Errors and Mistakes Duration of Lesson: August

30-31, 2021

Error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity.
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a surveying operation
is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution.

Types of Errors

Systematic Errors – errors which are known to exist even before measurement and which can be exactly
calculated and thus can be corrected

Accidental Errors – errors which no matter how expert the observer is and no matter how precise the
instrument is will nevertheless be still present. This type of error can be reduced by using an
experienced observer and a very precise instrument but cannot be eliminated.

Blunder – an error so big enough that it cannot be just systematic or accidental.

Sources of Errors

Instrumental Errors – these errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used, either from faults in
their construction or from improper adjustments between the different parts prior to their use.

Natural Errors – these errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as changes in
magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity and curvature of the earth.

Personal Errors – these errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing
of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of the
quantity measured. The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its actual value
represents the total error in the measurement.

Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurements is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity.
Theory of Probability

Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the range of
possible occurrences.

The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the occurrence of errors:

Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.

Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally distributed
errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental errors.

Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is, they are equally
probable.

The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.

Weighted Observations

The assignment of relative weight to different measurements is usually based upon the
judgement of the surveyor, the number of measurements taken for a particular quantity and by
assuming that the weights are inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors. In some
instances, weights are assigned on the basis of weather conditions. In the case of prepared
measurements, if a quantity is measured, for example, in two repetitions by group A and in four
repetitions by group B, then the measurement taken by group B should be given twice the weight of the
measurement of group A. This means that the measurement of group B is regarded as twice as reliable
as that of group A.

Most Probable Value

A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students measure a distance between two
points marked on the ground. The students came up with the following six different
values: 250.25; 250.15; 249.90; 250.50; and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are
equally reliable and that variations result from accidental errors, determine the most
probable value of the distance measured. Ans. 250.51 m
 
 Probable Error
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line:
1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the
following:

a. Most probable value of the measured length. Ans. 1000.45 m

b. Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean Ans.
PES= ±0.05m ; PEM= ±0.02m
c. Final expression for the most probable length Ans. 1000.45±0.02 m
d. Relative precision of the measurement Ans. RPS= 1/20,000 ; RPM=1/50,0000
 
Weighted Measurements:
1. Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and
284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted
mean. Ans. 284.20 m
2. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different routes.
The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below. Determine
the most probable value of the elevation of the point.
Observed Elevation
Line Probable Error (E)
(elev.)
1 219.832 m ± 0.006 m
2 219.930 m ± 0.012 m
3 219.701 m ± 0.018 m
4 220.021 m ± 0.024 m
Ans. 219.85 m
 
Summation of Errors
The three sides of a triangular – shaped of land is given by the following measurements
and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54 ± 0.03 m, b = 234.26 ± 0.05 m, and c =
195.70 ± 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of the sum. Ans. PES= ±0.07 m
 
 
Product of Errors
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable errors
as follows: W = 253.36 ± 0.06 m and L = 624.15 ± 0.08 m. Determine the probable error
in the calculated area. 
Ans. PEP= ±42.58 sq.m.