Steel Manufacturing

Modern steelmaking can be broken down into six steps:

1. Ironmaking: In the first step, the raw inputs iron ore, coke, and lime are melted in a
blast furnace. The resulting molten iron - also referred to as 'hot metal' - still contains 4-
4.5% carbon and other impurities that make it brittle.

2. Primary Steelmaking: Primary steelmaking methods differ between BOS and EAF
methods. BOS methods add recycled scrap steel to the molten iron in a converter. At
high temperatures, oxygen is blown through the metal, which reduces the carbon
content to between 0-1.5%. EAF methods, alternatively, feed recycled steel scrap
through use high power electric arcs (temperatures up to 1650 °C) to melt the metal and
convert it to high-quality steel.

3. Secondary Steelmaking: Secondary steelmaking involves treating the molten steel

produced from both BOS and EAF routes to adjust the steel composition. This is done
by adding or removing certain elements and/or manipulating the temperature and
production environment. Depending on the types of steel required, the following
secondary steelmaking processes can be used:

 stirring
 ladle furnace
 ladle injection
 degassing
 CAS-OB(Composition Adjustment by Sealed argon bubbling with Oxygen
Blowing).

4. Continuous Casting: In this step, the molten steel is cast into a cooled mold causing
a thin steel shell to solidify. The shell strand is withdrawn using guided rolls and fully
cooled and solidified. The strand is cut into desired lengths depending on application;
slabs for flat products (plate and strip), blooms for sections (beams), billets for long
products (wires) or thin strips.

5. Primary Forming: The steel that is cast is then formed into various shapes, often by
hot rolling, a process that eliminates cast defects and achieves the required shape and
surface quality. Hot rolled products are divided into flat products, long products,
seamless tubes, and specialty products.

6. Manufacturing, Fabrication, and Finishing: Finally, secondary forming techniques

give the steel its final shape and properties.
 Coke making for Pig Iron Production
Coking coal is converted to coke by driving off impurities to leave almost pure carbon.
The physical properties of coking coal cause the coal to soften, liquefy and then re-
solidify into hard but porous lumps when heated in the absence of air. Coking coal must
also have low sulphur and phosphorous contents. Almost all metallurgical coal is used
in coke ovens.
The coking process consists of heating coking coal to around 1000-1100ºC in the
absence of oxygen to drive off the volatile compounds (pyrolysis). This process results
in a hard porous material - coke. Coke is produced in a coke battery, which is
composed of many coke ovens stacked in rows into which coal is loaded. The coking
process takes place over long periods of time between 12-36 hours in the coke ovens.
Once pushed out of the vessel the hot coke is then quenched with either water or air to
cool it before storage or is transferred directly to the blast furnace for use in iron making.

 Iron (pig) Making

Iron ore is mined in around 50 countries – the largest producers are Australia, Brazil
and China. Around 98% of iron ore is used in steel-making. During the iron-making
process, a blast furnace is fed with the iron ore, coke and small quantities of fluxes
(minerals, such as limestone, which are used to collect impurities). Air which is heated
to about 1200°C is blown into the furnace through nozzles in the lower section. The air
causes the coke to burn, producing carbon monoxide which reacts with the iron ore, as
well as heat to melt the iron. Finally, the tap hole at the bottom of the furnace is opened
and molten iron and slag (impurities) are drained off.

 Primary Steel Making

Primary steelmaking involves converting liquid iron from a blast furnace and steel scrap
into steel via basic oxygen steelmaking or melting scrap steel and/or direct reduced
iron (DRI) in an electric arc furnace.

1. Basic oxygen furnace (BOS)

The most commonly applied process for steel-making is the integrated steel-making
process via the Blast Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace. In the basic oxygen furnace,
the iron is combined with varying amounts of steel scrap (less than 30%) and small
amounts of flux. A lance is introduced in the vessel and blows 99% pure oxygen
causing a temperature rise to 1700°C. The scrap melts, impurities are oxidized, and the
carbon content is reduced by 90%, resulting in liquid steel.
Basic oxygen steelmaking is a method of primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich
molten pig iron is made into steel. Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the
carbon content of the alloy and changes it into steel. The process is known as basic due
to the chemical nature of the refractories—calcium oxide and magnesium oxide—that
line the vessel to withstand the high temperature and corrosive nature of the molten
metal and slag in the vessel. The slag chemistry of the process is also controlled to
ensure that impurities such as silicon and phosphorus are removed from the metal.
The process was developed in 1948 by Robert Durrer and commercialized in 1952–53
by Austrian VOEST and ÖAMG. The LD converter, named after the Austrian towns
of Linz and Donawitz (a district of Leoben) is a refined version of the Bessemer
converter where blowing of air is replaced with blowing oxygen. It reduced capital cost
of the plants, time of smelting, and increased labor productivity. Between 1920 and
2000, labor requirements in the industry decreased by a factor of 1,000, from more than
3 worker-hours per tons to just 0.003. The vast majority of steel manufactured in the
world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace; in 2011, it accounted for 70% of
global steel output. Modern furnaces will take a charge of iron of up to 350 tons and
convert it into steel in less than 40 minutes, compared to 10–12 hours in an open hearth
furnace.
Other processes can follow – secondary steel-making processes – where the properties
of steel are determined by the addition of other elements, such as boron, chromium and
molybdenum, amongst others, ensuring the exact specification can be met. Optimal
operation of the blast furnace demands the highest quality of raw materials – the carbon
content of coke therefore plays a crucial role in terms of its effect in the furnace and on
the hot metal quality. A blast furnace fed with high quality coke requires less coke input,
results in higher quality hot metal and better productivity.

Around 0.6 tons (600 kg) of coke produces 1 tons (1000 kg) of steel, which means that
around 770 kg of coal are used to produce 1 tons of steel through this production
route. Basic Oxygen Furnaces currently produce about 74% of the world’s steel. A
further 25% of steel is produced in Electric Arc Furnaces.

2. Electric arc furnace (EAF)

Electric arc furnace steelmaking is the manufacture of steel from scrap or direct reduced
iron melted by electric arcs. In an electric arc furnace, a batch of steel ("heat") may be
started by loading scrap or direct reduced iron into the furnace, sometimes with a "hot
heel" (molten steel from a previous heat). Gas burners may be used to assist with the
melt down of the scrap pile in the furnace. As in basic oxygen steelmaking, fluxes are
also added to protect the lining of the vessel and help improve the removal of impurities.
Electric arc furnace steelmaking typically uses furnaces of capacity around 100 tons
that produce steel every 40 to 50 minutes for further processing. By-product gases from
the steel making process can be used to generate electricity through the use of
reciprocating gas engines.

The Electric arc furnace process, or mini-mill, does not involve iron-making. It reuses
existing steel, avoiding the need for raw materials and their processing. The furnace is
charged with steel scrap, it can also include some direct reduced iron (DRI) or pig iron
for chemical balance. The EAF operates on the basis of an electrical charge between
two electrodes providing the heat for the process. The power is supplied through the
electrodes placed in the furnace, which produce an arc of electricity through the scrap
steel (around 35 million watts), which raises the temperature to 1600˚C, melting the
scrap. Any impurities may be removed through the use of fluxes and draining off slag
through the taphole.
Electric arc furnaces do not use coal as a raw material, but many are reliant on the
electricity generated by coal-fired power plant elsewhere in the grid. Around 150 kg of
coal are used to produce 1 tons of steel in electric arc furnaces.

3. Other steel production methods

 Pulverized coal injection
Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) technology involves injecting coal directly into the blast
furnace to provide the carbon for iron-making – displacing some of the coke required for
the process. A wider range of coals can be used in PCI, including steam coal which has
a lower carbon content than coking coal. This method has a number of advantages,
including reducing overall costs and prolonging the life of existing coke batteries.

 Recycling
Steel is 100% recyclable. The BOF process uses up to 30% recycled steel (scrap) and
around 90-100% is used in EAF production.

 HIsarna steelmaking
The HIsarna steelmaking process is a process for primary steelmaking in which iron ore
is processed almost directly into steel. The process is based around a new type of blast
furnace called a Cyclone Converter Furnace, which makes it possible to skip the
process of manufacturing pig iron pellets that is necessary for the basic oxygen
steelmaking process. Without the necessity for this preparatory step the HIsarna
process is more energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint than traditional
steelmaking processes.

 Secondary steelmaking processes

Secondary steelmaking involves refining of the crude steel before casting and the
various operations are normally carried out in ladles. In secondary metallurgy, alloying
agents are added, dissolved gases in the steel are lowered, and inclusions are removed
or altered chemically to ensure that high-quality steel is produced after casting.

Secondary steelmaking is most commonly performed in ladles and often referred to

as ladle (metallurgy). Some of the operations performed in ladles include:
  de-oxidation (or "killing")
 vacuum degassing
 alloy addition
 inclusion removal
 inclusion chemistry modification
 de-sulphurisation and homogenization.
It is now common to perform ladle metallurgical operations in gas stirred ladles with
electric arc heating in the lid of the furnace. Tight control of ladle metallurgy is
associated with producing high grades of steel in which the tolerances in chemistry and
consistency are narrow.

1. Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) is a process primarily used in stainless

steel making and other high grade alloys with oxidizable elements such
as chromium and aluminum. After initial melting the metal is then transferred to an
AOD vessel where it will be subjected to three steps of refining:
 decarburization
 reduction
 desulphurization
AOD was invented in 1954 by the Lindé Division of The Union Carbide Corporation 
(which became known as Praxair in 1992).

The AOD Processes

 Decarburization- in this step, one more step should be taken into
consideration: de-siliconization, which is a very important factor for refractory lining
and further refinement.
The decarburization step is controlled by ratios of oxygen to argon or nitrogen to
remove the carbon from the metal bath. The ratios can be done in any number of
phases to facilitate the reaction. The gases are usually blown through a top lance
(oxygen only) and tuyeres in the sides/bottom (oxygen with an inert gas shroud). The
stages of blowing remove carbon by the combination of oxygen and carbon forming CO
gas.
4 Cr(bath) + 3 O2 → 2 Cr2O3(slag)
Cr2O3(slag) + 3 C(bath) → 3 CO(gas) + 2 Cr(bath)
To drive the reaction to the forming of CO, the partial pressure of CO is lowered using
argon or nitrogen. Since the AOD vessel isn't externally heated, the blowing stages are
also used for temperature control. The burning of carbon increases the bath
temperature.
By the end of this process around 97% of Cr is retained in the steel.
 Reduction
After a desired carbon and temperature level have been reached the process moves to
reduction. Reduction recovers the oxidized elements such as chromium from the slag.
To achieve this, alloy additions are made with elements that have a higher affinity for
oxygen than chromium, using either a silicon alloy or aluminum. The reduction mix also
includes lime (CaO) and fluorspar (CaF2). The addition of lime and fluorspar help with
driving the reduction of Cr2O3 and managing the slag, keeping the slag fluid and volume
small.
 Desulphurization
Desulphurization is achieved by having a high lime concentration in the slag and a low
oxygen activity in the metal bath.
S(bath) + CaO(slag) → CaS(slag) + O(bath)
So, additions of lime are added to dilute sulfur in the metal bath. Also, aluminum or
silicon may be added to remove oxygen. Other trimming alloy additions might be added
at the end of the step. After sulfur levels have been achieved the slag is removed from
the AOD vessel and the metal bath is ready for tapping. The tapped bath is then either
sent to a stir station for further chemistry trimming or to a caster for casting.

2. Decarburization (or decarbonization) is the process opposite to carburization,

namely the reduction of carbon content.
The term is typically used in metallurgy, describing the reduction of the content
of carbon in metals (usually steel). Decarburization occurs when the metal is heated to
temperatures of 700 °C or above when carbon in the metal reacts with gases
containing oxygen or hydrogen. The removal of carbon removes hard carbide phases
resulting in a softening of the metal, primarily at the surface which are in contact with
the decarburizing gas.
Decarburization can be either advantageous or detrimental, depending on the
application for which the metal will be used. It is thus both something that can be done
intentionally as a step in a manufacturing process, or something that happens as a side
effect of a process (such as rolling) and must be either prevented or later reversed
(such as via a carburization step).
The decarburization mechanism can be described as three distinct events: the reaction
at the steel surface, the interstitial diffusion of carbon atoms and the dissolution of
carbides within the steel.
Electrical Steel
Electrical steel is one material that uses decarburization in its production. To prevent the
atmospheric gases from reacting with the metal itself, electrical steel is annealed in an
atmosphere of nitrogen, hydrogen, and water vapor, where oxidation of the iron is
specifically prevented by the proportions of hydrogen and water vapor so that the only
reacting substance is carbon being made into carbon monoxide.
Stainless Steel
Because the components (like chromium and molybdenum) of some stainless steels are
very oxidizable, these steels can only be decarburized by reacting with dry hydrogen,
which has no water content, unlike wet hydrogen, which is produced in a way that
includes some water and can otherwise be used for decarburization.

Secondary effect of Decarburization

Incidental decarburization can be detrimental to surface properties in products (where
carbon content is desirable) when done during heat treatment or after rolling or forging,
because the material is only affected to a certain depth according to the temperature
and duration of heating. This can be prevented by using an inert or reduced-
pressure atmosphere, applying resistive heating for a short duration, by limiting the time
that material is under high heat, as is done in a walking-beam furnace, or through
restorative carburization, which uses a hydrocarbon atmosphere to transfer carbon into
the surface of the material during annealing. The decarburized surface material can also
be removed using a grinding machine.

3. The FINEX Process

The FINEX process is an innovative, next generation iron making technology. Molten
iron is produced directly using iron ore fines and non-coking coal rather than processing
through sintering and coke making. Because the preliminary processing of raw
materials is eliminated, the construction of the FINEX plant will cost 8% less to build
than a blast furnace facility of the same scale. Furthermore, a 17% reduction in
production costs is expected since lower priced raw materials can be used in the FINEX
process.

Emission of pollutants will also be drastically reduced. In addition to arsenic dust, levels
of SOx and NOx will only be 8% and 4% respectively, of the emissions occurring with
the blast furnace process. FINEX has been recognized as an environmentally friendly
process, which will increase POSCO’s future competitiveness as raw materials are
decreasing and environmental regulations are tightening.