INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

IN GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

(CE GEO)

S.Y. 2021-2022

REFERENCES:

1. F. G. H. Blyth, "A Geology for Engineers 7th Edition", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 1984.
2. N. Chenna Kesavulu, "Textbook of Engineering Geology 2nd Edition", Macmillan Publishers India
Ltd., 2009.
3. Bell F.G. "Engineering Geology Second Edition", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007.
Unit 1.2: Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics
OBJECTIVE

• To describe the whole earth structure and internal layering of the earth.
• To explain the principle of plate tectonics and the theory of continental drift

SEISMICALLY DEFINED LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Work by seismologists (geoscientists who study earthquakes) in the first few decades of the twentieth
century greatly refined our image of the Earth’s interior.
Because seismic waves from earthquakes (or surface explosions) can pass through the entire earth, the
behavior of these waves permit s deductions about the rocks through which they have passed. Seismic
refraction. The direction of travel of a seismic wave, like that of a beam of light, can be bent, or
refracted, when it passes into or out of different mediums. This seismic refraction occurs only if the
mediums have different densities or strengths, which change the velocity of the seismic wave.

Seismic waves, the vibrations generated during an earthquake, travel through the Earth at velocities
ranging from about 4 km/s to 13 km/s. The speed of the waves, their seismic velocity, depends on
properties (e.g., density, compressibility, response to shearing) of the material through which the waves
are traveling. When waves pass from one material to another, their velocity changes abruptly, and the
path of the waves bends.

A distinct rock boundary is not necessary to bend a seismic wave. Seismic waves begin to develop a
slightly curved path as they mov e away from the source, a result of many small refractions as the wave
s pass through the different rock types of the crust.
Seismic reflection. Seismic reflection is the return of some of the energy from seismic waves that have
penetrated downward from the surface or near-surface, hit a rock boundary, and bounced back to the
surface. Since the time of departure and return are known from the seismogram, the depth to the rock
boundary can be calculated.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
By analyzing seismic refraction and seismic reflection data from all over th e world, geophysicists have
identified boundaries that separate three concentric parts of the earth: the crust, mantle, and core. The
crust—5 to 50 kilometers (3–30 miles) thick—is essentially the thin, hardened skin of what was once the
earth's molten exterior surface. Underlying the crust is the mantle—2,900 kilometers (1,740 miles)
thick—a thick zone of much hotter, partially plastic rock. The mantle surrounds the inner and outer
core—about 7,000 kilometers (4,200 miles) combined in diameter—the innermost zone of the planet.
The Crust
Crust composition. P waves travel faster in oceanic crust (7 kilometers/second) than in continental crust
(6 kilometers/second) - these speeds are about the same as those through basalt/gabbro and
granite/gneiss, respectively. This suggests that oceanic crust is mostly basaltic and that continental crust
is mostly sialic, meaning the rocks, such as granite, contain high amounts of aluminum and silica.
Oceanic crustal rocks, such as gabbros and basalts, are high in magnesium and silica (sometimes called
sima).
Oceanic Crust

Earth’s oceanic crust is 6–10 km thick, and consists of mafic igneous rock overlain by a sedimentary
blanket of varying thickness. Field studies of ophiolites (slices of oceanic crust emplaced on land by
thrusting), laboratory studies of drill cores, and seismic-refraction studies indicate that oceanic crust has
distinct layers. These layers, when first recognized in seismic-refraction profiles, were given the exciting
names Layer 1, Layer 2a, Layer 2b, and Layer 3. Layer 3, at the base, consists of cumulate, a rock formed
from mafic (magnesium- and iron-rich) minerals that were the first to crystallize in a cooling magma and
then settled to the bottom of the magma chamber. The cumulate is overlain in succession by a layer of
gabbro (massive, coarse-grained mafic igneous rock), a layer of basaltic sheeted dikes (dikes that intrude
dikes), a layer of pillow basalt (pillow-shaped blobs extruded into sea water), and a layer of pelagic
sediment (the shells of plankton and particles of clay that settled like snow out of sea water).
Continental Crust

The continental crust differs in many ways from the oceanic crust. To start with, the thickness of
continental crust is, on average, four times that of oceanic crust. Thus, continental crust has an average
thickness of about 35–40 km. In addition, continental crustal thickness is much more variable than
oceanic crustal thickness. For example, beneath mountain belts formed where two continents collide
and squash together, the crust can attain a thickness of up to 70 km, while beneath active rifts, where
plates are being stretched and pulled apart, the crust thins to less than 25 km.
Crust thickness and density

The seismic data also show that the thickness of the continental crust ranges from 30 to 50 kilometers
(18—30 miles) and that of the oceanic crust from about 5 to 8 kilometers (3—5 miles). Continental crust
is thickest under mountain ranges, where it bulges downward into the mantle, forming a mountain root.
Geophysical data also show that continental crust would "float" on oceanic crust because continental
crust is less dense (continental crust, 2.7 g/cm 3; oceanic crust, 3 .0 g/cm3).
The Mohorovicic Discontinuity

The Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho, the first major boundary of the earth's interior, separates the
crust from the underlying mantle. It is named for Yugoslavian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic, who in
1909 presented the first evidence for the layered internal structure of the earth. The Moho occurs at a
depth that ranges from 5 to 50 kilometers (3—30 miles) from the surface.
Crustal Composition

• 98.5% of the crust is comprised of just 8 elements.

• Oxygen is (by far!) the most abundant element in the crust.
– This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO2 -based) minerals.
– As a large atom, oxygen occupies ~93% of crustal volume.

THE MANTLE

The mantle lies directly below the crust. It is almost 2900 kilometers thick and makes up 80 percent of
the Earth’s volume. Although the chemical composition may be similar throughout the mantle, Earth
temperature and pressure increase with depth. These changes cause the strength of mantle rock to vary
with depth, and thus they create layering within the mantle. The upper part of the mantle consists of
two layers.
The Lithosphere

The uppermost mantle is relatively cool and consequently is hard, strong rock. In fact, its mechanical
behavior is similar to that of the crust. The outer part of the Earth, including both the uppermost mantle
and the crust, make up the lithosphere (Greek for “rock layer”). The lithosphere can be as thin as 10
kilometers where tectonic plates separate. However, in most regions, the lithosphere varies from about
75 kilometers thick beneath ocean basins to about 125 kilometers under the continents. A tectonic (or
lithospheric) plate is a segment of the lithosphere.

The Asthenosphere

At a depth varying from about 75 to 125 kilometers, the strong, hard rock of the lithosphere gives way
to the weak, plastic asthenosphere. This change in rock properties occurs over a vertical distance of only
a few kilometers, and results from increasing temperature with depth. Although the temperature
increases gradually, it crosses a threshold at which the rock is close to its melting point. As a result, 1 to
2 percent of the asthenosphere is liquid, and the asthenosphere is mechanically weak and plastic.
Because it is plastic, the asthenosphere flows slowly, perhaps at a rate of a few centimeters per year.
Two familiar examples of solid materials that flow are Silly Putty and hot road tar. However, both of
these solids flow much more rapidly than the asthenosphere rock. The asthenosphere extends from the
base of the lithosphere to a depth of about 350 kilometers. At the base of the asthenosphere, increasing
pressure causes the mantle to become mechanically stronger, and it remains so all the way down to the
core.
THE CORE
The core is the innermost of the Earth’s layers. It is a sphere with a radius of about 3470 kilometers and
is composed largely of iron and nickel. The outer core is molten because of the high temperature in that
region. Near its center, the core’s temperature is about 6000ºC, as hot as the Sun’s surface. The
pressure is greater than 1 million times that of the Earth’s atmosphere at sea level. The extreme
pressure overwhelms the temperature effect and compresses the inner core to a solid.
Core Composition
Outer Core. The elements of the outer core consist of mostly liquid iron, nickel and sulfur. It has a
thickness of 2225 km and having a density of 10 to 12 g/cc. The flow in the outer core generates the
magnetic field.

Inner Core. It composes of a solid iron-nickel alloy. The radius of the inner core is about 1,220 km and
having a density of approximately 13 g/cc.

The magnetic field and the poles. The earth is surrounded by a magnetic field. Magnetic lines of force
originate from north and south magnetic poles, which are about 11 .5 degrees away from the
geographic North and South Poles. The magnetic field is strongest at the magnetic poles. The positions
of the magnetic poles have changed over time and appear to be rotating around the geographic poles
on an axis tilted from the geographic axis by 11 .5 degrees. The magnetic field traps high-energy
particles created by the sun's ultraviolet radiation, thus protecting our environment on Earth.
The magnetic field is thought to be generated by the liquid outer core. If this liquid material is metallic,
as geophysical studies suggest, its flow as a result of heat convection would create an electric current.
Electric currents induce magnetic fields.

INTRODUCTION TO PLATE TECTONICS

➢ Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer layer is made up of plates, which have moved
throughout Earth's history.
➢ The theory explains the how and why behind mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes, as well as
how, long ago, similar animals could have lived at the same time on what are now widely separated
continents.
➢ 225 million years ago, all the major continents formed one giant supercontinent, called Pangaea.
➢ Perhaps initiated by heat building up underneath the vast continent, Pangaea began to rift, or split
apart, around 200 million years ago. Oceans filled the areas between these new sub-continents. The
land masses continued to move apart, riding on separate plates, until they reached the positions
they currently occupy.
➢ These continents are still on the move today.
➢ Exactly what drives plate tectonics is not known.
✓ One theory is that convection within the Earth's mantle pushes the plates, in much the same
way that air heated by your body rises upward and is deflected sideways when it reaches the
ceiling.
✓ Another theory is that gravity is pulling the older, colder, and thus heavier ocean floor with
more force than the newer, lighter seafloor.
➢ Whatever drives the movement, plate tectonic activity takes place at four types of boundaries:
✓ divergent boundaries, where new crust is formed;
✓ convergent boundaries, where crust is consumed;
✓ collision boundaries, where two land masses collide; and
✓ transform boundaries, where two plates slide against each other.
PLATE BOUNDARIES

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

At a divergent plate boundary, also called a spreading center and a rift zone, two lithospheric plates
spread apart. The underlying asthenosphere then oozes upward to fill the gap between the separating
plates. As the asthenosphere rises between separating plates, some of it melts to form molten rock
called magma.

The Mid-Oceanic Ridge: Rifting in the Oceans

A spreading center lies directly above the hot, rising asthenosphere. The newly formed lithosphere at an
oceanic spreading center is hot and therefore of low density. Consequently, the sea floor at a spreading
center floats to a high elevation, forming an undersea mountain chain called the mid-oceanic ridge. But
as lithosphere migrates away from the spreading center, it cools and becomes denser and thicker; as a
result, it sinks. For this reason, the sea floor is high at the mid-oceanic ridge and lower away from the
ridge. Thus, the average depth of the sea floor away from the mid-oceanic ridge is about 5 kilometers.
The mid-oceanic ridge rises 2 to 3 kilometers above the surrounding sea floor and, thus, comes within 2
kilometers of the sea surface.
Splitting Continents: Rifting in Continental Crust

A divergent plate boundary can rip a continent in half in a process called continental rifting. A rift valley
develops in a continental rift zone because continental crust stretches, fractures, and sinks as it is pulled
apart. Continental rifting is now taking place along a zone called the East African rift. If the rifting
continues, eastern Africa will separate from the main portion of the continent, and a new ocean basin
will open between the separating portions of Africa. The Rio Grande rift is a continental rift extending
from southern Colorado to El Paso, Texas. It is unclear whether rifting is still taking place here or the
process has ended.
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
At a convergent plate boundary, two lithospheric plates move toward each other. Convergence can
occur
(1) between a plate carrying oceanic crust and another carrying continental crust,
(2) between two plates carrying oceanic crust, and
(3) between two plates carrying continental crust.

Differences in density determine what happens where two plates converge. Think of a boat colliding
with a floating log. The log is denser than the boat, so it sinks beneath the boat.

When two plates converge, the denser plate dives beneath the lighter one and sinks into the mantle.
This process is called subduction.

Oceanic-continental convergence
If by magic we could pull a plug and drain the Pacific Ocean, we would see a most amazing sight -- a
number of long narrow, curving trenches thousands of kilometers long and 8 to 10 km deep cutting into
the ocean floor. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are created by subduction.
Oceanic-continental convergence also sustains many of the Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the
Andes and the Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest. The eruptive activity is clearly associated with
subduction, but scientists vigorously debate the possible sources of magma: Is magma generated by the
partial melting of the subducted oceanic slab, or the overlying continental lithosphere, or both?

Oceanic-oceanic convergence
As with oceanic-continental convergence, when two oceanic plates converge, one is usually subducted
under the other, and in the process a trench is formed. The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana
Islands), for example, marks where the fast-moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving
Philippine Plate. The Challenger Deep, at the southern end of the Marianas Trench, plunges deeper into
the Earth's interior (nearly 11,000 m) than Mount Everest, the world's tallest mountain, rises above sea
level (about 8,854 m).
Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes.
Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine
volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in ch ains
called island arcs. As the name implies, volcanic island arcs, which closely parallel the trenches, are
generally curved. The trenches are the key to understanding how island arcs such as the Marianas and
the Aleutian Islands have formed and why they experience numerous strong earthquakes. Magmas that
form island arcs are produced by the partial melting of the descending plate and/or the overlying
oceanic lithosphere. The descending plate also provides a source of stress as the two plates interact,
leading to frequent moderate to strong earthquakes.

Continental-continental convergence

The Himalayan mountain range dramatically demonstrates one of the most visible and spectacular
consequences of plate tectonics. When two continents meet head-on, neither is subducted because the
continental rocks are relatively light and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion. Instead,
the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward or sideways. The collision of India into Asia 50 million
years ago caused the Indian and Eurasian Plates to crumple up along the collision zone. After the
collision, the slow continuous convergence of these two plates over millions of years pushed up the
Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to their present heights. Most of this growth occurred during the
past 10 million years. The Himalayas, towering as high as 8,854 m above sea level, form the highest
continental mountains in the world. Moreover, the neighboring Tibetan Plateau, at an average elevation
of about 4,600 m, is higher than all the peaks in the Alps except for Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, and is
well above the summits of most mountains in the United States.
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
A transform plate boundary forms where two plates slide horizontally past one another as they move in
opposite directions. California’s San Andreas fault is the transform boundary between the North
American plate and the Pacific plate. This type of boundary can occur in both oceans and continents.
The concept of transform faults originated with Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, who proposed
that these large faults or fracture zones connect two spreading centers (divergent plate boundaries) or,
less commonly, trenches (convergent plate boundaries). Most transform faults are found on the ocean
floor.
The main features of plate tectonics are:
➢ The Earth's surface is covered by a series of crustal plates.
➢ The ocean floors are continually, moving, spreading from the center, sinking at the edges, and being
regenerated.
➢ Convection currents beneath the plates move the crustal plates in different directions.
➢ The source of heat driving the convection currents is radioactivity deep in the Earth’s mantle.

THE ANATOMY OF A TECTONIC PLATE

The nature of a tectonic plate can be summarized as follows:

1. A plate is a segment of the lithosphere; thus, it includes the uppermost mantle and all of the
overlying crust.
2. A single plate can carry both oceanic and continental crust. The average thickness of lithosphere
covered by oceanic crust is 75 kilometers, whereas that of lithosphere covered by a continent is 125
kilometers (Fig. 2–9). Lithosphere may be as little as 10 to 15 kilometers thick at an oceanic
spreading center.
3. A plate is composed of hard, mechanically strong rock.
4. A plate floats on the underlying hot, plastic asthenosphere and glides horizontally over it.
5. A plate behaves like a large slab of ice floating on a pond. It may flex slightly, as thin ice does when a
skater goes by, allowing minor vertical movements. In general, however, each plate moves as a
large, intact sheet of rock.
6. A plate margin is tectonically active. Earthquakes and volcanoes are common at plate boundaries. In
contrast, the interior of a lithospheric plate is normally tectonically stable.
7. Tectonic plates move at rates that vary from less than 1 to 16 centimeters per year.
History of Events Leading up to the Formulation of the Theory of Plate Tectonics
Note that plate tectonics is a theory. It is not something that we can directly sample or touch, or for that
matter prove. That is why we will refer to it as a theory.
In 1915, a Bavarian scientist named Alfred Wegener (later referred to as the "Father of Plate Tectonics")
noticed, while working near the North Pole, that his compass needle did not point to where north
"should" have been. In other words, true north and magnetic north were in two separate localities.
Wegener theorized that the poles (both North and South) were "wandering" with time. He called this
"Polar Wandering".

Subsequent to his theory, he began to also notice how continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle…most
notably the western coast of Africa and the eastern coast of South America. In addition, rocks from
these localities were the same rock type, same age, and contained the same age and type of fossils. His
revised theory became known as "Continental Drift", because he realized that it was not the poles that
shifted, but the continents themselves.

Wegener died of a heart attack on a voyage studying glaciers near the North Pole in early 1930 and his
work was virtually forgotten for several decades.