The four basic types of computers are as under:

1. Supercomputer
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space
exploration purpose.

2. Mainframe Computer
Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite
expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses
Mainframes to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers are the
fastest computers with large data storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store
large amount of data. Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use
mainframe computers to store data about their customers, students & insurance policy
holders.

3. Minicomputer
Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also
called as “Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated
on a disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers &
Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments
of a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For
example, a production department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain
production process.

4. Microcomputer
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets &
smartphones are all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used &
the fastest growing computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three
types of computers. The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like
entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-
computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony & Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks,
Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of
Microcomputers.

Languages of Computer (In Different Generation)

1st generation of programming languages

 Machine language is the only programming language that the computer can understand
directly without translation. It is a language made up of entirely 1s and 0s. There is not, however,
one universal machine language because the language must be written in accordance with the
special characteristics of a given processor. Each type or family of processor requires its own
machine language. For this reason, machine language is said to be machine-dependent (also
called hardware-dependent).
In the computer’s first generation, programmers had to use machine language because no other
option was available. Machine language programs have the advantage of very fast execution
speeds and efficient use of primary memory. Use of machine language is very tedious, difficult
and time consuming method of programming. Machine language is low-level language. Since the
programmer must specify every detail of an operation, a low-level language requires that the
programmer have detailed knowledge of how the computer works. Programmers had to know a
great deal aobut the computer’s design and how it functioned. As a result, programmers were
few in numbers and lacked complexity. To make programming simpler, other easier-to-use
programming languages have been developed. These languages, however must ultimately be
translated into machine language before the computer can understand and use them.

2nd Generation of programming languages

The first step in making software development easier and more efficient was the creation
of Assembly languages. They are also classified as low-level languages because detailed
knowledge of hardware is still required. They were developed in 1950s. Assembly languages use
mnemonic operation codes and symbolic addresses in place of 1s and 0s to represent the
operation codes. A mnemonic is an alphabetical abbreviation used as memory aid. This means a
programmer can use abbreviation instead of having to remember lengthy binary instruction
codes. For example, it is much easier to remember L for Load, A for Add, B for Branch, and C
for Compare than the binary equivalents i-e different combinations of 0s and 1s.
Assembly language uses symbolic addressing capabilities that simplify the programming process
because the programmer does not need to know or remember the exact storage locations of
instructions or data. Symbolic addressing is the ability to express an address in terms of symbols
chosen by the programmer rather than in terms of the absolute numerical location. Therefore, it
is not necessary to assign and remember a number that identifies the address of a piece of data.
Although assembly languages represented an improvement, they had obvious limitations. Only
computer specialists familiar with the architecture of the computer being used can use them. And
because they are also machine dependent, assembly languages are not easily converted to run on
other types of computers.
Before they can be used by the computer, assembly languages must be translated into machine
language. A language translator program called an assembler does this conversion. Assembly
languages provide an easier and more efficient way to program than machine languages while
still maintaining control over the internal functions of a computer at the most basic level. The
advantages of programming with assembly languages are that they produce programs that are
efficient, use less storage, and execute much faster than programs designed using high-level
languages.

3rd Generation of programming languages

Third generation languages, also known as high-level languages, are very much like
everyday text and mathematical formulas in appearance. They are designed to run on a number
of different computers with few or no changes.
Objectives of high-level languages
 To relieve the programmer of the detailed and tedious task of writing programs in
machine language and assembly languages.
 To provide programs that can be used on more than one type of machine with very few
changes.
 To allow the programmer more time to focus on understanding the user’s needs and
designing the software required meeting those needs.
Most high level languages are considered to be procedure-oriented, or Procedural languages,
because the program instructions comprise lists of steps, procedures, that tell the computer not
only what to do but how to do it. High-level language statements generate, when translated, a
comparatively greater number of assembly language instructions and even more machine
language instructions. The programmer spends less time developing software with a high level
language than with assembly or machine language because fewer instructions have to be created.
A language translator is required to convert a high-level language program into machine
language. Two types of language translators are used with high level languages: compilers and
interpreters.

4th Generation of programming languages

Fourth generation languages are also known as very high level languages. They are non-
procedural languages, so named because they allow programmers and users to specify what the
computer is supposed to do without having to specify how the computer is supposed to do it.
Consequently, fourth generation languages need approximately one tenth the number of
statements that a high level languages needs to achieve the same results. Because they are so
much easier to use than third generation languages, fourth generation languages allow users, or
non-computer professionals, to develop software.
Objectives of fourth generation languages
 Increasing the speed of developing programs.
 Minimizing user effort to obtain information from computer.
  Decreasing the skill level required of users so that they can concentrate on the application
rather than the intricacies of coding, and thus solve their own problems without the aid of a
professional programmer.
 Minimizing maintenance by reducing errors and making programs that are easy to
change.
Depending on the language, the sophistication of fourth generation languages varies widely.
These languages are usually used in conjunction with a database and its data dictionary.
Five basic types of language tools fall into the fourth generation language category.
1. Query languages
2. Report generators.
3. Applications generators.
4. Decision support systems and financial planning languages.
5. Some microcomputer application software.

5th Generation of programming languages

Natural Languages represent the next step in the development of programming languages,
i-e fifth generation languages. The text of a natural language statement very closely resembles
human speech. In fact, one could word a statement in several ways perhaps even misspelling
some words or changing the order of the words and get the same result. These languages are also
designed to make the computer “smarter”. Natural languages already available for
microcomputers include Clout, Q&A, and Savvy Retriever (for use with databases) and HAL
(Human Access Language).
The use of natural language touches on expert systems, computerized collection of the
knowledge of many human experts in a given field, and artificial intelligence, independently
smart computer systems.

Computer System Organization

All computers, from the first room-sized mainframes, to today's powerful desktop, laptop
and even hand-held PCs, perform the same general operations on data. What changes over time
is the data handled, how it is handled, how much is moved around, and how quickly and
efficiently it can be done.

The basic functions that a computer can perform are:

1. Data processing
2. Data storage
 3. Data movement
4. Control

The main elements associated with a computer system are as follows:

(i) Central Processing Unit (CPU) - data processing and control

(ii) Main Memory (primary storage) - stores data
(iii) Secondary Storage - stores permanent data
(iv) Input and Output (I/O) devices - moves data between the computer and its
external environment
(v) System interconnection (Busses)- provides mechanism for communication
among various components
Arithmetic Logic Unit

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic
operations. It represents the fundamental building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer. Modern CPUs contain very powerful and complex ALUs. In addition to ALUs,
modern CPUs contain a control unit (CU).
Most of the operations of a CPU are performed by one or more ALUs, which load data
from input registers. A register is a small amount of storage available as part of a CPU. The
control unit tells the ALU what operation to perform on that data and the ALU stores the result in
an output register. The control unit moves the data between these registers, the ALU, and
memory.