natural and Tempered

Frequencies

FREQUENCY
Natural Nearest tempered Overtone Partial
scale pitch Series Series
1046.4 1046.4 15 16
981.0 987.8 14 15
915.6 132.4 13 14
850.2 880.0 12 13
784.8 784.0 11 12
719.4 698.4 10 11
654.0 659.2 9 10
588.6 587.4 8 9
523.2 523.2 7 8
457.8 466.2 6 7
392.4 392.0 5
327.0 329.6 4 5
261.6 261.6 - - - - ^ 4
196.2 196.0 •O
O

65.4 65.4
•o- FUNDAMENTAL 1
 182
the interval of a whole tone plus a quarter-tone, placing
them just about halfway between E P and D. Simultaneously,
the two bass parts are moving by the same interval and the
singers must listen very carefully to tune a pure octave
(tenor and bass II), a pure fifth (bass II and bass I), and
a pure fourth (tenor and bass I). From experience the author
can say that this requires initially a very slow rehearsal
technique where all singers are concentrating on eliminating
the beats. Furthermore, it is even more difficult for the
tenors and basses, in this case, to move back up from the E ,
B , E , to F, C, F and retain the correct tuning. When the
soprano voice enters in bar 8, their B? must be tuned to the
B 7 in the bass I part;

Example 6: bar 8, Kyrie.

The quarter-tone adjustments will be heard more as

melodic modal inflections rather than dissonant intervals.
Occasionally, vertical dissonances of a quarter-tone do occur;
 183

Example 7; bars 10-11, Kyrie.

Quarter-tone dissonances
•4° I \\i
E\-
w& m^e h - I - -SOW

• 1, • *
(• f \ j, I U u<
&
n - & E- - 4e. - — - - -

•*+_?
I i , •• t
* i >' [ [J
E |e - -» i - *>M ^ . . . tri- a
L

ff l l U 3Z- $g^gsi
Here we see a quarter-tone dissonance between the soprano and
alto voice in bar 10 and again between these voices in bar 11.
The Christe section of the first movement makes use of
the lydian mode with the addition of C#. We can think of it
as the scale of D major with the tone G as a final. The aural
result is a G major scale with a raised fourth degree. How-
ever, if we make reference to the tone lattice given in
Example 10 of the previous chapter, acoustically it will be
spelled; G, A+, B, C#+, D, E+, F#+. This section demands
very careful and slow rehearsing in order to tune the ver-
tical harmonies correctly. This is where a keyboard
instrument such as the Scalatron can be most helpful. The
singers should listen to the note(s) preceding each move and
relate the intervals melodically and vertically. To
 184
accomplish this each singer has to be aware of what the other
voices are singing and how to relate their pitches;

Example 8; bars 18-20, Kyrie.

When the second Kyrie comes in, the tuning becomes

more difficult because of the septimal relationships. The
pitch D is the seventh partial of E and must be brought into
pure tuning by lowering it one quarter-tone (D7 ). Subse-
quently, this can alter certain intervals above and below any
D7 . Again, the singers can make reference to the pitches of
the trombones which are sustaining the octave E plus the pure
fifth (or fourth) B. In Example 9 this writer has made
 -<f fcr

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i v 7i '?.

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- le - i - _ o *
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- le - I -I sett

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\X-fcKg.-broi>^6v\&S encS
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Pfl
Example 9: b a r s 33-35, Kyrie.
 186

certain notations on the score which indicate the kind of

awareness required to achieve just intonation.

Gloria

The challenge of this movement is in the brisk tempo

and the changing meters. Yet, it is this very aspect which
makes the Gloria exciting and enjoyable to sing once the
singers have mastered it.
Mention has already been made of the rhythmic groupings
of threes and twos within the polymetric scheme. At a "Lively'
tempo as indicated in the score the conductor must be particu-
larly aware of these rhythmic groupings. The conducting
patterns must be precisely measured in order to convey
visually a steady flow of eighth-note groupings;

Example 10: bars 9-12, Gloria.

5
15
£r«-tl-«i *-^i-i«*» bi-bi Q pr.p-Wr m«j-rwW a\o — vi -«W tu - «M O Do -«i -»« De - x» C

t
)£rtii-Qi «-^i-mn4 ti -bi
S prop+er aaa-nvi qlo -ri «m
M M A .. • ' " ' • .
in - *<* Do - m - « « Pe - u> b

3
 187

The author can attest to the fact that it is not easy for the
singers to keep the eighth-note pulse steady when the meters
are constantly changing. Especially in places such as bar
11 at the sustained dotted half note it is difficult for the
amateur choir to release together exactly at the right time.
It has been this writer's experience that the singers must
think of stretching the measure just as the conductor
stretches the third beat to accommodate the seventh eighth note.
The tuning of the Gloria involves the adjustment of
certain pitches by the syntonic comma displacement of 21.5
cents. This is indicated by the + symbol which sometimes is
combined with the 7 or *• quarter-tone symbols. Can this
syntonic comma displacement be heard? Indeed, it is a subtle
acoustical adjustment. In fact, it is almost a subconscious
alteration. However, it can help to pull an interval into
tune, that is, it can serve as a signpost for the intelligent
singer to tell him which direction he must move his voice to
eliminate undesirable beats. In the previous example cited
we see that the soprano must sing an F 7* on the vowel "ah"
of "agimus" which is the distance of a whole tone from G plus
about one-eighth of a tone. The quarter-tone sign lowers the
F 49.5 cents but the + sign raises it 21.5 cents which makes
a final adjustment of 28 cents. Certainly in cases like this
the assistance of an instrument capable of ultra-fine tuning
would be valuable for the choir in rehearsal.
 188

Credo

By the nature of its text the Credo is usually the

longest movement of the mass. Here the composer does not
telescope the text as found in a missa brevis setting, but he
chooses to treat the words as a canon between the unison
women's voices and the unison men's voices. The shape of the
melody itself takes on the flavor of Gregorian chant as it
spins out a hauntingly beautiful line. The two-part canon
between the women and men occurs three times during the move-
ment. These sections are separated by homophonic, four-part
vocal phrases which appear in triple meter each time. The
form of the Credo can be seen as follows;

Bars 1-24, 4 , Two-part canon:

4
Women: Credo in unum Deum. Patre omnipotentem, etc.
Men: (4 bars rest) Credo in unum Deum, etc.
Bars 25-32, 3 , Homophonic four-part section;
4
S,A,T,B: Deum de Deo, lumen de lumine, etc.
Bars 33-48, 4 , Two-part canon:
4
Men; Genitum, non factum, consubstantialem, etc.
Women: (2 bars rest) Genitum, etc.
Bars 49-75, 3 , Homophonic four-part section;
4
S,A,T,B; Crucifixus etiam pro nobis, etc.
Bars 76-103, 4 , Two-part canon;
4
 189
Women; Et i n S p i r i t u m Sanctum, Dominum, e t c .
Men: (3 b a r s r e s t ) Et in Spiritum, etc.
Bars 104-107, 4 , F o u r - p a r t a c a p p e l l a section;
4
S,A,T,B; Amen.

A three-part ostinato of two bars length played by the

trombones underlines the three canonic sections of the Credo;

Example 11: bars 1-2, Credo.

- " ',' $ ?__

_i_=
Mm .1 ri.
E -EC-

w^
The trombone ostinato is interrupted at the homophonic sec-
tions. For this writer who has performed the work, these
chordal sections of the Credo are dramatic, especially at
"Crucifixus etiam pro nobis" where a fourth trombone is
added. At this point the change of meter to 3/4, the forte
dynamic, the syncopated entrance of three of the trombones
combined with the poignancy of the text conveys a deep
spiritual impact;
 190
Example 12; bars 49-50, Credo.

The composer's use of canonic treatment of the text plus the

use of an ostinato in the trombones creates a relentless drive,
a kind of hypnotic effect as the words of this centuries old
creed is heard in echoing phrases. The writer is reminded
5 ..
of Stravinsky's setting of Mass where a similar effect is
achieved, not through the use of canon and ostinato, but by
a continuous homophonic texture in both the choral and
instrumental parts;

Stravinsky's Mass is scored for four-part mixed voices

and double woodwind quintet.
 191
Example 13; bars 12-17, Credo of Stravinsky's
Mass. (Permission granted by Boosey
and Hawkes, New York.)

Et la u—num Do-ral-nura Jo—sum Christum, Fl-ll-um D»—

Et In u—num Do-ral num Jo—Burn Christum, Fl-ll-um Do—

Both Stravinsky and Johnston choose to end the Credo of their

Mass in a similar way. At the final "Amen" the instruments
are not used. Stravinsky uses the word twice over a six-bar
phrase beginning with tonal imitation:

Example 14; bars 148-53, Credo of Stravinsky's

Mass. (Permission granted by Boosey
and Hawkes, New York.)
14.8 fifa pa~o me.no mo.sa
fSi^
Johnston sets a single "Amen" flowing in an arch phrase of
four bars. This section stands out effectively as the only
unaccompanied phrase in the Mass:

Example 15: bars 104-107, Credo of Johnston's

Mass.

Sanctus

The Sanctus is similar to the Credo of Johnston's

Mass in the use of an ostinato pattern. Here it appears in
the women's voices over a three-bar phrase;
Example 16; bars 1-3, Sanctus;

f_3__&
3C 4 5«iic - - t u i Sane {Ui
U, _.fltlt - - tub

I ; J'lJJ^^^
 193
Singing in unison, the tenors and basses spin out a melodic
line against the ostinato and against the sustained open
chord of the trombones;

Example 17; bars 7-9, Sanctus.

= & S=4
m =t-_ =_= »« '

ianc- - i us •>amc Itfb, 5.HDC tlliy

I - • ! - — I " . 1 ^ - 1 ;

F* ^ __E

3 i_§
1
H* T ^ ii__i
mi- tm Pe --us - b a - otl).
.__£ _.
e
—i—#-
_*=
3S _E SE _i *

I f ?f

The ostinato is broken only at the "Hosanna in excelsis"

which is set chordally for all the voices. The use of synco-
pation throughout the movement achieves an effective wedding
of new and old elements. The tempo is not so fast as to
create a jazz rhythm which would be out of character of the
work as a whole. The male voices create a kind of Gregorian
chant effect.

The Sanctus is a comparatively short movement. It is

 194
set in the dorian mode and makes use of seventh partial
relationships. Again, the trombones serve as an anchor to
the pitch of the key note D (doubled by the bass trombone),
the pure fifth above and the upper octave D as seen in
Example 17.

Agnus Dei

The Agnus Dei is set in a pentatonic Pythagorean

tuning beginning on E. It is the only movement of the Mass
which has any flavor of major tonality. Yet, it also retains
an archaic quality because the voices move in parallel
fourths and fifths, a kind of modified organum. There are
no septimal relationships here, therefore, we do not encounter
intervals which must be adjusted by a quarter-tone. A fifth
trombone part is added and together these instruments sustain
a chord containing four Pythagorean fifths. The pizzicato
bass also traces these same pitches in its walking pattern.
The composer has effectively used the notes of the penta-
tonic scale (E, F#+, G#+, B, C#+) vertically in the trombones
and melodically in the ostinato bass and the voices. Notice
the double canons in the paired voices as the Agnus Dei
begins:
 195
Example 1 8 ; b a r s 1-4, Agnus D e i .

Slow, sdtMrl
£l $ttf » Jm dtitz
% m
wm
s
4 De--., tM» U
1s ?P
ii e
E_S
^ c
^

?P M*¥* » *,' tti

w.
85
r~V ^ ' ^ ^
4 . 1 - II-
=yp*' ,'y.

<pll ptt.-ca.-ia.
ifc
*mis - l i e . - i .
4 IStfc
__ * T [j D \ _____£ * • * • .my
E=Eg=
Trombones
fP
*f-t*. —

•eyop sempre

The Agnus Dei covers only nineteen bars, however, its

form and balance, its solemn tempo together with its penta-
tonic structure seems to be an appropriate length for the
benediction to the Mass. The archaic Pythagorean thirds
(larger than tempered thirds) can be heard in the women's
voices along with just fourths in the lower voices juxtaposed
against the four pure fifths of the trombones:
 196
Example 19; b a r s 17-19, Agnus Dei.

17 1SL
•ih'
n -if. Hi
i ) nj y =y?=

«o-ra no -lu - fce».

1
ifp =35=

n J *t ___ EE
flO - »« *|0 - 015

_3T___
- J. gn=i _§= =e*=

. *•'

The author has been informed that Mark Foster Pub-

lishing Company of Champaign, Illinois, will publish the
complete Mass by Ben Johnston in the fall of 1974. Recently,
this firm released the Kyrie and Agnus Dei as a separate
octavo.

Having performed Mass several times in the New England

area, it is the opinion of this writer that the work well
justifies the effort required for study and performance. It
will stretch the mind and ear of the serious performer, and
it will enrich the soul of the sensitive listener.
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Articles

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(November, 1971), 453-61.
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Bowles, Edmund A. "Haut and Bas: The Grouping of Musical
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Eitz, Carl. "Von den naturlich reine Stimmungsverhaltnissen."
Melos, I (August 16, 1920), 293-95.
Fokker, Adriaan D. "Equal Temperament with Thirty-One Notes."
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Frost, Thomas P. "A Matter of Records." Organ Institute
Quarterly, V, No. 3 (1955), 41-43.
Herzog, George. "Speech-Melody and Primitive Music." Musical
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Johnston, Ben. "Tonality Regained." American Society of
University Composers—Proceedings, 1971, VI (Spring,
1973), 113-19.
Kaufmann, Henry W. "Vicentino's Arciorgano; an Annotated
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Keller, Hans. "Whose Fault Is the Speaking Voice?" Tempo,
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Lewinski, Wolf-Eberhard von. "Where Do We Go from Here? A
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. "The Variety of Trends in Modern German Music."
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197
 198
Luening, Otto. "Some Random Remarks on Electronic Music."
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Newlin, Dika. "Arnold Schoenberg as Choral Composer."
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Patmore, Derek. "Atomic Age Composer." Music and Musicians,
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Pousseur, Henri. "Music, Form and Practice." die Reihe, VI
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. "Formal Elements in a New Compositional Material"

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Ringger, Rolf Urs. "Wort und Ton-Kongruenzen und Diskon-
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. "Two Lectures: I. Electronic and Instrumental
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. "Mikrophonie I and Mikrophonie II." Melos,
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Austin, William W. Music in the 20th Century. New York: w.
W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1966.
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Prentice Hall, Inc., 1942.
Besch, Otto. Engelbert Humperdinck. Leipzig: Breitkopf &
Hartel, 1914.
 200

Cage, John. Silence. 2nd ed. Cambridge; The M.I.T. Press

paperback printing, 1967.
Carse, Adam. The History of Orchestration. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1964.
Collaer, Paul. A History of Modern Music. Translated by
Sally Abeles. The Universal Library. New York: Grosset
& Dunlap, 1961.
Cope, David. New Directions in Music. Dubuque; Wm. C. Brown
Company, 1971.
Cott, Jonathan. Stockhausen—Conversations with the Composer.
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973.
Heffner, R-M. S. General Phonetics. Madison; The University
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Hines, Robert Stephan, ed. The Orchestral Composer's Point of
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Those Who Wrote It. Norman; University of Oklahoma Press,
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Karkoschka, Erhard. Notation in New Music; a Critical Guide
to Interpretation and Realisation. Translated by Ruth
Koenig /Das Schriftbildderneuen Musik/. New York:
Praeger, 1972.
Kolneder, Walter. Anton Webern: An Introduction to His Works.
Translated by Humphrey Searle. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 1968.
Lang, Paul Henry. Music in Western Civilization. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1941.
Leibowitz, Rene. Schoenberg and His School. Translated by
Dika Newlin. New York: The Philosophical Library, Inc.,
1949.
Lorentzen, Bent. New Choral Dramatics. Copenhagen: Wilhelm
Hansen, 1973.
Moles, Abraham. Information Theory and Esthetic Perception.
Translated by Joel E. Cohen. Urbana: University of
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Nordwall, Ove, ed. Lutoslawski. Stockholm: Edition Wilhelm
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Peyser, Joan. The New Music. New York: Delacorte Press, 1971.
 201
Pooler, Frank and Brent Pierce. New Choral Notation. New
York: Walton Music Corp., 1971.
Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1940.
Salzman, Eric. Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction.
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Stockhausen, Karlheinz. Texte zur elektronischen und instiu-
mentaln Musik. Edited by Dieter Schnebel. 2 Vols.
Koln: M. DuMont Schauberg Verlag, 1963-1964.
Stuckenschmidt, Hans Heinz. Twentieth Century Composers.
Edited by Anna Kailin and Nicolas Nabokov. Vol. II.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
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C. Dissertations

Mandelbaum, Mayer Joel. "Multiple Division of the Octave

and the Tonal Resources of 19-Tone Temperament."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University,
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Newellj_. Robert Max. "Writing for Singers in the Sixties"-
/with original composition/ The Graduate Manual.
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois,
1970.
 APPENDIX A
REPRESENTATIVE CHORAL MUSIC WITH SPRECHSTIMME

202
 2C3

REPRESENTATIVE CHORAL MUSIC WITH SPRECHSTIMME

Composer Composition Publisher

Anderson Personals Composers Facsimile

Baird Egzorta Sesac
Bassett Moon Canticle C. F. Peters
Knopf
Notes in the Silence
Beecroft Canadian Music Centre
From Dreams of Brass
Boulez Heugel
Le soleil des eaux
Boyd G. Schirmer
A Tongue of Wood
Bright Shawnee
Jabberwocky
Butler How Excellent Is Bourne
Thy Name
Dallapiccola Canti di Prigionia Zerboni
Canti di Liberzione Zerboni
Requiescant Zerboni
Davidovsky Synchronism No. 4 Marks Music
(Psalm 70)
Dello Joio The Mystic Trumpeter G. Schirmer
Edlund Gloria Walton Music
Erb Kyrie Gentry
Felciano Alleluia from Mass
For Pentecost World Library
Out of Sight E. C. Schirmer
Three-in-One-in-Three E. C. Schirmer
 204

Composer Composition Publisher

Finney Edge of Shadow C. F. Peters

Still Are New Worlds C. F. Peters

Foss Fragments of Archi- Carl Fischer

lochos
Frackenpohl Hogamus, Higamusl E. B. Marks

Gaburo Maledetto (Lingua II) Manuscript

Harris Tears Alexander Broude

Hemberg Messa d'oggi Walton Music

Hennagin The Family of Man Walton Music

Honegger King David E. c. Schirmer

Ives Soliloquy G. Schirmer

Jergenson The Vision G. Schirmer

Johansson The Tomb at Akr Caar Fazer, Helsinki

Kagel Anagrama Universal Edition

Hallelujah (1967) Universal Edition
London Day of Desolation Joseph Boonin
Dream Thing on
Biblical Episodes Manuscript
Lunde The Beatitudes Alexander Broude
Lutoslawski Three Poems of Henri
Michaux J. & W. Chester Ltd.
McElheran Patterns in Sound Oxford
Etude and Pattern Oxford
Scherzo Oxford
Mellnas Dream Walton Music
Succsim Wilhelm Hansen
Menotti The Unicorn, the Gor-
gon, and the Manti-
core Ricordi
Milhaud Les Choephores Universal Edition
Miller The Seven Last Days E. C. Schirmer
 205

Composer Composition Publisher

Nelhybel Sine Nomine Franco Colombo

Nystedt Praise to God Associated Music
Orff Catulli Carmina Schott
Penderecki Aus den Psalmen Davids Moeck Verlag
Et Mors
Domini Nostri Jesu
Christi
Secundum Lusam Moeck Verlag
Dimensionen der Zeit
und Der Stille Moeck Verlag
Dies Irae Moeck Verlag
Cantata in Honorem
Almae Matris Sesac
Utrenja; I Grable-
gung Christi Schott
Prautsch' The New Is Old Abingdon
Reconciliation Abingdon
Roussakis Night Speech Alexander Broude
Rovics Cantata: Poems of
War Resistance Composers Facsimile
Rydman Dona itabis Pacem Manuscript
Schnebel Madrasha II Manuscript
AMN Manuscript
Vokalisten Manuscript
Schoenberg De Profundis (Psalm
130) MCA
Die Gluckliche Hand
Schramm Alarippu MCA
Canticle
Capella Music
Schuman Prelude
G. Schirmer
Slogedal Antiphona de Morte
Walton Music
Smith Babel
G. Schirmer
Starer Death Is Nothing to Us
MCA
Stockhausen Carre Universal Edition
Gesang Der Junglinge Universal Edition
Momente Universal Edition
Mikrophonie II Universal Edition
 206

Composer Composition Publisher

Stravinsky Introitus Boosey & Hawkes

Requiem Canticles Boosey & Hawkes
Toch Valse Belwin Mills
Geographical Fugue Belwin Mills
Trythal A Time to Every Purpose Marks Music
In the Presence Marks Music
Vercoe Digressions Elkan-Vogel
Vieru Nocturnal Scenes Manuscript
Vogel Meditation on Amedeo
Modigliani Ricordi
Thyl Claes Ricordi
Arplade Ricordi
Flight Ricordi
Jonah Ricordi
Moby Dick Ricordi
Wagadus Untergang Durch Ricordi
Die Eitelkeit Ricordi
Walton Facade Oxford
Werle Canzone 126 di
Francesco Petrarca Wilhelm Hansen
Widdoes Sanctus Manuscript

\
 t

APPENDIX B

THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET

207
 208

THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET

The most widely used phonetic alphabet at present is

that of the International Phonetic Association (I.P.A.), or as
it is more often called, "L'Association Phonetique Internat-
ionale." "The Principles of the International Phonetic Associ-
ation," 1949, contains the most recent statement of transcriptional
practice of the I.P.A. The pamphlet may be obtained from the
Secretary of the I.P.A., University College, London W.C. 1.
In the following lists the standard I.P.A. symbols are
given with illustrative words from several different languages.
It should be remembered that the parallelisms thus presented
are parallelisms of symbolic values and not necessarily of
identical sounds. These symbols are unambiguous only with
respect to the speech sounds of a single dialect; when applied
to more than one dialect they represent similar, not identical
sounds.
The sound represented by the phonetic symbol is that
which corresponds to the underlined letter(s) of the word(s)
printed beside it. Only the more usual symbols are given in
~th.is list. Forms in which the symbol indicated would be used
only iB^a narrow transcription are set in parenthesis.

\
 THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
SYMBOL ENGLISH FRENCH
ITALIAN GERMAN
Vowels SPANISH

a ask, answer patte

a. father pate
casa Anna-
caro
3e hat, can

e date des che Ehre queso

6 wed, debt dette ecco
fene'tre besser regla
vento hatte
a sofa, about le, rae
eine
3 hurt

see, read qui mi schliessen chico

I hit
bitten (mirra)
O rose faux voce Sohn adobe
SYMBOL ENGLISH FRENCH ITALIAN GERMAN SPANISH
0 law, warm fol cosa flott corro
oa (feuille) (Gotter)

i deux schon
\K* pool tour mulo Mut cura

V pull, look
(Mutter) (lujo)
A up, come

Consonants

bubble bon banco bitte buenos, hombre

(keel) (kuhn) (guince)

9 (ich, Milch)

if choose
voce chico
to
H
O
SYMBOL ENGLISH FRENCH ITALIAN GERMAN SPANISH

«J deal dent dente Ding doble

judge magia
*3
i fate fable fatto vor, fein facil

3 (rear- goose gar vagabondi gut guerra, gallo

-velar hard g)

ir (front- (geese) (giessen) (Guido)

velar hard g)
(Waren) rogar
*

he, who (haricot) Haus

x Dach jarro

zet Yacht iato Jahr ho_^o

K cool car che, amicp Kugel fuocp

lip, loop lapin lacrdma lassen lado

 212

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 APPENDIX C

REPRESENTATIVE CHORAL MUSIC WITH ELECTRONIC TAPE

214
 215

REPRESENTATIVE CHORAL MUSIC WITH ELECTRONIC TAPE

Composer Composition Publisher

Anhalt, Istvan Cento BML

12 spoken voices and pre-
pared tape
Angelini, Louis Hosanna CMP
Double choir and e l e c t r o n i c
tape
Bassett, Leslie Collect WLSM
SATB chorus with elec-
tronic tape
Beecroft, Norma From Dreams of Brass CMC
Narrator, chorus, orchestra
and electronic music
Biggs, John Invention for Voices and Tape GP
SATB choir or any four sec-
tions of differently pitched
voices and electronic tape
Bock, Fred/Handel Messiah a la Moog TPC
SATB chorus and electronic
tape

Bottje, Will Gay Tangents, Symphony No. 7 CFE

4-3-2(ten) 2-ch. tape and
orchestra
Brand, Max The Astronauts
Narrator, chorus, and
children's voices with
electronic tape
 216
Composer Composition Publisher

Childs, Barney A Glasse of Truth CFE

Chorus and tape
Variations CFE
Chorus, tape and bells
Variations on Poems of John
Newlove CFE
SATB and tape
Clements, Peter J. The Cloud of Unknowing MS
2 narrators, SATB chorus,
orchestra and prepared tape
Davidovsky, Mario Synchronism No. 4 (Psalm 70) MMC
Boys or mixed choir and
electronic tape
Davidson, Lyle Voices of the Dark ECS
Mixed voices, electronic
tape, and optional bass
instruments
Erb, Donald Kyrie GP
SATB chorus divisi, piano,
percussion and electronic
tape
Felciano, Richard Alleluia from Mass for Pentecost WLP
Unison male chorus, organ
and electronic tape
Mass FEL
15 instruments, mixed chorus,
organ and electronic tape
Out of Sight ECS
SATB chorus, organ and
electronic tape
Three-in-One-in-Three ECS
Chorus, and electronic tape
with optional organ and
other instruments
Two Public Pieces ECS
I. The Not-Yet Flower
II. Cosmic Festival ECS
Unison voices and electronic
sounds
 217
Composer Composition Publisher

Felciano, Richard Sic Transit ECS

(ctd.) SSA or SAB chorus, organ,
electronic tape and light
sources
Words of St. Peter WLSM
SATB chorus, organ and
electronic tape
Finney, Ross Lee Still Are New Worlds CFP
Mixed voices, speaking
voice, orchestra and tape
recorder
Freedman, Harry Keewaydin MS
SSA chorus and prepared tape
Gaburo, Kenneth Antiphony III MS
Chamber singers, electronic
tape and pre-recorded sound
Hennagin, Michael The Family of Man WMC
Mixed chorus, soloist, per-
cussion, alto recorder and
electronic tape
Korte, Karl Psalm 13 ECS
Mixed chorus and electronic
tape
Matton, Roger Te Deum MS
Solo baritone, SATB chorus,
orchestra and prepared tape
Miller, Edward The Seven Last Days ECS
SATB chorus, percussion,
2 stereo tape playback
systems and 16mm silent film
Peck, Russell Quotations from the Electric-
chairman MS
Double choir, amplified
double bass and electronic
tape
Pinkham, Daniel Daniel in the Lions' Den ECS
Tenor, baritone and bass-
baritone soli, mixed chorus,
narrator, 2 pianos, percussion
and electronic tape
 218
Composer Composition Publisher

Pinkham, Daniel In the Beginning of Creation ECS

(ctd.) Mixed chorus and electronic
tape
The Call of Isaiah ECS
Mixed men's or women's voices,
organ, and electronic tape
The Lament of David ECS
Mixed chorus SATB and
electronic tape
The Sheepheards Song ECS
Solo soprano, mixed voices
and optional electronic tape
The Seven Last Words of Christ
on the Cross ECS
Tenor, bass-baritone and bass
soli, mixed chorus SATB, organ
and electronic tape
Schafer, R. Murray Gita MS
Chorus (8 sopranos, 8 altos,
8 tenor, 8 basses), 3 trumpets,
2 horns, 3 trombones, tuba and
prepared tape
Loving/Toi MS
Soprano, 3 mezzo sopranos,
2 or 3 spoken voices, 2
dancers, orchestra and pre-
pared tape
Threnody BML
Youth chorus, speaker, youth
orchestra and prepared tape
Yeow and Pax (Two Anthems) MS
SATB chorus, organ and pre-
pared-tape
Sindelar, Ronald Medusa—The Ship WMC
Mixed choir, percussion, and
pre-recorded tape
Tanenbaum, Elias Sound CFE
8-pt. chorus, 2 Bb trumpets,
2 ten. trombones, B. trombone,
alto sax, electronic organ,
pf, 2 percussion, and elec-
tronic tape
 219

Composer Composition Publisher

Tanenbaum, Elias The Families of Song My CFE

(ctd. ) SATB or SSAA choir and
2-track tape
Trythall, Gilbert A Time to Every Purpose MMC
SATB chorus, audience and
stereophonic tape recorder
In the Presence MMC
SATB chorus, audience and
stereophonic tape recorder
Ussachevsky, Creation—Prologue CFE
Vladimir 4 choruses and electronic
accompaniment
Vercoe, Barry Digressions ' EV
Chorus, orchestra and
computer-generated sounds
Woolf, Gregory Mass with Electronic Tape WLP
Mixed voice choir, organ
and electronic tape

* * * * * *

Key to publisher abbreviations»

BML - Berandol Music Limited

CFE - Composers Facsimile Edition
CFP - C. F. Peters
CMC - Canadian Music Center, Toronto
CMP - CMP Music
ECS - E. C. Schirmer
EV - Elkan-Vogel Company
FEL - F.E.L. Publication
GP - Gentry Publications
MMC - Marks Music Corporation
MS - Manuscript
TPC - Theodore Presser Company
WLP - World Library Publications
WLSM - World Library of Sacred Music
WMC - Walton Music Corporation
 APPENDIX D

MIKROPHONIE II BY KARLHEINZ STOCKHAUSEN

Permission to include this reduced

facsimile of the score granted by
Theodore Presser Company, Bryn Mawr,
Pa., for Universal Edition, Vienna.
International Copyright Secured. All
rights reserved.

220
 S I d nqieren *
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Karlheinz Stockhausen

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 APPENDIX E

MICROTONAL MUSIC
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

238
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

BEATS: A phenomenon of alternate strengthening and lessening

of tone produced by a very narrow interval in a simul-
taneous sounding, or by out-of-tuneness in the simul-
taneous sounding of an interval intended as a small-number
proportion; as a very narrow interval approaches unison;
or as an out-of-tune interval approaches a small-number
proportion the beats become slower.

CENTS: A system devised by Alexander J. Ellis for quickly

determining the width of a musical interval; a cent is
the hundredth part of one of the twelve equal intervals
between degrees in a 2/1 of Equal Temperament; there-
fore, 1200 cents to the 2/1.

CENITONE (ctn.)J One hundredth part of an equally tempered

whole tone (or 1/600 of an octave).

COMMA: Either 531 441/524 288, the Pythagorean comma (also

called the ditonic comma), or 81/80, the comma of
Didymus (a3so called the "syntonic" comma).

239
 240

COMPLEMENT: That ratio which, added to another ratio (multi-

plied), makes 2/1; for example, 4/3 is the complement
of 3/2: 4/3 x 3/2 = 2/1; in conventional terms, the
"inversion" of an interval—a "perfect fourth" is the
inversion of a "perfect fifth."

EQUAL TEMPERAMENT: Twelve-tone Equal Temperament; any other

equal temperament is not capitalized and is qualified
by its number of degrees; for example, "nineteen-tone
equal temperament." Equally tempered intonation results
from the division of an octave into the same number of
equal intervals as the number of both regular and
auxiliary degrees of this scale, thereby automatically
equalizing all its component "half" steps as well as
all its "whole" steps. It is a principle of artificial
tuning which, at the cost of a certain acoustic com-
promise, makes it possible to limit a given musical
system to a much smaller number of tones than would
be required under the condition of acoustically
natural or pure tuning. It involves a varying degree
of flatting or sharping of the acoustically correct
ratios so that any tone of the temperament can serve
in several senses. For example, "C" as the first step
in the scale of "C," as the second step in the scale
of "B" or "B ," as the third step in the scale of
"A" or "A ," and so forth, and still convey the
"impression" of correct intonation.
 2 41

FIXED INTONATION: The temperament embodied in musical instru-

ments with a definite number of tones for the entire
scale whose pitch cannot be changed at the will of the
performer.

INTERVAL: A pitch relation between two musical sounds, a

ratio. Interval and ratio are virtually synonymous;
a ratio is at one and the same time the representative
of a tone (when there is a reference pitch given such
as 1/1) and of an interval, and a tone always implies
a ratio, or interval.

INFRA-DIATONIC: A term used by Yasser to describe a 7-tone

scale of the "lower order." In its complete form it
contains five regular and two auxiliary degrees
(formula "5 + 2"), the former set being identical with
the "pentatonic" scale (such as C, D, F, G, A) and the
latter set closely approaching the notes E and B of
the diatonic scale.

JUST INTONATION: The intonation resulting from the common

chords of a given scale being identically tuned in
accordance with a certain preselected group of
acoustically pure intervals (specific for each scale),
as found in the Natural Harmonic Series.

MEANTONE TEMPERAMENT: The one which historically preceded

Equal Temperament in musical practice and whose main
 242

characteristics are that it preserves the acoustical

purity of major Thirds (5/4 or 193 centitones) and
establishes an artificial and uniform dimension for
whole tones equalling half a major Third (96.5 centi-
tones), thus representing a "mean" value (hence the
name) of a major and minor whole tone (9/8 or 102
centitones and 10/9 or 91 centitones respectively).
With twelve tones to an octave only six major and three
minor keys of tha diatonic scale could be used in
Meantone Temperament, any further extension in modula-
tion and transposition requiring a correspondingly
increased number of "extra" tones, in order to avoid
an intolerable effect in tuning.

MONOPHONY: An organization of musical materials based upon

the faculty of the human ear to perceive all intervals
and to deduce all principles of musical relationship
as an expansion from unity, as 1 is to 1 or l/l.
In this sense of growth from unity Monophony is a
development of the theories deduced by Pythagoras of
Samos in his monochord, in the sixth century B.C.;
beginning with the whole string of the monochord, or
1, Pythagoras divided the string into two parts and
produced the interval 2/1, then into three parts and
four parts, producing the intervals 3/2 and 4/3. In
another sense Monophony may be regarded as an organi-
zation deducible from the sounding of one tone, or
the sounding of 1, or l/l; in this sense it is an
 243
evolved expression of the phenomenon of the overtone
series, first perceived by Marin Mersenne, French
monk of the seventeenth century; this interpretation,
however, involves a certain equivocation with the
analyzed phenomenon of sound, that is, with the
"klang," with the components of a tone.

NATURAL FIFTH: An interval formed in the Natural Harmonic

Series by the overtones 2 and 3, and therefore
expressed by the ratio 3/2. It equals 702 cents.

NATURAL HARMONIC SERIES: Partial tones (Harmonics, Overtones)

produced by a sounding body simultaneously with its
funamental tone (Generator) and forming a series whose
vibration-ratios can be mathematically expressed by
ordinary numbers as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 etc.

PRIME UNITY: 1/1, the first tone of a Monophonic system of

music; the word unity implies a generative tone,
either at top or bottom of its generated sequence; it
does not imply "root," and it does not necessarily
imply a bass locus.

PYTHAGOREAN: An adjective describing the construction of a

scale or musical system by successions of 3/2's (just
"perfect fifths"); such systems are generally based
on "cycles"—the end of the "cycle" being the point
at which one of the 3/2's falls in the vicinity of
 244
a certain number of 2/1's above or below the starting
tone; the loosely termed "circle of fifths" of
current musical theory is a tempered expression of
Pythagoreanism. Pythagoras is credited with discovery
of the twelve-tone "cycle" in the West.

RATIO: A relationship, or interval, expressing the vibrations

per second, or cycles, of the two tones concerned,
generally in the lowest possible terms; of the two ways'
of considering a ratio—up or down from a constant—
the current musical practice of conceiving intervals
is upward; a ratio represents a tone and an interval
at one and the same time; in its capacity as the symbol
of a tone it is the over number that is nominally
representative (in the upward manner), but since the
over number exists only in relation to the under
number, the ratio acquits its second function, as
representative of an interval; conventional musical
example: 3/2 represents "D" in the "key of G"—upward
from "G"; it is thus simultaneously a representative
of a tone and an implicit relationship to a "keynote"—
or unity.

1/1: Monophony; the unison; unity; the Prime Unity,

2/1: The octave.
3/2: The just perfect fifth.
4/3: The just perfect fourth.
5/4: The just major third.
 245

6/5: The just minor third.

7/6: The septimal minor third.
5/3: The just major sixth.
8/5: The just minor sixth.
12/7: The septimal major sixth.
9/8: The large just whole tone, or major second.
10/9: The small just whole tone, or major second.
This ratio and the ratio above are confounded
in tempered theory.
8/7: The septimal major second.
16/9: The small just minor seventh.
9/5: The large just minor seventh. This ratio and the
ratio above are confounded in tempered theory.
7/4: The septimal minor seventh.
16/15: The large just semitone, or minor second.
25/24: The small just semitone, or minor second. This
ratio and the ratio above are confounded in
tempered theory.
15/8: The small just major seventh.
48/25: The large just major seventh. This ratio and the
ratio above are confounded in tempered theory.
45/32 and 64/45; These are generally considered to be
the just tritones.
7/5 and 10/7: The septimal tritones.
1/1-392: The "G" which is in the scale of "A" at about
440 cycles; 1/1-392 is simply a starting point
for pitch measurement, above and below, such as
"middle C."
 246

SEMITONE: One of the twelve equal intervals which constitute

the 2/1 in Equal Temperament; in this theory the semi-
tone has no significance beyonds its convenience as
the equivalent of 100 cents (see CENTS) and as a
reference measure for indicating the approximate width
of very small intervals by an easily understood con-
cept. For example, "one-fiftieth of a semitone."

SUPRA-DIATONIC: A term used by Yasser to describe what he con-

siders to be the next musical system in an evolving
series. The supra-diatonic scale is a 12-tone scale
and 7 additional auxiliary tones complete a 19-tone
system.

TEMPERAMENT: The word temperament or tempered scale originally

meant simply a system of tuning, any system, but in
modern usage it applies specifically to a system which
deliberately robs its intervals of their purity in
order to implement the idea of every-tone-in-several
senses (see EQUAL TEMPERAMENT).

TRICESIMOPRIMAL: Relating to the number 31. Fokker uses this

term in reference to music using 31 tones to the octave.

UNITY: The generating tone of any tonality, the 1 Identity.

The word fundamental applies to the generating tone of
a series of partials, or harmonics, and in this sense
 247
it is also represented by 1. There should be no con-
fusion between the use of the word fundamental when
it implies a series of partials and when it relates
to the word unity as applied to the ratio of the
generating tone of a musical tonality.

WHOLE STEP: An interval composed of two "minimum" intervals

or half steps in a given scale. When tempered, it is
equal to a whole tone in the diatonic scale but
differs dimensionally in any other scale.

WHOLE TONE: This refers to an equally tempered whole tone

(one-sixth part of an octave) unless otherwise indicated.

* * * * * *

Sources for the above definitions:

Mayer Joel Mandelbaum, "Multiple Division of the Octave
and the Tonal Resources of 19-Tone Temperament"
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University,
1961), pp. 443-449.
Harry Partch, Genesis of a Music (Madison, Wis.: The
University of Wisconsin Press, 1949), pp. 68-75.
Joseph Yasser, A Theory of Evolving Tonality (New York:
American Library of Musicology, 1932), pp. 363-376.
 APPENDIX F

MASS BY BEN JOHNSTON

Permission granted by the com-

poser and Mark Foster Music, Inc.
A biographical note on the composer
appears at° the end of this work, page
299.

248
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 299

The Composer Ben Johnston

Ben Johnston was born in Macon, Georgia in 1926,

and holds degrees from William and Mary College, Cincinnati
Conservatory of Music and Mills College. He joined the
faculty of the University of Illinois in 1951 and currently
serves as Professor of Composition and Theory. Among his
works which have been widely performed are Knocking Piece
for piano interior and two percussionists, String Quartet
No. 2, and Duo for flute and string bass. His Quintet for
Groups was commissioned by Eleazar de Carvalho, former con-
ductor of the St. Louis Symphony and was premiered by that
orchestra in 1967. The Swingle Singers commissioned his
0*0
Ci-Git Satie in 1966. Other choral works include Rose (1971) \
i

and Mass (1972). His opera Carmilla was commissioned in 1970

by the ETC Company of La Mama of New York. Among the honors
he has received are a Guggenheim Fellowship (1959), a grant
from the National Council on the Arts and the Humanities (1966),
and Associate Membership in the University of Illinois Center
for Advanced Study (1966). In 1968 the Smithsonian Institu-
tion awarded him two commissions: for a film score and for
a sound environment.
The composer has supplied this writer with the follow-
ing words which are a Credo of his compositional lifet
Over the whole of the historical period of instru-
mental music, Western music has based itself upon an
acoustical lie. In our time this lie—that the normal
musical ear hears twelve equal intervals within the
span of an octave—has led to the impoverishment of
pitch usage in our music. In our frustration at the
complex means it takes to wrest yet a few more permu-
tations from a closed system, we have attempted the
 300

abandonment of all systems, forgetting that we

need never have closed our system.
Complexity need not lead to anarchy and chaos,
nor do we have to abandon the simple in order to
deal with the complex. It is not necessary to
pursue disorder so as to be free from the oppres-
sion of a too predictable order.
Because we have been pursuing disorder, we
find ourselves facing an abyss which threatens
to swallow up our musical life. Each of us con-
fronts the jumping-off-place in a different guise:
some as a loss of faith in the future ("We have our
musical scriptures. There are no more revelations.").
Some of us are trying to bridge the abyss.
 3

VITA

John Alfred Poellein was born in Orlando, Florida

on December 29, 1933. After graduation from Orlando Senior
High School in 1952, he attended Rollins College Conservatory
of Music in Winter Park, Florida. He was awarded the B.M.
degree by Rollins College in 1956. In 1958 he earned the
S.M.M. degree from Union Theological Seminary (School of
Sacred Music) in New York. While at Union Seminary he was
an assistant to the Choral Director (Elaine Brown). During
this time Mr. Poellein was Director of Music at Old South
Presbyterian Church in Bergenfield, New Jersey (1956-58).
From 1958-1960 John Poellein solved in the United
States Army at West Point, New York where he was Chaplain's
Assistant and Director of Music at the Post Chapel'. While at
West Point he was conductor of the Chapel Choir, the Oratorio
Choir and the Southern Dutchess County Singers.
Since 1960 Mr. Poellein has been Director of Choral
Activities at The University of Connecticut. He is presently
an Associate Professor of Music and conducts the major choral
ensembles. He also teaches courses in choral conducting and
choral literature.
Mr. Poellein has served as adjudicator, clinician and
guest conductor of choral festivals throughout the Eastern
United States* He is a member of the following professional
and honorary societies: Music Educators National Conference,
Connecticut Music Educators Association, Pi Kappa Lambda, Phi
Kappa Phi and the American Choral Directors Association.
John Poellein is married to the former Roberta Pemble
and they have three daughters.