religions

Article
The Cosmopolitan World of the Quran and Late
Antique Humanism
Todd Lawson

Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1C1, Canada;
todd.lawson@utoronto.ca

Abstract: The purpose of this essay is to demonstrate how two distinct but deeply related literary
genres, which had become especially prominent in the 7th century Nile-to-Oxus region, have left
an enduring impression on the form and contents of the Quran. By saying this, it is not intended to
suggest that the Quran was “influenced” by this or that extraneous or extra-textual phenomenon.
Rather, it is suggested that, along the lines of the Quran’s own theory of revelation, it speaks through
Muh.ammad, “the language of his people” (Q14:4). Stated another away, the Quran employs themes
and structures from both epic and apocalypse that would have been familiar to its audience in order
to reveal and make clear its most cherished sacred truths, among which are: the Oneness of God, the
Oneness of Religion and the Oneness of Humanity. Epic and apocalypse, then, emerge as features of
the cultural and imaginative language of the intended audience of the Quran, just as Arabic is its
“linguistic” language.

Keywords: Quran; epic; apocalypse; late antiquity; cosmopolitanism; revelation; audience recep-
tion; humanism





 Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Citation: Lawson, Todd. 2021. The 1. Part 1
Cosmopolitan World of the Quran Prologue: The Literary World of the Quran
and Late Antique Humanism. To privilege theReferences
literary character of the Quran it is not intended, by any means, to
Religions 12: 562. https://doi.org/ detract from its undoubted status as divine revelation. Rather, the purpose should be
10.3390/rel12080562
considered part of aPrimary
desire toSources
understand more deeply what divine revelation means in
the context of the Quran and al-Karīm,
al-Qurʾān its primary, though obviously
innumerable not only,
printings based on theaudience—Muslims.
1924 Royal Egyptian Cairo ed
Academic Editor: Roberto Tottoli
An indication of theThe way in which “literary” is to be taken throughout
Koran Interpreted. Translated by Arthur J. Arberry. London: thisGeorge
essay Alan,
is in Unwin, 1
the title of the late Professor
The MessageIssa J. Qurā̕
of the Boullata’s field-changing
n. Translated by Muhammad book:Asad.Literary structures
Gibraltar: of
Dar al-Andalus,
Received: 24 May 2021
religious meaning in The
the Qurʾān. (Boullata
Translated2000,by Alan also see Oxford:
Jones. Suggested The Reading
E.J.W. Gibb 1 ). Memorial
Such a titleTrust, 2007.
Accepted: 10 July 2021
Quranpartly
may be thought at least statistics. https://www.qurananalysis.com/analysis/basic-statistics.php?lang=EN
inspired by the Quran itself: We sent no messenger except
Published: 21 July 2021
[to teach] in the language of his [own] people, in order to make [things] clear to them (Q 14:4).
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
The methodologicalSecondary
presupposition Sources here is the same. It is assumed that the language of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
his (own) people includes much
(Bakhtin 1981)more than
Bakhtin, the merely
Mikhail. linguistic
1981. The Dialogic elements
Imagination:ofFour vocabulary,
Essays. Edited by M
published maps and institutional affil- grammar, morphology and and syntax, and encompasses
Michael Holquist. those extra-linguistic
Austin: University of Texas Press. factors that
iations. enliven any language (Bemong
and whichet al.supply,
2010) Bemong Nele,those
ultimately, Pieterbases
Borghart,
uponMichel
whichDe Dobbeleer,
any language and Kristo
Literary Chronotope:
acquires, generates and communicates Reflections,
meaning: thatApplications,
without which Perspectives.
meaning Gent: Ginko
is not Academia P
really
achieved no matter (Boullata 2000) Boullata,
what linguistic Issa J., ed.
“mechanism” 2000.
(i.e., Literary Structures
language, of Religious
in the usual sense)Meaning
is in in the Q
(Böwering 2002) Böwering, Gerhard. 2002. God and His Attributes. In Encicplopaedia of
play. This is, of course, a very vast field because there are many such factors. In this essay,
(Brown 1983) Brown, Norman O. 1983. The Apocalypse of Islam. Social Text 8: 155–71.
we will restrict ourselves to three or four in order to demonstrate something significant
Copyright: © 2021 by the author. (Cameron 2017) Cameron, Averil. 2017. Late Antique Apocalyptic: A Context for the Q
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
about the Quran and its undoubted status as a book of divine revelation for Muslims, Islam
Antiquity Encounters in the Abrahamic Religions, 6th–8th Centuries. Edited by Ha
This article is an open access article
and Islam’s message to humanity. This
Stroumsa. Leuven: significance
Peeters, vol.is17, closely related to what some have
pp. 1–20.
distributed under the terms and referred to as the “power” of the Quran: that which
(Casanova 1911) Casanova, Paul. 1911. Mohammedcommands thrilled
at la finadmiration
du monde: Étudefor the
critique sur l
conditions of the Creative Commons sound and sense of the Quranic Arabic in virtually anyone who understands
(Ciardi 1959) Ciardi, John. 1959. How Does a Poem Mean? Boston: Houghton, Mifflin.its “linguistic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// substrate”—Arabic (cf. Q 8:2).
(Collins This
1987) articleJohn
Collins, willJ.suggest that beyond
1987. Apocalypse: Anthe beauty Enciclopaeida
Overview. of the highlyof Religion
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ poetic and figurative(Frye
Arabic,
2007)recited and heard
Frye, Northrop. in rhythmic
2007. cadences,
The Great Code: The Biblein and
which the heard
Literature. Toronto: Peng
4.0/). (Goppelt
relation between vowels and1982) Goppelt,may
consonants Leonhard.
be thought1982. TYPOS:
to provide The an
Typological Interpretation
ever-changing yet of the O
H. Madvig. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
(Hodgson 1974) Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1974. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and Hist
of Chicago Press, 3 vols.
Religions 2021, 12, 562. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12080562 (Lawson 2017) Lawson, Todd. 2017. The Quran, Epic and Apocalypse. London: Oneworld
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
(Leemhuis 2001) Leemhuis, Fred. 2001. Apocalypse. EQ 1: 111–14.
(Martin 2005) Martin, Richard P. 2005. Epic as Genre. In A Companion to Ancient Epic. E
Religions 2021, 12, 562 2 of 20

somehow constant, aesthetically compelling obligato-like “background music”, there is

also an overall structure to the Quran which introduces what may best be thought of as
literary innovation—a kind of literary modernism for its time and place in the context
of a well-established and traditionally familiar field of literary expectations, even if the
line between “literature” and “religion” is not always perfectly drawn. In short, here we
are concerned as much, if not more, with the question “How does the Quran mean?”—to
adapt Ciardi’s useful heuristic title (Ciardi 1959)—than with the usual one: “What does the
Quran mean?”.
The heart of this 7th century literary and religious modernism that is the Quran has
to do with the way in which the understanding of human and humanity seems to have
expanded beyond its usual borders, the way in which well-known, contemporaneous
ancient scriptures figure in the new work, reconfigured in the context of the new social
reality, and, perhaps most importantly, the way in which two well-attested literary genres,
epic and apocalypse, much esteemed by the otherwise vastly variegated potential Quranic
audiences, are found in novel, combined form with the result that the existing “religious”
(for lack of a better word) horizons of the readers and hearers are shifted and in some sense
also expanded and enriched. By using the above title, then, two locations or worlds come
to mind: (1) the literary world into which the Quran was born and (2) the world created by
the literary structures employed and expectations assumed by the Quran. Here, we are
mostly concerned with the second, but there will be some reference to the first.
To begin, I would ask the reader to banish, in the spirit of experimentation, all ideas
or preconceptions about the Sitz im Leben of the Quran: the culture, history, anthropology
and geography of the time and place in which it is universally recognized to have been
composed. Thus, we are placing ourselves firmly in the practical criticism school, one
which stays focused on the text itself as opposed to, say, trying to read and understand the
text according to external factors, including authorial intention—factors which the schools
of more abstract criticism value very highly. Such external factors may be symbolized by
the life of the author in biography or chronicle. For the purposes of this discussion, we will
ignore such factors. Rather, we will treat the Quran as a mysterious text, along the lines of
the Dead Sea Scrolls, whose author is as unknowable as Allāh. It is a text discovered by
accident, preserved in ancient scrolls perhaps in a cave, in two clay jars, one marked tanzı̄l
and the other marked mus.h.af (more about this below). Over the years, we have arrived at
an understanding of the composition, but we have virtually no knowledge of the author or
the audience. You see, in this experiment, Islam has not occurred, did not exist and did not
make all those magnificent contributions to world culture and history for which we are
now very grateful. There have been no Muslims or Muslim community. All we have is
the text of what we call the Quran, in a language never before encountered, which we call
Arabic, and an idea, because of the manner in which it was discovered, of its obviously
high value to those who took the trouble to preserve it in writing and protect the text by
hiding it in clay jars in a remote cave, let us say, in 7th century Arabia. Let us even say
somewhere in the Hijaz—perhaps in a cave on Mt. Hira. However, the most important
extra-textual knowledge here is that these “Quran scrolls” were deemed very precious,
put in safekeeping until such a time as the people who preserved them, or their progeny,
returned to reclaim them.
Thus, we have no vast libraries of Quranic sciences: lexicography, exegesis, grammar.
Nor do we have those works of scholarship which we know to have been inspired or
occasioned by the Quran such as theology, history, prose literature, tales of the prophets,
poetry, magic, geography, and medicine. Nonetheless, we have somehow learned to
understand the text as it is. Furthermore, we have discovered that the meaning and
style of the “Dead Sea” Quran has much in common with other books from the ancient
world, chiefly the Hebrew Bible and the Gospels—what some refer to as the Old and New
Testaments. Indeed, the study thus far suggests that, in this connection, we might think of
the Quran as The Newest Testament. (Cf. Wright 2018, esp. 141–45) However, there are
other compositions as well. Most of these, excepting resonances with such things as the
 Religions 2021, 12, 562 3 of 20

Alexander Romance, are what have come to be known as holy books, so this is the category
we are using in which to frame our study of the literary world of the Quran. Additionally,
here we have two further possibilities: (1) the world reflected in the Quran, its themes,
literary presuppositions, anthropology, artistry, science, history, etc.; (2) the way in which
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the Quran “literizes” or, not to be shocking, “fictionalizes” these topics, devices, 13 of 20
concerns,
and values. Here, again, we are opting for number 2, and we are using the idea of fiction
not as the opposite of truth, but as something else altogether: the opposite of the opposite
ofFurthermore,
truth. the places, communities, nations, races, languages that are acknowl-
edged by ThetheBible,
Quran in represent
both testamentary
a variety phases,
heretofore we unencountered
discover, is frequently referred to inli-this
in the Nile-to-Oxus
Quran.
brary Additionally,
of either we notice
epic or scripture. Onesimilarities
may, in fact,along withthe
consider dramatic
numerous differences.
identities The in thatchief
extra-Quranic document, stated to have been written by Muḥammad, the remarkable pl.
difference is one of form. The Quran is made up of 114 sections which it calls sūras (Ar.
suwar) andofeach
Constitution sura is
Medina, asmade up of of
something a number
a precursor,of verses (Arabic āyāt,
adumbration sing. āya,
or possibly even“signs”).
re-
The number
flection of verses for
of the distinctive each sura
pluralism andcan vary widely. The
cosmopolitanism of shortest
the Dār suraal-Islāmis identified
of the Ab- as Q
108era
basid and andbearsbeyondthe paradoxical name al-kawthar, which means “abundance” in Arabic. It
has 3 verses and 12 words. We discover that the names of the suras are derived from the
2.4.existence
Humanityin them of particularly striking words. Thus, the longest sura in the Quran, Q 2,
al-baqara “the cow,” has 285 verses and hundreds of words. Further, it is not about cows
One of the most important distinguishing features of the Quran is its theme of hu-
or farming or anything else the title might otherwise suggest. However, this distinctive
manity, both in the aggregate and as individual. There are a number of Arabic words at
and, therefore, memorable word occurs five times in sura 2, once in plural form and the
play here: nās, insān, bashar, khalq, followed by subdivisions or categories: muslim, muʾmin,
remainder in singular. Indeed, these two scrolls agree in the way their suras are entitled.
muḥsin, Christian, Jew, Sabian, mushrik, mufsid, kāfir, jāhil, and their social units: qawm,
To be clear, the scrolls are identical except for one crucial factor—their suras are arranged
qabīl, alwān, alsān, amongst others. This third major component of our theory of Quranic
in quite different order (again, more on this below). The respective headings for the sura
epic and apocalypse has already been alluded to several times above. It seems beyond
in the two jars do not actually say: sūrat al-baqara “The chapter of the cow”. Rather, these
dispute that one of the chief concerns of the Quran, perhaps as important as revelation
headings are quite explicit: al-sūrat al-latı̄ dhukirat fihi al-baqara “The chapter in which ‘the
itself, is humanity, both in the collective and as individual. A brief catalogue of all the
cow’ is mentioned”. Furthermore, the length of the Quranic verse is also not standardized.
words used in the Quran to designate this “species” supports this assertion. The most
The shortest verse is a single word: Q 55:64 Dark green in color—mudhāmmatān. The longest
frequent
verse is term,
Q 2:282 al-nās, (from
with 256 N W S) occurs
words. Between 241these
times twoin extremes
the Quranwe with
find, theasmeaning
stated above,of
humanity, man, men and the people. Insān, unās and ins, derived
a wide variety of lengths of verses, a total of 6236, and their respective suras, of which from A N S, refers 90
times to man/humankind/the human. Interestingly, it occurs five times in a verbal form,
the total is 114.2 Another difference has to do with the voice of the Quran. It speaks in a
ānasa, meaning to perceive. Bashar is another word for human, sometimes thought to refer
wide variety of line length, end rhyme (from beginning to end), and subject-matter, and
directly
yet it isto somehow
the “lower nature.”
quite It occurs
consistent with37 timestoasvoice,
regard such.even B SH R is aare
if there frequent
different Quranic
speakers.
root, occurring a total of 123 times. It is interesting that it occurs
This is unlike the multiple voices in the Bible which have, to some extent, been unified 83 times in the verbal and
nominal forms: “to give good news,” a cognate to gospel.
and homogenized through, for example the majestic “King James” translation, but which Imruʾ “man/person” x 11 and
imraʾa
remain“woman/person”
clearly multipleoccurs 26 times.
as a function Rajūl/rijāl,
of the multiple from R J L, denotes
authorship of those man/men
books. Theand voice
strongly connotes manliness, standing one’s ground, strength,
of Q 108 is the same as the voice of Q 2. Voice here may in fact be thought of triumph and achievement
in some ways
against odds. Additionally,
as a synonym for world it orhas been used
universe, andfrequently
it stands for in literature
the unified, to refer to particularly
if variegated, literary
devout or heroic
world of the Quran. women. It occurs 57 times. Khalq, our last word, means “creation”, and
is a synonym
The major for humanity.
similaritiesItwith occurs
the aso-called
total of “previous
261 times in the Quran,
scriptures” have to tostand for the
do with what
creative
in theactivity
case ofofthe God Deadand Sea
the result
Scrollsofhas thisbeen
activity,
calledfrequently specified rule”,
the “community as the and
human what
(e.g.,
weQmay 39:6). Thus,
refer to asthere are numerous
Abrahamic ethicalwords values,ineschatology,
the Quran that are usedand
expectation to designate
apocalypse.
communities
This community rule has been propagated, what the Quran frequently calls “sentcom-
of humans: qawm, from Q W M, occurs 383 times meaning folk, people, down,
munity;
revealed”umma byfrom U M M,
a Quranic 64 times
antitype of themeaning
Teachernation, people, community,
of Righteousness, also of “Dead religion; the
Sea Scrolls”
hapax
fame. shuʿūb
In thefrom case SH ʿAyn
of the B meaning
Quran, this figurenations; dīn fromcalled
is frequently D Y aN,prophet
meaning religious/cul-
(nabı̄) or messenger
tural/ethnic
(rasūl). We group,
also findoccurs 92 times.
many of the Ahl
same “(the) people/family”
dramatis personae in occursthe Quran127 times,
that we including
find in the
dozes as the
earlier twodistinctive
testaments Quranic epithet “people
or covenants, many ofof the Book”
which (ahl al-kitāb);
are designated āl and the
as earlier re-
prophets
lated
and ūlī,messengers.
meaning people, family,upon
Depending ancestors, and related
the method usages, from
of counting, ʾA W L,
the Quran occurs 170
mentions 25 of
times. Tribe, ‘ashīra/maʿshar, from ʿAyn SH R, occurs six times;
these, including the most recent, a man named Muh.ammad (mentioned four times in the qabīl twice as tribe(s) (from
Q Btext).
L); rahṭ, family,
Of these 25x3 (R H Ṭ);
names, descendants
there are a few that asbāṭwe x5 have
(fromnot Ṭ); sons/children,
S Bencountered in othere.g.,books,
of
Israel or Adam
whether (fromor
scripture B history,
N Y) x160. such“Group,”
as Muh.ammad, ʿuṣbah (from
Hūd,ʿṢ ālihB) .occurs 5 times;(Q
, and Shu‘ayb “groups,
11: 52–63
”ʿizah
and(from ʿAyn esp.
elsewhere, Z W)Q is a hapax; farīq/firqah (from F R Q) occurs 33 times; “group,”
26).
nafar/nafīrIn what
(fromfollows, then, we
N F R) occurs will times;
three outline“Groups,”
and describe thubāttwo(from
distinct
THfeatures
B Y) occurs of ouronce;
“Dead
“ASea” Quran,thullah
company,” namely, epic TH
(from andLapocalypse.
L) occurs 3 It will be
times; seen that
Parties: “Host,these two master
group, troop,”genres
fiʾah (Fare
ʾ Y)found
occurs everywhere
11 times; “Party,in the text both distinctly
confederates” ḥizb (from
and inḤtheirZ B)distinctive Quranic
occurs 20 times; combination
“Party/sect”
shīʿah (SH Y ʿAyn) occurs 20 times; finally, “group, party,” ṭāʾifah (Ṭ W F) occurs 25acquires
as a result of which the epic genre becomes “apocalyptized”, and apocalypse times. a
In light of this extensive vocabulary, including particular words for particular types
of human (male and female), such as muʾmin/believer (x228), muslim (x41), ʿabd/servant
and serving (x275), kāfir/unbeliever and kufr/unbelief (x525), Christian (x15 as
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya ), Jew (x15 as Yahūd, Yahūdī and Hūd; x43 as Banu Isrāʾīl), mushrik/pol-
ytheist (x168), the various and numerous uses (x90) of ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb “member(s) of this or
Religions 2021, 12, 562 4 of 20

high degree of narrative and descriptive clarity and telos through being “epicized”. This
Quranic literary landscape, together with a third remaining feature, helps us understand
the almost unprecedented appeal the non-Dead Sea or real Quran had in real time and
place: that vast geographic and culturally variegated expanse stretching from Cadiz to the
Hindu Kush in the 7–9th centuries CE. As such, the text, whether from Jar #1 or #2, reflects
and makes sense of to a certain remarkable degree the teeming cosmopolitan culture of the
time and place. Now, obviously, here we are relaxing our methodological stricture. The
third element, referred to above, is the degree to which the idea of humanity or the human
being becomes a center of focus, both in the Quranic epic and the Quranic apocalypse. (Cf.
Wright 2018) The combination of epic, apocalypse and humanity, and their interrelated
highly generative literary dynamics, chief amongst which is the powerful literary feature
of typological figuration, will be the subject of what follows.

2. Part 2
2.1. Introduction: The Modes of the Quran
For the balance of this discussion, we will focus on these four aspects of the Quran
which redound to the richness of its appeal and the poetic urgency of its meaning, whether
aesthetic or religious (if these two can be separated in the case of the Quran) and the
efficiency with which this meaning is communicated. These four broad headings are:
apocalypse, epic, humanity and typological figuration. In my recent book, Quran, epic and
apocalypse, I suggested that the Quran may be seen as a fugue of the two genres, epic and
apocalypse. Though by using this analogy, I was more concerned in expressing the way in
which the Quran seamlessly combines the two genres rather than with the way in which
one genre may be thought now to be “chasing” one genre and vice versa. This feature
of the fugue is also in play in the Quran. Yet, the main point of this, perhaps unlikely
comparison with European baroque musical composition and performance (including the
quite characteristic feature of improvisation), is to say something about how these two
separate genres are blurred in the Quran. The blurring is especially interesting in that it may
be seen to produce what might be thought of as generic role reversal. Such blurring and
reversal of the two genres help us understand the “literary structures of religious meaning”
in the much-celebrated frisson of the recited text, which conditions any subsequent “silent”
reading of the Quran’s written text.
One of the unforeseen insights emerging from my above-mentioned 2017 book had
to do with a perennial question in Quranic studies, whether “emic” or “etic”: why is
the order of the “liturgical” Quran, that is the Quran in common use today—precisely
the mus.h.af —almost exactly the reverse of the chronological order in which, according to
Muslim tradition, the Quran was orally revealed/composed and performed? As a result
of contemplating the nature, role and function in the Quran of these two familiar genres
(possibly the oldest in literary history), epic and apocalypse, it seemed unavoidable to
conclude that those who had transformed the tanzı̄l (the scroll in Clay Jar # 1) into the
mus.h.af (the scroll in Clay Jar #2) sought to present the most recent communication from
the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Jesus, and those otherwise unknown prophets
mentioned above, and finally Muh.ammad, as a distinctive, “Quranic” epic, even though
the Arabic term for epic is not used as a title.
The mus.h.af begins, after the invocation known as the Fātih.a (Q 1) “The Overture”, the
short sura of seven verses that opens today’s Quran, with, precisely the story of humankind
and its dramatic, tragic, apocalyptic and enlightening experience with the divine through
periodic revelation from God to a “teacher of righteousness”, who, in the Quran, is the
prophet or the messenger. This epic begins in earnest, after another brief introduction
which may be considered a Quran praeperatio (Q 2:1–28) where, in the Quran’s parlance,
the story of the “sons of Adam” (humanity) begins with the appointing of Adam as God’s
caliph, the encounter of Adam and Eve with the Devil (Iblis) and their expulsion from the
Garden (Q 2: 29ff).
Religions 2021, 12, 562 5 of 20

By contrast, the tanzı̄l (scroll in Jar #1) begins with the apocalyptic experience of an
unnamed prophet’s encounter with a supernatural being who communicates revelations,
to humanity, here al-insān, at Q 96. It is interesting to observe that even in this early
apocalyptic setting, with the otherworldly being commanding the anonymous prophet to
read or recite, the epic élan of the Qur’an is expressed not in terms of the history and epic
challenges to the sons of Adam, but in terms of the microcosmic epic of the growth of the
individual human being, who begins their own private epic as a drop of sperm (Q 96:2).
This highlights another frequent difference between epic and apocalyptic, their respective
focus on the collective and the individual.
Epic (cf. Clay Jar #2 the mus.h.af ) is the genre of telos/purpose, identity, adventure,
heroism, courage, intelligence or even craftiness (furbismo), rationality and, more often
than not, triumph and social order because it makes some kind of sense of everyone’s role
in society as if that role had somehow been preordained. This is true of epics the world
over. It is especially instrumental with regard to the existential-cum-literary business of
identity. By contrast, apocalyptic, which characterizes the order of the tanzı̄l (Clay Jar #1),
is the genre of change or instability, conflict, oppression, persecution, revolution, mystic
awareness and apperception, imagination, alienation and, therefore, individual suffering
and growth. In apocalypse, the human is frequently not an actor but an audience, whereas
in epic the human is both. Apocalypse is characterized by ambiguity, the supra-rational,
the gnomic, fear, violence, the perpetual war between good and evil, salvation, damnation
and punishment and ultimately justice. Its sometimes violent and frequently translucent if
not completely opaque—yet highly poetic—recital is concerned more with the moment
and/or the immediate future than the long term (kairos rather than telos, though there is
overlap). Epic is the genre of stability, peace and justice; apocalypse is the genre of change
and conflict, discontent, oppression and despair, hope and struggle. Epic, much more than
apocalypse, answers discursively and poetically all the large questions of life: where we
came from, why we are born, why we live, why we suffer, why we die and what happens
after, epic is the genre of human experience, and has been called a metonym for culture.
Humanity in the 7–9th century Nile-to-Oxus region was highly variegated, and the
Quran, because of the vastness of the human variety in it and especially in its mus.h.af
arrangement, an arrangement in which narrative compulsion—“beginning, middle, end”—
may be seen as a blueprint, palimpsest, X-ray, or fingerprint of the rich cosmopolitanism
of Late Antiquity (Cameron 2017). As such, the Quran’s human population, which is
highly variegated as well, maps directly—if imperfectly (it is neither history nor census
document)—onto the real historical situation of the Nile-to-Oxus 7–9th century time and
place. Thus, the transformation from tanzı̄l to mus.h.af signals a change in focus. The
authorial decision to cast the canonical form of the revelation in the arrangement we call
mus.h.af has had a profound effect on the way the Quran is read and understood. Imagine a
Bible that begins with the Book of Revelation and ends with Genesis.

2.2. Apocalypse
The argument for the Quran as apocalypse may seem unnecessary to many readers;
however, it should be pointed out that it was important to make the explicit point in my
earlier work because of the wide-ranging and rather robust refusal on the part of Quran
scholars, apart from one or two exceptions, such as Casanova (1911) and Leemhuis (2001)
to grasp the nettle and commit to an acknowledgement of the Quran’s apocalyptic nature.
While apocalypse is certainly not its only nature, it is one of several generic literary streams
in the Quran, and, as it turns out, one of the more prominent and characteristic. Since
identifying the first of the two elephants in the room, the scholarly world has grown more
comfortable with the idea of an apocalyptic Quran. I will not take the time to demonstrate
here such scholarly disinclination, or to muse on the reasons for such stubbornness, rather
I will refer the interested reader to the appropriate discussion in my book (Lawson 2017,
pp. 27–56).
 Religions 2021, 12, 562 6 of 20

That discussion is heavily influenced by the work of John J. Collins and his colleagues
in the relatively recent academic “discipline” of apocalypse studies. A scan of this bur-
geoning library, which began to be consolidated in the 1980’s, reveals that despite the
otherwise universality of its scope, studies of Islamic or even islamicate phenomena are
conspicuous by their absence in the pertinent bibliographies of apocalyptic studies (Collins
1984). That the ideas of the Quran’s apocalyptic substrate were elaborated by me in con-13 of 20
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
versation chiefly with this impressive body of literature may, therefore, expose it to the
kinds of criticisms that work has attracted. Whatever those criticisms might be, however, it
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW remains that Collins’ understanding and explication of something he calls “the apocalyptic 7 of 20
Furthermore, the places, communities,
imagination” is more than suggestive for the ongoing scholarship on apocalyptic as a more nations, races, languages that are acknowl-
or lessedged universal by the genreQuran represent
of literary a variety no
expression heretofore
matter what unencounteredlanguage is in involved.
the Nile-to-Oxus To li-
quote brary
a of eithersalient
particularly epic orand scripture.
pertinent Onedefinition
may, in fact, of consider thewith
apocalypse numerous immediate, identities and in that
judgment/destruction of wicked/persecu-
one might extra-Quranic
have thought document,
obvious,stated relevance to have divine
for been
Quranic written
studies:by Muḥammad, the remarkable
punishment
tors
Constitution of Medina, as something of a precursor, adumbration or possibly even re-
judgment Apocalypse,/destruction as the of name
the world of a literary genre, is derived
seecosmopolitanism
above, eschatology from the Apocalypse
flection of the distinctive pluralism and of the Dār al-Islām of the Ab-
of
cosmicbasid John, or
transformations Book of Revelation, in the New
khalq Testament.
jadid The word itself means
era and beyond
‘revelation,’
resurrection but it is reserved for revelationspassim of a particular kind: mysterious
revelations that are mediated or explained by a supernatural figure, usually
2.4. Humanity al-janna, al-nar, barzakh, jinn, shayatin,
otheran forms
angel. of afterlife:
They disclose angelsa&transcendent demons world of supernatural powers and an
One of the most important mala’ika features of the Quran is its theme of hu-
distinguishing
eschatological scenario, or view of the last things, that includes the judgment of
pseudonymity/anonymity
themanity, both in the aggregate
dead. Apocalyptic revelations and areasnot authorship
individual.
exclusively ofconcerned
There the Quran
are a number with theoffuture. Arabic words at
ambiguity and multivocality
They may also be concerned with cosmology, including the geography ofmuslim,
play here: nās, insān, bashar, khalq, followed cf. the by tafsir tradition
subdivisions or categories: the muʾmin,
muḥsin, Christian,
heavens and the nether regions, as well as Jew, Sabian, mushrik, Divine mufsid,
history, kāfir,
presence,
primordial jāhil,
tajalli, and
times, their
sakina, social
andal-haqq,
the end units:
di- qawm,
Religions 2021,
Religions
12,Religions
x2021,
FOR 12,
PEER
2021,
x FOR
REVIEW
12,PEER
x FORREVIEW
PEER REVIEW 13 of 20 13 of 20 13 o
glorytimes. qabīl,The
motif alwān, judgmentalsān, amongst of the dead, others. however,This vine third
is anames, majorattributes,
constant component
and pivotal signs, of our
the theory
feature, since of
Word, theQuranic
allepic
the and apocalypse
revelations have has human already destiny been as alluded
Book,theirthe to several
ultimate
Light focus.
verse times (Collins
(Q24:35) above. 1987) It seems beyond
dispute that one of the chief concernsnumerous of the Quran, perhaps
qul passages as important as revelation
The relevance such a definition has for the Quran and
illocution Islam may&be other
further imperatives,
affirmed
Furthermore,
itself, Furthermore, Furthermore,
the places,
is humanity, the bothcommunities,
places,
the
in places,
thecommunities, communities,
nations,
collective and nations,
races,
as nations,
languages
races, races,
individual. languages
A that languages
brief arecatalogue
that
acknowl- are
that acknowl-
ofare allackno
the
by the recent founding of13the of 20Journal of Apocalyptic directives Studies . . . by Islamicists.
edged by edged
the Quran
words edged
by usedtheby represent
Quran
in the theQuran represent
Qurana variety
represent a heretofore
variety
to designate a variety
heretofore
this unencountered
heretofore
“species” unencountered unencountered
in the Nile-to-Oxus
supports in the
this in
Nile-to-Oxus
assertion. the li- Nile-to-Oxus
The most li-
aurality Due to space considerations, I will consider oral compositonone or two and of auralthe major reception apocalyptic
brary ofbrary either brary
ofepiceitheror
of scripture.
either
epic or epic
scripture.
Oneor scripture.
may, One in may,
fact,
One
frequent term, al-nās, (from N W S) occurs 241 times in the Quran with the meaning of consider
in
may, fact, in consider
the
fact, numerous
consider
the numerous
the
identities
numerous identities
in that
identities
in that in t
features identified in the literature and I reproduce loanwords, here, for hybrid the convenience
eschatology (Perso-se- of the reader,
extra-Quranic
cultural extra-Quranic
humanity, extra-Quranic
hybridismdocument, man, document,
stated
men document,
and tostated
have
the stated
to
been
people. have to
written
Insān,been
have unāswritten
been
by and Muḥammad,
written
by Muḥammad,
ins, derivedby Muḥammad,
thefrom remarkable
the
A Nremarkable
S,the remarka
refers 90
a slightly modified version of the table from my mitic) book, entitled Apocalyptic themes and motifs
he places, communities, nations, races, languages
Constitution Constitution
timesof that
Constitution
toMedina, are acknowl-
of Medina,
man/humankind/theasof something
Medina,
as something as
of something
human.a precursor,
of a precursor,
ofadumbration
Interestingly, a precursor,itadumbration
occurs adumbration
orfive possibly
timesor possibly
even
inora possibly
re-evenform,
verbal re-
even
with Quranic analogues. This table indicates how numerous
variety of other apocalyptic
grammatical persons characteristics
as actor,
n represent a variety heretofore unencountered flection flection
of
ānasa,
orchestration in flection
the the Nile-to-Oxus
distinctive
of
meaning
of the of
authorialdistinctive
the
to pluralism
perceive.
voicesli- pluralism
distinctive andpluralism
Bashar cosmopolitanism
isandanothercosmopolitanism
andword cosmopolitanism
of
forthe human,Dārof the al-Islām
of
Dār
sometimes theal-Islām
of
Dār the ofact-
al-Islām
Ab-
thought thetoof Ab- the A
refer
may be assumed to be represented to a greater or
ant,37narrator lesser degree in the Quran (Lawson
or scripture. One may, in fact, consider basidtheera numerous
basid
and basid
directly era
beyond identities
and
to era
the beyond
and
“lower in that
beyond nature.” It occurs times as such. B SH R is a frequent Quranic
2017, p. 33). This table sets out in point form, the numerous coincidences of Collins’
ment, stated to have been written byliterary Muḥammad, forms andthedevices
remarkable issajʿ, mathal, tashbih, story, epic, apocalypse
and hisroot, occurring
colleague’s a total of 123
cumulative times. Itof
definition interesting
apocalyptic that it occurs
by listing those83 times features in the verbal and
which
dina, as something of a precursor, adumbration 2.4. Humanity 2.4.
nominal or
Humanity
2.4. possibly
Humanity
forms: even
“to givere- good news,” previous
a cognate epochs,
to gospel. jahiliyya,Imruʾ islamiyya,
“man/person” pre-cre- x 11 and
are seen
time andto condition
history periodized the genre and the way in which these same features are seen to be
nctive pluralism and cosmopolitanism ofOne theimraʾa
Dār
of the
One al-Islām
“woman/person”
most
ofOne the of
important
of
mostthe
the Ab- occurs
important
most distinguishing
important 26 ation
times.
distinguishing Rajūl/rijāl,
distinguishing
features features
of the from
features
Quran
of R
the J
is
of L,
Quran
its
the denotes
theme
Quran
is its ofman/men
theme
is hu-
its theme
of hu-and of h
present in the Quran. It is not suggested that the Quran duplicates perfectly all of the
nd strongly
enantiodromia
manity, manity,
both in
manity,
theconnotes
bothaggregate
inboth the manliness, standing one’s
passim ground, strength, triumph and achievement
defining characteristics ofin aggregate
the
andaggregate
Collins’ asapocalypses
individual.
and asand individual.
as
inThere
individual.
every areThere a number
instance; There
arehowever,
a number
are
of Arabic
a number of words
there Arabic of Arabic
is enough atwordswords at
play here:
closure,
resonance against
play nās, here:
theandplay odds.
insān,
end/goalnās,
here:
similarity Additionally,
bashar,
insān,
nās,to khalq,
insān,
bashar,
raisefollowed
the it has
bashar,
khalq, been
followed
khalq,
question used
by subdivisions
followed
andby
yawm frequently
subdivisions
al-din
offer by or in literature
subdivisions
categories:
a provisional or categories: muslim,to refer
or categories:
suggestion to particularly
muslim,
muʾmin,
regarding muslim,
muʾmin, muʾm
muḥsin, devout
muḥsin,
Christian,
the apocalyptic muḥsin,orcharacter
heroic
Christian,
Jew, women.
Christian,
Sabian,
Jew,
of the Sabian,It occurs
mushrik,
Jew,
Quran Sabian,
mushrik,
as 57mushrik,
mufsid, times.
indicated kāfir,
mufsid, Khalq,
injāhil,
mufsid,
kāfir,
the our
and last
jāhil,
kāfir,
following their word,
and
jāhil,
social
Tabletheir
and means their“creation”,
units:
1. social qawm,
social
units: units: qawm, andqaw
st important distinguishing featuresqabīl, of the Theis amost
Quran
alwān,
qabīl, synonym
is important
alsān,
alwān,
qabīl, its theme
amongst
alwān,
alsān, for alsān,
humanity.
of
amongst hu-
others.
factor amongstThis It third
others.
is, of occurs
others.
This
course, athird
major total
This
the of one
component
major
firstthird 261major times
component
in of
the in
component
our
above
the above list: the
theory
of Quran,
our
list: oftheory
the ourto
Quranic
themestand
theory
of for
Quranic
of of the
Qura
aggregate and as individual. Thereepic are a creative
number
and epic
apocalypse
revelation. We and of
epic activity
Arabic
apocalypse
and has of
words
apocalypseGod
already has at and
already
been
has the result
already
alluded
been of
alluded
been
We content ourselves with an explication of this Quranic apocalyptic theme,to this
several activity,
alluded
to times
several to frequently
several
above.
times It
timesspecified
above.
seems above.
It beyondas
seems Itthe human
seems
beyond beyo
, bashar, khalq, followed by subdivisions disputeor (e.g.,
categories:
whichdispute
that one
represents Q
dispute39:6).
muslim,
that
of the aone
thatThus,
merging muʾmin,
chief
ofone thethere
concerns
of
chief are
the concerns
form numerous
chief
of
and theconcerns
Quran, words
of theof
contents, perhaps
Quran,
and in
therefer the
Quran, Quran
perhaps
asthe important
perhaps
reader that
as important
toasare
my used
revelation
important
book to
as for designate
revelation
as
a revelat
ew, Sabian, mushrik, mufsid, kāfir, jāhil, itself,
moreand communities
theiritself,
isitself,
humanity,
complete issocial of
isunits:
humanity,
both
consideration
consideration humans:
in qawm,
humanity, both of qawm,
the collective
in
both thein
the from
collective
the QasWindividual.
andcollective
remaining M, occurs
and
elements
elements asand 383
individual.
inasAthe times
individual.
brief above A meaning
catalogue
brief
listA(Lawson folk,
catalogue
brief
of all people,
catalogue
the of allcom-
2017, of
theall
mongst others. This third major component words
pp. xi–xxvi,munity;
of our
used
words umma
theory
inwords
used
the
27–115). Quran
in
used30offrom
the Quranic
in
to
QuranU
the MQuran
designate M,designate
to 64this times
to meaning
designate
“species”
this “species”this nation,
supports“species” people,
supports
this supports community,
assertion.
this assertion.
this
Theassertion.religion;
most The most Thethem
e has already been alluded to several times
frequent Thehapax
above.
frequent
term,Quran shuʿūb
It
frequent
al-nās, seems
term,
is from
(from
reallyterm,
al-nās, SH
beyond
moreN ʿAyn
al-nās,
(from
W S)
about B
(from
Noccurs
Wmeaning
divineS)
N 241
occurs
W
Quran is really more about divine revelation than anything else. Its primary S) nations;
times
revelationoccurs
241 in dīn
times
the
241
than from
Quran
times
in the
anything D in
withY
Quran N,
the the
else. meaning
Quran
with
meaning
Its the
with
primary religious/cul-
meaning
of
theas- meaningof
the chief concerns of the Quran, perhaps humanity,
sertion
assertionas tural/ethnic
important
humanity,
man, humanity,
is isthat men man, group,
as
thatrevelation, and revelation
revelation,themen
man,
the occurs
and
people.
men
theGreek 92
the and times.
people.
GreekwordInsān,
the Ahl
people.
unās
word for “(the)
Insān, and
for which Insān,
unāspeople/family”
ins, and
derived
unās ins,
and derived
from
which is ἀποκάλυψις (apokálypsis), the ins, occurs
derived
A from
N 127
S, times,
refers
Afrom N S,A90 including
refers
N S, refers
90
both in the collective and as individual. times
source dozes
Atimes
to brief
of the as the
catalogue
man/humankind/the
times
to English todistinctive
man/humankind/theword theQuranic
of all apocalypse,
man/humankind/the human. human. epithet
Interestingly,
human.
has “people
Interestingly,
always of it
Interestingly,
it taken
occurs the
five Book”
occurs
place times
it
and occurs
five(ahl
intimes
that al-kitāb);
afive
it,verbal
thetimes
inQuran, āl
aform,
verbal
inand the
aisverbal
form, re-for
Quran to designate this “species” supports ānasa,
the most lated
this
meaning
ānasa, recent ūlī,
assertion.
ānasa,
meaning meaning
to faithful
perceive.
meaning The
to and people,
most
perceive.
Bashar
to family,
perceive.
accurateisBashar
another isancestors,
Bashar
record another
word
of issuch another
forwordand
human, related
revelation.for
word human, usages,
sometimes
for
There human, from
sometimes
arethought ʾAthought
sometimes
numerous Wrefer
to L, occurs
thought
words to refer 170to re
ās, (from N W S) occurs 241 times indirectly the
for Quran
this
this times.
directly
to the
mode
mode with Tribe,
directly
of ofthe
“lower
to the ‘ashīra/maʿshar,
meaning
tonature.”
“lower
the “lower
communication
communication of occurs
nature.”
It from
nature.”
It37
distributed
distributed ʿAyn
occurs
times SH
Itover 37asR,
occurs
over timesoccurs
such.
37 times
thousands
thousands as six
B such.
SH ofas times;
Rofsuch. a qabīl
Bisverses,
verses, SH frequent
B
R SH
derived twice
isderived isasafrom
a Rfrequent
Quranic
from tribe(s)
frequent
a few a (from
Quranic Qura
en and the people. Insān, unās and ins, root,derived
few
Arabic, Qmainly
occurring
root,
Arabic, Bfrom
L); a rahṭ,
occurring
root, total
mainly Nfamily,
Atriliteral,
occurring
ofS,a 123
refers
total
triliteral, ax3
times.
roots. 90(RInItH
oftotal
123
roots. ofisṬ);
times.
123
In
order descendants
interesting
times.
It isfrequency,
order
of interesting
of Itfrequency,
that asbāṭ
is interesting
it occurs
that
these x5
these (from
it83that
occurs
roots, times
roots, S occurs
itand B83inṬ);
and times
thethe sons/children,
83
verbal
the times
in
number theand
number in
verbal
of ofe.g.,
the
in- andof a
verbal
nkind/the human. Interestingly, it occurs nominal five
instances Israel
times
nominal
forms:in or
nominal
which in
“to Adam
forms:a verbal
give
they
stances in which they occur, are: B Y N “to (from
forms:
“to
good
occur,form,
give “toB N
news,”
good
are:give Y)
B a
Y x160.
news,”
good
cognate
N “to “Group,”
news,”
a
make cognate
to gospel.
a ʿuṣbah
cognate
clear” to Imruʾ(from
clear” (523); ʾA Y Y/ʾA Y/ʾA W
gospel.
(523); to gospel.
A ʿṢ
“man/person”
Imruʾ
Y Y/ B) Aoccurs
Imruʾ
“man/person”
Y/ A 5 times;
“man/person”
x W 11 Y and
(Lane x “groups,
11 and
x 11 a
erceive. Bashar is another word for human, imraʾa ”ʿizah
sometimes
“woman/person”
imraʾaimraʾa
I, [130–131], (fromthought
etc.) “to
“woman/person” ʿAyn to
“woman/person” Z
indicate”:
occurs 26 W)
refer is
occurs a
times.hapax;
a back-formedoccurs farīq/firqah
26theoretical
26Rajūl/rijāl,
times. times.
Rajūl/rijāl,
from (from Rroot
Rajūl/rijāl,
rootfromF
J L,forforR Q)
denotes
Rfrom occurs
āya/āyāt
J L,Rdenotes
āya/āyāt man/men 33
J “sign(s)”
L, denotestimes;
man/men
and
(382); “group,”
man/men and a
wer nature.” It occurs 37 times as such. KBTTSH
strongly nafar/nafīr
R write”
BBstrongly
“to iswrite”
connotes
“to a frequent
strongly (from
(319);
connotes
manliness, N
connotes
(319); NFLstanding
NQuranic
Z
manliness,
ZR)
“toLoccurs
descend”
manliness,
“tostanding three
one’s
descend” times;
(293)—this
standing
ground,
one’s “Groups,”
word
ground,
one’s
(293)—thisstrength, ground, thubāt
represents
strength,
word triumph (from
strength,
represents the
and“sending
triumph TH B “sending
achievement
triumph
theand Y)achievement
occurs
down”
and achievem once;
al of 123 times. It is interesting that itagainstoccurs
of theodds.
down” “A
83
Quran
against company,”
oftimes against
the in theodds.
from
Additionally,
odds.
Quran the thullah
verbal
heavenly
Additionally,
from (from
and
Additionally,
itthe
has been it TH
realm,
heavenly hasused Lbeen
L)
itit isoccurs
has the
frequently
realm, used
been itbasis3thetimes;
frequently
isused theParties:
inofliterature
frequently
basis word
in
of literature
the “Host,
towritten
in refer
literature
word to
to group,
on Clay
particularly
refer
written toto troop,”
Jar
refer
onparticularly
Clayto fiʾah (F
#1:particula
give good news,” a cognate to gospel. JarImruʾ
tanzı̄l;
devout #1:or ʾtanzīl;
Y)
A
devout Moccurs
“man/person”
heroic Ror
devout(of
ʾA women.11or
God)
heroic
M Rtimes; xwomen.
It11
“to
heroic
(of “Party,
and
command,
occurs
God) women.
It57
“to confederates”
occurs order,
times.
It
command, occurs cause”
57Khalq,
times.57our
order, ḥizb
times.
Khalq,(from
(248);
last
cause” W
Khalq,
our
word, Ḥ ZYour
last
(248); B)
“to
means
word,
W last Ḥ “creation”,
occurs
divinelyword,
Ymeans20 inspire”
“to times;
means “Party/sect”
“creation”,
divinely and (78);
“creation”,
in- and a
son” occurs 26 times. Rajūl/rijāl, from aR
is spire” isshīʿah
J L,
synonym adenotes
(78); B (SH
synonym
is
for YTH ʿAyn)
man/men
aʿAhumanity.
synonym for occurs
“tohumanity.Itand
for
divinely occurs20raise
humanity. times;
It aoccurs
total
up,Itfinally,
occurs
of 261“group,
a total
reveal” atimes
of
total
(67); 261K inparty,”
oftimes
the
SH 261FQuran, ṭāʾifah
times
in
“to the in
to(Ṭthe
Quran,
uncover” W Quran,
stand F)(20).
tooccurs
forstand to25
the
All stand
offor times.
thefor
manliness, standing one’s ground, strength, creative triumph
these creative
activity
action In light
and
creative
activity
of God
words, of this
achievement
activity
orand
ofwords
God extensive
theofand
result
Godthe
indicating vocabulary,
and
ofresult
this
the activity,
result including
of thisofactivity,
revelation frequently
this
as particular
activity,
a noun, frequently
specified
such words
frequently
asspecified
as the
“sign”, for particular
specified
human
as the
are to be as
human types
the hum
ionally, it has been used frequently in literature
(e.g.,
considered of human
Q (e.g.,
39:6). toQ refer
(e.g.,
Thus,
in 39:6). Q
tandem(male
tothere
39:6).
Thus, and
particularly
are
with Thus,female),
there
numerous
both are
there such
thenumerous
arewords
source asofmuʾmin/believer
numerous in
words
the the words
Quran
in thein
revelation, that(x228),
Qurantheare
the Quran
most muslim
that
used are
common that (x41),
to used
designate
are toʿabd/servant
used
designa- designate
to design
omen. It occurs 57 times. Khalq, our communitieslast
tionword,forand means
communities
which ofserving
communities
humans: of (x275),
is“creation”,
ALLĀH humans:
qawm,of(andand kāfir/unbeliever
humans:
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Furthermore,
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occurs
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three
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odds. are
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Additionally,
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thubāt
odds. it (from in
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expectation truth
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communities
thullah have (from Christian
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occurs
devout or heroic as
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times;
devout
women. Q
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future W
Parties:
or heroic M,
rather occurs
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troop,”
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fiʾah
our times.folk,
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last word, people,
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2.4. Humanity
ṣrāniyya ), Jew (x15 as Yahūd, Yahūdī date. ʾ Y) and
Thus, occursHūd;
the11
other-worldly x43
Quran as revelator/intermediary
munity;
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may“Party, Isrāʾīl),
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68), the various and numerousapocalypse. uses (x90)
shīʿah (SH of Yṣāḥib/aṣḥāb
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segue
light into verbal
tural/ethnic
of this forms
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next section,manity,
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Q 39:6).be92 in the
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there cosmic
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Judgmentsuch there
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Salvation,
muʾmin/believer
ofcommunities
humans:bashar,
epithet Heaven khalq,
“people
(x228),
qawm, ofand followed
of
muslim
humans:
from Hell, the
QW Goodby
(x41),
qawm,M,subdivisions
Book” ʿabd/servant
and(ahlBad.
occurs
from al-kitāb);
Q
383 Wtimes or occurs
M, categories:
ālmeaning
and the 383
human/humanity or even the somewhat As aand result recollection
outdated
of the (x275),
serving of
lated
manner theūlī,
term past
“mankind”.
meaning
in whichmuḥsin,
kāfir/unbeliever This
people,
these Christian,
munity; umma munity; lackfamily,
themes
and Jew,
and stories
kufr/unbelief
from U M Sabian,
ancestors,
motives
umma of
M, 64 andmushrik,
prophets
are
(x525),
from related
woven
times UM& mufsid,
their into
Christian
meaning
M, 64 times akāfir,
communities
usages, from
single
(x15
nation, jāhil,
ʾA as
meaning Wand L,
people,nation, their
occurs
commu soc 1
message, it
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyyabecomes times.
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that
), Jew&(x15 whatqabīl,
‘ashīra/maʿshar,
as
hapax
upheavals we alwān,
Yahūd, mistake
shuʿūb alsān,
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for
from amongst
and
hapax ʿAyn
“nature”
SH Hūd;
al-sa SH
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shuʿūb others.
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x43
a, al-amr, occurs
really
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meaning a
al-waqi six
SH ʿAyn third
cosmic times;
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a,nations; major
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(fro
from
communicating
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numerous
tural/ethnic x3 apocalypse
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uses Ṭ);
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more
(x90)
tural/ethnic
occurs ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb
clear92group, asbāṭ
than
times. been x5
in
occurs
Ahl alluded
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much-quoted
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B
times. several
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Ahl ortimes
sons/children,
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people/fam
occurs 12I
e.g.,
of the righteous stories of the prophets
verse that(Qgroup,41:53):e.g.,Israel thoseor in Adam dispute
hell (aṣḥāb (from
dozes that
BN
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as one
theand of
Y)distinctive
x160. the
the attendant
dozes chief
“Group,”
as Quranic concerns
ʿuṣbah
verbal
the distinctive epithet of
(from
forms the
Quranic Quran,
ʿṢ B)epithet
which
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can
of perhaps
the only 5 times;
Book”
“people as importa
(ahl “grou
of al-ki
the
judgment/destruction of wicked/persecutors itself, divine punishment
be performed by ”ʿizahhumans, (fromitʿAyn islated Zisūlī,
curious W) humanity,
is a in
that
meaning hapax;the
lated both in
farīq/firqah
Encyclopaedia
people,
ūlī, the
meaning
family, collective
(from
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people,
ancestors, and
R Q)
family, as occurs
and individual.
there
related is33
ancestors, no times;
usages, A brief
and “group
related
from catʾ
judgment
article for human/humanity /destruction
nafar/nafīr (from of words
the
ortimes. world
N F R)
even used
the
Tribe, in
occurs
somewhat the Quran
see
three outdated
‘ashīra/maʿshar,
times. above,
Tribe, to designate
eschatology
times; ‘ashīra/maʿshar,
“Groups,”
from term ʿAyn this
thubāt
“mankind”.
SH R,“species”
from (from
occurs ʿAyn
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SH BR,
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occurs
qabīl twic asse
ont
six
“A company,”frequent
cosmic transformations thullah term,
(from
Q B L); rahṭ, family, THal-nās,L
Q B L); L) (from
occurs
khalq
x3rahṭ, jadid N
(R Hfamily, 3 W S)
times; occurs
Ṭ); descendantsx3 (R H Ṭ);
Parties: 241 times
“Host,
asbāṭ in
group,
descendants the
x5 (from Sasbāṭ Quran
troop,”B Ṭ);x5sonwith
fiʾah
(fr
resurrection ʾ Y) occurs 11 humanity, times;
Israel“Party, or Adamman, men
confederates”
Israel
(from and
orB Adam
passim NtheY) ḥizbpeople.
(from
x160.
(from Insān,
BḤN
“Group,” Z Y) B)unās occurs
ʿuṣbah
x160. and 20 ins,
“Group,”
(from derived
times; “Party/se
ʿṢ ʿuṣbah from
B) occurs (fro
shīʿah (SH Y ʿAyn) times to(from
occurs man/humankind/the human. Interestingly,
aṭāʾifah (Ṭitfarīq/firqah
occurs five times F3i
demons ʿAyn
”ʿizah 20 times; ”ʿizah finally,
Zal-janna,
W)(from is “group,
aʿAynhapax; Z party,”
W)farīq/firqah
is hapax; (from W FF)Roccurs Q) 25 tim
occurs
(from
other forms of afterlife: angels ānasa, & meaning to perceive. al-nar,
Bashar barzakh,
is another jinn, word shayatin,for mala’ika
human, sometimes
In light of nafar/nafīrthis extensive (from vocabulary,
nafar/nafīr
N F R) occurs including
(from three
N F R) particular
times;
occurs words
“Groups,”
three for
times; thubāt particular
“Groups,”
(from TH typ th
pseudonymity/anonymity
of human (male directly and to the
female), “lower
such authorship
nature.”
as muʾmin/believer of
It the
occurs Quran 37 times
(x228), as
muslim such. (x41),B SH R
ʿabd/servais a f
“A company,” thullah “A company,” (from TH thullah
L L) occurs (from TH 3 times;
L L) occurs Parties:3“Host, times; grou Part
ambiguity and multivocality serving root, ʾ Y)occurring
(x275), occurs 11 atimes;
kāfir/unbelieverʾtotal
Y) occursof
cf. 123tafsir
the
“Party, andtimes.
11 It is
tradition
kufr/unbelief
confederates”
times; interesting
“Party, ḥizb that itḤChristian
(x525),
confederates”
(from occurs
Z B) ḥizb 83
occurs
(fromtimes
(x15 20Ḥ tZ i
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya nominal
shīʿah ), (SH forms:
Jew Y (x15 ʿAyn)“to
shīʿah give
as Yahūd,
occurs
Divine
good
(SHYahūdī 20 news,”
ʿAyn)
Ypresence,
times; and occurs a
finally,
tajalli,
cognate
Hūd;20 x43
“group,
sakina,times; to gospel.
asal-haqq,
Banufinally,
party,”Isrāʾīl),
divine
Imruʾ
ṭāʾifah
“group, “man/p
mushrik/p
(Ṭ party
WF
glory motifytheist (x168),imraʾa the various “woman/person”
In lightand of thisnumerousnames,
extensive
In light occurs uses
attributes,26(x90)
ofvocabulary,
this times.
signs,
extensive Rajūl/rijāl,
of ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb
the Word, the
including
vocabulary, from
“member(s)
Book,
particular R J L,words
including denote
of thisparfo
that group, e.g., strongly
ofthosehuman connotes
in hell
(male ofmanliness,
(aṣḥāb and the
humanal-nār)Light
female), and
(male standing
verse the
suchand(Q24:35) one’s
attendant
asfemale), ground,
muʾmin/believer verbal
such as strength,
forms which
muʾmin/believer
(x228), triumph can on
muslim a(
be performed by against
and humans, odds.
serving Additionally,
it is(x275),
andcurious serving
numerous it has
that qul in
kāfir/unbeliever been
the
(x275),
passages used
Encyclopaedia frequently
kāfir/unbeliever
and
& in
of the Quran
otherkufr/unbelief literature
and (x525), to
there isC
kufr/unbe refe
illocution devout or heroic women. It occurs 57 times. Khalq, our last word, means
article for human/humanity Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya or even the
imperatives,
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya somewhat
), Jew (x15 as Yahūd, directives outdated
), JewYahūdī (x15 asand term Yahūd, “mankind”.
Hūd; Yahūdī
x43 asand This
Banu Hūd la
Is
isytheist
a synonym (x168), the for humanity.
ytheist various It occurs a total of 261 times
(x90) of ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb in the Quran,
aurality oral(x168), andthe
compositon numerous
various
and aural and
uses numerous
reception uses (x90)“me of
creative
that group,activity e.g., of
that God
those group, and
in hell the
e.g., result
(aṣḥāb
those of hell
in
al-nār) this and activity,
(aṣḥābthe frequently
attendant
al-nār) and verbal
the specifie
attend
form
cultural hybridism loanwords, hybrid eschatology (Perso-semitic)
(e.g., Q 39:6). Thus,
be performed by there
be humans,
performed areit numerous
is
bycurious
humans, words
that it is in in thethe
curious Quranthat inthat
Encyclopaedia theof are theu
Ency
variety of grammatical persons as actor,
orchestration of authorial communities article for human/humanity
voices of humans:
article for qawm, orfrom
human/humanityevenQthe W M, occurs
somewhator even383 thetimes
outdated somewhat meaning
term outd “ma fo
munity; umma from U actant,
M M, narrator
64 times meaning nation, people, commun
literary forms and deviceshapax shuʿūb from SH sajʿAyn, mathal, B meaning
tashbih, story, nations; dīn from D Y N, meani
epic, apocalypse
tural/ethnic group, occurs 92 times.
previous epochs, jahiliyya, Ahl “(the) people/family” occurs 127
time and history periodized
dozes as the distinctive Quranic
islamiyya, epithet “people of the Book” (ahl al-kitā
pre-creation
enantiodromia lated ūlī, meaning people, passimfamily, ancestors, and related usages, from ʾA
times. Tribe, ‘ashīra/maʿshar, from ʿAyn SH R, occurs six times; qabīl twice
closure, the end/goal yawm al-din
Q B L); rahṭ, family, x3 (R H Ṭ); descendants asbāṭ x5 (from S B Ṭ); sons/
Israel or Adam (from B N Y) x160. “Group,” ʿuṣbah (from ʿṢ B) occurs 5
”ʿizah (from ʿAyn Z W) is a hapax; farīq/firqah (from F R Q) occurs 33
nafar/nafīr (from N F R) occurs three times; “Groups,” thubāt (from TH B
“A company,” thullah (from TH L L) occurs 3 times; Parties: “Host, group
ʾ Y) occurs 11 times; “Party, confederates” ḥizb (from Ḥ Z B) occurs 20 tim
 root, occurring a total of 123 times. It is interesting that it occurs 83 times in the verbal and
nominal forms:
Religions“to
2021,give
12, xgood
FOR PEER 8news,”
of 20 REVIEWa cognate to gospel. Imruʾ “man/person” x 11 and
imraʾa “woman/person” occurs 26 times. Rajūl/rijāl, from R J L, denotes man/men and
strongly connotes manliness, standing one’s ground, strength, triumph and achievement
against odds. Additionally, it has been used frequently in literature to refer to particularly
(19). Words for2021,
Religions shine
12,forth,
562 glow and irradiate also Furthermore, the places, communities, nations, races, languages that are a
8 of 20
devout or heroic women. It occurs 57 times. Khalq, our last word, means “creation”, and
: N W R “light” (43), “fire” (145), “enlightened” (6), edged by the Quran represent a variety heretofore unencountered in the Nile-to-
is a synonym for humanity. It occurs a total of 261 times in the Quran, to stand for the
“to be glorious” (6), J L W “to become manifest, be brary of either epic or scripture. One may, in fact, consider the numerous identitie
creative activity of God and the result of this activity, frequently specified as the human
). extra-Quranic document, stated to have been written by Muḥammad, the rem
(e.g., Q 39:6). Thus, there are In numerous
addition to wordsfor
words in the
thesource
Quranofthat are used
revelation andtothe designate
rce of revelation and the act and substance of reve- Constitution of Medina, as something of aact and substance
precursor, of revelation,
adumbration or possibly
communities of humans: qawm, from Q W M, occurs 383 times meaning folk, people, com-
iduals, the above-mentioned prophets and messen- flection of the distinctive pluralism and cosmopolitanism ofmessengers,
there is also the range of individuals, the above-mentioned prophets and the Dār al-Islām of
munity; umma from Uwho M M, 64 times meaning nation, for people, community, religion; the
for and bearers of revelation, and then, offunction
course asbasid intermediaries
era and beyond and bearers of revelation, and then, of course their
hapax shuʿūb from SHaudience. ʿAyn B meaning One may nations;
consider dīnhere
fromthat DY this N,7th meaning
centuryreligious/cul-
late antique composition succeeds
e that this 7th century late antique composition suc-
tural/ethnic group, occurs 92 times. Ahl
in routinizing the“(the)
otherwisepeople/family”
exceptional occurs
event127 times, including
of apocalypse by claiming, as in Q 10:47:
ceptional event of apocalypse by claiming, as in Q 2.4. Humanity
dozes as the distinctive Quranic epithet “people of the
“every community has had a messenger.” This is so even if theBook” (ahl al-kitāb); āl and the re-Quran names only 25
messenger.” This is so even if the Quran names only One of the most important distinguishing features of the Quran is its them
lated ūlī, meaning people, family, ancestors, and related usages, from
or so such figures. To cheat a bit here and refer to the post-Quranic tradition, Muslim ʾA W L, occurs 170
ere and refer to the post-Quranic tradition, Muslim manity, both in the aggregate and as individual. There are a number of Arabic w
times. Tribe, ‘ashīra/maʿshar,
scholars from ʿAyn SHspeculated
eventually R, occurs six that times;
in order qabīltotwice account as tribe(s)
for the (from
history of humanity recently
n order to account for the history of humanity re- play here: nās, insān, bashar, khalq, followed by subdivisions or categories: muslim,
(R H Ṭ); descendants
Q B L); rahṭ, family, x3rewritten by Muslim scholars asbāṭ x5such (fromasSat B. -Ṭ); sons/children,
abarı̄ (d. 923) there e.g.,had of to have been at least
such as aṭ-Ṭabarī (d. 923) there had to have been at muḥsin, Christian, Jew, Sabian, mushrik, mufsid, kāfir, jāhil, and their social unit
Israel or Adam (from B N Y) x160.
124,000 such “Group,”
prophets and ʿuṣbah (from ʿṢ B)tooccurs
messengers account 5 times;
for the“groups,
highly variegated number of
engers to account for the highly variegated number qabīl, alwān, alsān, amongst others. This third major component of our theory of
”ʿizah (from ʿAyn Z W) is a hapax;
languages and farīq/firqah
cultures that (from
had FexistedR Q) and occurs still33 times;
exist. “group,”
Nothing is more emblematic of the
xisted and still exist. Nothing is more emblematic of epic and apocalypse has already been alluded to several times above. It seems
occurs threeélan
nafar/nafīr (from N F R)cosmopolitan times; of the Quran than
“Groups,” thubāt this number.
(from TH BFurthermore,
Y) occurs once; these figures, according to
han this number. Furthermore, these figures, accord- dispute that one of the chief concerns of the Quran, perhaps as important as re
“A company,” thullah (from the foundational
TH L L) occurs Quranic literary
3 times; and doctrinal
Parties: “Host, group, devicetroop,”of typological
fiʾah (F figuration, were all as
ary and doctrinal device of typological figuration, itself,asistheyhumanity, both in the collective and as individual. A brief catalogue o
ʾ Y) occurs 11 times; “Party,
much confederates”
apocalypticists ḥizb (from wereḤ Z teachers
B) occursof20 righteousness
times; “Party/sect” or law-givers.
ey were teachers of righteousness or law-givers. words used in the Quran
idea of ṭāʾifah to designate this “species”
(propheticsupports figure) ofthis assertion. T
shīʿah (SH Y ʿAyn) occurs 20These times;two elements,
finally, “group, theparty,” revelation (Ṭ Wand the vehicle
F) occurs 25 times. revela-
evelation and the vehicle (prophetic figure) of reve-
tion, arevocabulary, frequent
so much in includingevidence—asterm, al-nās,
both form (from N
andfor W S) occurs
contents—in 241 literary “circuitry” of the the me
times in the Quran with
In light of this extensive particular words particular the types
oth form and contents—in the literary Quran, “circuitry” of humanity, man, men and the people. Insān, unās andtoins, tryderived from A N S, r
of human (male and female), so such much a part of the text(x228),
as muʾmin/believer that it muslim
would be ʿabd/servant
counterproductive
(x41), and tabulate
that it would be counterproductive to the try frequency
and tabu- of times to man/humankind/the human. Interestingly, it occurs five times in a verb
and serving (x275), kāfir/unbeliever their andoccurrence
kufr/unbelief in this(x525),
brief article. Christian (x15 as
in this brief article. In addition, ānasa,themeaning torevelation,
perceive. Bashar is another word for human, sometimes
“occa- though
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya ), Jew (x15 as Yahūd,to Yahūdī process
and Hūd; of x43 as Banu there are
Isrāʾīl), numerous
mushrik/pol- other apocalyptic
elation, there are numerous other apocalyptic sions” “occa- directly
throughout the to theas“lower
Quran, indicated nature.”
in the Itabove
occurs 37 times
table. As as such. BbySH
suggested, R is a frequent
especially
ytheist (x168), the various and numerous uses (x90) of ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb “member(s) of this or
cated in the above table. As suggested,Jar by #1,especially theroot,
tanzı̄l,al-nār) very occurringrevelations
a total of 123 times. It is interesting thatelsewhere
it occurs 83 times in the ve
that group, e.g., those in hell (aṣḥāb andearliest
the attendant verbal abound
forms which with what
can onlyI have deemed
tions abound with what I have elsewhere “tropes deemed nominal forms: “to give good news,” a cognate to gospel. Imruʾ “man/person” x
be performed by humans, it isofcurious
intensity” that(Lawson 2017, pp. xxiv,
in the Encyclopaedia of the xxvi,
Quran xxvii, there43, is49,no52, 78, 196 n. 65). It is
p. xxiv, xxvi, xxvii, 43, 49, 52, 78, 196 n.here 65). It is here imraʾa “woman/person” occurs 26 times. Rajūl/rijāl, from R J L, denotes man/m
article for human/humanitythat or evenwe becomethe somewhat apprised of the sun
outdated term becoming
“mankind”. wrappedThis lack in darkness (Q 81:1); the
ecoming wrapped in darkness (Q 81:1);cleaving the cleaving of the moon strongly connotesthe
(Q 54:1–2), manliness,
darkening standing
of the moon one’s (Q ground,
75:7–8), strength,
the falling triumph
of theand achie
g of the moon (Q 75:7–8), the falling ofstars the (Q stars81:2),(Q theagainst
mountains odds.transformed
Additionally, into it has
tuftsbeen of woolused(Q frequently
101:5) or in literature
crumbled toto refer to par
dust
tufts of wool (Q 101:5) or crumbled to dust (Q 7:143),
(Q 7:143), murdered devout or heroic
infants speaking women. fromItthe occurs
grave 57demanding
times. Khalq, to our
know lastwhy
word, they means
had “creatio
grave demanding to know why they had been been killed
killed is a synonym
(Q 70:9), mountains forground
humanity. into sand It occurs a totalmountains
(Q 73:14), of 261 times in theaway
blown Quran, (Q to stand
(Q 73:14), mountains blown away (Q 77:10), moun-
77:10), mountains moved away (Q 78:20, 81:3, 18:47), the boiling over of the seas (Q 81:6, as the
creative activity of God and the result of this activity, frequently specified
7), the boiling over of the seas (Q 81:6, 82:3); 82:3);damning
damning critiques (e.g., Q 39:6). of social Thus, there are
injustice (Q numerous
4:10; 2:220;words 4:75, 4:98 in theand Quran
passim), thatfalsely
are used to d
220; 4:75, 4:98 and passim), falsely claiming claiming to beto op- communities
be oppressed of humans:
(Q 4:97); ascensions qawm, tofrom Q W M,
the realms ofoccurs
heaven383 (Qtimes
17:1);meaning
warningsfolk, peop
alms of heaven (Q 17:1); warnings about aboutimpending
impendingmunity; justice and umma punishment
from U MforM, breaking
64 times God’s
meaninglaw (passim,
nation,esp. withcommunity,
people, the root relig
God’s law (passim, esp. with the root Ẓ L M, 315x), 315x), frequent hapax mentions
shuʿūb from SH ʿAyn
of al-sā a, “the Hour,” (49),
B meaning \al-yawm,
nations; dīn from“theD Day”Y N,(405)meaningof religi
ur,” (49), \al-yawm, “the Day” (405) of reckoning,
reckoning,the the al-ākhira
tural/ethnic sequelgroup,of “hereafter”
occurs 92(220) times. and Ahl al-qiyāma “judgment/resurrection”
“(the) people/family” occurs 127 times, in
nd al-qiyāma “judgment/resurrection” (70), which is is also frequently mentioned throughout
dozes as the distinctive Quranic epithet “people of the the Quran, and, finally,
Book” references to āl and
(ahl al-kitāb);
t the Quran, and, finally, references to power falling to those lated ūlī, whomeaning
had once been oppressed
people, family, ancestors, (Q 13:11). and related usages, from ʾA W L, oc
d (Q 13:11). All this, together times. with Tribe,those virtually numberless
‘ashīra/maʿshar, from ʿAyn SH instances
R, occurs in which
six times; guidance,
qabīl twice sal- as tribe(
ually numberless instances in which guidance, vation, deliverance sal- Q Bfrom error,
L); rahṭ, family, x3 (R H Ṭ);
distinguishing truth from falsehood,
descendants asbāṭ x5reading(from Sthe B Ṭ);
signs of
sons/children
guishing truth from falsehood, reading God the forsigns theoftruth, leave no doubt that revelation is, in fact,
Israel or Adam (from B N Y) x160. “Group,” ʿuṣbah (from ʿṢ B) occurs 5 times; “ one of the most important
at revelation is, in fact, one of the most themes of the Quran:
important ”ʿizahit(fromis a work ʿAynthat Z W)is itsisown a hapax;main character,
farīq/firqaha(from work that F R is Q)about
occurs itself.
33 times; “
Furthermore, the urgency of the revelations indicate
is its own main character, a work that is about itself. nafar/nafīr (from N F R) occurs three times; “Groups,” thubāt (from TH B Y) occu that apocalyptic-cum-eschatological
expectation may“A
lations indicate that apocalyptic-cum-eschatological well have beenthullah
company,” focused (from on TH the near future 3rather
L L) occurs times;than Parties:some quitegroup,
“Host, later troop,
sed on the near future rather than some date. quiteThus, later the Quran
ʾ Y) occurs may 11 be times;
seen as“Party,
a distinctive but unmistakable
confederates” ḥizb (from record Ḥ Z B) and occurs voice of
20 times; “Par
s a distinctive but unmistakable recordapocalypse. and voice of shīʿah (SH Y ʿAyn) occurs 20 times; finally, “group, party,” ṭāʾifah (Ṭ W F) occurs 2
As a segue into the nextof
In light section, it will be
this extensive useful to remark
vocabulary, including upon the cosmic
particular words impli-
for particul
cations of the Quranic notion of Judgment
it will be useful to remark upon the cosmic implica- of human (male and female), such as muʾmin/believer (x228), muslim and Salvation, Heaven and Hell, Good and(x41), ʿabd
ent and Salvation, Heaven and Hell, Good Bad. and As aBad. result of and the serving
manner in(x275), which these themes and and
kāfir/unbeliever motives are woven into
kufr/unbelief (x525),a singleChristian
these themes and motives are wovenmessage, into a single it becomes clear that what ),
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya weJew mistake
(x15 asfor “nature”
Yahūd, Yahūdī is really
and Hūd; a cosmic
x43 as system for
Banu Isrāʾīl), mus
communicating the divine message. Nowhere
we mistake for “nature” is really a cosmic system for ytheist (x168), the various and numerous uses (x90) of ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb “member(s) o is this more clear than in the much-quoted
verse (Q 41:53):
Nowhere is this more clear than in the much-quoted that group, e.g., those in hell (aṣḥāb al-nār) and the attendant verbal forms which
Soon We will beshowperformedthem Our signs (āyātinā)
by humans, in the that
it is curious physical in the realm and in their
Encyclopaedia of the Quran the
own souls so that they
article may come to know
for human/humanity orthe eventruth the(al-h . aqq). outdated term “mankind”. T
somewhat
The litany of such oppositions as the above-mentioned “Heaven 6= Hell”, and many others
as well, is ceaselessly heard throughout the Quran resulting in a text or composition whose
coherence is significantly maintained through this interplay of dualities and oppositions
Religions 2021, 12, 562 9 of 20

no matter which scroll we are reading (Lawson 2017, pp. 76–93). Thus, according to the
Quran, apocalypse/revelation occurs in three different but profoundly related locations:
(1) in the Quran itself whose “verses” are actually called “signs” (āyāt), (2) in the physical
realm, literally the “horizons” (āfāq), and finally (3) in the souls of human beings (anfus,
singular nafs). That reading the divinely revealed signs appearing in these three distinct but
deeply interrelated realms is such a foundational human duty and characteristic, according
to the Quran, suggests that our species could be just as easily designated Homo lector as
Homo sapiens.
There are many passages which are deeply moving or touching, even to the objective
and hard-bitten “pure” philologist who has stabilized an English version of our scrolls.
One of these is the exquisite Light Verse (Q 24:35). This verse states, in unrivalled poetic
diction and metaphor, that over all this revelatory/apocalyptic activity presides God, who
is described in one of the most beautiful passages of any scripture or, for that matter, work
of literature.
God is the Light of the Heavens and the Earth.
His light is as a niche wherein is a lamp.
The lamp is in a glass.
And this glass is itself like a glittering star.
Kindled from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the East nor of the West
Whose oil well-nigh would shine, even if no fire touched it.
Light upon Light!
God guides to his light whom he will.
Thus does God strike similitudes for men.
While God has knowledge of everything.
(Arberry translation, slightly adapted)
From the scroll in Jar #1, then, we gain an idea of the power and beauty of divine
revelation, that it is now occurring, and that it is part of the sunna or “practice” of God,
and, therefore, has always occurred. We also understand that there is a great intensity
pursuing the audience in the literary form of spectacular and even catastrophic “natural”
events in line with the moral and spiritual state of the audience. In the next section, we
gain some idea, through the contents of Jar #2, of how this same process has played out
in history, how history began, what are the important events that punctuate humanity’s
collective sojourn on earth and what may be expected in the future.

2.3. Epic
“(E)pic is hugely ambitious, undertaking to articulate the most essential aspects
of a culture, from its origin stories to its ideals of social behavior, social structure,
relationship to the natural world and to the supernatural. The scope of epic is
matched by its attitude: as Aristotle noted, it dwells on the serious. (Even its
meter, says Aristotle, is ‘most stately and weightiest . . . ’ Poetics 1459, b34–5.)
Epic, the ultimate metonymic art form from the perspective of its pars pro toto
performance, is on the level of ideology a metonymy for culture itself.” (Martin
2005, p. 18)
In the epic, humanity itself is the center of attention, unlike those events in the oldest
suras such as the falling of the stars or the splitting of the moon, or the nearness of “the
Hour”. Note, also, these things remain as the divine word, but they now occupy, by
comparison, a less prominent place in the textual landscape and grammar of the Quran.
The Quran remains powerfully—not to say apocalyptically—eschatological. However,
now the logic of such eschatology is more readable and trumps the less accessible logic of
apocalypse. The new epic form marks out the experience as one of a community composed
of individuals rather than an individual who may or may not be a member of a community.
Religions 2021, 12, 562 10 of 20

For a working definition of epic, we rely on the current comparative scholarship from
which these twelve principal elements are derived. (See Suggested Reading, note 1) We
will treat each one of these briefly.

2.3.1. An Epic Is Frequently the First or Oldest Literary Work—Oral or Written—Of a

Given Culture
The Quran is generally regarded as the first book in Arabic. It is certainly the book
which more than any other has contributed to the consolidation of the identity of the
“nation” of Muslims, whether Arab or not. Thus, after the Fātih.a and a few lines of human-
centered homiletics, Q 2:29 begins, seemingly, with the beginning of humanity in the story
of Adam. One says seemingly because we do, in time, discover that the creation of Adam
and Eve, the bowing of the angels to him, the refusal of Iblis to accept Adam’s superiority,
this scenario (Q 2:29–38 and elsewhere) was not the first event of significance, according to
the Quran.

2.3.2. An Epic Opens in Medias Res

For this event, we must wait until the seventh sura, where the real beginning in the
Quran of both time, history and the awakening of consciousness is disclosed. Known as
the day of the covenant (yawm al-mı̄thāq) in Islam, it is understood to have occurred in a
spiritual realm before creation, before time and place existed. There, at verse 172, God
summoned the souls of all future humans to his presence and asked them the defining
question: “Am I not your Lord?”. To this question, the vast gathering of numberless souls
responded “Indeed, to this we testify!”. Such an episode renders the story of Adam and
Eve at Q 2:29ff a perfect example of an epic that begins in medias res: “in the midst of
things”.

2.3.3. The Time and Place of the Text Is Vast, Covering Many Geographic Settings, Nations
and/or Worlds
The Quran addresses a humanity that has existed since before time began, according
to the mythic scenario of the Day of the Covenant above. It speaks of various worlds of
God who is “the Lord of all worlds” (Q 1:2) and acknowledges a recurring covenant that
has been instituted between God and every human and every human community that ever
was. This vastness is symbolized in the prophetic history which the Quran teaches.
Narrative compulsion at the surface level of the Quranic literary vision begins on this
Day of the Covenant. However, it is clear, from the ethos of the Quran, that the Sitz im
Leben for the narrative is precisely the chaos of religions in the Late Antique, 7th century
Nile-to-Oxus region where various communal identities based on Judaism, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism, to name the most prominent, vie for cultural space. However, lest we get
ahead of ourselves, let us list the other main constituents or elements of the epic form.

2.3.4. An Epic Usually Begins with an Invocation or Request for Inspiration/Guidance

In the case of the Quran, this would be the above-mentioned first sura, al-Fātih.a, which
means literally the opener or “overture”. It will be useful to quote a translation here to give
a further idea of the nature of the epic character of the Quran.
1 In the name of the Merciful and Compassionate God.
2 Praise belongs to God, the Lord of all Worlds,
3 The Merciful, the Compassionate,
4 Master of the Day of Reckoning.
5 You we serve; to You we turn for help.
6 Guide us on the straight path,
7 The path of those You have blessed, not of those with whom You are angry
nor of those who go astray.
 is a synonym for humanity. It occurs a total of 261 times in the Quran, to stand for the
creative activity of God and the result of this activity, frequently specified as the human
(e.g., Q 39:6). Thus, there are numerous words in the Quran that are used to designate
communities of humans: qawm, from Q W M, occurs 383 times meaning folk, people, com-
Religions 2021, 12, munity;
562 umma from U M M, 64 times meaning nation, people, community, religion; the 11 of 20
hapax shuʿūb from SH ʿAyn B meaning nations; dīn from D Y N, meaning religious/cul-
tural/ethnic group, occurs 92 times. Ahl “(the) people/family” occurs 127 times, including
dozes as the distinctive Quranic epithet “people of the Book” (ahl al-kitāb); āl and the re-
lated ūlī, meaning people, family, ancestors, and related usages,(Jones from ʾA translation,
W L, occurs slightly
170 adapted)
times. Tribe, ‘ashīra/maʿshar, from ʿAyn
It is pertinent SHthat
to note R, occurs sixistimes;
this text perhapsqabīl twice
the singleas most
tribe(s) (fromscripture on the
recited
Q B L); rahṭ, family, (R H Ṭ);
planetx3because descendants
it is asbāṭ x5 (from
used on numberless S B Ṭ);
occasions as sons/children,
a prayer or blessing e.g., ofin addition to its
Israel or Adamrole (from B N Y) x160. “Group,” ʿuṣbah (from ʿṢ B) occurs 5 times; “groups,
in the five daily prayers of Muslims. It is also, interestingly enough, in the current
”ʿizah (from ʿAyn Z W)deemed
context, is a hapax;
by thefarīq/firqah (from F RtoQ)
scholarly tradition haveoccurs
been 33 times;twice,
revealed “group,”the first time as the
nafar/nafīr (from N F R) occurs
“opener” three times;in“Groups,”
of the apocalypse Mecca, thethubāt
second (from
as theTHopening
B Y) occurs once;
introduction—something
“A company,” thullah (from TH
of a praepositio (seeL next
L) occurs
item)3intimes; Parties:
Medina. Here,“Host, group, troop,”
it is important to notefiʾah (F
the semantic range of
ʾ Y) occurs 11 times; “Party,
the Arabic root for the wordḥizb
confederates” a, F T Ḥ .ZItB)
fātih.(from canoccurs
mean20 “totimes;
open”“Party/sect”
or to “conquer” a territory,
shīʿah (SH Y ʿAyn) occurs
to open the20mind
times;or finally,
the heart “group, party,”
or to open, ṭāʾifah
as in (Ṭ W
disclose F) unveil,
and occurs 25 times.Thus, this twice
a secret.
In light of revealed distinctive
this extensive brief sura
vocabulary, functions
including simultaneously
particular words forasparticular
an element of the apocalypse
types
of human (male and female), such as muʾmin/believer (x228), muslim (x41), ʿabd/servant
and the epic modes of the Quran.
and serving (x275), kāfir/unbeliever and kufr/unbelief (x525), Christian (x15 as
Naṣārā/Naṣrāniyya 2.3.5.),An
JewEpic
(x15Also Early Yahūdī
as Yahūd, on Introduces
and Hūd; a Theme:
x43 as BanuThis Isrāʾīl),
Is the Praepositio
mushrik/pol-
In addition
ytheist (x168), the various to the Fātih
and numerous a,
uses
. another
(x90) of ṣāḥib/aṣḥāb
introduction to the
“member(s) epic ofQuran
this ormay be seen as
that group, e.g.,following
those in hellimmediately.
(aṣḥāb al-nār) The
and first
thefew versesverbal
attendant of sura 2, al-Baqara
forms which can (the 91st or 87th sura
only
to be revealed, according to the most common chronologies
be performed by humans, it is curious that in the Encyclopaedia of the Quran there is no of revelation), lay out the
general concerns of the epic Quran (2:1–29): the
article for human/humanity or even the somewhat outdated term “mankind”. This lack continuity of revelation—it has happened
before, it is happening now; the importance of obedience to the revelation and its laws; the
promise of reward for good and punishment for evil. The ensuing verses and suras, much
concerned with the heroism of the prophets and messengers, may be thought to illustrate
the truth of these opening verses.

2.3.6. An Epic Makes Pervasive and Fluent Use of Epithet

The Quran is rhetorically very rich, and epithet is among its most pervasive riches,
setting another gauge of continuity. As in the Homeric “rosy fingers of dawn” or “the wine
dark sea”, the Quran uses in abundance such epithets as “the life of this world below”
(h.ayāt al-dunyā), signaling spiritual distance from God, or the “heavens and the earth”
(as-samawāt wa’l-ard.) as an epithet of totality.

2.3.7. Epic Similes and Figures Abound

As a sign of the Quran’s self-reflexivity, it even speaks about using similes and
metaphors and acknowledges that such poetic devices are a part of its own modus operandi.
Sura 2, in addition to introducing the epic story of humanity, granted in medias res, also
expands on this use of mathal “simile”, as when the light is snatched away (Q 2:17) or
when the gnat or whatever is above it is stated to be fair grist for the Quranic mill (Q
2:26). The prime example for the Quranic dependence upon metaphor and simile,we have
already quoted above, the verse of light (Q 24:35). Such figures abound. A particularly
characteristic Quranic employment of simile or metaphor may also be seen in the dozens of
divine names throughout the text. These so-called “ninety-nine names” are a characteristic
feature of the Quran; indeed, it could be stated that no other feature is more characteristic.
On the basis of the firm Quranic teaching (Q 112 et passim), that God is utterly unknowable
and unlike anything else, these names acquire a particular anagogic or metaphoric status.
Their numbers are set somewhat arbitrarily at 99, but there are many more words than
99 that qualify as names or indicators of the divine (Böwering 2002). These names, along
with the numerous epithets for the Quran itself found in the Text (Mir 2003), represent
an interesting variation on the epic simile or metaphor, and they may also be thought to
perform double duty as a feature of the next item—epic lists.

2.3.8. An Epic Contains Long Lists of Culturally Specific Realia/Artifacts/Products

The culturally specific “artifacts” here are chiefly the types of humans identified
by the Quran, either by their religious communities or their moral health (see below
Section 2.4 Humanity). We may consider a neologism such as “anthrotope” here, along the
lines of Bakhtin’s chronotope, to help us consider this very distinctive Quranic feature of
a “place of human variety and pluralism”. With regard to lists of material objects, there
Religions 2021, 12, 562 12 of 20

has not been much work done on the material culture mentioned in the Quran and what
has been done seems to have been restricted to the material culture of the Arabs of the
peninsula. Since much of this material had “migrated” from points further north, east and
in some cases south, and even west, it also reflects the culture from an epic angle. For long
lists and itemizations, we do not find an equivalent to the lists of ships or arms in Homer,
for example. In addition to the human types, and the various religious communities that
may be thought part of such a list, there are also the numerous names and attributes of
God, as mentioned in the previous section, which may be thought to fulfill, in some ways,
this epic “requirement”.

2.3.9. The Epic Features Extended Examples of Verbal Eloquence and Artistry
The Quran is seen as both the first book and the epitome of eloquence in the Arabic
language. It is, from one perspective, a single long speech by God through Muh.ammad as
mediated by the angel of revelation, identified later as Gabriel.

2.3.10. The Epic Demonstrates and Describes Divine Intervention in Human Affairs
This element really requires no explication or comment. The entire epic thrust of
the Quran has to do with God’s intervention in history and human affairs. The Quran
represents itself not only as being about such interventions, but actually being the latest
intervention by God.

2.3.11. The Epic Features Heroes Who Embody and Personify the Values and Ethos of
the Culture
These are those 25 or so Quranic and those 124,000 theoretical pre-Quranic prophets
and messengers mentioned earlier. It is important to note, however, that such heroism
is participated in, emulated, studied and embodied by the audience, whether collective
or individual, whether as a mere reader who achieves and wins understanding, or as a
“citizen” who participates in the venture of a just and peaceful society or community and
accepts the moral and existential challenges of the Quran.

2.3.12. Epic Is Performed before an Audience

This feature also requires no comment. The revelations, according to tradition were
composed during performance, thus, pointing to the artistic category of improvisation.

2.3.13. An Epic Describes a Vast Setting of Time and Place

The scale of time and place in the Quran is vast. The Quran’s “setting” or more
accurately, the Quran’s chronotope, is epic in every way: it begins before the created
beginning with that important and utterly cosmopolitan “day of the covenant” scene at
Q 7:172 and carries on until “the end that has no end” with those apocalyptic visions
of the Hour, Judgment and Resurrection.4 In essence, each of these moments is another
occasion for revelation, which, according to the Quran’s theory of prophecy and history,
will never end:
And if all the trees on earth were pens, and the sea were ink, with seven more
seas yet added to it, the words of God would not be exhausted; for verily, God is
almighty, wise (Q 31:27, Asad translation).
Furthermore, the places, communities, nations, races, languages that are acknowl-
edged by the Quran represent a variety heretofore unencountered in the Nile-to-Oxus
library of either epic or scripture. One may, in fact, consider the numerous identities in that
extra-Quranic document, stated to have been written by Muh.ammad, the remarkable Con-
stitution of Medina, as something of a precursor, adumbration or possibly even reflection
of the distinctive pluralism and cosmopolitanism of the Dār al-Islām of the Abbasid era
and beyond.
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 for the birth, growth, identity, triumphs and failures of humanity on a global scale.

2.5. Typological Figuration

Even in its muṣḥaf arrangement, we encounter problems and obstacles usually not
Religions 2021, 12, 562 met with in the average book. Among these, it has been remarked by both Muslim and
14 of 20
general readerships, is the apparent violation, from time to time, of the immutable literary
law of consistency, sequence and coherent arrangement. This feature is particularly glar-
ing in Quran translations and so it is frequently adduced as a symbol of the “irrationality”
in Quran translations and so it is frequently adduced as a symbol of the “irrationality”
of the Quran and, by association, the prophet Muḥammad, Islam and Muslims. Such a
of the Quran and, by association, the prophet Muh.ammad, Islam and Muslims. Such a
conclusion is really an act of intellectual violence and should be seen as such. For those
conclusion is really an act of intellectual violence and should be seen as such. For those
who take the trouble to appreciate the Arabic Quran, however, the charge of incoherence
who take the trouble to appreciate the Arabic Quran, however, the charge of incoherence is
is not heard, even if there may be an expression of puzzlement with regard to the narrative
not heard, even if there may be an expression of puzzlement with regard to the narrative or
or compositional
compositional flowflow of the
of the texttext in this
in this or that
or that instance.
instance. WhatWhat is almost
is almost universally
universally heard
heard is
is an
an expression
expression of admiring
of admiring amazement
amazement of how
of how the Quran
the Quran does does
indeedindeed
seem seem to fit to-
to fit together
gether
in in an intricate
an intricate and astonishing
and astonishing manner manner (Mir 1986).
(Mir 1986). The Quran
The Quran demands
demands much much
fromfrom
the
the reader, morally, intellectually, and existentially, particularly with
reader, morally, intellectually, and existentially, particularly with regard to the questionregard to the ques-
tion “how
“how best best to read?”.
to read?”. ThisThis is because
is because thethe Arabic
Arabic of of
thetheQuran
Quranperforms
performsthethefunction
function ofof
supplying its own unifying music to the text through its language:
supplying its own unifying music to the text through its language: the entire Quran is inthe entire Quran is in
rhyme, the
rhyme, the sounds
sounds of of the
the Arabic
Arabic consonants
consonants and and vowels
vowels also
also provide
provide aa powerful
powerful unifying
unifying
music as well as the instrument with which such music is performed.
music as well as the instrument with which such music is performed. Thus, questions of Thus, questions of
continuity recede in urgency in the presence of the compelling soundscape
continuity recede in urgency in the presence of the compelling soundscape of the Quran, of the Quran,
which also
which also entails
entails aa pervasive
pervasive use use ofof the
the language
language of of opposition
opposition and and duality,
duality, aa feature
feature that
that
may be considered a part of the textual grammar of the Book. While
may be considered a part of the textual grammar of the Book. While this topic has been this topic has been
covered in
covered in detail
detail elsewhere,
elsewhere, it it is
is important
important herehere to
to give
give some
some idea
idea of
of exactly
exactly what
what this
this
entails, as
entails, as in
in this
this quotation:
quotation:
pervade the
Dualities pervade the Quran
Quran from fromthe themerely
merelyquotidian
quotidianup up6=≠down,down,north north6=≠
night 6=
south, night ≠ day,
day, hot 6= ≠ cold,
cold, to to the
the downright
downright Wagnerian eschatological em-
blems of
blems ofthe thebeginning
beginningand and thethe end,
end, hellhell
andand heaven,
heaven, including
including thosethoseanonymousanony-
and mysterious groups, the Party of God (h.izb Allah), the Party of Satan Satan
mous and mysterious groups, the Party of God (ḥizb Allah), the Party of (h.izb
(ḥizb al-Shayṭān),
al-Shayt . ān), the Peoplethe People of theofRight the Right Hand, Hand, the People
the People of the of the
LeftLeftHand Hand andand so
so on.
on. It would
It would become
become the thetasktaskofofexegesis
exegesistotoidentify identifysuch suchgroups
groups as as the
the as aṣḥāb
. h.āb
al-yamīn/al-maymana, aṣḥāb
al-yamı̄n/al-maymana, as.h.āb al-mashʾama and al-sābiqūn, al-sābiqūn, and a thirdthird category iden-
tified
tified by
by thethe Quran
Quran as as those
those brought
brought near near (al-muqarrabun,
(al-muqarrabun, Q Q 56:11
56:11 & & 14:29;
14:29; Night
Night
6=
≠ day; heaven≠ 6=
day;heaven earth;
earth; private
private 6= public;
≠ public; hidden hidden
≠ seen;6= moon
seen; ≠moon stars;6=sun stars;
≠ moon;sun
6= moon; fire 6 = water; air 6 = earth; male 6
fire ≠ water; air ≠ earth; male ≠ female; mountain ≠ plain; road ≠ wilderness;= female; mountain 6 = plain; road 6=
wilderness; shade 6 = sun are frequently invoked
shade ≠ sun are frequently invoked features of the natural world found men- features of the natural world
found
tioned mentioned
throughoutthroughout the Quran. They the Quran.
appear They to have appear
somethingto have something
in common within
common
similar pairs withofsimilar
opposites, pairsnear-opposites
of opposites, near-oppositesand other pairs and of other pairs of moral-
moral-religious val-
religious
ues and valuesqualities and qualitiesthroughout
invoked invoked throughout the Quran: theguidance/salvation
Quran: guidance/salvation ≠ perdi-
6= perdition; faith 6 = unbelief; good 6 = evil; obedience
tion; faith ≠ unbelief; good ≠ evil; obedience ≠ rebelliousness; lying ≠ truth-talk- 6 = rebelliousness; lying 6=
truth-talking; violence 6 = peace; patience 6 =
ing; violence ≠ peace; patience ≠ impatience; kindness ≠ brutality; frivolity ≠ se- impatience; kindness 6 = brutality;
frivolity
riousness; 6=knowledge
seriousness; knowledge
≠ ignorance; 6= ignorance;
civility ≠ barbarism.civilityThese 6= inbarbarism.
turn have These some-
in turn have something in common with
thing in common with the oppositions that designate the last things such the oppositions that designate the last as:
things
heavensuch ≠ hell; reward 6=
as: heaven hell; reward 6=delight
≠ punishment; punishment; delight
≠ suffering; 6= suffering;
peace ≠ torment. peace Fi-
6= torment.
nally, theseFinally,
oppositions these and oppositions
dualitiesand dualities
resonate resonate
with with those
those thought thought
special be-
special
cause they designate names of God Himself: the Manifest ≠ the Hidden; the Hid-
because they designate names of God Himself: the Manifest 6 = the First
den;
≠ the the
Last; the 6=
First the Last;
Merciful theWrathful;
≠ the Merciful the 6= the Wrathful;
Rewarding thePunishing;
≠ the Rewardingthe 6= An-
the
Punishing; the Angry 6
gry ≠ the Clement (Lawson 2017, p. 84). = the Clement. (Lawson 2017, p. 84)
From
From beginning
beginning to to end,
end, whether
whether reading reading the the scroll
scroll in in Clay
Clay Jar Jar #1
#1 oror the
the one
one in in Clay
Clay Jar Jar #2,
#2,
the reader is struck by the frequent and repeated
the reader is struck by the frequent and repeated use of tropes of opposition and dualityuse of tropes of opposition and duality
which seem to point to an extraordinary noetic event known to medieval theologians as
which seem to point to an extraordinary noetic event known to medieval theologians as
the joining of opposites (concidentia oppositorum). As was observed, no matter where one
the joining of opposites (concidentia oppositorum). As was observed, no matter where one
begins reading in the Quran, one finds that one is always in the “right place,” at the very
center of the message (Brown 1983, p. 166). Such an experience is no doubt enhanced
by this frequent and quite characteristic Quranic literary structure, the technical term for
which is enantiodromia: the interplay of opposites and dualities. (See above, Table 1) The
Quran, then, represents a literary and readerly “performance” of the idea that God is a
sphere whose center is everywhere. The center of the Quran occurs no matter where in the
text one is reading, and the center, as mentioned earlier, is the event of divine revelation
(Brown 1983), an event that escapes logical understanding in the same way that the uniting
of opposites escapes logical understanding.
 this frequent and quite characteristic Quranic literary structure, the technical term for
which is enantiodromia: the interplay of opposites and dualities. (See above, Table 1) The
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1
Quran, then, represents a literary and readerly “performance” of the idea that God is a
sphere whose center is everywhere. The center of the Quran occurs no matter where in
Religions 2021, 12, 562 the text one is reading, and the center, as mentioned earlier, is the event of divine revela- 15 of 20
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20
tion (Brown 1983), begins anreading
event that in the Quran,
escapes one finds
logical that one isin
understanding always
the same in the way “right
that place,”
the at th
center of the
uniting of opposites escapes logical understanding. message (Brown 1983, p. 166). Such an experience is no doubt enhan
Typological thisfiguration
frequent isand quite characteristic
understood in the context Quranic of thisliterary
interplay structure,
of dualities the and technical te
Typological
begins
oppositions. The reading whichfiguration
in the Quran,is
is enantiodromia:
pervasiveness understood
one finds
of enantiodromia, in
that the
the interplay onecontext
is always of
of opposites
a few this in
forms of which interplay
the “right
and dualities. of dualities
place,”
were given (Seeat and
the
above,
above, veryTable
oppositions. The pervasiveness of enantiodromia, a few forms of which were given above,
tellscenter
us that of in the themessage
Quran, Quran then, (Brown
we are 1983,
represents constantlyap.literary
166). Such
engaged andan inexperience
readerly drawing is no doubt
“performance”
analogies, ofenhanced
the idea by
comparing, that Go
tellsthis
us that in sphere theand Quran wecenterare constantly engaged Thein drawing analogies, comparing,
looking frequent
at one thing inquite
light characteristic
whose of another. It isQuranic
is everywhere. from such literary
a center
thickstructure,
of the
atmosphere the technical
Quran occurs
of binary term
no matter
intel- for wh
looking
which atisone thing textin
enantiodromia:
the one lightisthe ofinterplay
reading, another. ofthe Itopposites
iscenter,
from such and a thick atmosphere
dualities. (See above, is theof Tablebinary 1)ofThe
lection that the defining literary figureand or device, as
typological mentioned figuration, earlier, emerges. event
Typo- divine r
intellection
Quran, that
then, the defining
represents a literary
literary figure
and or
readerly device, typological
“performance” of figuration,
the idea emerges.
that God is a
logical figuration has long been recognized for its importance in reading the Bible, partic- way
tion (Brown 1983), an event that escapes logical understanding in the same th
Typological
sphere figuration
whose unitingcenter has is long
everywhere.
of opposites been recognized
escapes The center for ofits
logical understanding.the importance
Quran occursin reading
no matter the Bible,
where in
ularly in the way the language of the New Testament relates “fulfils” and “makes sense”
particularly
thelanguage
text one in the way
isofreading, the language of the isNew Testament relates “fulfils” and “makes
of the the Old and
Typological the
Testament center,
figuration (Goppelt as mentioned
understood earlier,
1982). Typological in the is the
context event
figurationof this of divineonlyrevela-
interplay
has re-of dualiti
sense” of
tionbecome the language
(Brownoppositions. of the Old Testament (Goppelt 1982). Typological figuration has
cently of1983),
interest an eventtoTheQuranicthat escapesstudies.logical
pervasiveness understanding
of enantiodromia,
Through a masterful a few in the
and forms same
imaginative wayread-
of which that
were the given
onlyuniting
recently of become
opposites of escapes
interest to Quranic
logical studies. Through a masterful and imaginative
understanding.
ing of Quran 26, the Sura of the Poets, Michael Zwettler (1990) first drew attention to the comp
tells us that in the Quran we are constantly engaged in drawing analogies,
reading Typological
of Quran 26,figuration the Sura ofisthe Poets, Michael
understood in theZwettler
context (1990)
of this first drewof
interplay attention
dualities to
distinctive nature looking in which at one thethingQuran in light
defines of another.
prophethood, It is from both such
that aofthick atmosphere
historical figuresand of binary
the oppositions.
distinctive manner The in
pervasivenesswhich the of Quran
enantiodromia, defines prophethood,
a few forms of both
which thatwere of historical
given above,
and that of Muḥammad. lection thatThrough the defining comparison literaryand figure or device,
contrast, Zwettler typological
pointedfiguration,
out that allemerges.
figures and that of Muh.ammad. Through comparison and contrast, Zwettler pointed out
of tells
the us thatlogical
prophetic in thefiguration
figures Quran
mentioned wehas arein constantly
longthe been
Quran engageda in
recognized
acquire for drawing
its importance
distinct identityanalogies, in reading
through comparing,
being the Bible,
that all of the prophetic figures mentioned in the Quran acquire a distinct identity through
looking at
contrasted with one
ularly thing
the inrolein light
the way
of theofthe another.
language
poet. It isoffrom
Typological the New such a thick comes
Testament
figuration atmosphere
relates into of
“fulfils”
play binary and
when intel-
“makes
being contrasted with the role of the poet. Typological figuration comes into play when
lection
Muḥammad that is the
of the defining
language literary
of the figure
Old or
Testament device, typological
(Goppelt 1982). figuration,
Typological emerges. figuration Typo-
re- has o
Muh . ammad is “silently”
“silently”brought broughtinto intothe theequation
equationand and discovered
discovered to tofulfill
fulfill all all
of the of the
logical
quirements forfor figuration
cently
prophethood has
become long been
of
found recognized
interestin those to Quranic for
mentioned its importance
studies.in the Through in reading
a masterful the Bible,
and partic-
imaginative
requirements prophethood found in those mentioned in sura.
the sura. SuchSuch a powerfula powerful liter-
ary ularly
device inis the
at ingway
work the language
of throughout
Quran 26, the the of
Surathe of
Quran. New theThe Testament
Poets,
flatness Michaelofrelates
the “fulfils”
Zwettler
typological and
(1990)portrait“makes
first drewallows sense”
attention
literary device is at work throughout the Quran. The flatness of the typological portrait
the of the language
equation to be of the nature
distinctive
worked Oldout Testament
on inthewhich level (Goppelt
the of Quran
the 1982).
defines
abstract, Typological
prophethood,
such as the figuration
good both
and has
that
the only
of
bad, re-
historical f
allows the equation to be worked out on the level of the abstract, such as the good and the
cently
the saved become
and the and of
thatinterest
of to
Muḥammad. Quranic studies.
Through Through
comparison a masterful
and contrast,and imaginative
Zwettler read-
pointed out t
bad, the saved anddamned.
the damned. As we Ashave we have seen,seen, suchsuch oppositions
oppositions are veryare very much much a part a partof the of
ing of InQuran of 26,
the the Sura
prophetic ofapocalypse
the Poets,
figures Michael
mentioned Zwettler (1990) first drew attention to the
Quran.
the Quran. The
In The Quran, Quran, epic epic andand apocalypse (2017),I Iin
(2017), the Quran
extended
extended theacquire
the application
application a distinct of identity
Zwettler’s
of Zwettler’s through
distinctive
method to nature
contrasted in which with thethe Quran
role defines
of the prophethood,
poet. Typological both that of
figuration historical
comes figures
into play
method to aa study
study of ofthethecloak cloakofofJoseph Josephand andhis hisstorystory inin Sura
Sura 12,12, Yūsuf,
Yūsuf, thethe greatest
greatest of allof
and that of Muḥammad.
Muḥammad Through
is “silently” comparison
brought and
into the of contrast,
equation Zwettler
and discoveredpointed out that all
stories
all (aḥsan
stories (ah.san al-qaṣaṣ).
al-qas.as.The ). The poetic
poeticand andliterary
literaryfunction function oftypological
typological figuration, to
figuration, it was
it fulfill all of
was
of
suggestedthe prophetic
there, quirements figures
ultimately mentioned
for
comesprophethood
to in
stand the for
suggested there, ultimately comes to stand for spiritual knowledge or truth: in the Quran, Quran
found in
spiritual acquire
those a distinct
mentioned
knowledge or identity
in
truth:the through
sura.
in the Such
Quran, being
a powerfu
contrasted
all of
all of the
the prophets with
ary
prophets and the
device role
is
and messengers at of
work
messengers are the poet.
throughout
are equalequal (QTypological
the Quran.
(Q 2:136),
2:136), and figuration
The
and the flatness comes
the typological of the into
typological resonances play
typological
resonancesportrait when
Muḥammad
that obtain between, say, the is “silently”
equation
say, the tobrought
the life, be worked
life, career into
career and the
out
and portraitequation
on the
portrait of level and
of Moses, of discovered
the
Moses, the abstract,
the messenger to
messenger most fulfill
such asallthe
most of the re-
good
often
often and th
quirements
mentioned in in the for
the
theQuran,prophethood
saved
Quran,and and the
andthe found
damned.
the life, in
career
life, those
As
career we
andand mentioned
have
portrait seen,
portrait in
suchthe
of Muḥammad—who sura.
oppositions
of Muh.ammad—who Such a powerful
are very
is byiscon- much liter-
by a part
ary device
trast mentioned
contrast mentioned is at
Quran.
onlywork
onlyfour throughout
Infour Thetimes—Quran,are
times— the
epic
are Quran.
and apocalypse
decisive
decisive The
and, flatness of
(2017), Itoto
and,according
according the typological
extended
the
theQuran,
Quran, portrait
theirrefutable. allows
application of Zwe
irrefutable.
Thethe sameequation
maymethod betostated
be worked
tofor theout
a study ofon the
typological the level
cloak ofofJoseph
resonances the abstract,
and
between hissuchstory
Joseph asintheSura
and good 12, and
Yūsuf,
Muḥammad.
Muh . ammad.
thethe bad,greates
the saved and the
stories
spiritual identity
Thus, if a spiritual damned.
(aḥsan As
al-qaṣaṣ).
identity be established we have
The seen,
poetic
established between these heroes of such
and oppositions
literary are
function
of the veryof
the Quran, much
typological
Quran, the a part
the same same of the
figuration,
mayQuran.
be stated In The to Quran,
suggested
occur epic
the and
forthere, Quran’s
Quran’s apocalypse
ultimately comes
villains.
villains. (2017), I extended
to stand
Additionally,
Additionally, the importantly,
for spiritual
most
most application
knowledge
importantly ofperhaps,
orZwettler’s
truth: in the Q
method to a study
all of theof the
prophetscloak of
and Joseph
the same may be stated to occur when a spiritual kinship is, thus, established messengers and his story
are in
equal Sura
(Q 12,
2:136),Yūsuf, and
established between the
the greatest
typological
between the theof all reson
storiesand
followers (aḥsan thatal-qaṣaṣ).
the obtain between,
communities The poeticof eithersay, and theliterary
life,
heroes function
careeror the and of typological
portrait
villains. of Moses,
Typological
Typological figuration,
the messenger
figuration, it was mos
suggested
as much if notthere,more,ultimately
mentioned thanin
than thecomes
duality
duality andtoopposition,
Quran, stand
and
opposition, the forlife,
spiritual
career knowledge
provides and
a streamportrait
stream oforof
of truth: in the
Muḥammad—who
continuity
continuity toQuran,
to the
the is b
all of
Quran, no the
matterprophets
trast from and
mentioned
which messengers
only
clay jar four
we are
times—
are
no matter from which Clay Jar we are reading. However, more than this, it con-equal
reading. (Q
are 2:136),
decisive
However, and and,
more the typological
according
than this, to
it resonances
the
connects Quran, irrefu
the
nectsthattheobtain
historical between,
The
process
historical same say,
may ofthe
of revelation,
process be life,extends
stated
revelation, career
for the
extendsand
it to portrait
typological
all
it to all of
humanity Moses,and the
resonances
humanity messenger
andbetween
renews, renews, Joseph
authenticatesmostand
authenti- often Muḥam
and mentioned
catesenlivens
and enlivens in
itThus,
everythe Quran,
it if a spiritual
time
every the and
time Quran the
the life,
identity career
is recited
Quran be and
established
or read,
is recited portrait
or as read, of
between
observed Muḥammad—who
as observedthese
in this heroes thisofpassage
inpassage is
the by
from con-
Quran, the
trast
Marshall
from mentioned
Hodgson:
Marshall may
Hodgson: only
be statedfourtotimes— occur for arethe decisive
Quran’s and, according
villains. to the Quran,
Additionally, most irrefutable.
importantly, pe
The same may the same be stated mayfor be thestated typological
to occur when resonances a spiritual between kinship Joseph and Muḥammad.
is, thus, established betwe
For the Qurʾân ân continued, as in Mecca and Medina, to be a monumental chal-
Thus, if a spiritual followers identity
and the be established of
communities between
either these
the heroesheroes or of the
the Quran,
villains. the same figu
Typological
lenge. In its form, it continued, even after the ending ending of of active
active revelation
revelation with with
may be stated as to occur
much if for more,
not the Quran’s than villains.
duality andAdditionally,
opposition, most
provides importantly,
a stream perhaps,
Muh . ammad’s life, to be an event, an act, rather than merely a statement
Muḥammad’s statement of factsof continuity
of facts
the same may Quran,be stated
nonever to
matter occur when
from which a spiritual kinship is, thus, established between thethis,
or of norms. It was designed to be Clay read Jar for we are reading.
information or even However, for inspi- more than
followers and tothe
nects bethe communities
historical as anprocess of either ofthe heroesin
revelation, orworship;
the villains. Typological figuration,
ration, but recited act of
of commitment
commitment inextends
worship; it to
nor
nor all humanity
did
did itit become
become and renews, au
asa much if not
cates more,
sacred source and
source of than
enlivens duality
ofauthority it
authorityas and
every opposition,
time
asthe the
thefounding Quran provides
foundingofofIslam is recited a
Islamreceded stream
or
receded read,of continuity
intoas observed
time. to inthethis p
mere sacred into time. It
Quran,
It continuedno matter
from from
Marshall whichHodgson: Clay Jar we are reading. However, more than this, it con-
continued itsits activerole
active roleamongamongallallwho whoaccepted acceptedIslam Islamand andtook took itit seriously.
seriously.
nects
What theone historical
did For
with process
the Qurʾân ofân revelation,
continued,
was not to extends
as
peruse in it to
Mecca
it but alltohumanity
and Medina,
worship and
by to
meansrenews,
be a of it;authenti- cha
monumental
What one did with the Qurʾân was not to peruse it but to worship by means of
cates and
not to passively enlivens lenge.it every
receive In its time
form,
it but, the
in it Quran
continued,
reciting is recited
it, to even
reaffirm or read,
after it the as observed
ending of
for oneself: in
theactive this passage wit
eventrevelation
from Marshall was
of revelation Hodgson: renewed every
Muḥammad’s life, to time be onean event,of thean faithful,
act, rather in the than actmerely
of worship, a statement of fac
For the Qurʾân
relived ofcontinued,
orânic affirmations
norms. as (Hodgson
It was in Mecca
never and
1974,
designed Medina,
1:367). to befor
to be read a information
monumentalorchal- even for insp
lenge. In its form,
ration, it
butcontinued,
to be even
recited as after
an the
act of ending of
commitment
While translated Qurans all fail equally in communicating this rare heavenly sym-
active
in revelation
worship; with
nor did it becom
Muḥammad’s life, to be an event, an act, rather than merely a statement
phony of meaning, what some have referred to as the hymnic nature of the Quran (Sellsinto time.
a mere sacred source of authority as the founding of Islam of facts
receded
2000), it or
is of norms.continued
possible, It wasinnever
even designed
its active
translation, to to
role be read
among
polish allfor
and whoinformation
accepted
cultivate or evenand
Islam
an appreciation for for
inspi-
took it seriousl
the,
ration, but
certainly sometimesWhatto be recited as
one did with
challenging, an act of commitment
the Qurʾân
distinctive Quranic in worship;
was expressions nor did
not to peruseofitliterary it become
but to worship
coherence by means o
a mere sacred source of authority as the founding of Islam
and consistency, its unity of voice, purpose, narrative and religious meaning and po- receded into time. It
continued its active role among all who accepted Islam and took it seriously.
What one did with the Qurʾân was not to peruse it but to worship by means of
Religions 2021, 12, 562 16 of 20

etic electricity. Much of this electricity is generated by the seamless fusion of epic and
apocalypse.

3. Conclusions
At one, perhaps unnaturally prolonged, stage in the history of the study of the Quran,
there seemed to be a general consensus that the Quran, because of its very uniqueness,
represented a genre of literature for which it was the only example—something of a
paradox. In stressing the epic and apocalyptic literary universe of the Quran, we are, of
course, employing the tried-and-true logical tool of analogy. Perhaps it is essential here to
make clear what we are not saying so as to avoid potentially grievous misunderstanding.
For this, we must turn on the light and return to the world in which Islam did occur. The
life of the Prophet, associate “author” of the Quran, is to some extent known, and Muslim
communities have thrived since its composition (oral or otherwise) and the history of its
existence and function as scripture is remarkably well known.
We are not saying that Muhammad and his Quran were directly or even indirectly
influenced by this or that epic poet, poem or poetic tradition apart from the inevitable
at least oblique influence from the vibrant, pre-Islamic Arabic poetic tradition. What
did “influence” the form and contents of the Quran is what might be referred to as the
literary, religious and aesthetic expectations of the intended audience. We are saying that
the earliest audiences of the Quran, especially of the Quran in final mus.h.af form, were
audiences that had and continued to enjoy and even compose various examples of the epic
genre: Homer, Hesiod, the Sira of Muhammad, Firdawsi’s Book of Kings, the echoes of
Gilgamesh, the Alexander romance. It was a story culture. We know that the epic genre is
practically universal. Additionally, each community, in Quranic fashion, may be thought
to have been sent a prophet or rhapsode who also communicated to their community some
understanding of who that community was.
Three Quranic verses, among many others, bespeaking such universality and cos-
mopolitanism are:
Each community has [had] a messenger. When their messenger comes, judgement
is given among them in equity, and they are not wronged. (Q 10:47)
Those who are ungrateful say, ‘Why has no sign been sent down to him from his
Lord?’ You are simply a warner; and for every people there is a guide. (Q 13:7)
We have sent you with the truth, as a bearer of good tidings and a warner. There
is no community, but a warner has passed away among them. (Q 35:24)
This is the purpose of epic, no matter what label is used to describe it. It provides the
lexicon of self-identity and a mythography for the broader cultural code (Lawson 2017,
p. 12). Recent studies in the broad discipline of comparative epic literature support such
an understanding. The same may be stated for the genre of apocalypse: it is a universal
genre forged in the nexus of oppression, deliverance, punishment of tyrants, liberation of
the oppressed and justice delayed but dreamt of and enlightenment. In this connection, the
words of Northrop Frye on typological figuration are most salient:
Typology points to future events that are often thought of as transcending time,
so that they contain a vertical lift as well as a horizontal move forward. The
metaphorical kernel of this is the experience of waking up from a dream, as when
Joyce’s Stephen Dedalus speaks of history as a nightmare from which he is trying
to awake. When we wake up from sleep, one world is simply abolished and
replaced by another. This suggests a clue to the origin of typology: it is essentially
a revolutionary form of thought and rhetoric. We have revolutionary thought
whenever the feeling “life is a dream” becomes geared to an impulse to awaken
from it. (Frye 2007, pp. 82–83)
The intensity of the experience of revelation depicted in the Quran is reflected in
the intensity and frequently fantastic language, imagery and symbolism of apocalyptic

Religions 2021, 12, 562
ing to awake. When we wake up from sleep, one world is simply abolished and
replaced by another. This suggests a clue to the origin of typology: it is essen-
tially a revolutionary form of thought and rhetoric. We have revolutionary
thought whenever the feeling “life is a dream” becomes geared to an impulse to
awaken from it (Frye 2007, pp. 82–83). 17 of 20

The intensity of the experience of revelation depicted in the Quran is reflected in the
intensity and frequently fantastic language, imagery and symbolism of apocalyptic liter-
ature. At note
literature. 1, below,
At note 1, below, therethereis a Suggested
is a Suggested Reading section
Reading indicating
section somesome
indicating of theofmost the
important recent scholarship on these two genres, a scholarship
most important recent scholarship on these two genres, a scholarship which seems which seems to agree that
to agree
thesethese
that generic categories,
generic categories, howeverhowever else else
theythey
maymay be designated
be designated in this or that
in this cultural
or that set-
cultural
ting, stand
setting, stand forfor
something
something universal
universalininhuman humanexperience
experienceand andthe the literature
literature that reflects
that reflects
that experience.
that experience. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, the the terms
terms “epic”
“epic” and and “apocalypse”
“apocalypse” are are open
open to to criticism
criticism
when applied
when applied to to some
some of of these
these other
other cultural
cultural settings.
settings. Chief
Chief among
among such such criticism
criticism is is that
that
pertaining to using these terms to apply to the Islamic or
pertaining to using these terms to apply to the Islamic or Islamicate instance. A Saidian Islamicate instance. A Saidian
critique against the use of such “imperialist,” “colonialist,” or more scientifically “etic”
terms, exposes a disservice to the culture culture because
because they they are
are foreign
foreign terms.
terms. Never
Never mind mind that that
Islamic scholarship itself has a long history of applying its own terminology in the study
of cultural and and historical
historicalphenomena
phenomenaproduced producedininthe thelands
landsand andpeoples
peoples it it
found
found itself in
itself
charge
in chargeof. of.
WeWe recognize
recognize thatthat
these are are
these possibly
possibly not not
the the
bestbestwords,words, but but
we use
we use them faut
them
de mieux,
faut de mieux,andand we wetrusttrust thatthatmuch
much ofofthe
theforegoing
foregoinghas has demonstrated
demonstrated their usefulness usefulness
throughout our discussion, one largely in the key of phenomenology. We mean mean here here to to
focus on what may be broadly broadly construed
construed as the the human
human reality
reality and and understand
understand Islam Islam to to
represent a distinctive
distinctive form form of of being
being human.
human.
The point of this laboriouslaborious apologetic is to make make veryvery clear
clear ourour desired
desired purpose:
purpose: to to
provide a basisbasis for
for asserting
asserting the the universality
universality of of Islam
Islam andand its kerygmatic élan.
its kerygmatic élan. Here,
Here, this this
kerygma, call, challenge, summons—the summons—the technical technical term for which in Islamic Islamic Arabic
Arabic is is
—would
daʿwa—would be to simultaneously uphold the validity of the various revealed scriptural
scriptural
“epics”
“epics”thatthatpreceded
precededthe theQuran
Quran (of(ofwhich
which there
therehadhad been theoretically,
been theoretically, at least 124,000)
at least and
124,000)
to
anddemonstrate
to demonstrate that due
thattodue theto comparative
the comparative specificity of eachofofeach
specificity thoseofprevious revelations,
those previous rev-
including limitations
elations, including of “race,”ofethnicity,
limitations language,language,
“race,” ethnicity, and general andcultural
generalpresuppositions,
cultural presup-
each previous epic was somehow incomplete, especially
positions, each previous epic was somehow incomplete, especially to the extent to the extent that it positedthat a it
“chosen” people. The Quran insists, that there is no such thing
posited a “chosen” people. The Quran insists, that there is no such thing as a chosen peo- as a chosen people.
ple. Such universality is a response to, and reflects, the social imperatives of late antique
cosmopolitanism
Such universality in what is aHodgson
responsecalled to, and“Islamdom”. It is important
reflects, the social imperatives to emphasize
of late antique that
the people of the Quran
cosmopolitanism in whatdo not needcalled
Hodgson this to be demonstrated.
“Islamdom”. Such universalism
It is important to emphasize is part
that
of the soul and mind of Islam. Therefore, rather than use
the people of the Quran do not need this to be demonstrated. Such universalism is part of words such as qas. ı̄da (epic
ode),
the soulqas.and
as. (story),
mind of sı̄raIslam.
(travail, journey,rather
Therefore, biography,
than use epic),
words ayyāmsuch(“days”
as qaṣīda = challenges,
(epic ode),
sufferings
qaṣaṣ (story), sīra (travail, journey, biography, epic), ayyām (“days” = challenges,discussion,
and triumphs, specifically of the Arabs) with which to frame this sufferings
the
and“foreign”
triumphs,term epic, and
specifically its companion
of the Arabs) withapocalypse
which to frame is used thisby way of emphasizing
discussion, the “foreign” a
perhaps under-appreciated religious principle of Islam:
term epic, and its companion apocalypse is used by way of emphasizing a perhaps under- One God, One Humanity, One
Religion.
appreciated religious principle of Islam: One God, One Humanity, One Religion.
To the extent that the Quran conforms to the various expectations of the epic genre, its
To the extent that the Quran conforms to the various expectations of the epic genre,
audience felt the form and contents to be familiar, edifying and entertaining. Its truth was,
its audience felt the form and contents to be familiar, edifying and entertaining. Its truth
therefore, that much more readily absorbed, engaged with, countenanced. The argument
was, therefore, that much more readily absorbed, engaged with, countenanced. The argu-
is perhaps subtle, but I think it is worth risking because if reasonable, then it gives us
ment is perhaps subtle, but I think it is worth risking because if reasonable, then it gives
more insight into the remarkable devotion of Muslims to their holy book. The same may
us more insight into the remarkable devotion of Muslims to their holy book. The same
be stated for the apocalyptic form and contents of the Quran. We are not saying that
may be stated for the apocalyptic form and contents of the Quran. We are not saying that
Muh.ammad in revealing the Quran was immediately stirred by numerous apocalypses
Muḥammad in revealing the Quran was immediately stirred by numerous apocalypses
(in various languages) abroad in his time and place to, therefore, produce yet another one
(in various languages) abroad in his time and place to, therefore, produce yet another one
in Arabic. This, it is thought, would be immediately obvious and not require clarification.
in Arabic. This, it is thought, would be immediately obvious and not require clarification.
Nevertheless, to be as clear and cautious as possible, what we are saying is: the time of
Muh.ammad and the composition of the Quran was as much a time of literary apocalypses
as it was of the epics. These genres may be thought of as somehow accurately representing
and corresponding to the form and contents of the “souls” of the inhabitants of the Nile-to-
Oxus region of the 7th century CE. Stated another way, it would have been most surprising
had a book such as the Quran arisen in this cultural milieu, attained such universal and
widely distributed authority and esteem and not also been heavily characterized by the
epic and apocalyptic genres.
Neither literature nor history exist uninterpreted. As soon as they are composed and
as soon as they are read or conveyed, they are interpreted. Additionally, the point of trying
to abstract our “Dead Sea” Quran from its usual sociological, religious, historical and
Religions 2021, 12, 562 18 of 20

Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 20

anthropological setting, is not the same as saying we have discovered an uninterpreted
text. While there have been numerous studies of the Quran as literature over the last 2
or 3 decades (Zadeh 2015), none have sufficiently stressed the epic nature of the Quran
References or the apocalyptic nature of the Quran. The virtue in doing so accomplishes a number
of things: (1) it says something true and irrefutable about the Quran; (2) it demonstrates
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world literature, is more easily approached by those who are not only religiously devoted
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1
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H. Madvig.
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History in a PEER
Chapel World REVIEW
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UniversityChicago: of North University
Carolina
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Obviousy each of these comparisons as suggested in the above Table could be the subject of separate
3 extensive studies.
Obviousy each of these comparisons as suggested in the above Table could be the subject of separate and in some cases quite
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 20
4 Chronotope
extensive is a translation of a Russian technical term made prominent in literary theory by Mikhail Bakhtin (1981, pp. 84–
studies.
4 258). Literally,
Chronotope is a“chronotope”
translation of means the technical
a Russian usually imaginative or fictionalin
term made prominent time and space
literary theorycontinuum
by Mikhailof a particular
Bakhtin (1981,work.
pp. 84–258).
“Bakhtin“chronotope”
Literally, has shown how meansliterature can help
the usually us to appreciate
imaginative he fact
or fictional timethat,
andinspace
the course of cultural
continuum history, transformations
of a particular work. “Bakhtin of has
Religions 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 20
time concepts
shown
References and spatial
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cultural history, experience.” (Bemong
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